text:
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text:
Home History This Week in History 22-28 February
22-28 February
Compiled by Tariq Hayat, Pakistan
23 February 1901: Ijaz-ul-Masih (Miracles of the Messiah), a book of the Promised Messiahas, was published by Zia-ul-Islam Press, Qadian. It is a remarkable work in Arabic by the Promised Messiahas which was prompted by the devious tricks of Pir Meher Ali Shah. This masterpiece was penned by the Promised Messiahas in a very short period of time.
24 February 1887: Alexander Russell Webb sent a letter to the Promised Messiahas. This American writer, publisher and the United States Consul to the Philippines sent his first letter to the Promised Messiahas from America on 17 December 1886.
24 February 1898: The Promised Messiahas sent a report to Lieutenant Governor Nawab Bahadur which contained details regarding the condition of Jamaat-e-Ahmadiyya and some basic information about its founder. At the end of this 16-page announcement, there was a list of 317 respected members of the Jamaat.
24 February 1899: Owing to a court hearing, the Promised Messiahas departed to Gurdaspur from Qadian. The judge, Mr JM Dowie, gave his verdict and acquitted him of all charges.
26 February 1899: The Promised Messiahas published an announcement to convey to his followers in which he mentioned the details of the decision regarding the criminal case under section 107. Seven hundred copies of this announcement were published from Zia-ul-Islam Press, Qadian.
27 February 1905: The Promised Messiahas published a one-page announcement containing general guidance for members of the Jamaat. At the end, he stated that the book Nusratul-Haq was being printed in Qadian and had been handed over to Pir Manzoor Muhammad Sahib so that he may print and publish it. An indication that the Promised Messiahas began writing this book in the month of February is given in Mujmu'a Ishtiharat (Vol. 2, p. 628).
27 February 1907: An earthquake struck India for the second time in accordance with a prophecy of the Promised Messiahas.
28 February 1898: The incident of Maulvi Muhammad Hussein Batalvi's humiliation and admonishment which he faced in the governmental court for demanding a chair that resulted from his enmity against the Promised Messiahas is well-known in our history. On this day, Maulvi Muhammad Hussein Batalvi sent a letter to the Promised Messiahas in which he strongly denied the occurrence of this incident.
28 February 1903: The Promised Messiah'sas Urdu book, Naseem-e-Dawat was published on this day. In the month of February 1903, some new Muslim friends, out of sympathy and goodwill and without consulting the Promised Messiahas, issued a poster, Arya Samaj aur Qadian, in which they very politely invited the Arya Hindus and Sikhs to have a prayer duel with the Promised Messiahas or hold a religious conference to seek the truth about their religion. (Al Hakam, 21 February 1903)
These Muslim friends never expected a vile provocation in response to it. On 8 February 1903, the Promised Messiahas received a revelation from God:
حَرْبٌ مُهَيَّجَةٌ
"A furious battle." It was thought to indicate that the poster issued by the Muslim friends would evoke a violent response with vile and filthy abuse.
The revelation came true when the same evening a highly vituperative poster of the Arya Hindus reached the Promised Messiahas. It was dated 7 February 1903. It bore the heading in Urdu, A Response to the Tall Claims of the Disciples of the Qadiani Pope. It was followed by a similar vile writing in an English newspaper of the Arya Samaj. Another abusive poster was issued by one Tooti Ram.
This book of the Promised Messiahas dealt with the dire situation in a most suitable manner.
28 February 1906: A Muslim from Bans Bareli, being upset because of a book Yanabiul Islam by a Christian author, sent a painful letter to the Promised Messiahas in the last days of February. In response to it, the Promised Messiahas penned a detailed letter in March 1906 which was published by Magazine Press, Qadian in the form of a book named Chashma-e-Masihi (The Fountain of Christianity). The Christian author argued in his book that Islam had brought no new teachings, and the Holy Quran was based mostly on tales of the past – some true, some wrong, some plagiarised – and this act was attributed to the Holy Prophetsa. This charge against the Holy Quran and the Holy Prophetsa was enough to prompt the Promised Messiahas to write a convincing rebuttal with reasons and arguments.
Ahmadiyyat
28 June – 4 July
8-14 February
21-27 June

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Jason Paske, Blaine High School Principal; Shannon Gerrety, Blaine High School Activities Director; Jeff Claussen, Anoka Hennepin Credit Union President/CEO; Kim Elliott, Anoka Hennepin Credit Union Circle Pines Branch Manager; and Jim Bacigalupo, Anoka Hennepin Credit Union Executive Vice President.
Blaine, Minnesota. Anoka Hennepin Credit Union is proud to present proceeds from its Spirit Foundation's "2017 Spirit Walk". Blaine High School students and families raised the most funds for their school through the credit union's foundation fundraising efforts. "What's so great about the Spirit Walk is that the kids don't have to sell anything to raise money for their school clubs. Grandma and Grandpa can just donate directly to Spirit Walk. The credit union, through its foundation, donated an additional $1,000 to the school… Our goal is to raise $25,000 for each high school in our field of membership" said Jeff Claussen. Thousands more were raised at the Spirit Walk by booster clubs. That money was paid directly to each club. Blaine High School Cheerleaders and Girl's Basketball raised almost $5,000 combined for their booster clubs.
A second check was awarded for over $600 to Blaine High School for its participation in the Spirit Card Program. Every time a member uses their Spirit Debit Card, a percentage is donated to the member's school of choice. Being a member of Anoka Hennepin Credit Union has an immediate and direct impact on our community. This is just another way we fulfill our mission to make our members' dreams come true.
The SPIRIT WALK is an Anoka Hennepin Credit Union Spirit Foundation fundraiser that celebrates high school students by raising funds for extra-curricular activities at local high schools. It's a family-friendly event powered by families, volunteers, donors, teachers, students, and friends.


text:
Vietnam's Yeah1 sells top YouTube multi-channel network two months after acquisition
An investor watches Yeah1's stock index on a monitor. Photo: Tran Kien / Tuoi Tre
Yeah1 Group, the Vietnamese media giant that owns a handful of multi-channel networks (MCN) on YouTube, announced on Monday it had completed a deal to sell a just-acquired MCN, following an incident involving its relation with the Google-owned video-sharing platform.
A California-based MCN for YouTube, ScaleLab has been sold back to its original owner, Brenner Pass Investment, an entity owned by ScaleLab founder and CEO David Brenner, according to Yeah1.
The Vietnamese media giant only acquired the U.S. company two months ago.
The sale of ScaleLab was announced days after it was made known that YouTube will end its content hosting services agreement with Yeah1 Group and its affiliates after March 31, due to violations of channel management policies by SPRINGme, a Thailand-based network of which Yeah1 owns 16.93 percent.
It took Yeah1 only three days to complete the ScaleLab sale on Monday after its board of directors made the decision on March 8, a company representative told Tuoi Tre (Youth) newspaper.
"Yeah1's management have taken these actions in order to ensure the best interests for Yeah1's shareholders, existing ScaleLab influencers, and the broader well-being of the YouTube ecosystem," Yeah1 said in a statement.
"Yeah1 will have no further interest or involvement in ScaleLab."
In January, Yeah1 announced it acquired ScaleLab for US$20 million. The sum included an upfront payment of $12 million, and the remaining $8 million was to be cleared later if business targets were achieved.
In Monday's statement, Yeah1 said ScaleLab was sold back to its original owner for $12 million.
Before the deal announcement, Yeah1 stocks (YEG) continuously plummeted in six consecutive sessions from March 4 to 11, losing a total of VND86,300 ($3.7) per share, a record slide in the local stock market.
As of Monday, YEG stocks lost half of their value in less than nine months. Yeah1 became the first ever Vietnamese entertainment company to list on the Ho Chi Minh City Stock Exchange, with its stock closing the initial trading day at VND300,000 ($12.9) per share.
Yeah1 stock ended Tuesday's morning session at VND158,000 ($6.8) a share.
MCNs are third-party service providers that affiliate with multiple YouTube channels to offer services that may include audience development, content programming, creator collaborations, digital rights management, monetization, and sales, according to the video-sharing platform.
Vietnam's MBBank to sell 7.5% stake to foreign investors this year: CEO
acquisition YouTube Yeah1 ScaleLab
Extreme living conditions haven't kept him from educating children in need
Overtourism can bring about environmental, cultural, and social degradation if no action is taken
The toilets were cleaned with bath towels while beds were only made every three days
The chain is set to close all Vietnam stores by August 15, leaving the country after less than two years
Most big companies fail to report role in deforestation, charity says
CDP has emerged as a leading voice in a broader push by investors seeking disclosure from companies on the risks they may face as global warming exposes them to extreme weather, supply chain collapse and a host of other forms of disruption
Vietnamese octogenarian promotes tourism on hometown island
Being an octogenarian won't stop Bui Hoang from making his small hometown island world famous
Con Son 'green oasis' cannot be ignored when one visits Vietnam's Can Tho
All hands on deck to sustain tourism in here


Chaucer reciting Troylus and Criseyde (early 15th cent. MS at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge).
By Henrik Thiil Nielsen, 2014-08-17. Revised by Henrik Thiil Nielsen, 2019-02-21.
In the printed source, the first line quoted begins with a double quotation mark; this stanza is part of a longer speech.
nyce] ignorant; foolish; weak; wanton.
Chaucer here paraphrases the proverb "Many speak of Robin Hood that never shot in his bow", substituting Love for Robin Hood. This is the first known occurrence of the proverb.
Sussex, Lucy, compil. 'References to Robin Hood up to 1600', in: Knight, Stephen. Robin Hood: A Complete Study of the English Outlaw (Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1994), pp. 262-88; see p. 263 (dated c. 1380).
Chaucer, Geoffrey; Robinson, Fred Norris, ed. The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer (London; Oxford, 1974), pp. 385-479; see p. 411. Also published 1933, ©1957. 1961, 1966. Online at University of Michigan.
Texts of Chaucer's Works Online (some broken links).
1387 - Chaucer, Geoffrey - Canterbury Tales.
↑ Chaucer (1974), p. 820.


It was rainy and chilly today - mid forties (F) - so I of course decided it was a perfect day to go for a walk in the woods. As it turns out, other than being rainy and chilly it was pretty lovely.
Here is a link to a SLIDE SHOW where you can view the rest of the photos in large size.


Catalog Data Entry Operator Catalog data entry operator is about creating an inventory list in an excel spreadsheet.
An inventory has many products and you have to write it down their serial number, product name, numbers in stock, price etc into an excel spreadsheet. This is like a normal data entry job. Proofreading and Copywriting Like content writing proofreading and copywriting is also a data entry work. However, they are bit different than regular data entry jobs. Here you have to good at English and typing speed is not required. You must be able to read articles and find out mistakes.
What Is Affiliate Marketing? Affiliate marketing is a form of marketing in which companies called advertisers pay you a commission for promoting their products and services. When you register with a company as an affiliate, they will provide you a unique link or affiliate link. You then have to promote that link on blogs, social media, emails etc. Some companies allow promotion only through the blog. Whenever someone clicks on your link and buy's a product from the advertiser's website, you get paid a commission. Some advertisers also pay you for getting leads to their business.
Some advertisers track the affiliate sales themselves, others track the affiliate sales through affiliate networks like Commission Junction and Shareasale. I have got the approval for YouTube partner program and this year I am focusing to publish more videos and make some cool income from YouTube. There are just 3 steps to earn from this online job opportunity. Start your YouTube channel Create and upload interesting videos. Refer this YouTube money making guide to know everything that is required to become a famous and high paid YouTuber.
Wlrk Writing Jobs I have investmnt above that I used to do freelancing and one of the freelancing job was writing for my clients through freelance sites. You will need a foot pedal to work with Terescription. You are able to set up your own schedule depending on your availability and they do not charge any sign-up fees. Freelancers are hired and earn badge scores for the acurray and deadline delivery of their work, which can help increase their job flow.
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Landi hires teachers to teach English to Chinese students. Performance and referral incentives are also possible. Elevate K provides content and learning plans for you to teach between the hours of 8 am and 5 pm EST. Most positions allow you to be an independent contractor and work at your own pace. Cactus is in India, and they work with pharmaceutical and medical research. To qualify for this online job for home without investment position, you must have excellent English skills and be proficient in Microsoft Word, Excel and PowerPoint. One Space currently has freelance positions available for a foreign language transcriptionist, and a small business and accounting writer and editor.
Ask for references: If they are unwilling to provide references or contact information, it might not be a good sign. Think long and hard before shelling out any money: Many online job platforms such as Upwork. For more tips on avoiding job scams on freelancing sites, read about it here.
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Teeswater Sheep grow the most amazing long shimmering locks of silky wool.
Teeswaters are large sheep that can grow 12" of wool in a year. The fleece arranges itself into beautiful locks. These are used for felting, spinning, and making doll hair. They are soft and silky with pearly luster.
Eventually I'd love a flock of Teeswaters like these gals belonging to Joy Dally in Oregon.
Contact for available wool and locks from my Teeswater cross sheep. I will be offering both washed and unwashed.
Expand the flock to help preserve the breed and provide fiber for artists.


text:
Flipping Eggs
by russom | Aug 5, 2013
The Sliding Box Car
Act 1: Act 1 The Sliding Box Car 1. What makes the box fall off the car? 2. What do we need to know? Act 2: Act 3: Act 3 The Sliding Box Car
Rolling Ball
Act 1: Act 1 Rolling Ball 1. At what point does the ball cause the meter stick to tip over? 2. What do we need to know? Act 2: 3. How far along the meter stick is the ball before it starts to tip it off the table? Act 3: Act 3 Rolling Ball
What is Three Act Physics?
by russom | Jul 29, 2013
What is the Three Act Method? The Three Act Method is a format for asking questions. Act 1: Here we introduce a conflict to spark curiosity. This should be simple and concise while still clearly outlining the problem. This act should lead to natural questions. Act 2: Now that we know what the problem is — and […]
Welcome to Three Act Physics!
The purpose of this site is to use the Three Act Method as a teaching tool for physics. This site encompasses introductory level physics that explores topics within Mechanics and Electricity and Magnetism.


What is the history of Trane?
For more than a century the Trane name has identified products and technology that stretched the world's idea of what was possible – a tradition that's still very much with us.
How long has Trane been in business?
Founded in La Crosse, Wisconsin in 1885, and finally incorporated in 1913, Trane has over 120 years of experience in the business.
In many ways, the Trane story is a classic American success story that grew into a global one. It began with our founder, James Trane, a Norwegian immigrant who opened his own plumbing shop in La Crosse, Wisconsin, in 1885. With the inspiration of cold Wisconsin winters, James Trane invented a new low-pressure heating system he proudly called the Trane Vapor Heating System. His son, Reuben, was just back from college with a degree in mechanical engineering, so father and son began manufacturing operations in 1910 and incorporated as The Trane Company in 1913. It was Reuben's invention of the convector radiator in 1923 that firmly established the company's reputation as an innovator, a reputation Trane people have been building on ever since.
The idea of using technology to give people relief from summer heat was a radical and unproven idea when Trane became an air conditioning pioneer in 1931.
Trane fundamentally changed the concept of air conditioning large buildings with the 1938 launch of Turbovac, the industry's first hermetic, centrifugal refrigeration machine. This was the beginning of a long chain of innovations leading to Trane's current CenTraVac®, the industry standard for large commercial air conditioning systems. This is the most energy efficient system available anywhere for large buildings and it has earned Trane the "Best of the Best" Award from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
With the acquisition of Sentinel Electronics in the late 1970s, Trane moved into the important building automation and management field. The company was the first to offer integrated controls for all its products and became a leader in the still new field of energy management, a leadership position that continues to expand.
Our days as a leader in residential air conditioning began in 1982. That's when we took advantage of an opportunity to acquire General Electric's Central Air Conditioning Division.
In 1984 Trane was acquired by American Standard Companies and remained the largest of its three businesses: Air Conditioning Systems and Services, Vehicle Control Systems (WABCO) and Bath and Kitchen.
On June 5, 2008, global diversified industrial company Ingersoll Rand acquired Trane, furthering its transformation into a multi-brand commercial products manufacturer serving customers in diverse global markets, and away from the capital-intense, heavy-machinery profile of its past. With Trane now part of the family, Ingersoll Rand is better able to provide products, services and solutions to enhance the quality and comfort in homes and buildings, and enable companies and their customers to create progress. Other well-known brands that are part of the Ingersoll Rand family include Schlage, Thermo-King, Club Car, Hussmann and Ingersoll Rand.
New chapters in Trane's history of growth through innovation are being written every working day. Now as part of Ingersoll Rand, our momentum continues to build because—as our people have said for years—"It's hard to stop a Trane."
We do business through 400 locations in more than 100 countries.
29 manufacturing locations in Brazil, China, Egypt, England, France, Malaysia, Mexico, Taiwan, Thailand and the United States.
One of Trane's air conditioning units is installed every minute of every day.


Oh, MA, I remember that first meeting, too--the airport, the bus ride, the eager anticipation, & the first intense residency that formed a whole Hive full of lifelong friends. Thank you for reminding me!
I don't know how you remember these details, Mary Ann, but yes, I was reading historical fiction. And I really liked that book -- but it wouldn't be one that I went back to again and again as a kid. What a great memory -- thanks for bringing me back to that day!


BAE Systems has developed automated, on-board software that enhances mission effectiveness.
To solve this challenge, we've developed cutting-edge, semi-autonomous software in a category called Distributed Battle Management (DBM), which is the process of providing timely and relevant information to operators and pilots when communication is not assured, so they can better manage and control air-to-air and air-to-ground combat in contested environments.
Our automated, on-board software enhances mission effectiveness by providing warfighters with shared situational understanding, interchangeable roles, coordinated objectives for teams of manned and unmanned aerial vehicles in communications denied environments, and compressed, prioritized data transfer when communications are available.
In fact, during an 11-day flight test, the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), in association with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), successfully demonstrated capabilities for its DBM program for the first time during seven live flights that included a mix of live and simulation runs and simulation-only runs. The test included our Anti-Access Real-time Mission Management System (ARMS) and the Contested Network Environment Situational Understanding System (CONSENSUS).
ARMS, a distributed adaptive planning and control software, provides near real-time mission capabilities that allow warfighters to engage air-to-air and air-to-ground targets and search airspace. CONSENSUS is a distributed situational understanding software that provides pilots and operators with weapon targeting guidance and mission awareness through a common operational picture by fusing raw data from multiple platforms and sensors.


text:
\section{Introduction}

The formation of black hole (BH) seeds and their evolution have been the subject of several theoretical investigations. The "flow-chart" presented Rees (1978) still stands as a guideline for the possible paths leading to formation of BH seeds in the center of galactic structures. One possibility is the direct formation of a massive BH (MBH) from a collapsing gas cloud (Haehnelt \& Rees 1993;  Loeb \& Rasio 1994; Eisenstein \& Loeb 1995; Bromm \& Loeb 2003; Koushiappas, Bullock \& Dekel 2004;  Begelman, Volonteri \& Rees 2006). The gas can condenses to form a central massive object. The mass of the seeds predicted by different models vary, but typically are in the range $M_{BH} \sim 10^4-10^6\,M_\odot$. Alternatively, the seeds of BHs can be associated with the remnants of the first generation of stars, formed out of zero metallicity gas. The first stars are believed to form at $z\sim 20$ in halos which represent high--$\sigma$ peaks of the primordial density fie
 ld.
The absence of metals might lead to a very top--heavy initial stellar mass function, and in particular to the production of very massive stars with masses $>100 M_\odot$ (Carr, Bond, \& Arnett 1984). If very massive stars form above 260 $M_\odot$, they would rapidly collapse to BHs with little mass loss (Fryer, Woosley, \& Heger 2001), i.e., leaving behind seed BHs with masses $M_{BH} \sim 10^2-10^3\,M_\odot$ (Madau \& Rees 2001).
The subsequent growth of BHs from these initial seeds has been investigated in the hierarchical framework,  typically associating episodes of accretion to galaxy mergers  (Haiman 2004, Yoo \& Miralda-Escud\'e 2004, Shapiro 2005; Volonteri \& Rees 2005, 2006; Lapi et al. 2006).

Only a few observational constraints are currently available. Many are limited to the brightest sources, probing only the very bright end of the luminosity function of quasars at $z\simeq 6$ and therefore only the upper end of the massive black hole mass function (Fan et al. 2001). The observation of very luminous quasars, powered by billion solar masses BHs, at $z\approx6$ in the SDSS survey (Fan et al. 2001), implies that a substantial population of smaller accreting BHs must exist at earlier times.
Deeper but limited constraints have been provided for more typical AGN, with $\simeq$ 2 orders of magnitude smaller MBHs, using deep X-ray observations (e.g., Alexander et al. 2001; Barger et al. 2003b; Koekemoer et al. 2004; Mainieri et al. 2005). However, these constraints lack the detail
and depth required to  understand and determine the global evolution of BH seeds and of the average MBH population at very high redshifts. Accreting BHs are observed as X--ray emitters up to $z \mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}}\raise 2.0pt\hbox{$<$}} 6$ (Barger et al. 2003, Steffen et al. 2006),  and there are no reasons to believe that higher redshift AGN would be any different. The detection of very high redshift AGN is one of the goals of
future space missions. In particular, X--ray telescopes, such as the planned {\it XEUS}
and {\it Constellation--X}, are expected to detect these sources even at $z\simgt6$. Moreover, X--ray observatories
can identify even heavily obscured AGN activity, due to the penetrating nature of
hard X-rays.

Additional, albeit less direct, limits on the early MBH population can already be placed by the requirement that the cumulative emission from the predicted high redshift sources does not saturate the observed unresolved X-ray background (Dijkstra, Haiman \& Loeb 2004; Salvaterra, Haardt, Ferrara 2005).
We show that future space-borne missions will be able to constrain different proposed
models for the accretion history of MBHs at early times.  We focus here on a specific model for MBH formation,  which traces MBH seeds to the first generation of metal--free stars. We then compare how different accretion histories reflect onto the detectability of X--ray sources.

The mass growth of the most massive BHs at high redshift must proceed very efficiently to explain
 the luminosity function
of luminous quasars at $z\approx 6$ in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS, e.g. Fan
et al. 2001). Volonteri \& Rees (2005) explore the conditions which allow a sufficient
growth of MBHs by $z=6$ under the assumption that accretion is triggered by
major mergers.  At such high redshift an investigation of evolution of the
MBH population must take into account the dynamical evolution of MBHs.
Black hole mergers, in fact, can give a net negative contribution to the early black
hole growth, due to gravitational effects which can kick BHs out of
their host halos (gravitational recoil, due to to the non-zero net linear
momentum carried away by gravitational waves).
Adopting recent estimates for the recoil velocity (Baker et al. 2006),
Volonteri \& Rees (2005) find that
if accretion is always limited by the Eddington rate via a thin disc,  the
maximum radiative efficiency allowed to reproduce the LF at $z=6$ is
$\epsilon_{\rm max}=0.12$ (corresponding
to an upper limit to the MBH spin parameter of 0.8). If, instead,
high-redshift MBHs can accrete at super-critical rate during an early phase
(Volonteri \& Rees 2005, Begelman, Volonteri \& Rees 2006), then reproducing the
observed MBH mass values, is not an issue.
The constraints from the LF at $z=6$ are still very weak, so either a model with a
low $\epsilon_{\rm max}$ or a model
with supercritical accretion cannot be ruled out based on these results only.

In a previous paper we have investigated how current observations can
constrain the late accretion history of MBHs, at $z<4$ (Volonteri, Salvaterra
\& Haardt 2006). In this paper we study by means of a detailed model of MBH
assembly, the detectability of very high redshift AGN both at X--ray and
near-IR wavelengths by future missions. We discuss the contribution of these objects to
the unresolved  X--ray background (in particular in the 0.5--2 keV band).
Finally, we
discuss the role of an early population of AGN in the reionization of the
Universe and their contribution to the UV background at high redshift.
The paper is organized as follows. In Sect.~2 we describe briefly the merger
tree model for the formation and evolution of MBH in the early Universe.
Sect.~3 presents the basic equations we need in the number counts and
background calculation and, in Sect.~4, we discuss the adopted spectrum of
AGN. In Sect.~5 we present our results and discuss the role of future
space mission in the observations of high redshift AGN. In Sect.~6 we
compare our results to those of a model in which the early
evolution of MBH seeds is characterized by a phase of super--critical
accretion. Finally, in Sect.~7, we briefly summarize our results.

Throughout the paper we use the AB magnitude system\footnote{AB magnitudes are
defined as AB$=-2.5\log (F_{\nu_{0}}) -48.6$, where $F_{\nu_{0}}$ is the
spectral energy density within a given passband in units of erg s$^{-1}$
cm$^{-2}$ Hz$^{-1}$} and the standard $\Lambda$CDM cosmology
(Spergel et al. 2003).

\section{High redshift Massive Black Hole evolution}

The main features of a plausible scenario for the hierarchical
assembly, growth, and dynamics of MBHs in a $\Lambda$CDM cosmology
have been discussed in Volonteri, Haardt \& Madau (2003).  Dark matter halos
and their associated galaxies undergo many mergers as mass is assembled from
high redshift to the present. The halo merger history is tracked
backwards in time with a Monte Carlo algorithm based on the extended
Press-Schechter formalism. ``Seed" holes are assumed to form with intermediate
masses in the rare high $\nu-\sigma$ peaks  collapsing at $z=20-25$
(Madau \& Rees 2001) as end-product of the very first generation of stars.
As our fiducial model we take $\nu=4$ at $z=24$, which ensures that galaxies today
hosted in halos with mass  larger than $10^{11}\;M_{\odot}$ are seeded with a MBH.
The assumed threshold allows efficient formation of MBHs in the range of halo
 masses effectively probed by dynamical studies of MBH hosts in the local
universe.

As a reference, we adopt here a conservative model assuming Eddington-limited accretion
which is able to reproduce the bright end of the optical LF, as traced by observations in the SDSS (e.g. Fan et al 2001).  We then discuss in Section 6 a simple model which considers super-Eddington
accretion rates for high-redshift MBHs and one in which more massive seeds form late, as in Koushiappas et al. (2004),
and evolve through Eddington--limited accretion.

The fraction of active BHs (i.e., AGN) at early times is large in our models, reaching almost unity for the most massive black holes ($M_{\rm BH}>5\times 10^8 M_{\odot}$) at $z\simeq 5$. The fraction of AGN with respect to the whole BH population decreases by at least one order of magnitude at $M_{BH} \sim 10^5-10^6\,M_\odot$ and further at lower masses.  Under our model assumptions, detection of active sources can therefore provide robust constraints on the whole BH population.

\section{Basic Equations}

The number of sources observed per unit solid angle at redshift $z_0$  in the flux range
$F_{\nu_0}$ and $F_{\nu_0}+dF_{\nu_0}$ at frequency
$\nu_0$  is

\begin{equation}
\frac{dN}{d\Omega dF_{\nu_0}}(F_{\nu_0},z_0)=\int^{\infty}_{z_0}
\left( \frac{dV_c}{dz d\Omega} \right) n_c(z, F_{\nu_0})  \, dz,
\end{equation}

\noindent
where $dV_c/dz d\Omega$ is the comoving volume element per unit redshift per
unit solid angle, and $n_c(z,F_{\nu_0})$ is the comoving density of sources at
redshift $z$ with observed flux in the range $[F_{\nu_0}, F_{\nu_0} + dF_{\nu_0}]$.
The specific flux of a source observed at $z_0$ is given by
\begin{equation}\label{eq:flux}
F_{\nu_0}=\frac{1}{4\pi \, d_L(z)^2} \tilde L_\nu (M_{\rm BH}) \, \mbox{e}^{-\tau_{\rm eff}(\nu_0,z_0,z)},
\end{equation}
\noindent
where $\tilde L_\nu(M_{\rm BH})$ is the specific luminosity of the source (in units of erg
s$^{-1}$ Hz$^{-1}$) {\it averaged over the source lifetime},
which is assumed to be only a function of the mass of the central BH.
In the above eq.~(2), $\nu=\nu_0 (1+z)/(1+z_0)$, $d_L(z)$ is the
luminosity distance, and
$\tau_{\rm eff}$ is the effective optical depth of the intergalactic medium (IGM)
at $\nu_0$ between redshifts $z_0$ and $z$.
Shortward of the observed Lyman$-\alpha$, the emergent spectrum is strongly modified by IGM absorption (see Sect.~2.2 of
Salvaterra \& Ferrara 2003 for a full description of the IGM modeling).
For sources at $z>6$, as those we are considering in this paper, IGM absorption in the observed 0.5--10  keV band (corresponding, for sources at $z>6$ as those considered here,
to rest--frame energy $>3.5$ keV) can be safely neglected.

The radiation background $J_{\nu_0}(z_0)$ observed at redshift
$z_0$ at frequency $\nu_0$, is
\begin{equation}\label{eq:J}
J_{\nu_0}(z_0)= \frac{(1+z_0)^3}{4\pi}\int^{\infty}_{z_0}
\epsilon_\nu(z) \mbox{e}^{-\tau_{\rm eff}(\nu_0,z_0,z)} \frac{dl}{dz}dz,
\end{equation}
where $\epsilon_\nu(z)$ is the comoving specific emissivity, and $dl/dz$ is the proper line element.
The source term $\epsilon_\nu$ is given by
\begin{eqnarray}\label{eq:eps}
\epsilon_\nu(t)&=&\int dM_{\rm BH}\,\, \int_0^t L_{\nu}(t-t',M_{\rm BH})\frac{dn_c}{dt'dM_{\rm BH}}dt' \nonumber \\
&\simeq& \int dM_{\rm BH}\,\, \tau \tilde L_{\nu}(M_{\rm BH}) \frac{dn_c}{dt dM_{\rm BH}}.
\end{eqnarray}
The second approximated equality holds once we consider the
source light curve averaged over the typical source lifetime $\tau$,
and assuming the source formation rate per unit mass as constant over such timescale.

\section{AGN spectrum}

The physical characterization of the source is encoded in its spectral energy
distribution (SED), $\tilde L_{\nu}$. We model the UV part of the SED of unabsorbed AGN ($\log (N_{\rm H}/{\rm cm}^{-2})<22$, referred as type I) as a multicolor disk black
body (Shakura \& Sunyaev 1973). Assuming  Eddington limited accretion, the
maximum disk temperature is
$kT_{\rm max} \approx 1\mbox{ keV}(M_{BH}/M_{\odot})^{-1/4}$. The characteristic
multicolor disk spectrum is broadly peaked at
$E_{\rm peak}\approx 3 kT_{\rm max}$,
and follows a power law with $\tilde L_{\nu}\propto \nu^{1/3}$ for energies
$h\nu \mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}}\raise 2.0pt\hbox{$<$}} E_{\rm peak}$, and exponentially rolls off for $E \mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} E_{\rm peak}$.
In the X--ray, the spectrum can be described by a power--law with photon index
$\Gamma=1.9$ ($f_{\nu}\propto \nu^{-\Gamma}$),
and an exponential cutoff at $E_c=500$ keV (Marconi et al.
2004). The averaged X--ray SED of absorbed AGN (type II) is described by the same type I spectrum for
$E>30$ keV, and, in the range $0.5--30$ keV,
by a power--law (continuously matched) with photon index $\Gamma=0.2$, obtained convolving the type~I spectrum with
a lognormal distribution of absorption column density centered at $\log (N_H/cm^{-2})=24$  (Sazonov et al. 2004).
UV emission from type~II AGN is assumed to be negligible.
We further assume a type~I/type~II ratio of 1/4, independently of redshift and
luminosity, since detailed modelling of intrinsic absorption at $z>6$
are not currently available. Note that the observed X--rays correspond,
for sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$, to rest--frame energies between $3.5$ and $70$ keV, where
the emission properties of type~I and type~II AGN are thought to be
similar (the rare Compton thick sources are not considered here).

The X--ray emission of type~I AGN is normalized to the optical, adopting an optical--to--X rays energy index
$\alpha_{\rm OX}=0.126 \log(L_{2500})+0.01z-2.311$ (see Eq. 5 of Steffen et
al. 2006), where $L_{2500}$ is the monochromatic luminosity at
$\lambda=2500$ \AA (rest frame). By definition,
the X--ray luminosity at the rest frame energy of 2 keV, $L_2$, is
$L_2=L_{2500} (\nu_{2}/\nu_{2500})^{-\alpha_{\rm OX}}$.
The scaling of $\alpha_{\rm OX}$ with redshift and luminosity has been obtained by Steffen et al. (2006)
combining data from
the SDSS, COMBO-17 and {\it Chandra} surveys. The final sample consists of 333 AGN extending out to
$z\sim 6$ spanning five decades in UV luminosity and four decades in X--ray luminosity.
Since only a mild dependence on redshift is found, we extrapolate this result also to $z>6$.
We further assume Eddington limited accretion (see Section 2).

\section{Results}

\subsection{X-ray number counts}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:xcount}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig01.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{
Predicted logN/logS in the soft ({\it upper panel}) and hard ({\it lower panel})
X--ray bands for sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$.
Different lines refer to different BH mass ranges: all masses ({\it solid line}),
$M_{\rm BH}=10^4-10^5\;M_{\odot}$ ({\it dotted line}),
$M_{\rm BH}=10^5-10^6\;M_{\odot}$ ({\it dashed line}),
$M_{\rm BH}=10^6-10^7\;M_{\odot}$ ({\it long dashed line}), and
$M_{\rm BH}>10^7\;M_{\odot}$ ({\it dot--dashed line}).
Data points are the measured source counts obtained by {\it Chandra}
(Moretti et al. 2003) and the bow--tie indicates results from the fluctuation
analysis (Miyaji \& Griffiths 2002).}
\end{figure}

We compute the soft (0.5--2 keV) and hard (2--10 keV) X--ray number counts from MBHs shining at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$
predicted by our model of MBH assembly and evolution.
Results are shown in Fig.~1, and are compared to available
observational data (Moretti et al. 2003). The bow--tie indicates results from the
fluctuation analysis of the {\it Chandra} deep field (Miyaji \& Griffiths 2002).
Different lines refer to different ranges in BH masses.
At the flux limit of current surveys, $\log(S)>-16.6 (-15.8) {\rm erg\,s^{-1}\,cm^{-2}}$  in the soft (hard) band (Alexander et al. 2003),
the contribution to the logN/logS from sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ is $\sim 8\%$ in the soft X--rays,
$\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}}\raise 2.0pt\hbox{$<$}} 1\%$ in the hard band.
In the 0.5-8 keV band, we expect $\sim 2$ source at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ in the {\it Chandra} Deep Field North with fluxes
exceeding $3\times 10^{-16} \; \mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$,
to be compared to an upper limit of  7 sources with extreme X--ray/optical flux ratios (EXO, Koekemoer et al. 2004),  that are candidate high redshift AGN.

The optical identification of these objects is problematic, owing to absorption
(both internal and by the IGM) and to their very low optical flux.
Barger et al. (2003a, 2003b) searched for optical counterparts (at $5\sigma$ confidence)
with $z$--band magnitude $z_{850}<25.2$ of AGN of the {\it Chandra} Deep Field North exposure.
Apart from a source at $z=5.19$ with $z_{850}=23.9$, no other
$z>5$ candidate was identified.
This is consistent with our results, where the majority of the
very high redshift sources detected in the deepest {\it Chandra} observations
should have a z--band magnitude fainter than 27.
Barger et al. (2003b) used the lack of
optical identifications to derive limits on the number of objects at
$z>5$. They found that in a field of view (f.o.v.) corresponding to 6 arcmin radius
circle, only $\sim 6$ sources with fluxes  exceeding $2\times 10^{-16}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ in the
0.4--6 keV band should lie at $z \mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 5$. Our model is consistent with
this limit, predicting that only $\sim 1$ sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ should be
found in the same field of view.

At fainter fluxes, a significant fraction of the sources identified in
the fluctuation analysis of the deepest {\it Chandra} data might be AGN at
$z\simeq 6$.
Our model predicts that high redshift AGN contribute to the logN/logS
at a level $\sim 13-60$\% in
the soft X--ray band, $\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}}\raise 2.0pt\hbox{$<$}} 6$\% in the hard X--ray band at the flux limit of
the fluctuation analysis ($\simeq 8,000$ sources deg$^{-2}$ at the flux limit $\log S=-17.2$ for the soft band,
and $\simeq 300$ sources deg$^{-2}$ at the flux limit $log S=-16$ for the hard band).
Direct observations of such sources is
among the main goals of the next generation of X--ray telescopes (e.g. {\it
XEUS}\footnote{www.rssd.esa.int/index.php?project=XEUS} and
{\it Constellation--X}\footnote{constellation.gsfc.nasa.gov}).
The {\it XEUS} mission is expected to have sufficient sensitivity to measure the
X--ray spectra of sources as faint as $\sim 10^{-17}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ in the
0.5--2 keV energy range, while the photometric limiting sensitivity is expected to
be $\sim 10^{-18}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$.
In the hard--X band, the limiting sensitivity, both spectroscopic and photometric,
will be larger by almost an order of magnitude.
At the spectroscopic flux limit of {\it XEUS},
we predict almost $5\times 10^3$ ($300$) AGN in the soft (hard) X--ray band,
within a 1 deg$^{2}$ f.o.v.. At such flux limits, $\sim 3\times 10^3$ ($\sim 85$)
sources deg$^{-2}$ are type I objects, indicating that, because of obscuration,
deep surveys in the soft (hard) X--ray band will miss nearly 90\% (20\%) of type~II AGN.
At the photometric flux limits, we expect $\sim 10^5$ ($\sim 10^4$) sources deg$^{-2}$ in the soft (hard)
X--ray band. In this case the type~II missing fraction is 70\% (7\%).

{\it XEUS} will be directly probing the lower end of the mass function of accreting MBHs at $z>6$,
$M_{\rm BH}\sim 10^{5-6}\;M_{\odot}$ (i.e. for luminosity $L_X>10^{42}$ erg s$^{-1}$ in the rest-frame 2--10 keV energy band).
The main contribution to the number counts is still expected from sources at $z \mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}}\raise 2.0pt\hbox{$<$}} 10$, but almost
$10^3$ deg$^{-2}$ sources, i.e., 1\% of the sources, are expected to be detected at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 10$.
We note here that, assuming an half--energy width of the PSF of 2", {\it XEUS} will be confusion limited
at a sensitivity of $\simeq 4\times 10^{-18}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$, saturating the logN/logS at a level of
$\simeq 2\times 10^5$ deg$^{-2}$ (Arnaud et al. 2000).
For bright sources, redshift determination should be possible from the detection of X--ray emission lines (e.g., 6.4 keV K$\alpha$). For fainter sources, however, redshift determination in the
X--rays might be very challenging, and a combination of deep X--ray observations and
ultra-deep optical/near-IR spectroscopy is probably required (see section 5.3).

In conclusion, we find that the next generation of X--ray missions will be able
to investigate the early stages of MBH build--up and to provide fundamental
information on the faint-end of the luminosity function of AGN even at very
high redshift.

\subsection{X--ray background}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:Xback}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig02.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{
Cumulative contribution to the unresolved XRB (0.5--2 keV band, top panel and 2--8 keV band, bottom panel)
as a function of redshift in $\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$. Line--style as in Fig. 1.
The current observational limits (Hickox \& Markevitch 2006)
are shown as a shaded area.
}
\end{figure}

According to Moretti et al. (2003), the intensity of the total X--ray background (XRB)
is  $7.53\pm 0.35 \times 10^{-12}$ and $2.02\pm 0.11 \times 10^{-11}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in
the 0.5--2 keV, and 2--10 keV energy bands, respectively.
A large fraction, $\simeq 94$\%, of the XRB in the 0.5--2 keV band has been
attributed to sources with fluxes exceeding $2.4\times 10^{-17}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$,
while $\sim 89$\% of XRB in the 2--10 keV band is resolved into sources
whose flux is $\geq 2.1\times 10^{-16}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ (Moretti et al. 2003).
More recently, Hickox \& Markevitch (2006) estimate the unaccounted fraction
of the XRB due to extragalactic unresolved sources as
$1.77\pm 0.31\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in the soft X--ray energy band
(0.5--2 keV) and $3.4\pm 1.7\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in the hard X--ray
energy band (2--8 keV).

We compute the contribution to the residual unresolved XRB in the soft and hard
(0.5--2 keV and 2--8 keV, respectively) energy band
from the population of AGN predicted by our model to exist at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$.
Note that almost all these sources are below  the source detection
limit used by Moretti et al. (2003).
Results are shown in Fig.~2, where the cumulative contribution to the XRB
of sources at redshift $>z$ is considered.
Different line--styles refer to different MBH mass ranges, as in Fig.~1.
The integrate contribution to the soft XRB from AGN at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ is found to be
$\sim 0.4\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$, corresponding to $\sim 5$\% of the total,
and to $\sim 23$\% of the unaccounted fraction.
Sources with masses $<5\times 10^5\;M_{\odot}$ give the largest
contribution to the XRB, whereas
MBHs with $M>5\times 10^6\;M_{\odot}$ produce a negligible background.
Moreover, the major contribution to the unresolved X--ray background is from
MBHs shining at $z>9$.
In the 2--8 keV band, the XRB from unresolved, $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$
AGN is $\sim 0.87\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$, corresponding to $\sim 5$\% of
the total observed hard XRB, and to $\simeq 25$\% of the unresolved fraction.
MBHs with masses $<10^6\;M_{\odot}$ give the main
contribution also in the hard band, indicating that the unresolved fraction of the XRB
can be used to constrain the faint--end of the X-ray luminosity function of
AGN at very high redshift.

We find that AGN at $z>6$ contribute significantly to the
unaccounted XRB, although their contribution is still well below the available
constraints. Other faint unresolved X-ray sources at $z<6$
may contribute to the X-ray background, including galaxies, starbursts (e.g., Bauer et al. 2004), and
a population of faint AGN (e.g., Volonteri, Salvaterra \& Haardt 2006; see Table 1).

It is interesting to note that {\it at least} $\sim 3-4$\% of the observed XRB (0.5-10 keV)
will remain unaccounted
even after {\it XEUS} observations will become available, as due to sources at $z>6$
below the flux detection limit.
Only even more sensitive X--ray observatories such as the proposed
{\it Generation--X}\footnote{generation-x.gsfc.nasa.gov} will assess
these extremely faint sources.

\subsection{{\it JWST} number counts}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:JWST}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig03.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{Predicted number counts of AGN at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ in the $1-3.5\;\mu$m
band. Solid vertical line shows the expected {\it JWST} source detection limit.
Lines are the same of Fig. 1.}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:uvback}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig04.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{Top panel: UV background at the Lyman Limit (912 \AA) as a function
of redshift in units of $10^{-21}$ erg cm$^{-2}$ s$^{-1}$ Hz$^{-1}$ sr$^{-1}$.
 As reference value we show with the blue solid line the UV background as
computed with the code CUBA (Haardt \& Madau 2006, in preparation)
extrapolating the observed AGN luminosity function.
Bottom panel: the corresponding HI ionization rate in units of
$10^{-11}$ s$^{-1}$. Lines are the same of Fig. 1.}
\end{figure}

Deep--field observations in the near-IR might be able, in principle,
to detect AGN at very high redshifts.
The $i$--band ACS data in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field (HUDF)
reach sensitivity as the 28th mag (Beckwith et al. 2006).
Our model predicts that, at this limiting magnitude, the sky density
of AGN with $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ is $\sim 0.03$ arcmin$^{-2}$.
For comparison,
the observed sky density of $z>6$ galaxies in the HUDF is $\sim 4.7$ arcmin$^{-2}$; Bouwens et
al. 2005), corresponding to an AGN fraction of $\simeq 1\%$, so that the probability to detect these sources in a field as small
as the HUDF ($\simeq 12$ arcmin$^2$) is extremely low.
Given the actual size of the HUDF (Bouwens et al. 2005),
an area three times larger has to be observed at the same magnitude limit in
order to detect one AGN at $z>6$.
In order to have a statistically significant number of very
high redshift AGN, lower detection limits are needed.
The James Webb Space Telescope ({\it JWST}\footnote{ngst.gsfc.nasa.go}) is expected to
detect sources down to a flux limit of $\sim 1$ nJy (i.e., $m_{AB} \sim 31.4$),
in a f.o.v. of $4\times 4$ arcmin$^2$.
We have computed the number counts predicted by our model for near-IR
deep-field observations.
Results are shown in Fig.~3. At the expected sensitivity of
{\it JWST} almost $7\times 10^3$ deg$^{-2}$ sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$
should be detected, down to a mass limit for the accreting MBHs of
$\sim 3\times 10^5\;M_{\odot}$, almost the same mass scale accessed by the deepest
future X--ray surveys.
In spite of this good result, we have to note that {\it JWST}
observations will be able to reveal only the un--absorbed population of
AGN, whereas X-ray survey will probe the entire AGN population.
Moreover, the detection of high redshift AGN in the deepest {\it JWST} data
could be hampered by the difficulty to select high-$z$ AGN from the more
numerous population of high redshift galaxies.

In conclusion, X--ray
surveys are a better tool to investigate the early stage of MBH
assembly, allowing to detect all (type I and type II) AGN to the highest
redshifts and to the lowest mass range. {\it JWST} deep surveys of AGN
might be useful to investigate the optical part of the SED, and the
evolution of the type~I/type~II ratio at very high redshifts.
However, optical/near-IR follow up (with {\it JWST} and the forthcoming 30 meter class telescopes)
of X--ray selected faint sources can be used to redshift determination.
Unobscured AGN should be recognizable both from the presence of broad emission lines
and distinctive optical-near-IR colours while obscured AGN should in general be identifiable
from the detection of high-excitation optical/near-IR emission lines.
For $z>6$ AGN the strongest line will be Lyman $\alpha$ at 1216 \AA. Further in the infrared CIV (1549 \AA), HeII (1640 \AA), CIII (1909 \AA) and MgII (2800 \AA), will be all detectable by JWST,  provided the gas has substantial metallicity.  Of these lines the CIV line is probably the strongest.
A combination of {\it JWST}, 30 meter class telescopes and deep X-ray observations
should provide the most effective identification strategy of AGN.

We have to note here that MBHs shining at high redshifts, similarly to miniquasars (Salvaterra, Haardt
\& Ferrara 2005), are not expected to contribute
significantly to the cosmic background in the near-IR,
and do not represent a viable solution of the near-IR background excess problem
(Salvaterra \& Ferrara 2003, 2006).

\subsection{UV background and reionization}

We have also computed (see eqs. 3 and 4) the background intensity at the
Lyman Limit (912 \AA) as a function of $z_{0}$ using the opacity of
Fardal, Giroux \& Shull (1998; model A1).
Results are shown in Fig.~4.
As a reference, we show the UV background (blue solid line)
as computed with an updated
version of the code CUBA (Haardt \& Madau 1996), extrapolating the
observed AGN luminosity function and IGM opacity.
We find a good agreement between the two
different approaches. In the bottom panel of Fig.~4
we show the corresponding HI ionization rates.
The UV background is dominated by the most massive, i.e.
$>10^6\;M_{\odot}$, MBHs up to $z\simeq 7$. At higher redshifts, these objects are rarer,
and the background is mostly due to MBHs in the mass range $10^5-10^6\;M_{\odot}$.
At $z>10$ the background intensity falls rapidly.

\begin{figure}\label{fig:reion}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig05.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{Redshift evolution of the filling factor of HII regions,
$Q_{\rm HII}$, for different values of the clumping factor: $C=1$ (dotted
line), $C=10$ (solid line), and $C=30$ (dashed line). Complete reionization
is reached when $Q_{\rm HII}=1$.}
\end{figure}

Finally, we may ask whether high redshift AGN can contribute significantly
to the reionization of the Universe. In order to answer this question, we
compute the redshift evolution of the filling factor of HII regions as
(Barkana \& Loeb 2001),

\begin{equation}
Q_{\rm HII}(z) = \int_{z}^{\infty} dz^\prime
\left\vert\frac{dt}{dz}\right\vert \frac{1}{n_H^0}
\frac{dn_{\gamma}}{dt} \mbox{e}^{F(z^\prime,z)},
\label{eq:reio}
\end{equation}

\noindent
where $n_H^0 = X_H n_B^0$ and $n_B^0$ are the present-day number densities of
hydrogen and baryons ($X_H=0.76$ is the hydrogen mass fraction), and
$dn_{\gamma}/dt$ is the production rate of ionizing photons. The function
$F(z',z)$ takes into account the
effect of recombinations. Assuming a time-independent
volume-averaged clumping factor $C$, common to all HII regions,
we can write,

\begin{equation}
F(z^\prime,z) = -\frac{2}{3} \frac{\alpha_B n_H^0}{\sqrt{\Omega_M} H_0} C
[f(z^\prime)-f(z)],
\end{equation}

\noindent
and

\begin{equation}
f(z)=\sqrt{(1+z)^3 + \frac{1-\Omega_M}{\Omega_M}},
\end{equation}

\noindent
where $\alpha_B = 2.6 \times 10^{-13} \mbox{cm}^3 \mbox{s}^{-1}$ is
the hydrogen recombination rate.

The evolution of $Q_{\rm HII}$ as function of redshift is shown in Fig.~5 for
$C=1$ (dotted line), $C=10$ (solid line) and $C=30$ (dashed line). For $C=1$,
AGN alone are able to reionize completely the Universe at $z\sim 7$.
For higher values of $C$, although the model fails to reach $Q_{\rm HII}=1$,
we find that the AGN contribution is not negligible and might
help in substaining the ionization of the IGM at $z\sim 6$.

\section{Comparison with rapid--growth model}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:LFX}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig06.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{Predicted luminosity function of quasar in the rest--frame hard X--ray
band [2--10 keV] at $z=6$. The open triangle shows the estimated number density
of quasars in the {\it Chandra} Deep Field North (Barger et al. 2003b).
Top panel shows the result for the Eddington--limited
model, whereas the bottom panel shows the result  for the rapid--growth model.}
\end{figure}

In this section, we discuss possible differences between the Eddington--limited
model and a model allowing MBHs to accrete at super--critical rate during
the early phases of their evolution. In Fig.~6 we plot the LF in the
rest--frame hard X--ray band [2-10 keV] at $z=6$ for the two models (top panel:
Eddington--limited model; bottom panel: rapid--growth model). Since
both models reproduce the observed optical LF at $z=6$ (Volonteri \& Rees 2005,
Begelman et al. 2006),  the X--ray LFs are also quite similar. For the
Eddington--limited model the differential X--ray LF can be described by a
simple power--law with power index $\beta=-4.55$, whereas for the
super--critical accretion model
$\beta=-4.77$. The open triangle in Fig.~6 shows The estimated number density
of $z\sim 5.7$ AGN as obtained by Barger et al. (2003b) in the
{\it Chandra} Deep Field North. Both models are in good agreement with the
observed number density.

Although the two models share similar results at $z=6$, the
LF at higher redshift shows significant differences. For
example, the number density of bright quasars at $z=10$ (i.e. with luminosity
in the rest-frame hard X--ray band in the range $5\times 10^{42}<L_X <
3\times 10^{43}$ erg s$^{-1}$, corresponding to MBHs with $10^6<M_{BH}<10^7\;M_{\odot}$)
is $\sim 10^{-5}$ Mpc$^{-3}$ for the super--critical accretion model, whereas in the
Eddington--limited model this density decreases by almost an order of magnitude.
This result is confirmed by Fig.~7, where the solid line shows the redshift
distribution of sources with fluxes above $10^{-17}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ (the planned
spectroscopic flux limit of future X--ray missions) in the observed soft X--ray
band for the two models. A model that allows an early phase of
super--critical accretion will have a redshift distribution of sources
pushed towards higher redshifts with respect to the Eddington--limited model. Dotted
lines in Fig.~7 show the redshift distribution of sources with X--ray fluxes
above $10^{-17}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ that may also be observable with future near-IR facilities
such as {\it JWST} (i.e., at the source detection limit of $F_\nu \sim 1$ nJy), showing that future X--ray
observations along with optical (near-IR) identifications by the next generation of
space and 30--meter class telescopes might be able to discriminate the two different
accretion histories.
Also shown in Fig.~7 is the redshift distribution of sources with fluxes
above $10^{-16}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$, easily achieved by deep {\it Chandra} observations (e.g., Alexander et al. 2003).
Furthermore, we note here that at the planned soft X--ray photometric
limit of {\it XEUS}, only
$\simeq 1$\% of observable sources is expected to lie at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 10$, if BHs
growth is Eddington--limited, whereas this fraction
increases up to $\simeq 18$\% in case of super--critical accretion.

It is unlikely that sufficient $z>6$ AGN will be identified by the Chandra deep field observations to discriminate between these two models. However, we can provide indirect constraints by considering the contribution that each make to the unresolved X-ray background. We find
that the contribution to the unresolved XRB increases by a factor $\sim 3$:
the predicted unresolved background from sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ is
$\sim 1.2\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in
the 0.5--2 keV band, and $\sim 2.3\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in
the 2--8 keV band. Results are summarized in table~1.
As a net result, once that the contribute to the unresolved XRB of sources at $z<4$ is considered,
rapid--growth model saturates the observed unaccounted background.
Note that, according to Worsley et al. (2005), most of the unaccounted 2--8 keV XRB
actually lies at energies $\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ keV, strengthening our conclusions.

We also find that the X--ray background is saturated in a model
in which massive seeds form late, as in Koushiappas et al. (2004). In this model seed MBH  form from the low angular momentum tail of material in halos with efficient gas cooling.   In first approximation, the Koushiappas et al. (2004) model indicates that seed MBH form in halos with mass above the threshold $M_H\simeq10^7 M_\odot (1+z/18)^{-3/2}$, with a mass $m_{\rm seed}\simeq5\times10^4 M_\odot(M_H/10^7 M_\odot)(1+z/18)^{3/2}$.  The largest seed mass allows for a less efficient accretion, in particular, we have assumed that the accretion rate is  Eddington--limited, and the maximum radiative efficiency is 20\% (Gammie et al 2004).   Also in the late formation scenario, the unresolved XRB is
saturated, being $\sim 1.5\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in
the 0.5--2 keV band, and $\sim 3.2\times 10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$ in
the 2--8 keV band.
XRB saturation could be a problem for such models, as a substantial contribution to the XRB from low--redshift (i.e.
$z<4$), unresolved faint sources (Volonteri, Salvaterra \& Haardt 2006) and/or
galaxies (Bauer et al. 2004) can not be excluded.

\begin{table}\tiny
\begin{minipage}{0.5\textwidth}
\begin{center}
\begin{tabular}{lccl}
\hline
\hline
Sources & \multicolumn{2}{c}{XRB} & Reference \\
 & 0.5--2 keV & 2--8 keV & \\
\hline
Faint AGN ($z<4$) & 0.7 & 3.5 & Volonteri et al. 2006\footnote{model IIIb} \\
galaxies &
0.4\footnote{based on extrapolation down to $\log{F_\nu}=-18$ in c.g.s units}
& 0.2\footnote{based on extrapolation down to $\log{F_\nu}=-17$ in c.g.s units}
& Bauer et al. 2004 \\
\hline
\multicolumn{4}{c}{AGNs at $z>6$} \\
\hline
Eddington limited & 0.4 & 0.9 & this paper \\
Rapid growth & 1.2 & 2.3 & this paper  \\
Massive seeds & 1.5 & 3.2  & this paper \\
\hline
\multicolumn{4}{c}{Observed unresolved XRB} \\
\hline
 & 1.77$\pm$0.31 & 3.4$\pm$1.7 & Hickox \& Markevitch 2006 \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\caption{Contribution to the unresolved XRB from different sources in
units of $10^{-12}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$ deg$^{-2}$}$.}
\end{minipage}
\label{tab:xrb}
\end{table}

\begin{figure}\label{fig:zdist}
\center{{
\epsfig{figure=QSOcounts_fig07.ps,height=8cm} }}
\caption{Redshift distribution of sources with fluxes in the observed soft
X--ray band [0.5--2 keV] above $10^{-17}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ (i.e., the
planned spectroscopic flux limit of future X--ray missions, solid line), and above
$10^{-16}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$ (easily achieved by {\it Chadra} deep field observations, dashed line).
Dotted line the ones with near-IR fluxes above the planned {\it JWST}
sensitivity. Top panel shows the result for the Eddington--limited
model, whereas bottom panel the one for the rapid--growth model (see Section 6).}
\end{figure}

\section{Summary and Conclusions}

In this paper we have assessed, using Monte Carlo simulations of DM halo merger history coupled with
semi--analytical recipes for the assembly of MBHs within galaxy spheroids (Volonteri et al. 2003),
the possibility of constraining the AGN population
at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ with currently  available and planned space borne missions.
In particular, we have considered ultra--deep X--ray and near-IR surveys.
We claim that, among the unresolved sources in {\it Chandra} deep fields, few of them are
AGN at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$, whose BH masses are $\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 10^7\; M_{\odot}$, while in
the near-IR, an are three times larger than the HUDF area is required in order
to detect just one of these high--z sources.

Future X--ray missions,  such as {\it XEUS}, and near-IR
facilities such as {\it JWST}, will have the technical capabilities to detect accreting MBHs
at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$ down to a mass limit as low as $10^5-10^6\;M_{\odot}$.
Since {\it JWST} observations will reveal only the un--absorbed AGN population, X--ray deep
surveys are definitely the best tool suited for investigation of the early stages of MBH assembly.
In particular, the next generation of X--ray telescopes might detect
as many as $\sim 10^5$ sources/deg$^{2}$ at their photometric sensitivity
limits in the 0.5--2 keV band.
Further constraints on the population of high redshift AGN will be
provided by future 21cm experiments like LOFAR (Rhook \& Haehnelt 2006).

We have shown that our predicted population of high redshift AGN
would account for a significant fraction of the unresolved XRB (0.5--8 keV). Almost 5\%
of the measured XRB (or $\sim 25$\% of the unresolved one) should come
from sources at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 6$. Moreover, in our model of $z>6$ AGN, the major contribution
actually comes from sources at $z>9$, with fluxes
$<10^{-18}\;\mbox{erg s$^{-1}$ cm$^{-2}$}$, i.e. that can not be detected even by the next generation
of X--ray telescopes; we find that at least 3-4\% of the measured XRB should
remain unresolved even after {\it XEUS} observations become available.
These constraints become much more severe for a model in which super--critical
accretion is allowed in the early stages of the MBH growth (Volonteri \& Rees
2005). The model reproduces well the observational constraints at
$z=6$ (optical and X--ray LFs), and predicts a more extended tail
of sources observable at $z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 9$. However, we find that in the rapid--growth model,
the predicted XRB is three times higher than in the Eddington--limited accretion model, saturating the
unresolved fraction of the XRB in both the 0.5--2 keV and 2--8 keV energy bands.
Since faint sources at $z<4$ are expected to contribute substantially to the
unaccounted XRB (Bauer et al. 2004; Volonteri et al. 2006), this result suggests that the
occurrence and effectivity of super-critical accretion should be investigated
in much more detail. In particular, super--Eddington accretion could be much less efficient in few--$\sigma$
peaks halos, due to the gas evacuation from the ionizing radiation emitted by the MBH seed Pop III star progenitor (Johnson \& Bromm 2006). Super--Eddington accretion consequently is biased towards the highest density peaks, which experience the largest number of mergers with halos containing pristine gas to replenish the gas reservoir.
Models in which seeds are much more massive than Pop III star remnants, as in Koushiappas et al. (2004),
saturate the unresolved fraction of the XRB in both the 0.5--2 keV and 2--8 keV energy bands as well.
We note here that different models for MBH seed formation, although predicting rather large BH masses, can have
a lower formation efficiency, which can ease the constraints given by the XRB (see Eisenstein \& Loeb 1995,
and Begelman, Volonteri \& Rees 2006).
Our constraints on theoretical models are conservative, as we adopted the largest value of the
unresolved XRB available in literature.

Finally, we have computed the evolution of the
UV background produced by the modeled population of high redshift AGN.
Later than $z\simeq 7$, the ionizing intensity is dominated by relatively massive BHs, $M\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 10^6\;M_{\odot}$,
while lighter BHs contribute mostly at earlier epochs.
The UV background from AGN rapidly declines at
$z\mathrel{\rlap{\lower 3pt\hbox{$\sim$}} \raise 2.0pt\hbox{$>$}} 10$. We compute the contribution of these sources to the reionization
of the Universe, showing that AGN alone can provide enough ionizing photons only in the (improbable) case
of an almost completely homogeneous inter--galactic medium. Nevertheless, for a more clumpy medium,
the AGN contribution to the ionizing background is never negligible.

We note that high redshift AGN can not contribute significantly to the
near-IR background.

\section*{acknowledgments}
We wish to thank A. Ferrara for fruitful discussions on reionization issues, and
the referee, David Alexander, for thoughful comments that improved the quality of the paper. This research was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. PHY99-07949. NSF-KITP-06-89 pre-print.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
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text:
Hanna Holborn Gray (née le ) est une historienne américaine de la pensée politique de la Renaissance et de la Réforme et professeure émérite d'histoire à l'Université de Chicago. Elle est présidente de l'Université de Chicago de 1978 à 1993, après avoir été présidente par intérim de l'Université Yale en 1977-1978. Dans les deux écoles, elle est la première femme à occuper le poste de direction le plus élevé. Lorsqu'elle est nommée à ce poste à Chicago, elle devient l'une des premières femmes aux États-Unis à occuper la présidence complète d'une grande université.

Biographie
Holborn est née à Heidelberg, en Allemagne, fille de Hajo Holborn, professeur d'histoire européenne à Yale qui fuit l'Allemagne nazie en Amérique, et d'Annemarie Bettmann, philologue . Son frère aîné, Frederick, est assistant à la Maison Blanche et professeur de politique étrangère à la Johns Hopkins' School of Advanced International Studies. Elle fréquente la Foote School à New Haven, Connecticut (diplômée en 1943), la Sidwell Friends School à Washington DC, puis le Collège Bryn Mawr dans la banlieue de Philadelphie, où elle obtient son diplôme en 1950. Holborn se rend à Oxford en tant que boursier Fulbright. Elle obtient un doctorat de Harvard en 1957, et y enseigne, devenant professeur assistant en 1959.

À Harvard, ses expériences sont circonscrites par son "statut d'outsider" en tant que femme. Bien que techniquement mixtes dans certains programmes d'études supérieures dans les années 1950, les femmes sont pour la plupart reléguées au Radcliffe College, "séparé, mais pas égal". Lorsque Gray devient la première et la seule femme tutrice en histoire et en littérature, elle est autorisée à contrecœur dans le restaurant des tuteurs, mais n'est pas bien accueillie par les autres tuteurs. De même, lorsqu'elle devient enseignante, en tant que femme, elle est interdite dans le hall principal de la faculté et doit entrer par la porte latérale, bien qu'elle ait décidé d'entrer de toute façon par la porte d'entrée. (Elle s'est inspirée de la professeure pionnière de Harvard, Helen Maud Cam, qui plus tôt dans la décennie est devenue la première femme à assister aux services du matin de la faculté au cours des plus de 300 ans de l'institution simplement en se présentant tous les jours et en s'asseyant).

Elle déménage à Chicago lorsque son mari est nommé à un poste à l'Université de Chicago. Elle passe sa première année en tant que chargée de recherche à la Newberry Library, puis commence à enseigner l'histoire à Chicago et obtient sa titularisation en 1964. De 1966 à 1970, elle est co-rédactrice en chef du Journal of Modern History avec son mari .

Gray est nommée doyenne du Collège des arts et des sciences de l'Université Northwestern en 1972 et professeur d'histoire et prévôt à l'Université Yale en 1974 . Elle est présidente par intérim de Yale pendant quatorze mois après que le président Kingman Brewster ait accepté de manière inattendue une nomination en tant qu'Ambassadeur des États-Unis au Royaume-Uni . Gray retourne ensuite à l'Université de Chicago, en tant que présidente de 1978 à 1993, la première femme présidente de plein exercice d'une grande université aux États-Unis . En 1991, elle reçoit la Médaille présidentielle de la Liberté . Elle prend sa retraite en juin 1993, mais demeure professeure émérite.

Gray est également administratrice, membre du conseil d'administration de la Harvard Corporation, de la Yale Corporation, de la Smithsonian Institution, de JPMorgan Chase, de la Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, de la Marlboro School of Music, du Council on Foreign Relations, de la Concord Coalition, la Mayo Clinic, la Brookings Institution et le Collège Bryn Mawr. Gray reçoit des diplômes honorifiques de plus de soixante institutions, dont l'Université de Chicago, le College of William and Mary, Harvard, Oxford, Yale, Brown, Columbia, Princeton et Duke. Elle est présidente du conseil d'administration de la deuxième plus grande fondation d'Amérique, le Howard Hughes Medical Institute, jusqu'en 2010 .

Le portrait d'Hanna Gray accroché à l'Université de Chicago a été "volé" (et restitué) à plus d'une occasion en tant que blague étudiante. Gray publie un mémoire, An Academic Life, en 2018.

Publications

 Hanna Holborn Gray, « Quelques réflexions sur la deuxième génération ». La deuxième génération. Les émigrés de l'Allemagne nazie comme historiens, éd. Andreas Daum, Harmut Lehmann et James J. Sheehan . New York : Livres Berghahn, 2016,, 102–113.

Références

Bibliographie

 Kelley, Brooks Mather. (1999). Yale : Une histoire. New Haven : Presse universitaire de Yale . ;
 En ligneLeavitt, Judith A. (1985). Femmes gestionnaires et administratrices américaines: un dictionnaire biographique sélectif des dirigeants du XXe siècle dans les affaires, l'éducation et le gouvernement. Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood Press. ;
 Shoichet, Catherine. "Gray Matters : près de 50 ans après avoir perfectionné ses compétences en enseignement à Harvard, Hanna H. Gray a une sagesse à partager", Harvard Crimson. 5 juin 2003.

Liens externes

Étudiant de l'université d'Oxford
Récipiendaire de la médaille présidentielle de la Liberté
Récipiendaire de la National Humanities Medal
Professeur à l'université Northwestern
Professeur à l'université Harvard
Président de l'université de Chicago
Professeur à l'université de Chicago
Étudiant de l'université Harvard
Étudiante du Bryn Mawr College
Historien américain du XXIe siècle
Naissance en octobre 1930

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Walking through a local park I see couples, families, transients, and the elderly enjoying the public areas I've come to call home. I'm thinking of the questions that come my way as I've tried to promote the this concept of loving means taking responsibility. It's true for us as humans loving each other, and for the love we feel for the places we go to connect with nature.
Whether those places are the wild public lands or the manicured and groomed local public parks we go with our loved ones – the only difference in them is the risk we are willing to take to get there.
It's easy!! No kids and no attachments other than my friends and family. I wake up each day feeling blessed that I can do my little part to encourage people to get involved. Some people think I need to do more, but I know that it's not always about doing on the ground work that makes a difference. Each aspect of outreach, education, advocacy, and conservation work needs to happen for all of it to work.
Just like the land needs to be maintained, the water needs to be clean, the plants need to be healthy, and the food web needs diversity – each part contributes to the whole. I just do what I can when I can and as often as I can.
I've got a job and work 12 hour shifts, so I have 3 days off one week and the next 4 days. I still struggle making ends meet, but it's those times I can build up on stories, help out some groups, take photos, and put in some side work. I figure I'll sleep when I'm dead.
So there you have it. It's been so long since I've been in a relationship with another human, I can only speak from memory. But it seems as though I remember the effort it takes to love someone becomes something you do naturally and as frequently as you can. It's that responsibility you take for your partners well being which comes from enjoying that time you spend together with each other. For me – this is the love I have for public lands, for angling, for hiking, for camping, for exploring. So my natural effort has become offering a glimpse of those places through my photos, videos, and writing.