The March for Science is a celebration of our passion for science and a call to support and safeguard the scientific community. Recent policy changes have caused heightened worry among scientists, and the incredible and immediate outpouring of support has made clear that these concerns are also shared by hundreds of thousands of people around the world. The mischaracterization of science as a partisan issue, which has given policymakers permission to reject overwhelming evidence, is a critical and urgent matter. It is time for people who support scientific research and evidence-based policies to take a public stand and be counted.
The March's popularity has exploded over the past few weeks, as the creators scurry to get specifics about the March organized. And since almost nothing in life is free, they've created an official store on their website, as well as a site for you to donate to the cause.
There are many imposter pages out there pretending to represent the March, such as this one, this one, this one, this one, and this one. These pages are very obviously attempting to portray themselves as the actual March for Science, NOT a local satellite March, and all either have posts visible on their pages directing users to a goo.gl link, are running ads, or both.
There are a few problems here. The first being they are stealing the notoriety of not only the actual March, but also the science celebrities they are pretending endorse their hijacked version of the shirt. This distracts attention from the legitimate March and satellite marches going on around the world. Additionally, it is pretending that these celebrities are endorsing the content of the fake page, which they may or may not openly support.
What's more is it's literally stealing money from the group, which impairs their ability to organize and promote the March itself.
Be a good skeptic – check your sources! If you see a post shared by a page claiming to be the actual March, check for the blue verification checkmark before liking/sharing it.
If you want to support the March, be sure you're following the right page and un-like any March for Science pages pretending to be happening in DC.
If you're participating in a local March, be sure you know who the actual organizer is and verify any products being sold as local fundraisers.
The owners of these pages are taking out ads on Facebook so they come up in your newsfeed to try to try trick you. If you see one pop up in your feed, take a minute to comment on it so that others might notice and not buy from them.
Report the post and page to Facebook.
If a friend shares a post from a fake March page, they probably aren't aware. Tell them.
And remember: if you have any doubt, go to their official website at marchforscience.com or their official store at store.marchforscience.com. Help stop these scammers from stealing more money.


27.02.2010::FINAL ORDER, DANTESCO CANCELLED, RAGING STORM MOVED TO SATURDAY!
Unfortunately Dantesco cancelled again for their own reasons. Raging Storm will be moved to Saturday so more fans can attend their comeback. Many people complained about having Raging Storm early on Friday so the first thing that came to our mind is to move them on Saturday so everybody that wants to be able to watch them.
Here is the new running order, plz note that we added 15 extra minutes for Slauter Xstroyes!!
30.01.2010:: The legendary Greek metal band RAGING STORM added to the line up!!!
We are happy to announce the mighty Greek metal band Raging Storm added to the line up! Despite the fact that the line up was full we decided to another band to this years line up cause that was an offer we couldn't resist!!! I was very happy when my friend Harris, basist of Raging Storm, called me and told me they are back in business!!
29.01.2010:: Up The Hammers festival is on air!
Bill skourtopoulos dj of one of the main and longest running metal radio shows in Greece named "Metalmorphosis" will host Manolis Karazeris of Up The Hammers festival on a 2 hours special tribute to this years line up on "902 aristera sta fm". We will have many surpises for you with including special guests from bands appearing to the festival on air and gifts such as free t-shirts and tickets of the festival. More details will follow soon.
16.01.2010:: Overdrive UK last addition to the line up. Final poster revealed!!!
Last addition 50 days before the festival is the nwobhm band Overdrive from UK.
We would like to let you know that the limited 2 day tickets are sold out from us but there are a few left at the online stores so hurry up. On February 1st we will release the separate day tickets at Eat Metal, Sirens, No Remorse and Ticket House.
17.12.2009:: Cult act MORTICIAN from Austria added to the line up! Ticket presale starts!!
Hail friends! We are happy to announce another addition for Up The Hammers festival V. Legendary Heavy / Thrash Metal band Mortician from ....Austria.... will perform a special show including the cult �No war� ep . We are also happy to announce the billing on each day, make sure you don�t miss even one band. On December 18th the limited 2 day tickets will be available from Eat Metal records, Sirens Records and No Remorse Records. Make sure you get them on time because this year, due to the increasing interest, they will be sold out very soon.
19.11.2009:: CONVIXION added to the line-up !! UTH POSTER revealed!
Greek metal band Convixion added to the line up. Convixion will release their first album on Up The Hammers festival!.
So ticket price for both days will be 29 euro and the limited 2 day ticket 50 EUR. We will not announce yet which band will perform each day since there are 2-3 bands yet to be confirmed.
We are sorry to announce that Faith Factor has cancelled their appearence at Up the hammers festival. We will announce more bands soon! Stay tuned!
10.09.2009:: DEXTER WARD ADDED TO THE LINE UP!!!!!!!
Newcomer US metal band DEXTER WARD added to the line up!
20.08.2009:: SAVAGE GRACE ADDED TO THE LINE UP!!!!!!!
Not much to say for those who live and breath for real heavy metal. Savage Grace will take the earth by storm headlinig one of the days of Up The Hammers V! Fear my way!!
24.06.2009:: SLAUTER XSTROYES & ATLANTEAN KODEX ADDED TO THE LINE-UP!
SLAUTER XSTROYES one of the best and cultest bands of American metal will perform their first, probably, european show ever in Greece and Up The Hammers festival!! A mighty hail goes to Brent Sullivan for making our dream come true after 2 years of exchanging emails. Its not a rumor anymore spread the news!
ATLANTEAN KODEX the best German Epic metal band of our times and one of the best newcomers since years added to the festival line up.
17.05.2009:: FIRST BANDS FOR THE 5TH EDITION!!
First of all we would like to thank the fans that supported the festival on IV edition and the bands that were all amazing both as persons and musicians!!
Now we are happy to announce the first bands for the 5th edition of Up The Hammers festival which will take place in Athens, Greece on 5th & 6th of March 2010.
WILD KNIGHT from UK is led by the original X-WILD singer FRANK KNIGHT, and the classic RUNNING WILD guitarist MAJK MOTI. They have set incl. classic X-WILD and RUNNING WILD songs (like "Under Jolly Roger", "Death Or Glory", "Prisoner Of Our Time" etc.).Since I don�t think we will ever see Running wild in Greece this is the closest thing you can get.
The legendary Greek heavy metal band MARAUDER will celebrate their 20th anniversary and the 10 years after the release of �1821� (certainly one of the most important Greek Heavy metal records ever). They will perform a special �1821� album set plus a lot of classics together with special guests of former members!
FAITH FACTOR feat. SKI of DEADLY BLESSING strikes Greece. There will be a poll on the festival forum to choose the songs from DEADLY BLESSING that you wish the band to play.
DANTESCO from Puerto Rico are once again on the line up and we hope there will be no health problems this time!
First Cypriot band to appear at our festival ARRYAN PATH and the Swedish newcomers IN SOLITUDE and ENFORCER complete the first line up announcement.
Stay tuned for we will announce soon the headliner of each day and more great bands.


The permit was granted after conducting an extensive environmental impact assessment (EIA), stated officials from Ferrex. In addition, the company has received extensions on its prospecting permits after relinquishing 50 per cent of the 92,000 hectare area as per the mining code.
These permits have been renewed for two years and can be further renewed for two more years subsequently. The company is applying to procure additional ground in the area in order to maximise possibilities of further exploration success, revealed officials.
Reeves said that Ferrex will contiue to focus on finalising the definitive feasibility study and securing a mining permit before the end of Q4 2014.


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How Low Can You Tune An Acoustic Guitar? Acoustic Tuning
How low can you tune an acoustic guitar and will it harm the instrument? Dropped guitar tunings can open up a vast array of possibilities for a musician to explore with the added option of using lower notes that were previously only accessible in bass instruments. While this tuning can flesh out new ideas that are hard to do on standard tuning, even the slightest change in pitch can create some issues on your instrument.
The guitar's standard tuning – EADGBE – is unique compared to its other stringed predecessors such as cellos, mandolins and violins, which are normally tuned in fifths (guitars follow a sequence of ascending perfect fourths and a single major third). Musicians in the past have agreed that this standard tuning is the most convenient choice, given the ease of movement that it provides guitar players in forming chords and playing scales.
Contemporary musicians may have popularized the use of alternative or alternate tunings, but its history can be traced back to the 1600s when German violinist Thomas Baltazar invented the concept of "Scordatura" which literally means "discord" or "mistunings" in Italian. Scordatura is the technique of altering the tuning of stringed instruments to create unique timbres and sound palettes. In modern music, this phenomenon became more apparent in blues and folk, through the acoustic guitar-driven music of the likes of Joni Mitchell, a style that makes use of open tunings to create a sustaining note called a drone.
In the 90s, a younger generation of guitar aficionados were exposed to alternative tunings when Kurt Cobain popularized the use of the drop D in some of his songs. Drop D is the easiest alternate tuning to learn as it only requires guitar players to tune down the low E string a whole step lower to D. The dropped tuning helped spark the grunge revolution which later on led to more experimentations in nu metal and djent trends of the new millenium. Whereas folk and grunge relied on detuning their guitars, these chugging, groovy variants of heavy metal went to greater lengths by utilizing 7 or even 8-stringed axes.
The fact that they invented a new breed of guitars to produce much lower, heavier notes, shows humankind's immense hunger for innovation and creativity. But this also shows the limitations of a six-stringed instrument in accessing notes in the lower register. That doesn't mean however, that standard tuning in a six string guitar is not perfect in design because it serves the purpose of making guitar playing more physically comfortable for the vast majority. Standard tuning also gives people from all walks of life the chance to learn how to play the instrument and strum their emotions away to their favorite songs.
What is the lowest you can tune an acoustic guitar?
Legendary metal guitarist Dimebag Darrell was fond of tuning his entire guitar a whole step lower to create his bottom-heavy sound on some albums. He also tuned his guitar this way to allow him to pull off some extreme string bends on the low E string, a benefit of the instrument's more relaxed tension.
As long as the strings of a guitar are not wobbling out of existence, there are almost no limits to tuning the down a guitar. Some metal guitarists have already delved into drop C (CGCFAD) and drop A (AEADF#B) territory, or even tried on some strings that were meant for 8-stringed electric. But are these ridiculously low tunings even worth trying out on an acoustic? If you aren't planning to perform some headbanging music, you might want to consider sticking to standard tuning to avoid some possible acoustic guitar issues.
However, there are also practical uses of tuning down your guitar. For example, you may tune your entire guitar a half step lower to accommodate the vocal range of a vocalist, without having to transpose the chords.
Negative impacts of tuning down on your acoustic guitar
The number one setback that you'll encounter after tuning down your guitar is the fret buzz, an unwanted noise caused by a sudden shift in string height after the tension has decreased. The neck may also warp if the guitar stays too long in its much looser state, making the buzzing sound remain even after tuning the instrument back to standard.
These problems can be solved by having a professional luthier fix the action of your guitar. They will adjust the truss rod and bridge height. While an adjustable bridge is not a common feature in acoustic guitars, a truss rod is found in almost all guitars today, with the exception of classical guitars, as well as some cheap knockoffs. A truss rod is important in stabilizing the curvature in your guitar's neck. Do not adjust this without the aid of an expert in guitar repair to avoid further complications.
Fret buzz solutions for acoustic guitars tuned low
If you really are intent on keeping your guitar tuned lower, your best bet is to have your luthier adjust the action while the instrument is in its desired tuning. This way, the bridge and truss rod can be set up in a way that the fret wires won't interfere with string vibration and cause some undesirable buzzing sounds. However, this will also mean that changing again the tuning of your guitar can lead to a new set of problems.
Another way to prevent fret buzz when lowering the guitar's tuning is to use heavier string gauges. The thicker set of strings can help maintain the same tension and action that your instrument had when it was tuned to standard.
Most importantly, you can tune an acoustic guitar as low as you want, as long as it's not negatively affecting the guitar and your sound. Creating or playing music should always be a pleasant experience to both the instrument and the musician.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The VCB-N held its Annual General Assembly in Bangkok from the 7th to the 9th of November taking big steps forward in the further development of its network.
The Value Chain Capacity Building Network (VCB-N) is a regional network that aims to provide professional advisory services and capacity building on Value Chains and Market Systems Development (VC & MSD) in the Asia and Pacific Region (APR).
The VCB-N is pulling together expertise from seven countries (Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Vietnam) and 12 organizations in the region that specialize in professional training, capacity building, policy research and project design.
The VCB-N was founded in 2016 in first instance to meet the demand for professional development of staff of IFAD funded and other projects in the area of Value Chains/Market Systems in the Asia and Pacific region. For this reason, a 4-year IFAD funded project was defined to facilitate the initiation of the VCB-N with the aim to build an economically viable network of Centers of Excellence that continues to deliver services to IFAD and other donors and development projects with VC/MSD components and pro-poor orientations.
Through access to a thriving network of qualified consultants / experts working in the region, the VCB-N is able to offer needs-based and tailored 360 degree VC solution support to its clients. As the VCB-N matures, new countries and members are expected to join in.
During the second Annual General Meeting of the VCB-N, some milestones in the maturing process of the network were celebrated. 11 members of the VCB-N signed a membership agreement formally accepting the newly minted VCB-N Charter and Business Plan and committing to comply with the financial and in-kind contributions contained in the Charter. This step is, besides confirming the genuine commitment of members to the VCB-N, significant in terms of the transition from a project-funded to an independent and self-sustaining network.
During the AGM from the 7th to the 9th of November in Bangkok, the former chair of the VCB-N Dr. Tabrez Nasar, representing the Institute of Livelihood Research and Training (ILRT) India, passed the chairmanship to the new VCB-N chair Mr. Rubaiyath Sarwar representing Innovision Consulting, Bangladesh. All members thanked the out-going chair for his leadership and guidance in the early years of the VCB-N and welcomed Mr. Sarwar as the new chair.
With the formalized commitment of existing members, the interest of new aspirant members and the enthusiasm, entrepreneurship and visionary spirit of the new chair, we can expect to hear much more from the VCB-N in the near future.
The outgoing chair of the VCB-N Mr. Tabrez Nasar from ILRT, India hands over his position to the new chair. Mr. Rubaiyath Sarwar from Innovision Bangladesh.
Members signing the Membership Agreement confirming full commitment to the VCB-N Charter and Business Plan.


My story recommendation for this week is "Her Eyes Like Sky, and Coal, and Moonlight" by Cat Rambo, the (almost) title story of Rambo's new collection Eyes Like Sky and Coal and Moonlight, from small publisher Paper Golem, with gorgeous cover art by Carrie Ann Baade.
"Her Eyes Like Sky, and Coal, and Moonlight" is a beautifully constructed story, telling in hindsight of the battles for control of a war-torn kingdom, as glimpsed from the point of view of a young (at first) woman whose family's inn is an occasional meeting place of a group of rebels. The rebels include the enigmatic sorceress whose haunting eyes lend the story its poetic title.
The rebels' struggle defines our narrator's life, even though she sees almost none of the action take place. The danger in such a story is the reader may feel disappointed that the most interesting events are occurring offstage, but Rambo tells it in a way that suggests this is the real story, that the battles of great kings and warriors and wizards are important only for how they affect the lives of common folk.
"Her Eyes Like Sky, and Coal, and Moonlight" is quite short, like most of Cat Rambo's work -- only a few of the stories in Eyes Like Sky and Coal and Moonlight are over ten pages and none over twenty. Usually it is difficult to create a compelling tale in so few words, but Rambo is superb at providing a sense of depth, making you feel there is more to the story and characters, that you could fill in much of the rest of the story yourself from the hints she drops.
I'll try to get a review of the whole book up at Fantastic Reviews before too long, but for now I'll just say that Eyes Like Sky and Coal and Moonlight is an excellent collection by a most elegant writer.


I have some problems with the updates after Virtualbox version 4.04 r70112 on my laptop of dell. The problem is that I can't find my external usb device.
VBoxStrace.tar.gz (5.5 KB) - added by Jorge3711 8 years ago.
strace-usbfs.txt.gz (5.3 KB) - added by Zrax 8 years ago.
VBoxSVC.strace.zip (62.4 KB) - added by dickmyers 8 years ago.
VBoxSVC.strace.tar.gz (77.3 KB) - added by LaloHao 6 years ago.
Is your user account a member of the "vboxusers" group? (Use the "groups" command at the command line to find out). And could you please post the output of the command "VBoxManage list usbhost"? Thanks.
Bus 004 Device 002: ID 04b3:3025 IBM Corp.
With previous versions I was able to attach USB devices to my VMs.
My attempts to attach USB to a VM was executed as root, root itself is not a member of group vboxusers.
Root should not need to be a member of that group to access USB devices. One way to find out more about what is happening would be to run the "strace" tool on the VBoxSVC component of VirtualBox and to execute "VBoxManage list usbhost" while strace is running. You could attach (not paste!) the output of strace to this ticket as a text file. Please let me know if you need more detailed instructions on how to do this.
See attached strace files (VBoxStrace.tar.gz).
I have the same problem. When I switched from 3.2 to 4.0.x I lost ability to use USB as regular user and member of vboxusers group. So I switched to running VB as a root.
Yesterday I tried to run it on CentOS 5.6 and VB 4.0.8 with Extension pack and USB is not accessible.
There is possibility that it worked before do to a quirk of 5.5 kernel, and now when new kernel is out we got compounded effect with newer version of VB. Right now I have now time to run tests, but will find time in next day or two and post results.
I've downgraded VB to VirtualBox-4.0.x86_64 0:4.0.0_69151_rhel5-1 and USB works on root.
I forgot to mention I use X86_64 CentOS 5.6 system.
FWIW, I'm seeing the same issue on a RHEL 5.4 system (running kernel 2.6.18-164.el5 x86_64)... So I doubt that working in the past has anything to do with the 5.6 kernel update.
For now you should be able to work around this by setting the environment variable "VBOX_USB=usbfs".
Here is a link to a 64bit Redhat EL/CentOS 5 build which I hope will fix the USB issues there. Use at your own risk of course, but I hope the risk is very low!
Unfortunately I probably can't help careliyim until I see his strace output as per comment 6.
Thanks for the feedback. I will leave the ticket open for a bit in case Carem wants to provide more feedback.
It works for me to, also in user mode.
By the way, with the build I linked to do you still get no output if you run as root and do the following?
If so I would be interested in strace output (Zrax's attachment above didn't contain the thread I needed to look at).
Just confirming that VirtualBox-4.0-4.0.10_72177_rhel5-1.x86_64.rpm also fixed my usb issues. No creating of usbfs mountpoints, no modifying of ENV variables. I just works. (Centos 5.5, 64 bit). Thanks!
Thanks for testing. I will consider this fixed.
Connection USB Device problem WORKS!!!!
But i needed to open up a terminal and start virtualbox under sudo thanks guys!
Now there is only 1 thing to fix and that is aero effect windows 7.
in another. After this you can exit stop the process in the first window with Ctrl-C, zip up the log files produced (VBoxSVC.out.*) and attach the archive to this ticket.
Of course if you are happy with things as they are we can drop this.
I believe I ran into this problem to, although I'm running Windows 7 x64.
Is there an equaivalent command for Windows?
It use to work some previous version ago, probably in VB 3.12 or something. The reason is I had a VBOX Guest that had this USB Filter set.
with a Windows XP SP3 Guest.
If version 4.0.10 doesn't make a difference you are probably best opening a new ticket, as our USB support is very different internally on Windows and Linux hosts.
I'm using 4.0.10 and EL5.6 (Centos 5.6, 64-bit). I have the same problem as above. I have to execute VBoxManage list usbhost as root to get any output. This was working before 4.0.8.
I added the group and execute permissions, otherwise there was no output for non-root. I am in the vboxusers group.
Adding group execute and group write permissions fixed the problem.
I think you need to do one of two things; either remove -r the current /dev/vboxusb before doing the mkdir, OR set the permissions in a seperate line. I believe that if the directory already exists, the mkdir and its associated permissions will do nothing.
I did a quick test on my system to verify this behavior. Does yours do something different?
Same deal with the mknod. If the character device already exists, the -m 0660 will not change the permissions. If you want to make sure the permissions are a certain way, then use chmod after the mknod.
Sounds reasonable. I tend towards doing rm -r first, to have a clean slate. If you change the permissions once manually though, does that fix the problem permanently or do you have to change them again e.g. after reboot? If so it would be interesting to know why.
I really don't know. All these strange file systems and device filesystems, like procfs, devfs, sysfs, etc. are kind of a mystery to me. Once I get familiar with one of them, they change to something different.
Rebooting right now would be inconvenient to me, so I'm not inclined to test out what happens to permissions after a reboot (at the moment). I take it that you don't have a sysfs system available?
I do, but everything works without any problems on the systems I have available, and I am interested to know why something goes wrong on yours.
It could be because I'm not using a stock kernel. For various reasons, I upgraded to 2.6.32 awhile back. I've recently updated it to 2.6.32.39. I wouldn't be surprised if it behaves differently because I'm not using the stock RH 2.6.18 kernels. Every so often, I inadvertently boot up a stock kernel and of course the Vbox kernel modules don't work and have to be rebuilt for the 2.6.18 kernel. Then I eventually realize what happened and have to rebuild certain modules for 2.6.32 again once it's booted. Anyway, this may have something to do with how the permissions got changed as they did, though I'm not the only one with this issue on upgrading to 4.0.8. Seems like it would still be a good idea to explicitly set them in a separate command the way you want them. When I reboot, I'll try to run some tests on how the device permissions get set after a reboot and get back to you.
If you are going to have an opportunity to reboot any time though, it would be great if you could first see whether your manual permissions change persists, as I think it should. If so then doing an rm -f in future releases as discussed above will be sufficient and we don't need to investigate further.
gives nothing unless I do it as root. None of my USB devices show up in WinXp (under Centos 5.6 host) unless I run Vbox as root. I'm running VirtualBox 4.0.12 (along with the corresponding Guest Additions). I am a member of the vboxusers group.
drwxr-x---  8 root vboxusers  160 Aug 26 13:58 .
drwxr-xr-x 14 root root      4800 Aug 29 15:00 ..
drwxr-x--- 2 root vboxusers       60 Jul 28 18:58 .
drwxr-x--- 8 root vboxusers      160 Aug 26 13:58 ..
drwxr-x--- 2 root vboxusers  40 Aug  5 17:11 .
drwxr-x--- 8 root vboxusers 160 Aug 26 13:58 ..
drwxr-x--- 2 root vboxusers       60 Aug 29 15:00 .
drwxr-x--- 2 root vboxusers       80 Jul 26 11:25 .
The behavior seems to have changed with 4.0.12. Prior to this, I was able to set the ownership and permissions correctly and run Vbox as myself, and use my USB devices. Now, no matter what I do, I can only use my USB devices if I run Vbox as root.
I am on CentOS 5.6 (x86_64) and VirtualBox 4.0.12, WITH stock kernel, and I see all USB device normaly as before, both as regular user and root.
@dickmyers, are you on the stock kernel or on the vanila kernel?
after which you can stop VBoxSVC with Ctrl-C and attach the strace log "VBoxSVS.log" to this ticket.
From the trace file that you uploaded it looks as though the device nodes under /dev/vboxusb were not created. Since you did not provide additional information about your host set-up I can only guess what might have gone wrong (init script or udev rule not properly installed?), but I suspect that it is a configuration problem and not a bug. Did you try looking for help on the forums, IRC or user mailing list before re-opening this bug report?


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Sandow organized the first bodybuilding contest on September 14, 1901, called the "Great Competition". It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the contest was a great success and many bodybuilding enthusiasts were turned away due to the overwhelming amount of audience members.[4] The trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham. The silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy — now the most famous of all — was presented to third-place winner A.C. Smythe. In 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to Steve Reeves for winning the inaugural NABBA Mr. Universe contest. It would not resurface again until 1977 when the winner of the IFBB Mr. Olympia contest, Frank Zane, was presented with a replica of the bronze trophy. Since then, Mr. Olympia winners have been consistently awarded a replica of the bronze Sandow.
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta eras (c. 200 BCE–500 CE) the Indic traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and coherent systems of yoga began to emerge.[49] This period witnessed many new texts from these traditions discussing and systematically compiling yoga methods and practices. Some key works of this era include the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali, the Yoga-Yājñavalkya, the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra and the Visuddhimagga.
^ Burd, Nicholas A.; Yang, Yifan; Moore, Daniel R.; Tang, Jason E.; Tarnopolsky, Mark A.; Phillips, Stuart M. (2012). "Greater stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with ingestion of whey protein isolate v. Micellar casein at rest and after resistance exercise in elderly men". British Journal of Nutrition. 108 (6): 958–62. doi:10.1017/S0007114511006271. PMID 22289570.
Yogaśataka a Jain work by Haribhadra Suri	6th century CE	"With conviction, the lords of Yogins have in our doctrine defined yoga as the concurrence (sambandhah) of the three [correct knowledge (sajjñana), correct doctrine (saddarsana) and correct conduct (saccaritra)] beginning with correct knowledge, since [thereby arises] conjunction with liberation....In common usage this [term] yoga also [denotes the soul's] contact with the causes of these [three], due to the common usage of the cause for the effect. (2, 4).[32]
Many non-competitive bodybuilders choose not to adopt this conventional strategy, as it often results in significant unwanted fat gain during the "bulking" phase. The attempt to increase muscle mass in one's body without any gain in fat is called clean bulking. Competitive bodybuilders focus their efforts to achieve a peak appearance during a brief "competition season".[citation needed] Clean bulking takes longer and is a more refined approach to achieving the body fat and muscle mass percentage a person is looking for. A common tactic for keeping fat low and muscle mass high would be to have higher calorie and lower calorie days to maintain a balance between gain and loss. Many clean bulk diets start off with a moderate amount of carbs, moderate amount of protein, and a decently low amount of fats. "Gaining lean muscle means going for leaner cuts of meat, like flank steaks and fillets, chicken, and, of course, fish," says White[who?]. "Enjoy your meat with some starch: rice, beans, quinoa, whole-grain couscous, or sweet potato, for example".[20] To maintain a clean bulk it is important to reach calorie goals every day. Macronutrient goals will be different for each person, but, it is ideal to get as close as possible.
Niyama (The five "observances"): Śauca (purity, clearness of mind, speech and body),[152] Santosha (contentment, acceptance of others and of one's circumstances),[153] Tapas (persistent meditation, perseverance, austerity),[154] Svādhyāya (study of self, self-reflection, study of Vedas),[155] and Ishvara-Pranidhana (contemplation of God/Supreme Being/True Self).[153]
On January 16, 1904, the first large-scale bodybuilding competition in America took place at Madison Square Garden in New York City. The competition was promoted by Bernarr Macfadden, the father of physical culture and publisher of original bodybuilding magazines such as Health & Strength. The winner was Al Treloar, who was declared "The Most Perfectly Developed Man in the World".[5] Treloar won a $1,000 cash prize, a substantial sum at that time. Two weeks later, Thomas Edison made a film of Treloar's posing routine. Edison had also made two films of Sandow a few years before. Those were the first three motion pictures featuring a bodybuilder. In the early 20th century, Macfadden and Charles Atlas continued to promote bodybuilding across the world. Alois P. Swoboda was an early pioneer in America.
According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body.[6] Umasvati calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or karmic influx[172] as well as one of the essentials—samyak caritra—in the path to liberation.[172] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda, describes yoga bhakti—devotion to the path to liberation—as the highest form of devotion.[173] Acarya Haribhadra and Acarya Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion.[174] The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.[174][note 16]
Similarly, Brahma sutras – the foundational text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism, discusses yoga in its sutra 2.1.3, 2.1.223 and others.[121] Brahma sutras are estimated to have been complete in the surviving form sometime between 450 BCE to 200 CE,[122][123] and its sutras assert that yoga is a means to gain "subtlety of body" and other powers.[121] The Nyaya sutras – the foundational text of the Nyaya school, variously estimated to have been composed between the 6th-century BCE and 2nd-century CE,[124][125] discusses yoga in sutras 4.2.38–50. This ancient text of the Nyaya school includes a discussion of yogic ethics, dhyana (meditation), samadhi, and among other things remarks that debate and philosophy is a form of yoga.[126][127][128]
The Rigveda, however, does not describe yoga, and there is little evidence as to what the practices were.[7] Early references to practices that later became part of yoga, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the earliest Hindu Upanishad.[67] For example, the practice of pranayama (consciously regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 900 BCE), and the practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya Upanishad (c. 800–700 BCE).[68][note 8] The Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana teaches mantra repetition and control of the breath.[71]


text:
The Stock Market is not the Economy
Something about Investing
The stock market is not the economy. Don't rely on headlines for an all-clear to invest: A case study of the Global Financial Crisis.
Falling markets and drastic headlines can tempt individuals to abandon their long-term investing plans. Their thinking might go something like, let's wait until it's over, hoping to catch the market at its lowest point before buying in. Or in rising markets, maybe they seek to sell most of their holdings near the peak. However, timing the market is virtually an impossible task, as the chart below illustrates. It's good to remember:
Headlines shouldn't dictate when you invest; they may not reflect what's happening in the market.
Recovery typically involves many episodes of gains and losses that can obscure an overall upward trend.
Just a few trading days can be responsible for the most significant gains during a recovery; being out of the market can mean missing out on the most profitable periods.
Vanguard Hypo
See the notes and references for this chart below.
It's understandable to have concerns about market volatility and its effect on your portfolio. As we can see from this case study, volatility is likely to continue. The situation in the markets is certainly different this time. However, so far, it follows a pattern we've seen many times before. By all means, if you have questions or concerns about your situation, please get in touch. I am here to help you navigate your financial goals in light of the risks and constraints you face.
Something Fun
How an unprecedented gift built a legacy of conservation in South America (The National Geographic) - Kris and Doug Tompkins, two successful executives from the clothing industry, purchased large swaths of land in Chile and Argentina starting in the 1990s. Locals were skeptical of the gringos' ambitions. They feared the couple was going to steal the land and water for themselves. What ultimately happened is impressive. The duo donated the property to the people of the countries to serve as national parks. Now, with vast stretches of land under protection, Kris continues to grow her and her deceased husband's legacy by re-wilding the areas. They are introducing back native species. these lands have not seen in decades. Their story is truly inspiring, and this article from National Geographic illustrates the challenges and rewards they faced.
Something About Financial Planning
Federal Reserve scraps transfer limits on bank savings accounts (Reuters) - Typically, savings accounts have a monthly transfer limit of six times per month. Given the current economic crisis, the central bank is now allowing banks to remove these restrictions, making it easier for money to flow through the economy. This rule, likely to be temporary, will allow those who have an emergency fund in a savings account, more convenient access to those monies.
Something About Economics
Secrets of Lockdown Lifestyle Laid Bare in Electricity Data (Bloomberg) - We are staying up later and sleeping in more. Data from energy providers show the use of electricity shifted in the day. We are watching more TV later into the night, and starting the morning brew later in the morning. What is more interesting is to see how the total consumption of electricity changes as the economy opens up. I imagine economists, policymakers, and investors will look to this data to understand the recovery and the implications of what more or less energy consumption means.
Notes and references to A case study of the Global Financial Crisis: Past performance is no guarantee of future returns. The performance of an index is not an exact representation of any particular investment, as you cannot invest directly in an index. Please remember that all investments involve some risk. Be aware that fluctuations in the financial markets and other factors may cause declines in the value of your account. There is no guarantee that any particular asset allocation or mix of funds will meet your investment objectives or provide you with a given level of income. Andrews, Edmund L., 2009. Fed Plans to Inject Another $1 Trillion to Aid the Economy. The New York Times (March 18). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.nytimes. com/2009/03/19/business/economy/19fed.html. Goodman, Peter S., 2009. Jobs Report Highlights Shaky U.S. Recovery. The New York Times (October 2). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/03/business/ economy/03jobs.html. Goodman, Peter S. and Jack Healy, 2009. 663,000 Jobs Lost in March; Total Tops 5 Million. The New York Times (April 3). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.nytimes. com/2009/04/04/business/economy/04jobs.html. Lazo, Alejandro, 2010. U.S. home foreclosures reach record high in second quarter. Los Angeles Times (July 15). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.latimes.com/archives/ la-xpm-2010-jul-15-la-fi-foreclosures-20100715-story.html. Lobb, Annelena, 2009. Dow 5,000? There's a Case for It. The Wall Street Journal (March 9). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123654810850564723. Luhby, Tami, 2010. Fannie to U.S.: We need another $15.3 billion. CNN Money (February 26,). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://money.cnn.com/2010/02/26/news/companies/ Fannie_mae_results. Milmo, Dan, 2011. US economy and international stock markets start year with optimism. The Guardian (January 3). Accessed March 24, 2020, at https://www.theguardian.com/ business/2011/jan/04/us-economy-buoys-international-markets.


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Aquatic Microbiology
Roles and mechanisms of parasitism in aquatic microbial communities View all 14 Articles
Zoospores
Mechanisms Used by Hyperparasites to Access Food Resources
Biodiversity and Host Range of Hyperparasites
Size Control of Host Populations by Hyperparasites
Food Webs
Conclusion and Future Prospects
Front. Microbiol., 28 May 2014 | https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2014.00244
Ecological functions of zoosporic hyperparasites
Frank H. Gleason1, Osu Lilje1, Agostina V. Marano2, Télesphore Sime-Ngando3, Brooke K. Sullivan4, Martin Kirchmair5 and Sigrid Neuhauser5,6*
1School of Biological Sciences A12, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
2Núcleo de Pesquisa em Micologia, Instituto de Botânica, São Paulo, Brazil
3Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome and Environnement, Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand II, Aubière, France
4Back To Nature Design, Seattle, WA, USA
5Institute of Microbiology, Leopold Franzens University Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
6Microbial Diversity and Genomics, Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK
Zoosporic parasites have received increased attention during the last years, but it is still largely unnoted that these parasites can themselves be infected by hyperparasites. Some members of the Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, Cryptomycota, Hyphochytriomycota, Labyrinthulomycota, Oomycota, and Phytomyxea are hyperparasites of zoosporic hosts. Because of sometimes complex tripartite interactions between hyperparasite, their parasite-host, and the primary host, hyperparasites can be difficult to detect and monitor. Some of these hyperparasites use similar mechanisms as their parasite-hosts to find and infect their target and to access food resources. The life cycle of zoosporic hyperparasites is usually shorter than the life cycle of their hosts, so hyperparasites may accelerate the turnaround times of nutrients within the ecosystem. Hyperparasites may increase the complexity of food webs and play significant roles in regulating population sizes and population dynamics of their hosts. We suggest that hyperparasites lengthen food chains but can also play a role in conducting or suppressing diseases of animals, plants, or algae. Hyperparasites can significantly impact ecosystems in various ways, therefore it is important to increase our understanding about these cryptic and diverse organisms.
"So, naturalists observe, a flea
Has smaller fleas that on him prey;
And these have smaller still to bite 'em,
And so proceed ad infinitum."
Jonathan Swift, On Poetry: a rhapsody (1733)
Parasites belonging to all taxonomic groups have gained increasing attention in ecological research during recent years. It is widely recognised that the number of species of parasites are more numerous than organisms with a non-parasitic lifestyle (Lafferty et al., 2008). Also it is widely accepted that many parasites can themselves be hosts for other parasites. Such parasites of parasites are usually called "hyperparasites"; a term which is used without any reference to the phylogeny of the host or the parasite or whether the relationship is obligately or facultatively parasitic. Novel methodological tools and an increasing interest in parasites and their ecology have led to more targeted sampling approaches. This has shown that especially microbial parasites which have until now been rarely detected are abundant and diverse (Lefèvre et al., 2008; Jones et al., 2011; Hartikainen et al., 2014). It is very difficult—or in many cases impossible—to isolate and identify them because of their generic morphology, and because such parasites are often restricted to only a few host cells which makes them difficult to detect even with state of the art molecular methods. Hence, it is no surprise that microbial hyperparasites are not well understood. Some species of hyperparasites are endoparasites and difficult to see in the light microscope without special staining methods. Although zoosporic parasites of primary producers have been the focus of recent studies (Powell, 1993; Ibelings et al., 2004; Kagami et al., 2007; Marano et al., 2011; Neuhauser et al., 2011a), our knowledge about zoosporic hyperparasites and their microbial hosts remains anecdotal. In this article we focus on zoosporic hyperparasites with zoosporic hosts, their abundance and relationships between parasites and their hosts and their possible roles in ecological processes.
In two of the early works focusing on microbial hyperparasites, Karling (1942a,b) documented and discussed examples of hyperparasitism among zoosporic true fungi (Table 1). Although his study focused primarily on hyperparasites among the zoosporic true fungi, Karling was aware of hyperparasites among other microbial groups such as stramenopiles or plasmodiophorids (Table 2). Sparrow's monograph about aquatic phycomycetes contains still the most comprehensive references to zoosporic hyperparasites (Sparrow, 1960). Although hyperparasitism among true fungi has been the focus of numerous research projects, for instance in the form of biological control of plant diseases (e.g., Vinale et al., 2008), hyperparasitism involving heterotrophic stramenopiles and zoosporic true fungi has been rare (Boosalis, 1964; Barnett and Binder, 1973; Adams, 1990). Zoosporic hyperparasites have been described in the fungal groups Chytridiomycota, Blastocladiomycota, and Cryptomycota (Opisthokonts, for examples see Table 1). Within the heterokonts the groups Hyphochytriomycota, Oomycota, Labyrinthulomycota, and Phytomyxea contain hyperparasitic species (Table 2). These groups belong to various supergroups in the tree of life (Baldauf, 2003; Adl et al., 2012), but these microorganisms interact together in the same ecosystems. Because of their morphological similarity and their similarity in size they can have ecologically similar functions and are in food web studies often treated as "trophic species" (Powell, 1993; Marano et al., 2011). Many of the known hosts belong to common genera which are frequently observed in many soil and fresh water ecosystems using both baiting procedures and molecular analysis of environmental samples (Sparrow, 1960; Powell, 1993; Barr, 2001; Dick, 2001; Lozupone and Klein, 2002; Shearer et al., 2007; Lefèvre et al., 2008; Marano et al., 2011). It is very likely that zoosporic hyperparasites are as abundant on "rarer" hosts. This is of ecological importance because zoosporic true fungi and heterotrophic stramenopiles can be among the predominant groups in some ecosystems (Lefèvre et al., 2008; Freeman et al., 2009; Marano et al., 2011). Because of the large number of species of zoosporic parasites, hyperparasites, and their associated hosts, it is likely that there are many additional taxa that await discovery.
Table 1. Selected hyperparasitic Opistokonts (Chytridiomycota, Cryptomycota, Blastocladiomycota).
Table 2. Selected hyperparasitic Heterokonts (Oomycota, Hyphochytridiomycota, Phytomyxea).
Zoospores are a shared morphological feature of the hosts and hyperparasites discussed here. Zoospores are motile propagules which permit rapid dispersal. Zoospores can sense environmental gradients which they use to identify and find potential hosts (Tyler, 2002). There are different types of zoospores (Lange and Olson, 1983), which have distinguishing features, allowing observers to determine and categorize the organisms. The most important feature is the type of flagellation. Zoospores can generally be grouped into (1) uniflagellate with posteriorly directed whiplash flagellum, (2) uniflagellate with an anteriorly directed tinsel flagellum, (3) biflagellate, heterokont, with one posteriorly directed whiplash flagellum and one anteriorly directed tinsel flagellum and (4) biflagellate, isokont, two whiplash flagellae, often of different lengths, with the shorter one anteriorly directed and the longer one posteriorly directed.
Despite their relatively simple morphology many zoosporic hyperparasites form functionally and developmentally distinct types of zoospores during their life cycle (Sparrow, 1960). A variety of names are used for different types of zoospores in different taxonomic groups, but generally one type of zoospore is formed in zoosporangia following mitosis and can be either haploid or diploid, while another type of zoospore is formed by meiosis and is haploid (Lange and Olson, 1983). The different types of zoospores can serve different functions during the parasite life cycle—such as rapid propagation and dispersal or primary infection and population establishment after periods of hibernation (e.g., Neuhauser et al., 2011b). Despite variable modes of formation and complex parasite life cycles which can result in periods where one type of zoospore is predominantly formed, the main unifying feature of all types of zoospores is that they are small, single-celled, motile propagules. Within food webs zoospores provide a rapid energy source for a variety of organisms at higher trophic levels (Gleason et al., 2011), so it is not surprising that zoospores are often treated as trophic species.
Zoosporic hyperparasites use a large variety of mechanisms to attack their hosts. Hyperparasites can grow epibiotically on the surface of their host only entering the host cell with specialized structures such as chytrid rhizoids (Figures 1A,C). Hyperparasites also grow endobiotically this means completely submerged in their hosts (Figures 1B,D). The parasite hosts of hyperparasites can be ectoparasites (Figures 1A,B) growing epibiotically on the primary host or endoparasites (Figures 1C,D) growing endobiotically inside the primary host. Hyperparasites which are infecting ectoparasites only have to overcome the defense mechanisms of their host, and often use infection strategies that are very similar to those of zoosporic parasites (Sparrow, 1960; Marano et al., 2012). On the other hand, hyperparasites which are parasites of endoparasites may have to overcome two barriers of defense—they have to enter the parasite-host and their host to get access to food resources. Most of the described zoosporic hyperparasites are parasites of ectoparasites (e.g., most Rozella species, Wornina spp.). We hypothesize that ectoparasites are easier accessible for hyperparasites with only one line of defense to break. We also hypothesize that our knowledge about zoosporic hyperparasites of endoparasites is biased by the fact that zoosporic endoparasites are a poorly studied group themselves. Therefore, most of the examples discussed here are from zoosporic hyperparasites of parasites which are not completely submerged inside their host or from endoparasitic hyperparasites of epibiotic hosts (Figures 1A–C).
Figure 1. Types of hyperparasitism. Blue—primary host, green—parasite, red—hyperparasite. (A) epibiotic hyperparasite of ectoparasite. This type can be found for example in the interaction of the hyperparasite Rhizophydium parasiticum (Chytridiomycota), its and its (facultative) parasites host Rhizophlyctis rosea. (B) Endobiotic hyperparasite of ectoparasite host. This is the most commonly described mode of hyperparasitsm seen in many Rozella species (Cryptomycota) or Woronina spp. (Phytomyxea). (C) Epibiotic hyperparasite of endoparasite host. E.g., Rhizophyidum carpophilum (Chytridiomycota) on Olpidiopsis sp. (oomycetes) and Synchytrium sp. (chytrid). (D) Endobiotic hyperparasite of endoparasite host. E.g., the hyperparasitic chytrid Phlyctochytrium synchytrii in the plant pathogen Synchytrium endobioticum.
An example of an epibiotic infection (Figure 1A) is the parasitic relationship between the two chytrids Chytriomyces verrucosus and Rhizophlyctis rosea (Karling, 1960). The chemotactic zoospores of R. rosea are attracted to the host cell where they encyst. The zoospore then germinates and a germ tube penetrates the host zoosporangium. Inside the host, an endobiotic rhizoidal system develops supplying the epibiotic zoosporangium (having since formed from the body of the zoospore) with nutrients. Epibiotic parasites can also be found in the stramenopiles (Sneh et al., 1977): zoospores of the hyphochytriomycete Rhizidomyces japonicus attach to the surface of oospores of Phytophthora megasperma (Oomycetes) where thalli grow externally around the oospore and produce zoosporangia. The oomycete Pontisma lagenidioides which is a parasite of the green alga Chaetomorpha media can be infected by Labyrinthula sp. (Raghukumar, 1987).
Endobiotic parasites grow entirely submerged within their host. An example is Rozella allomycis (Rozellida/Cryptomycota) and its host Allomyces arbuscula (Blastocladiomycota) (Held, 1973, 1974). In this case, the infection process is relatively well studied and is described in more detail here to exemplify the infection process of most known endobiotic zoosporic hyperparasites. Substances produced by the host attract the chemotactic zoospores of the parasite toward the host. Once the zoospore attaches to the surface of the host cell it forms a so-called cyst, which produces a germ tube. The germ tube then grows into the host cell through the cell wall while the protoplast of Rozella is pushed into the host cell by fluid pressure produced from a vacuole in the cyst. Subsequently the parasite grows inside the host cell. In the case of Rozella allomycis the host cell is then transformed into the parasite sporangium. Other known endobiotic parasites are Rozella polyphagi (Rozellida/Cryptomycota), which parasitizes the chytrid parasite Polyphagus euglenae (Powell, 1984) and the endobiotic parasite Catenaria allomycis (Blastocladiomycota), which infects Allomyces javanicus (Sykes and Porter, 1980; Powell, 1982). Catenaria anguillulae, a member of the Blastocladiomycota, is an endobiotic parasite of the plant pathogenic oomycetes Phytophthora cinnamomi and P. parasitica (Daft and Tsao, 1984), while Hyphochytrium catenoides (Hyphochytriomycota) colonizes oospores of Pythium myriostylum (Ayers and Lumsden, 1977). Another parasite of Pythium spp. is Woronina pythii (Phytomyxea), which infects both vegetative hyphae and reproductive structures of Pythium (Dylewski and Miller, 1983).
Interactions are slightly different between hyphal forming zoosporic organisms, such as oomycetes. Here interactions between hyphae can be observed, and these interactions are different from the endo- and epibiotic parasitic interactions discussed above. Two distinct mechanisms appear to be involved in interactions between this parasite and its hosts: (1) hyperparasitism; mediated by hyphal interactions, and (2) antibiosis; causing metabolic and developmental changes prior to contact between hyphae of the parasite and host (Adams, 1990; Benhamou et al., 1999). An example of direct interactions between the organisms is the interaction between hyphae of the well-known hyperparasite Pythium oligandrum (Oomycota) and hyphae of its oomycete hosts (e.g., P. ultimum, P. aphanidermatum, Phytophthora megasperma) (Benhamou et al., 1999). Hyphae of the parasite can adhere to the surface of the host sometimes coiling around the host hyphae. Penetration of the host cells by infection pegs may follow, leading to digestion of the host cytoplasm. When the interaction is initiated by antibiosis (without contact with the host) the parasite can release soluble substances which cause biochemical changes within the host cells. Then the parasite can release extracellular enzymes, which digest the host cells.
DNA sequences assigned to putative parasite and hyperparasite taxa of zoosporic fungi are widespread (e.g., Lara et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2011; Lara and Belbahri, 2011; Nagano and Nagahama, 2012). But molecular methods are often biased by the selection of primers and sampling methods (Hartikainen et al., 2014; Neuhauser et al., 2014) and the assignment of environmental DNA sequences to described species is only as good as the available reference datasets. Data on zoosporic microorganisms are sparse, and many of the "unknown" sequences are probably from common species which to date have no reference record in public data bases (e.g., Nagy et al., 2011; Karpov et al., 2013). Reliable reference sequences of many zoosporic hyperparasites are generally rare. One reason is that many of the known zoosporic hyperparasites are biotrophic parasites which cannot be grown without their hosts. The hosts themselves are often biotrophic parasites as well, making it very hard to isolate, identify and sequence the hyperparasites. Therefore, targeted studies to detect and characterize hyperparasites and their hosts are needed. Such targeted approaches could include baiting experiments combined with microscopic observation or DNA and RNA based screenings of various environments. Despite being very time consuming baiting and isolation experiments are highly valuable because they will allow to understand how hyperparasites interact with their hosts, to describe their life cycle, and to analyze interactions with their hosts. Baiting experiments with oospores of the oomycetes parasites Phytophthora megasperma, P. cactorum, Pythium sp. and Aphanomyces euteiches, revealed that those baits quickly became infected by different hyperparasites (Sneh et al., 1977). Another approach for characterizing zoosporic hyperparasites would be to implement a combination of DNA and RNA isolation methods combined with specific primers and to then visualize the respective organisms using specific FISH (Fluorescence in situ hybridization) probes (Not et al., 2002; Jones et al., 2011; Marano et al., 2012). Such targeted molecular probing techniques are a powerful tool to identify unknown organisms. When attempting to detect hyperparasites by this approach, however, mainly free living stages (zoospores) will be detected and the sampling is largely limited to aquatic environments because the background fluorescence in soil or sediment samples tends to be high (Wagner and Haider, 2012).
Hyperparasites, their hosts and the primary hosts are complex systems. Most studies about zoosporic hyperparasites base their evidence on laboratory studies of dual cultures of one host infected by one parasite or the host range of a single parasite (e.g., Karling, 1960; Sparrow, 1960; Held, 1981). Although to date we can only estimate how those interactions might occur in natural environments like sediment or soil (Gleason et al., 2012), simultaneous infections by different species are likely—especially for abundant parasite hosts for which more than one species of hyperparasite is known (for examples see Tables 1, 2). Similarly, unrelated or distantly related hyperparasites may infect the same hosts individually or simultaneously. An excellent example of this phenomenon was described by Karling (1960) who observed simultaneous infection of Rhizophlyctis rosea with four hyperparasites. He studied infections of the facultative parasite R. rosea with Chytriomyces verrucosa (Chytridiomycota). Karling noted that numerous sporangia of R. rosea were also infected with Rozella rhizophlyctii (Rozellida/Cryptomycota) and Olpidiopsis karlingiae (Oomycota). In addition to this, the large sporangia of R. rosea were infected by a fourth species, Pythium proliferum (Oomycota), which was itself densely parasitized by Woronina pythii (Phytomyxea). Although R. rosea is a facultative parasite, this example shows the extent to which hyperparasites can occur in nature when studied in detail.
On the other hand not all hyperparasites are host specific. Studies on the range of host specificity indicate that some species of hyperparasites in the Oomycota and Phytomyxea can infect several species of hosts (Goldie-Smith, 1951; Dylewski and Miller, 1983). Rozella allomycis only infects two susceptible hosts: Allomyces arbuscula and A. macrogynus (Held, 1974), while Olpidiopsis incrassata infects six species of Saprolegnia and three species of Isoachlya (Slifkin, 1961). Other parasites such as Woronina pythii have a broad host spectrum and can infect more than 40 species of oomycetes (Dylewski and Miller, 1983). Pythium oligandrum also infects a wide range of fungal and stramenopilous host (Ribeiro and Butler, 1995). These studies highlight the importance of isolating and characterizing species for understanding and characterizing hyperparsite biodiversity and host range. Culture based methods and well defined voucher isolates are also needed to provide a groundwork for DNA barcoding studies (del Campo et al., 2014) or for food web analyses (Hrcek et al., 2011) which form the basis for a more holistic understanding of hyperparasites and their ecological roles.
Like all parasites, hyperparasites can impact population size and fitness of their hosts (Sieber and Hilker, 2011; Allen and Bokil, 2012; Preston et al., 2014). Some hyperparasites can infect persistent structures of their hosts, for example oospores, resistant sporangia, or resting spores (Gleason et al., 2010). Such resting stages are recalcitrant substrates and can survive in a dormant state in dried soil for long periods of time (Goldie-Smith, 1956b; Bruckart et al., 2011) where they accumulate, forming a "spore bank" of zoosporic parasites. But when these resting stages are infected by hyperparasites the pathogen pressure can potentially be reduced. This could explain the finding that zoosporic hyperparasites can be linked to suppressive soil properties (Weller et al., 2002) as they have the ability to reduce the viable pathogen load in soil. The presence of hyperparasites contributes to controlling their hosts in the environment, hinting at the important role of these parasites in balancing diversity and abundance of their hosts, consequently resulting in stable ecosystems.
Hyperparasites are already widely used as biological control agents to control the population size of plant pathogens. The best known example is the oomycete Pythium oligandrum which is used to control other Pythium spp. and oomycetes (Ikeda et al., 2012). Hyperparasites have a huge potential to control diseases if they can be systematically accumulated in the environment. But so far not many hyperparasites can be grown in the lab in big enough quantities that permit use as biocontrol agent. There are known hyperparasites of important plant pathogens which have not been explored as biocontrol agents because of this reason. Oospores of the potato pathogen Phytophthora erythroseptica, for example, were found to be infected with Hyphochytriun catenoides and Rhizidiomyces japonicus in waterlogged soils in England (Wynn and Epton, 1979). Given the global importance of Phytophthora spp. as existing and emerging plant pathogens (Brasier et al., 2004; Fry, 2008; Fisher et al., 2012), identifying hyperparasites that naturally control the abundance and survival of these parasites would be beneficial.
There have been observations of such effects in control of population sizes by hyperparasites in fresh water ecosystems. Populations of Zygorhizidium affluens (Chytridiomycota) are frequent parasites of populations of the diatom Asterionella formosa in freshwater lakes (Canter, 1965; Beakes et al., 1988). The growth of the parasite population follows the growth of the host population (Chave, 2013) resulting in a "chytrid epidemic." Sporangia and resting spores of Z. affluens can be infected by the hyperparasite Rozella parva (Canter, 1965). Both a decline in the A. formosa populations and an increase in the R. parva populations as the growing season progresses would, in theory, result in a decrease in Z. affluens populations. Another example is Polyphagus euglenae, a parasite of Euglena viridis and E. gracilis and its hyperparasite Rozella polyphagi (Powell, 1984), in which an infection with the hyperparasite R. polyphagi is known to decrease the population size of its host. Blooms of toxic cyanobacteria are common in freshwater environments (Sønstebø and Rohrlack, 2011). These cyanobacteria can be parasitized by zoosporic true fungi (Canter, 1972) that have the potential to control the sizes of such toxic algal blooms. Parasites of cyanobacteria can be infected by hyperparasites, a fact which was noted, but not analyzed in any detail. A reduction in the numbers of zoosporic parasites may result in an increase in growth of the (toxic) algal blooms (Canter, 1972). However, such tripartite interactions should be the subject of future studies: hyperparasites may impact the population sizes of parasitic, zoosporic true fungi that are parasites of organisms which can be damaging to the environment. The need to study the ecological role of hyperparasites may be even more significant as cyanobacteria and microalgae are gaining increasing importance as sustainable second generation biofuels (Stephens et al., 2010). Microalgal cultures are prone to get contaminated with a wide range of bacteria and eukaryotes which potentially impact on the yield (Stephens et al., 2010; Lakaniemi et al., 2012). Especially in such semi-controlled systems a control of detrimental parasites with hyperparasites could be a successful approach to increase productivity and energy yield.
The presence of hyperparasites in food webs affect predators and grazers alike (Figure 2) (Hatcher et al., 2006; Morozova et al., 2007). By infecting resistant structures of their hosts, zoosporic parasites and hyperparasites release recalcitrant carbon, which is then potentially made available as food for protistan and metazoan predators rather than being deposited through sedimentation (Figure 2D). When zoospores are released, some will find new utilizable substrates, some will encyst, but many may provide food for grazing zooplankton and filter feeding animals (Figure 2A) (Kagami et al., 2007; Miki et al., 2011). The sizes of the mouth parts of grazing zooplankters determines the maximum size of zoopores that can be ingested (Kagami et al., 2007). For example, species of Daphnia are known to digest zoospores of any species smaller than 5 μm in diameter. The sizes of zoospores of hyperparasites tend to be smaller than those of the hosts (Sparrow, 1960; Held, 1981). This is clearly exemplified by the parasitic relationship between the fish parasite Achlya flagellata and its hyperparasite Dictyomorpha dioica (Mullins and Barksdale, 1965). The zoospores of A. flagellata are 8.5–10.5 μm in diameter while those of D. dioica are 3.5 μm in diameter (Mullins and Barksdale, 1965). The smaller size of the hyperparasite zoospores may enable zooplankton to graze on them or make their ingestion by zooplankters more likely, so that they ultimately provide better food resources for zooplankton than parasite zoospores. The population sizes of key species of grazing zooplankters, such as Daphnia, may be impacted by a decrease or increase in the total supply of zoospores which are a good food source (Kagami et al., 2007). This in turn will impact the population sizes of planktonivorous fish and other macroinvertebrates which feed on zooplankton.
Figure 2. Possible links of a hypothesized food web in which zoosporic parasites and hyperparasites are involved. In food webs zoosporic hyperparasites can either contribute the zoospore pool (Zoospore pool, A) which is used as food source by grazers in terrestrial and acquatic ecosystems. At the same time epibiotic sporangia of hyperparasites (Epibiotic, B) can serve as food source for larger grazers. The sporangia of epibiotic hyperparasites (Endobiotic, C) are more difficult to access as food sources for grazers. Some zoosporic hyperparasites use resting stages (Reservoirs, D) as substrate. Hosts of hyperparasites can be parasites of microscopic eukaryotes, but also parasites of plants or animals. This allows for a rapid cycling of nutrients from organisms higher up in the food web towards small grazers (trophic upgrading). References: zoos, zoosporangium; host, zoosporic host; oos, oospore; rsp, resting spore; rspr, resting sporangium.
Because of the high nutritional value of zoospores, we would expect populations of Daphnia magna to increase with the onset of the chytrid epidemic. Daphnia magna also feeds on zoospores of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Chytridiomycota), which is a serious pathogen of amphibians (Buck et al., 2011). It was suggested that the consumption of zoospores of B. dendrobatidis by D. magna may prevent the transmission of this fungus (Buck et al., 2011). If a crash occurs in populations of D. magna, when the total zoospore food supply rapidly decreases, the rate of transmission of amphibian chytridiomycosis could increase because fewer individuals of D. magna would be present to feed on zoospores of B. dendrobatidis. Thus, more zoospores would be available to spread chytridiomycosis through the populations of amphibians. In adult frogs B. dendrobatidis prevalence is highest during late summer and winter, while infection takes place from late spring to early summer (Russell et al., 2010; Sapsford et al., 2013). This coincides with the breakdown of the chytrid epidemics. We would expect many other biotic and abiotic factors to affect population dynamics here, but the availability of zoospores as food in the spring can be decisive for the pathogen load of B. dendrobatidis later in the year by influencing the numbers of predators feeding on zoospores.
It is important to establish the roles of zoosporic hyperparasites as well as parasites in the structure and function of aquatic food webs. Structure includes species richness, trophic levels, links, trophic chain length, and connectance (Dunne et al., 2005, 2013). Function includes the total amount, rate, and efficiency of carbon transfer, and effects on stability of the food web. Adding parasites to food webs results in an increased complexity (Lafferty et al., 2008; Thieltges et al., 2013). Adding links to food webs, such as parasites, hyperparasites, and both of their associated niches, might also add to the stability of a particular web (Hudson et al., 2006; Lafferty et al., 2006, 2008). Parasites with life cycles involving ontogenetic niche shifts—such as hyperparasites—impact food web structures more and potentially negatively because specialized life cycle stages are more prone to secondary extinction than generalist stages (Preston et al., 2014). Such ontogenetic effects can be found in zoosporic hyperparasites: different types of zoospores, or zoospores formed by different species can have considerably different swimming patterns (Lange and Olson, 1983) or serve different purposes like long or short distance dispersal (Neuhauser et al., 2011a). Consequently different zoospores will attract predators occupying different niches and will therefore enter the food web at different trophic levels. Because of the anecdotal nature of the available data it is not yet possible to include zoosporic hyperparasites into mathematical food web models to allow for more realistic estimates of population dynamics and energy flow and their impact on food web stability. However, it can be expected that once our knowledge about zoosporic hyperparasites increases, we will also be able to show that, like zoosporic true fungi, zoosporic hyperparasites are diverse, abundant, and important links for energy transfer (Grami et al., 2011; Niquil et al., 2011). Zoosporic true fungal parasites result in a significant reduction in the loss of algal carbon though sedimentation into the detritus pool, allowing carbon transfer from zoospores to grazing protists and metazoans. This contributes to longer carbon path lengths, higher levels of activity and specialization, lower recycling, and increased stability of aquatic food webs (Grami et al., 2011; Ulanowicz et al., 2014).
Hyperparasites tend to have shorter life cycles than their hosts, so they produce biomass in the form of zoospores more quickly. Some of them produce primarily zoospores, such as Rozella, which, instead of forming its own zoosporangium, uses the host sporangium to reproduce (Held, 1981; Powell, 1984). This outsourcing of energy consuming biomass production allows for faster life cycles and hyperparasites such as Rozella are therefore likely to increase and accelerate the energy flow between trophic levels (Figure 2C). On the other hand epibiotic parasites have zoosporangia that are formed on the surface of their host. Consequently, both their zoospores and the zoosporangia are likely to enter the food web contributing different types of energy for predators with different size preferences for their food (Figure 2B). Since food webs that include zoosporic hyperparasites have additional links, we suggest they could be more efficient, and therefore would support a larger population of grazing zooplankton species. This hypotheses needs to be tested quantitatively.
Many hyperparasites have been discovered during research with the host species. However, it is vital that such efforts are intensified to provide the basis for the development of more rapid tools for species discovery and characterization. Although emerging techniques such as single cell genomic approaches provide a quantum leap in identifying and characterizing active cells in the environment, such methods will initially not account for the complex life cycles of zoosporic hyperparasites. To understand the life cycles, and consequently the ecological function of hyperparasites, time consuming studies involving targeted sampling and probing approaches are still needed. Even the sparse information available on hyperparasites highlights their potential in many ecosystem processes. Zoosporic hyperparasites may increase the turn-around time of certain nutrients in food webs due to their often rapid life cycles. They may play a role in trophic upgrading, as well as in the stability and complexity of food web dynamics. Hyperparasites also may play a role in the natural regulation of their host population sizes, which are also parasites. Regulation of population sizes of parasites will have an impact on their host population sizes. This may result in fine-tuning the magnitudes of patterns of energy flow in food webs and impact overall biodiversity as well as population dynamics. In summary, it is likely that zoosporic hyperparasites play a vital part of every ecosystem; hence more focused research on these important organisms is needed.
Frank H. Gleason and Sigrid Neuhauser drafted the initial version of the manuscript. Agostina V. Marano, Télesphore Sime-Ngando, Martin Kirchmair, Brooke K. Sullivan and Osu Lilje critically revised this draft and contributed intellectual content to the final version.
The reviewer, Hicham El Alaoui, declares that despite being affiliated to the same institution and department as the author, Télesphore Sime-Ndando, the review process was handled objectively and no conflict of interest exists. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Sigrid Neuhauser gratefully acknowledges funding by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF) through an Erwin Schrödinger research grant (J3175-B20). Frank H. Gleason thanks the University of Sydney Library for the use of its resources, Elayna Truszewski, Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University for her editorial assistance with preparation of this manuscript.
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Keywords: hyperparasites, ecology, food web, parasite, zoospores, eDNA
Citation: Gleason FH, Lilje O, Marano AV, Sime-Ngando T, Sullivan BK, Kirchmair M and Neuhauser S (2014) Ecological functions of zoosporic hyperparasites. Front. Microbiol. 5:244. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00244
Received: 14 February 2014; Paper pending published: 17 March 2014;
Accepted: 05 May 2014; Published online: 28 May 2014.
Kevin Lafferty, US Geological Survey - Santa Barbara, USA
Assaf Sukenik, Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, Israel
Hicham El Alaoui, Université Blaise Pascal - LMGE UMR CNRS 6023, France
Copyright © 2014 Gleason, Lilje, Marano, Sime-Ngando, Sullivan, Kirchmair and Neuhauser. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
*Correspondence: Sigrid Neuhauser, Institute of Microbiology, Leopold Franzens University Innsbruck, Technikerstr. 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria e-mail: sigrid.neuhauser@uibk.ac.at


I used to stay with Mary in the summer, when I was a kid. She would make this Goulash; later, when I was 40,I connected with her on Facebook and she emailed this recipe to me. It's still just as good as I remember!
Make 1 box macaroni and cheese, as directed.