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Els aliments tabú són aquells aliments —carns, peixos, vegetals, begudes— que, per raons culturals, religioses, morals o socials, no es consideren acceptables per al consum i són per tant, d'una manera o d'una altra, tabú per a algunes persones. La majoria dels investigadors, en particular antropòlegs, etnòlegs i sociòlegs nutricionals, coincideixen sobre la naturalesa omnívora de l'home; no obstant això, hi ha un element important que és la preferència cap a alguns aliments davant d'altres. Deixant aquest apartat a altres àrees de la ciència com la psicologia, la sociologia, etcètera, la veritat és que els gustos adquirits per una societat són desaprovats per una altra. Certament, el caràcter tabú dels aliments és més un aspecte local que global, que correspon a les nacions i grups socials. Els mecanismes que governen aquesta decisió no semblen correspondre a raons lògiques. Les investigacions sobre aquest tema reflecteixen que les preferències d'uns aliments pel que fa a d'altres no es troben en nosaltres des que naixem sinó que van adquirint-se per motius socials i d'educació, ja que els animals no presenten aquestes limitacions.

El menjar tabú s'ha associat des dels seus inicis amb una sensació de repugnància. L'associació amb un aliment incomestible ha estat sempre social, com el cas de la carn de gos i gat, i és en qualsevol cas interpretada com una qüestió reactiva de l'instint, degut en part al fet que la classificació com a tabú prové de situacions extremes de emergència com la fam, tal com va passar a laccident aeri dels Andes. Com a regla general, la forta aversió respecte als aliments tabú es mostra com una nàusea que evita la ingesta d'aliments.

La major part dels tabús alimentaris es refereixen a la carn i als subproductes de l'especejament animal; només una petita part es relaciona amb les plantes. Els investigadors Daniel Fessler i Carlos David Navarrete van trobar en les seves investigacions 38 tabús basats en carn, però només set en plantes. Per a la investigació van examinar prop de dotze cultures diferents. En les investigacions es reflecteix que, respecte a Occident, la Xina és el país amb aliments que més tabús inspira, mentre que fora de les cultures asiàtiques el major nombre d'aliments tabú se situa a Europa central i França.

Models d'explicació
Hi ha diferents models d'explicació sobre l'emergència i manteniment en la societat sobre els tabús en el menjar. Els més coneguts són:
 El Principi cultural-materialista o econòmic-racionalista. El representant més conegut és l'antropòleg nord-americà Marvin Harris (Good to eat. Riddles of Food and Culture, 1985). Aquest principi assumeix que els aliments tabú es fonamenten en un motiu racional i una anàlisi cost benefici sobre el proveïment eficient del menjar. És la «teoria de la recerca òptima d'aliment», segons la qual cada grup cultural desenvolupa els seus hàbits nutricionals i dietètics en funció de la disponibilitat de les condicions ecològiques i econòmiques del lloc, tenint d'aquesta manera l'esperança d'alimentació ad eternum. Així, Harris raona per exemple que les vaques vives a l'Índia havien de tenir un gran valor i d'aquesta manera hauria estat molt costós sacrificar-les, per la qual cosa es va convertir en un aliment tabú com a vaques sagrades.
 El Principi sociocultural o funcionalista. Les idees més representatives d'aquest model assumeixen que els tabús serveixen de forma primària en l'estabilització de la identitat de grup i al mateix temps a la demarcació pel que fa respecte a d'altres grups. Els aliments tabú realitzen, d'aquesta manera, un servei social. Per tant, convertir en tabú un menjar o un aliment que menja un altre grup social proporciona aquesta sensació inconscient de demarcació. Un representant d'aquesta idea és Frederick J. Simoons (Eat emergency this Flesh. Food of avoidances into the old World, 1967). Aquest principi no pot explicar les raons per les quals la societat designa tabú a uns aliments i no a altres. El significat del menjar des d'aquesta perspectiva ja no és objecte d'investigació i d'anàlisi avui dia.
 El Principi estructural, de Mary Douglas (Purity and Danger, 1966), Claude Lévi-Strauss i a Alemanya Ulrich Tolksdorf. En aquest model el menjar té una representació simbòlica, que ajuda a donar cert significat a l'entorn. Per aquesta raó cada cultura classifica els menjars com purs o impurs, sagrats i profanadors. Per regla general els aliments sagrats són comestibles i els profanadors no. Aquesta simple classificació va assenyalar l'aliment tabú com aquell que no havia de menjar-se, i per tant havia de ser refusat.
 Una versió modificada del «principi estructural» va donat lloc a un model etnosocial mitjançant Edmund Leach (Culture and communication, 1974). El significat de no comestible (previ potser al de tabú) amaga darrere un animal classificat o molt estrany. Per exemple, a Europa Central els animals de presa poden ser classificats i els insectes són animals estranys, així com els micos o els gossos. Leach va establir un índex de «comestibilitat» en funció d'un conjunt de regles connectades entre si. Si la relació amb l'objecte és «molt propera», llavors s'aplica una regla similar al tabú de l'incest i la seva consegüent prohibició de casament, una altra regla pot ser: els «animals nounats no són comestibles».
 El Principi d'emoció-psicològica, els representants d'aquest principi són Fessler/Navarrete (Meat is good tons taboo). Aquests investigadors afirmen que l'emoció és el fonament per a l'explicació de certs aliments tabú, ja que alguns estan relacionats amb la sensació disgust i aviat evolucionarien cap a un principi vital de supervivència en el qual es facilitaria una selecció dels aliments amb la intenció de minimitzar el risc a morir per la seva ingesta, d'aquesta manera va néixer el concepte de «menjar equivocat». Aquest risc és més gran amb animals que amb plantes. Els sentiments de disgust es tradueixen en nàusea i vòmit després del consum a causa de cert mecanisme en el cervell que ens obliga a sobreviure.

Tots els principis enunciats tenen els seus desavantatges i punts febles, i no són capaços d'explicar tots els aspectes i visions possibles sobre els aliments tabú. Eva Barlösius esmenta referent a això que molt possiblement el rebuig a menjar vaques a l'Índia, o a menjar carn de cavall al nord d'Europa, o carn de gos, així com la ingesta de carn de porc per musulmans i jueus, s'ha d'estudiar amb una teoria concreta per a cada cas més que en la recerca d'una teoria global que les expliqui.

Aliments tabú a causa de creences religioses

Carn bovina
Un dels més coneguts tabús alimentaris és la prohibició religiosa de l'hinduisme de menjar la carn dels bovins, especialment la de les vaques, que són considerades divines i inviolables. La vaca es considera a l'Índia com la representació divina de Prithivi Mata (la Mare Terra). A més d'un Krixna o encarnació del déu Vixnu, les representacions de la religió hinduista representen a les vaques amb el déu al seu costat. Un toro anomenat Nandi és la representació del déu Xiva. Per a alguns hindús una vaca és la reencarnació directa anterior abans de ser un humà, de manera que si es sacrifica una vaca es retrocedeixen 87 graons de reencarnació. Es considera sagrada no només la vaca, sinó també la llet i qualsevol producte del boví. Per a la majoria dels que viuen als estats federats de l'Índia és il·legal sacrificar bovins.

De Mahatma Gandhi es té la següent cita: «El centre de l'hinduisme és la protecció de les vaques. La protecció de les vaques és un dels més meravellosos fenòmens de l'evolució humana (...) La seva protecció del sacrifici és el regal de l'hinduisme al món. I l'hinduisme viurà en el futur, en tant li sigui permès protegir les vaques».

La veneració dels hindús per les vaques difereix bastant segons les regions. Per exemple, al nord de l'Índia hi ha una relació religiosa i gairebé emocional amb les vaques, però en el sud de Kerala s'ofereixen per al sacrifici els exemplars més vells a carnissers cristians o musulmans; la vedella es menja en certes quantitats en aquesta zona. Per a la majoria dels hindús la ingesta de carn de vedella és però un tabú. Els exemplars improductius es mantenen alimentats, i fins i tot hi ha unes espècies de residències per a vaques, on se les adora i se les alimenta amb pa. Segons l'antropòleg Marvin Harris, en el període de la dècada dels anys 1980, l'Índia tenia 3.000 d'aquestes residències per a vaques, en total prop de 580.000 animals, la majoria d'elles pertanyents als seguidors del jainisme.

La majoria dels hindús creuen que a l'Índia també existia a l'antiguitat la veneració i el principi de no sacrifici dels bovins; el consum del bou només és difós pels seguidors de l'islam al territori. Aquesta opinió generalitzada pot ser contradita, però, en consultar diverses fonts. Ja en el període que va des del 1800 fins al 800 en el nostre sistema de còmput d'anys, els indoaris portadors del veda que van viure al nord de l'Índia eren nòmades, i d'acord amb les fonts sacrificaven part del seu bestiar com a ritual religiós. En aquestes ofrenes després del sacrifici eren ingerides entre els sacerdots i els guerrers. Aquesta representació ha estat freqüentment investigada pels indòlegs. «El bestiar en l'època dels vedes no era només l'única ofrena important realitzada als déus, sinó que també era realitzada diàriament, tal com es veu (... ) en nombrosos (...) textos. Encara en l'època de l'emperador Ashoka a mitjan segle III no era tabú el sacrifici de vaques i ovins. Els bramans menjaven carn de vaca, i l'oferien als seus convidats (...). Amb el pas del temps la carn dels bovins va anar convertint-se en tabú per a tots els hindús, mentre que al mateix temps els subproductes eren considerats sagrats o com a exemple de purificació.».

Carn de porc

Tant en la religió jueva com a la musulmana i en certes religions cristianes com els adventistes, la carn de porc és un tabú. Els textos sagrats de les dues prohibeixen el seu consum. La Torà prohibeix el consum en cru d'una gran quantitat d'animals, i aquesta prohibició afecta també al porc domèstic. La prohibició s'esmenta en el Levític, el tercer llibre de Moisès:

El llibre es correspon amb el Levític de l'Antic Testament i per tant també apareix en aquest l'esmentada prohibició. Tot i això, el cristianisme no ha desenvolupat el corresponent tabú.

L'Alcorà prohibeix igualment i de forma explícita el consum de la carn de porc, donant una clara indicació sobre el que és en els aliments pur (halal) i impur (haram) des del punt de vista de les lleis islàmiques:

En ambdues religions la carn de porc és considerada com a tabú i ambdues justifiquen avui dia aquest rebuig esmentant les qualitats poc netes de l'animal en la seva rutina diària: es diu que és brut i que s'alimenta dels seus propis excrements. A més, la ingestió de la seva carn està relacionada amb nombroses malalties, inclosa la triquinosi. La veritat és que els porcs mengen els seus excrements només quan no troben un altre tipus d'aliment al seu abast. No tenen porus a la pell, de manera que per regular la seva temperatura corporal necessiten refrigerar per la boca. No obstant també les cabres i les gallines s'alimenten dels seus propis excrements. La triquinosi va ser coneguda per la comunitat científica a finals del  i no hi ha raó per a l'emergència d'aquest tabú. «Si el principal motiu de la prohibició hagués estat solament els aspectes higiènics, en aquest cas els ovins haguessin estat prohibits urgentment molt abans, a causa dels paràsits, molts dels quals produeixen malalties com el carboncle (...) ». Descobriments arqueològics realitzats en el passat a la regió de l'Orient Mitjà mostren que els porcs eren consumits a la zona.

Carn de cavall

La carn de cavall és considerada en alguns països com un aliment més en la dieta, però igual que altres carns en altres països s'ha convertit en un aliment tabú o almenys és rebutjada per al seu consum. El cashrut jueu prohibeix entre altres coses el consum de la carn de cavall; en l'islam es considera a la carn de ruc i cavall un aliment halal (permès), i no és considerat com haram (prohibit).

En el cristianisme no hi ha regles restrictives sobre això. No obstant, la carn de cavall és considerada tabú en alguns països com el Regne Unit, Estats Units i Austràlia, però en algunes zones d'Espanya, França, Bèlgica, Països Baixos, Itàlia i Polònia és comercialitzada normalment i pot trobar-se en supermercats. A Alemanya, a Àustria i a Suïssa hi carnisseries de cavall, encara que la carn és consumida per una minoria en l'actualitat. Existeixen plats a la cuina alemanya com el Rheinischer Sauerbraten que en temps remots es feia amb carn de cavall; el Leberkäse elaborat en cuina austríaca amb carn de cavall és considerat en aquest país com una delícia. Existeixen plats a la cuina japonesa com el sakura (桜) o sakuraniku (桜 肉), on també és considerat una delícia. L'any 2002 la Xina, Mèxic, el Kazakhstan, Itàlia, Argentina i Mongòlia van ser els països de major producció de carn cavallina. L'any 2001 només a Europa es van consumir aproximadament 153.000 tones d'aquesta carn.

Els psicòlegs de l'alimentació no diuen res en contra de l'alimentació basada en la carn de cavall. Posseeix nombroses fibres, és pobra en calories i amb l'excepció de l'ús de vells exemplars la carn sol ser molt tendra. El consum humà és molt antic i s'han trobat ossos de cavall en diverses excavacions realitzades en coves de l'Edat de Pedra provant d'aquesta manera que es menjaven freqüentment equins en aquest període. Quan hi va haver a Europa un canvi climàtic les planes i les pastures es van expandir i la carn de cavall es va posar a disposició dels pobles que muntaven a cavall com en el cas dels mongols i els huns. Els cavalls van ser a poc a poc deixant el seu lloc com a aliment a causa que era més fàcil sacrificar un porc, sent a més el cavall útil com a mitjà de transport més que com a aliment. Els romans d'acord amb les fonts no menjaven cavalls, que eren emprats com a mitjà de transport i com a mitjà logístic de les batalles, així com suport per a la cavalleria.

Les tribus àrabs que van conquistar Espanya l'any 711 van creuar els Pirineus l'any 720 i van patir una derrota a la batalla de Poitiers l'any 732 per les tropes comandades per Carles Martell; aquest contratemps va fer que l'avanç es detingués. La cavalleria va jugar un important paper en aquesta victòria. En la mateixa època es realitzaven sacrificis amb animals dedicats als déus per les tribus teutones; entre els quals s'incloïa el sacrifici de cavalls. Després de la batalla de l'any 732 el papa Gregori III va escriure una carta al missioner Bonifatius en la qual requeria prohibir el consum de carn de cavall de forma immediata, al·legant la seva puresa.

Sang

En el judaisme, en l'islamisme i en certes denominacions cristianes com els testimonis de Jehovà i els adventistes, es considera tabú el consum de sang, carn sagnant o aliments que continguin sang com a ingredient. A la Bíblia, en el llibre V de Moisès es rebutja el consum de sang per ser una font de vitalitat. Aquesta prohibició es repeteix a la Torà i en el Levític. Com en el cas del tabú de la carn de porc, el fet que el tabú de menjar sang aparegui a la Bíblia no ha estat seguit entre els cristians, encara que habitualment sí existeix un tabú cultural. No obstant això, hi ha indicis que aquesta prohibició era respectada pels primers cristians.

A l'Alcorà la prohibició es pot llegir en la Sura 5.4. Per respectar aquest tabú, en els especejaments hi han mètodes i persones especialitzades (judaisme: shojet, 'matador') encarregades de «purificar» la carn eliminant tot rastre de sang perquè pugui ser ingerida d'acord amb les regles de cada religión. També a l'Alcorà hi ha prohibicions explícites sobre la ingesta de sang: s'esmenta repetidament que el sacrifici dels animals ha d'anar acompanyat d'un degollament, que elimina els rastres de sang en les venes. Tanmateix, la prohibició es refereix només a la «sang vessada», el que es pot entendre com la sang que brolla.

Per raons diferents a la religió, en alguns països de la Unió Europea està prohibit vendre sang líquida, al·legant raons de salut pública. Aquest fenomen ha fet que alguns plats tradicionals com el sanguinaccio dolce (barreja de xocolata amb sang de porc) de la cuina de Nàpols quedés relegat gairebé a l'oblit. No obstant això, el consum dels subproductes processats en forma d'embotit (botifarró, black pudding, ...) està molt estès i és molt popular.

Aliments tabú per motius no religiosos

Carn de gos

Tot i que la carn de gos es consumeix en certs països, en la major part del món es considera un aliment tabú. A Europa va arribar a usar-se com a aliment només en situacions de catàstrofe o emergència en el passat, però avui dia el seu consum és tabú i s'associa sovint amb els moviments de protecció dels drets dels animals. Es consumeix en països com la Xina, Corea, Vietnam, Filipines, Timor Oriental i el Congo, i existeixen referències sobre el fet que a Suïssa i en certes parts d'Alemanya es menja carn de gos. Cap el 1900 existien escorxadors de gossos a Chemnitz, Dresden i Zwickau. En una entrevista de maig de 2006, Enric de Dinamarca es va declarar amant dels gossos i de la seva carn, a la que va comparar amb la del pollastre.

Són pocs els psicòlegs de l'alimentació que afirmen la necessitat humana del consum de carn de gos. L'acceptació o rebuig d'aquest tipus de carn per la societat o per grups socials és un fenomen que pot definir-se només com culturalment adquirit. La discussió sobre aquest tema a Europa i els Estats Units té com a resultat que la seva relació amb aquests animals domèstics és intensa i comparteix lloc comú en la vida íntima de les famílies. Durant la Copa Mundial de Futbol de 2002, celebrada a Corea del Sud, hi va haver una activitat crítica internacional sobre el consum de carn de gos a Corea, ja que aquest país no ha prohibit el seu consum. L'actriu i protectora dels animals Brigitte Bardot va parlar a favor de la protesta internacional.

En les cultures occidentals, els animals domèstics es consideren part de les famílies humanes. Aquest fenomen ha fet distingir als antropòlegs entre «animals de companyia» (animals petits que s'adopten), «animals domèstics» (generalment més grans i conviuen amb els humans) i «animals útils» com les vaques i els porcs. Alguns estudiosos mantenen que hi ha una unió emocional amb aquests animals que els converteix en potencials aliments tabú, encara que Harris i altres autors neguen aquest tipus d'unió.

Insectes

A Europa, els insectes no són considerats un aliment, mentre que en alguns països d'Àsia, Àfrica i parts de Mèxic poden incloure'ls com aliments en alguns plats i són considerats anàlegs de la carn. A Europa i als Estats Units els insectes són associats tradicionalment amb les escombraries i la brutícia, i per aquesta raó s'evita el seu consum, denominat tècnicament amb el terme entomofàgia en les cultures occidentals, i es dedueix d'ell que és un costum desviat o inusual. Els antropòlegs assumeixen que en l'antiguitat alguns insectes van formar part de la dieta dels europeus, alguns poetes de l'antiguitat com Aristòfanes anomenaven a les llagostes «pollastres de quatre ales», i els romans menjaven larves denominades Cossus. A l'edat mitjana alguns hàbits alimentaris van canviar i els insectes van desaparèixer de la dieta. No obstant això a començaments del  en algunes parts del nord de Hesse i França s'elaboren sopes amb el melolontha.

Amb el constant creixement de la població humana pot arribar a un punt en què no hi hagi aliments conreats per proveir-la (Catàstrofe maltusiana), i els experts han començat a pensar en la possibilitat d'alimentar a la població amb insectes, intentant fer més popular el seu consum. De manera aïllada s'ofereixen menús en certs restaurants, s'imprimeixen llibres, programes de televisió, etcètera. No obstant, el consum de certs insectes per la Unió Europea cau sota la categoria de novell food i ha dedicat un apartat de la seva regulació per vigilar el seu consum. A poc a poc els països occidentals van adaptant els seus costums culinaris cap els insectes i alguns productes venuts en els mercats occidentals solen contenir com a ingredients insectes molts, com per exemple en la melmelada, mantega de cacauet o en els vegetals congelats. També les figues tenen de manera natural petits insectes entre la seva polpa.

Molts insectes poden ser considerats com una font apropiada de proteïnes, per exemple, cent grams de larves de tèrmits africans poden arribar a tenir 610 kcal, 38 g de proteïna i 46 g de greix; 100 g de larves d'arnes tenen aproximadament 375 kcal amb 46 g de proteïna i 10 g de greix. Les larves seques d'abella tenen un 90% de proteïnes i la resta, de greix. El fet que els insectes posseeixin una substància com la quitina que no podem digerir no representa un problema, ja que es pot retirar abans de la ingesta, igual que es fa amb els crustacis (llagostins, llagostes, etcètera). A més, les larves no contenen quitina. El gust dels tèrmits i grills recorda al de l'enciam i les llagostes fregides tenen un gust dolç. No obstant això, no tots els insectes són comestibles, sent una part d'ells verinosos.

Alguns casos aïllats i locals a Europa són un exemple tradicional de consum d'insectes. Un d'ells és el formatge italià Casu marzu que es menja a Sardenya i que té larves, un altre exemple és el Milbenkäse que s'elabora amb els excrements dels àcars.

Plantes i verdures

Mentre la majoria de les societats associen els tabús al consum de determinades carns, els tabús basats en plantes són rars i existeixen només en petites ètnies determinades. A més es produeix una distinció en sexes: hi ha aliments que són tabús per a homes i no per a dones, i a l'inrevés. Pocs autors esmenten les verdures o plantes com a aliments tabú, la majoria afirmen que l'aliment tabú és només amb carn, i rebutgen l'existència de tabús alimentaris basats en plantes.

La etnòloga Anne Meigs va investigar la cultura i la vida social de les tribus Hua de Nova Guinea i va proporcionar una llista amb tabús alimentaris dels homes. Tots els aliments implicats estaven associats amb la feminitat i amb la sexualitat femenina. Per exemple, els vegetals de color vermell, les fruites brillants del mateix color i els bolets, per la seva relació amb la menstruació, eren tabú, així com els aliments relacionats amb certes olors. Els homes de la tribu són sancionats si violen els tabús. En les cultures occidentals s'han associat els tabús de plantes a la sexualitat, en alguns períodes de la història no s'han considerat tabú i eren considerades com afrodisíacs.

Un exemple històric de tabú al consum de plantes és el del matemàtic grec Pitàgores de Samos: tant ell com els seus seguidors «pitagòrics», així com els òrfics, van fer de les faves un exemple de tabú alimentari. L'existència del tabú va ser esmentada per fonts antigues com Aristòtil.

Aliments prohibits i rebuigs
La caça i consum d'alguns animals està internacionalment prohibit per raons de protecció d'espècies. Alguns exemples són la tortuga, el castor, algunes foques antàrtiques i les balenes. La Unió Europea sanciona als ciutadans que infringeixin danys o cacin aquestes espècies protegides, així com el consum de gossos i gats. Una prohibició legal no és equivalent a un tabú. Hi ha espècies d'animals en vies d'extinció sense relació amb el seu consum directe pels humans. No obstant això, el límit entre els aliments prohibits legalment i els que són tabú està encara en discussió, i alguns autors tracten a tots dos com un tabú.

La sociòloga Monika Setzwein estableix diferències entre prohibició, tabú i rebuig, establint una escala gradual d'acceptació social que va des del tabú (molt acceptat en la societat), el rebuig (una mica menys) i finalment la prohibició. Defineix com a tabú una «prohibició interna», que no necessita d'una raó especial per a ser activada. «Una característica substancial del tabú és que és una ocupació emocional i que sovint té un caràcter ambivalent, on la reverència i l'avorriment tenen fronteres molt subtils. [...] El rebuig a certs aliments pot distingir-se de les prohibicions i dels tabús, degut en part a les connotacions socials dels menjars».

Ocells cantaires

Pel que fa als ocells cantaires no existeix a la UE una prohibició clara sobre la seva caça i ingesta, però hi ha països on la caça d'ocells està permesa per les lleis malgrat les lleis europees de protecció d'animals. Per això en algunes zones i països d'Europa es considera una pràctica acceptable servir-los com a delícies als restaurants i bars, com als Alps, Itàlia, Espanya o França.

En els llibres antics existeixen exemples històrics que proven que la ingesta d'ocells cantaires ha estat part de la dieta de totes les classes socials durant molts mil·lennis en el nord d'Europa. Només hi va haver rebuig sobre la seva ingesta quan van començar els moviments socials per a la protecció dels animals en el , moment en què va començar a posar-se en dubte el seu consum. Alguns autors tracten més aquest tema com un rebuig que com un tabú.

Hi ha, però, algunes tradicions europees d'ingesta d'ocells, com ara el Thüringer Meisensuppe de la cuina alemanya, el Helgoländer Drosselsoop o el conegut internacionalment Leipziger Lerchen. Fins fa poc eren comuns en la cuina espanyola els ocellets fregits, avui prohibits. A Llatinoamèrica, segurament heretat de la tradició culinària italiana, la polenta amb ocellets figura en llibres de cuina com un clàssic. L'investigador Schmoll esmenta que la prohibició de la ingesta d'ocells a Europa va començar al , al nord d'Europa, i es va anar estenent a mesura que avançaven els segles. Els motius de la protesta són dobles: d'una banda aquest tipus d'animals regula la població d'insectes i per una altra és vist com un animal social.

Balenes
El consum de balenes és molt popular en les gastronomies d'Islàndia, a la costa oest de Noruega i el Japó, així com a la cuina inuit dels esquimals. Avui dia la seva caça per al comerç està prohibida i amb finalitats científiques altament restringida.

Tortugues

Un exemple de prohibició justificada és la importació de l'espècie denominada tortuga marina, emprada generalment en la sopa de tortuga. Aquesta prohibició va començar a Alemanya el 1984 i des dels anys 1980 no s'han exportat més exemplars. La tortuga marítima és considerada una espècie amenaçada des de la Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). En les lleis jueves sobre el menjar es diu que la tortuga, així com tot animal aquàtic que no tingui escates i brànquies, és impura i per tant considerat com un tabú.

La sopa de tortuga va començar a ser en molt popular al  a Gran Bretanya, lloc on va ser inventada i consumida com una delícia exòtica i símbol d'estatus per les classes mitjanes. Ja en el  es valorava com una carn molt nutritiva. Com la carn de tortuga era considerada un peix, es podia menjar durant la Quaresma, i d'aquesta manera es va produir un increment estacional del seu consum per Setmana Santa.

Vísceres

És tradicional que després de la matança de certs animals es consumeixin en la seva totalitat. L'ús de les vísceres a les cuines es descrivia en els llibres de cuina del  encara que ja havien estat considerades com a aliment des de l'edat mitjana, i es coneix el seu consum des del mateix origen de la humanitat. L'investigador Stephen Mennell afirma: «Molts humans no senten aversió avui dia cap al consum de carn, sinó en particular cap al consum de certes parts d'animals, denominades vísceres». El seu origen en la major part dels casos procedeix d'arrels humils, dels estrats baixos de la població que només podia alimentar-se de forma barata amb les restes de sacrificis d'animals, etc. Així s'explica per exemple l'existència de plats tan populars d'abans com els budells i intestins de xai fregits, els callos a la cuina madrilenya i gallega, el saumagen de la cuina alemanya del Palatinat i els haggis de la cuina escocesa, per després donar pas a plats molt preuats en certa època, com el foie gras francès (paté de fetge d'ànec) i fins i tot el caviar noruec (ous d'esturió).

L'aversió cap a aquest tipus de plats amb vísceres se està incrementant, fins al punt que a poc a poc s'està convertint en una delícia per a una minoria de la població, com ara el cervell (clàssic farcit de bunyols) o la llengua. Els psicòlegs socials han pogut provar, en una escala Guttman, les actituds cap al consum de les vísceres i com creix el rebuig al fetge, ronyó, llengua, cervell i testicles. A més a més han descobert que a Amèrica el rebuig és major que a Anglaterra o a França.

Productes lactis
Mentre que a Europa i els Estats Units productes com la llet i els seus subproductes són generalment acceptats, en altres cultures existeixen molts grups humans que els rebutgen o eviten, com per exemple en molts llocs d'Àsia. No tant pel sabor, sinó més aviat a la inexistència en la majoria de la població adulta de l'enzim intestinal anomenada lactasa, encarregada de processar la lactosa en la digestió. Aquest fenomen rep el nom d'intolerància a la lactosa. El nadó humà, neixi on neixi, té aquest enzim en el seu estómac per poder processar la llet materna, encara que el cos cessa la producció del enzim als tres anys. Per aquesta raó la tolerància a la lactosa no és una regla sinó una mutació genètica. Sense aquest enzim el còlon s'irrita en contacte amb la lactosa i produeix diarrees, així com diversos trastorns gàstrics o intestinals.

Canibalisme

Un dels aliments considerat tabú en la majoria de les cultures del món és la carn humana. Socialment el consum de carn humana és considerat acceptable en ocasions excepcionals, com per exemple en casos de naufragi. Marvin Harris diu que «la societat sanciona el consum de carn humana quan hi ha la presència simultània d'altres aliments», tot i que moltes persones pensen que el consum de carn humana ha de ser considerat com a contrari a la moral en qualsevol cas.

Troballes a jaciments arqueològics apunten cap al fet que el canibalisme era una pràctica comuna en les etapes primigènies de l'home. S'han trobat referències datades de fa aproximadament 350.000 anys a la Xina i també de l'època de l'home de Neandertal, on alguns casos mostren exemples clars de processament (precuina) que indiquen que la carn humana no s'ingeria crua. Les víctimes en alguns casos eren part d'un culte religiós, com assenyalen les troballes a Bad Frankenhausen, a Turíngia.

Els antropòlegs han descrit quatre tipus diferents de canibalisme:
 Canibalisme profà, identificat com la utilització de la carn humana com a aliment.
 Canibalisme antisocial o Canibalisme de guerra, que es produeix en situacions límit o accidents (com l'ocorregut en el vol 571 uruguaià).
 Canibalisme de judici, quan el condemnat es menja després d'un judici.
 Canibalisme ritual, com a part d'un ofrena als déus.

Referències

Bibliografia

 Frederick J. Simoons: Eat Not This Flesh: Food Avoidances from Prehistory to the Present. Wisconsin Press, Madison 1994 (2. Aufl.),
 Eva Barlösius: Soziologie des Essens. Juventa, München 1999, . Título en español: "sociología de la alimentación"
 Mary Douglas: Reinheit und Gefährdung. Berlin 1985 (Título original: Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. 1966),
 Marvin Harris: Wohlgeschmack und Widerwillen. Die Rätsel der Nahrungstabus. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1988 (Originaltitel Good to eat. Riddles of Food and Culture. 1985),
 Dwijendra Narayan Jha: The Myth of the Holy Cow. Verso Books, Kondon 2002,
 Edmund Leach: Kultur und Kommunikation. Zur Logik symbolischer Zusammenhänge. Suhrkamp, Frankfurt M 1978,
 Stephen Mennell: Die Kultivierung des Appetits. Geschichte des Essens vom Mittelalter bis heute (Título original: All Manners of Food). Athenäum, Frankfurt/Main 1988.
 Perry Schmidt-Leukel (Hg): Die Religionen und das Essen, Hugendubel Verlag, Kreuzlingen 2000,
 Monika Setzwein: Zur Soziologie des Essens. Tabu, Verbot, Meidung. Leske + Budrich, Opladen 1997,
 Rolf Degen: Nicht nur Verdorbenes macht Angst. en: Tabula. SVE, Bern 2005,02. Trad. Sólo lo prohibido da miedo. (Alemán)
 Daniel M. T. Fessler, Carlos David Navarrete: Meat is Good to Taboo. en: Journal of Cognition and Culture. Brill, Leiden 2003 (pdf).
 Nicolai Schirawski: Sehr verehrte Kuh. en: P.M. Magazin. München 2002,09.
 Ram Puniyani: Beef Eating, Strangulating History. en: The Hindu. Madras 2003.
 Alexander Rabl: Tabuzone Teller. en: A La Cart. Gourmet-Magazin. D+R Verlag, Wien 2006.

Creences
Aliments


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: GridView Header Click I am trying to figure out how to point a Grid View Header Click to my Viewmodel
 <ListView ItemsSource="{Binding UserProfileData}" GridViewColumnHeader.Click="Handle_Click">
       <ListView.View>
                <GridView>
                    <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding Name}" Header="User ID"/>
                    <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding LastUsed}" Header="Last Loaded"/>
                    <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding IsLoaded}" Header="Logged In"/>
                </GridView>
            </ListView.View>
        </ListView>

GridViewColumnHeader.Click="Handle_Click" will push it to my MainWindow.xaml.cs but i want to have the click go to the DataContext of my MainWindow
<Window.DataContext>
    <vm:MainWindowViewModel/>
</Window.DataContext>

any ideas?

A: You could use a style to bind the Command property of the GridViewColumnHeader to an ICommand source property of your view model. You could then pass the header string as the argument to the command:
<ListView x:Name="test" ItemsSource="{Binding UserProfileData}">
    <ListView.Resources>
        <Style TargetType="GridViewColumnHeader">
            <Setter Property="Command" Value="{Binding YourCommandProperty}" />
            <Setter Property="CommandParameter" Value="{Binding Content, RelativeSource={RelativeSource Self}}" />
        </Style>
    </ListView.Resources>
    <ListView.View>
        <GridView>
            <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding Name}" Header="User ID"/>
            <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding LastUsed}" Header="Last Loaded"/>
            <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding IsLoaded}" Header="Logged In"/>
        </GridView>
    </ListView.View>
</ListView>

A: You need to add reference of 2 assemblies:
System.Windows.Interactivity
Microsoft.Expression.Interactions

Add following namespaces:
xmlns:i="http://schemas.microsoft.com/expression/2010/interactivity"
xmlns:ei="http://schemas.microsoft.com/expression/2010/interactions"

Xaml:
<ListView ItemsSource="{Binding UserProfileData}">
        <ListView.View>
            <GridView>
                <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding Name}">
                    <GridViewColumnHeader Content="User ID">
                        <i:Interaction.Triggers>
                            <i:EventTrigger EventName="Click">
                                <ei:CallMethodAction TargetObject="{Binding}" MethodName="OnClick"/>
                            </i:EventTrigger>
                        </i:Interaction.Triggers>
                    </GridViewColumnHeader>
                </GridViewColumn>

                <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding LastUsed}">
                    <GridViewColumnHeader Content="Last Loaded">
                        <i:Interaction.Triggers>
                            <i:EventTrigger EventName="Click">
                                <ei:CallMethodAction TargetObject="{Binding}" MethodName="OnClick"/>
                            </i:EventTrigger>
                        </i:Interaction.Triggers>
                    </GridViewColumnHeader>
                </GridViewColumn>

                <GridViewColumn DisplayMemberBinding="{Binding IsLoaded}">
                    <GridViewColumnHeader Content="Logged In">
                        <i:Interaction.Triggers>
                            <i:EventTrigger EventName="Click">
                                <ei:CallMethodAction TargetObject="{Binding}" MethodName="OnClick"/>
                            </i:EventTrigger>
                        </i:Interaction.Triggers>
                    </GridViewColumnHeader>
                </GridViewColumn>
            </GridView>
        </ListView.View>
    </ListView>

In view model, put following method:
public void OnClick(object sender, RoutedEventArgs e)
    {

    }

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Ink On 3's Heels To You!
Good morning! Happy Monday! This week is going to be a busy one. Honey Bee Stamps is celebrating their 4th Anniversary, and I have projects from the most recent Ellen Hutson release to share with you, but today, I wanted to share a project that I worked on to help celebrate the newest Ink On 3 release- Heels To You! I shared this project on the Ink On 3 blog last week, but I thought I'd share it here, as well. Let's get started with the details!
I began by stamping the lovely flowered shoe from Ink On 3's Heels to You (I3|SSS) stamp set using their Fadeout Ink on some watercolor paper. I then watercolored the image using the no-line coloring technique and my Daniel Smith watercolors: Quinacridone Fuchsia, Wisteria, Cobalt Green Pale, and Graphite Gray. I added some Liquid Pixie Dust (I3|SSS|EH) over the top of the watercolored shoe to make it really sparkle!
For the card base, I used some light pink ink to stamp the individual flowers from the Heels to You (I3|SSS) stamp set on a white A2 card base, then used blending brushes to blend the same shade of pink ink in the corner to create a bit of a halo. I stamped the greeting from the Heels to You stamp set and die cut the "beautiful" from the coordinating die set using Hero Hues Plum card stock. I added the greeting and a few jewels from Pretty Pink Posh to add some more sparkle!
Well, that's all for my project today. I hope you'll check out the new release from Ink On 3. These new stamps are perfect for Mother's Day crafting! So much fun to color in any medium, as well. Thanks so much for stopping, and have a marvelous day!


Welcome to District 12: Catching Fire Costume Illustrations!
Really cool article from FrockTalk about Phillip Boutte, a costume illustrator who just so happens to have been doing the illustrations for Catching Fire costumes! If any of you Hunger Games fans out there have a passion for costume concept art, read the in-depth article about Boutte: what he does, how he does it, and how exactly he got to where he is.
Now, we have seen this look in stills and know that he wears this at his mansion quite possibly for the Quarter Quell announcement scene. But in this sketch it is labeled as "Victor's Village visit". Either Snow wears this outfit during the big scene in Katniss' house or they changed it to his appearance at his mansion. Quite possibly both? I guess we'll have to wait until November 22nd to find out.


Zaha Hadid is a trailblazer in the field of architecture. Much of her work is concerned with movement and speed—exteriors that seem to be shaped by the movement inside and around, transforming the external form from the inside out. For the Hadid Saber, we were inspired by the powerful sinewy details of her Superyacht concept for Blohm + Voss, as well as the fluid form structure of the Abu Dhabi Performing Arts Centre. The unexpected form curvature created intricate details that intrigued the mind. From every angle, there is something unique going on.
With the Hadid Saber, we wanted to explore movement through the form as an idea for designing the hilt. By taking an exoskeletal structure and wrapping it around a chrome metal insert, it gave us a natural grip zone that related directly to the Hadid aesthetic. The simple, flowing and always changing curvature draws the eyes around the hilt from all angles, making it a true 360 degree design example.
"I have always appreciated those who dare to experiment with materials and proportions.
In an industry dominated by men, Zaha Hadid has been a pioneer in the field of architecture.
Much of Zaha's work is concerned with movement and speed—both the way people will move through the buildings and the way a sight line travels through light and shadow. Her exteriors seem to be shaped by the movement inside and around them, rather than by some predetermined notion of external form.
Born in Baghdad in 1950, Zaha began her architectural journey in 1972 while studying at the Architectural Association in London. She then joined her former professors, Rem Koolhaas and Elia Zenghelis, at the Office for Metropolitan Architecture (OMA) in Rotterdam, where she became a partner in 1977. By 1979, she had established her own practice in London.
Unlike some other famous high-end architects, Zaha does not develop a signature stamp that repeats itself. There is no single Hadid style. However, certain themes do carry through her use of materials (glass, steel, concrete), her lines (corridors often trace flowing arabesque shapes, while roof struts make sharp Z-shaped angles), her structures (preference for column-free spaces), and her sculptural interiors and asymmetric façades.


text:
I'm a Lesbian But The Chicago Dyke March Doesn't Speak For Me
July 19, 2017 — Suzan
Back in the 1970s neither the Feminist Movement nor The Lesbian Movement saw fit to include women who were transsexual.
Seems like both have a bad history of excluding women who don't meet their ever shifting but very specific sets of rules.
From Kveller: http://www.kveller.com/im-a-lesbian-but-the-chicago-dyke-march-doesnt-speak-for-me/
By Joanne Strasser Edwards
It feels strange to be angry at people marching for human rights, especially when their cause is so near and dear to my wife, son and me. But last Saturday, three Jewish individuals were banned from participating in the Dyke March Chicago. Their crime? Carrying rainbow pride flags with the star of David.
When I learned that the organizers' decision to ask them to leave was based on the participants' apparent affiliation with the State of Israel, I felt uneasy. Because as a Zionist, gay woman, I can easily recognize good old anti-Semitism masked by the cloak of anti-Zionism. Never mind hijacking an important cause to promote a one-sided political agenda.
Making matters worse, the parade edited its Facebook post to "make clear that anti-Zionist Jewish volunteers and supporters are welcome at Dyke March."
Thank you very much, but what gives the parade organizers the right to decide which Jews are and are not welcome, and to incorrectly define Zionism while they're at it? This stance is offensive, ignorant and a misuse of a platform. Furthermore, in an event that pleads for recognition and inclusion, the only message I got was that someone like me would have had to sit out. And that doesn't feel right.
The activist group Jewish Voice for Peace is publicly defending the Dyke March, and has pointed out that other Jews at the march, wearing Jewish symbols, including Stars of David, t-shirts with Hebrew, kippot, and sashes with Yiddish script, were not asked to leave. But I say, bullshit.
By definition, Zionism is the belief that Jews should have a homeland in the historic Land of Israel. Being a Zionist doesn't make one pro-settlement, pro-wall, anti-Palestinian or a racist. But being against Zionism means you oppose Israel's right to exist. Period.
To me, being an anti-Zionist is at odds with being a human rights activist because it calls to ignore and invalidate one side's narrative—it hinders peace, coexistence and merely feeds extremism on both sides. So here's where it gets tricky: If you're against Zionism, you're also against Palestinians. Period.
When people, like the Dyke March Chicago organizers, casually toss around terms and implement nonsensical bans, it hurts everyone. Zionism is not a dirty word, and being a Zionist in 2017 means promoting the future of a secure Jewish state. Without this, there will never be peace or a Palestine.
Sounds weird, but if you're pro-Palestinian, you sure as hell better be pro-Israel; and the other way around. The future of these populations is dependent solely upon on their ability to coexist. In fact, I'd go as far to say that the future of any population depends on its ability to coexist.
Continue reading at: http://www.kveller.com/im-a-lesbian-but-the-chicago-dyke-march-doesnt-speak-for-me/
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text:
Q: How to select a line feature by clicking near it? I want to enable selecting line features in OpenLayer by clicking. How to select it by clicking on it or near it? For example: take a look at Google map maker.

A: Normally, when features already are on the vectorLayer, you should be able to enable selecting them just by using selectFeature control.
When you only use WMS on your map, you have tu write a request to get the features through WFS as WKT from your map server, add them to a vectorLayer and use the above selectFeature control to select/highlight them.


text:
What Is Opportunity Cost? It's The Variable Keeping You From Making Better Decisions In Your Life, Your Career, Your Relationships, And More
And over time, opportunity cost allowed me to develop a method as to how I wanted to make decisions for myself—not just in business, but in relationships, with finances, with the friends I wanted to keep, and in my life as a whole.
Nicolas Cole
I was 23 years old when I first heard the term "opportunity cost."
I had just started working at a creative agency downtown Chicago, and the creative director (who was also one of the founders) had taken me under his wing. We were sitting in the back room, which we called The Library, and at the high-top table we were standing at, he explained the concept to me.
"There are always two costs in a given situation. There's the cost of doing something, right? You buy a roll of toilet paper, that's a cost. Say one roll is $2. But then there's what's called the 'opportunity cost,' which is, what happens if you don't buy the roll of toilet paper? Sure, you kept the $2, but now you're shit out of luck."
Immediately, the concept made sense to me—and I was fascinated.
For four years working at this creative agency, I saw this concept play out dozens of times per day—and every time a teaching moment would present itself, my mentor would turn to me and say, "What's the opportunity cost here, Cole?"
A client wouldn't pay their final invoice. The cost was $5,000. But the opportunity cost was spending dozens of internal hours and company resources in order to chase after the $5,000.
A bad hire would start to really show their lack of expertise. The cost of firing them was eating the $15,000 already spent investing in them. But the opportunity cost was how much money the company would continue losing because the hire couldn't execute the work they were being paid to do.
A vendor would increase their prices, which cut our margins. The cost was a few extra thousand dollars we had to spend to keep working with them, but the opportunity cost of not using them would most likely cost us a big client.
Learning what "opportunity cost" was, and all the different ways it could play out in a business setting, became a crucial part of my job.
However, I gravitated to the concept because I realized I had always had an awareness of what "opportunity cost" in a situation was—I'd just never had a name for it.
A friend would ask if I wanted to go out after work to meet a few other friends at a bar. The cost was that I'd have to give up my workout for the evening, and probably $30 spent in drinks. But the opportunity cost was me missing an opportunity to meet new people.
My mentor would invite me to an event—like a rooftop fashion show/fundraiser on a hotel rooftop. The cost was that I'd have to give up my Saturday afternoon/evening spent writing. But the opportunity cost was me forgoing a chance to be surrounded by very successful people, talk to them, learn from them, and even expand my network.
A freelance client would say, "Hey, can we edit this article a bit?" even though they hadn't been a client for months. The cost would be me doing an hour or two of work for free. But the opportunity cost (if I said, "I have to charge you for this," or ignored them altogether) would mean they probably wouldn't keep referring me business.
And over time, I started to develop a method as to how I wanted to make decisions for myself—not just in business, but in relationships, with finances, with the friends I wanted to keep, and in my life as a whole.
Here's how.
In every situation, I ask myself which side of the coin has more to gain?
Let me use the first example I mentioned above as a case-in-point. If you have a client that suddenly goes radio silent and doesn't pay their last invoice, that "cost" to you might be $5,000. It's tangible. It's a very clear amount of money. And you know that by not pursuing them for that money, you're "losing" $5,000.
This is where most people stop.
They see this first side of the coin and they think to themselves, "I'm losing $5,000. That's bad."
What most people don't take into account is everything they'll need to do (all the other losses they'll need to incur) in order to pursue the $5,000: court fees, hours of your own time and energy, reputation cost, the list goes on and on. Which means, at the end of all your efforts, you might very well spend upwards of $10,000 in order to get the $5,000 that is "rightfully yours."
Did you win?
In one way, sure. But you also lost too. Which means you're ironically in the exact same place you were when you started (where you had something to gain and something to lose), except now, you've lost more than $5,000.
You've lost $10,000.
In stock trading this is referred to as "selling a losing position."
Traders live and die by the concept of opportunity cost.
If you buy a stock at $100 and it drops to $75, what do you do? Do you hold it and hope it goes back up? Or do you sell, move the $75 you have left into another stock, and make more than you lost?
There are a lot of people in the world who struggle to get past that first move on the chess board—selling their losing position. They have a hard time making that decision without feeling like they've "lost." What they fail to see, however, is the continued loss they'll incur if they choose not to sell.
Which is why both sides of the coin have to be weighed against each other.
So, how should you be thinking about Opportunity Cost in your everyday life?
The truth is, I take opportunity cost into just about every single decision I make in a given day.
If I eat this magnificent piece of gluten-free, dairy-free, soy-free cacao leftover birthday cake for breakfast, my "cost" is that I won't be starting my day with a healthy meal, and I'll most likely have a stomach ache by 10:00 a.m. But my opportunity cost here is—if the cake will go bad by tomorrow, when else will I get to have a piece of cake for breakfast?
If we take on too many clients at my company, Digital Press, the "cost" is that I'll have to intensely manage that growth, which will most likely mean more coffee and more stress, and less sleep. However, the opportunity cost would be missed revenue, slower growth, etc. Another opportunity cost would also be what else I could do with my time if it wasn't being spent managing growth—like, say, working on a new product or service offering that could potentially accelerate our growth even more, but require less hands-on management?
If I stay up late writing on a Monday night, the "cost" is that I'll be tired the next morning. But if I don't stay up late writing, then the opportunity cost is what I could have written or gotten done (instead of going to bed early).
This is how I think about every decision I make in my life. And I have found, without fail, that the best decisions end up being the ones that push beyond the first, most obvious "cost" and are instead based on opportunity cost—the clearest one being the relationship I had with my mentor.
For the four years I spent working with him, I had multiple people (friends, family members, etc.) offer me jobs at other companies. Jobs that paid higher salaries. Were in nicer offices, Came with flashy perks like a full bar and free coffee lounge on the first floor. But the reason why I turned all of them down, and continued working closely with my mentor, was because I saw the opportunity cost.
If I stayed at his agency, my "cost" was pretty obvious.
I was making $20,000 – $30,000 less per year, than if I had taken a job elsewhere. But if I left, the opportunity cost was the fact that I had direct access to someone I very much looked up to, and wanted to be like. A new job might pay me more money, but I wasn't going to get to work directly with the founder of the company. A new job might come with free lattés, but it wasn't going to give me a mentor. And so what drove my decision to stay (for nearly 4 years) was the fact that I was able to see the long-term benefit of forgoing a short-term pay raise.
When I did finally decide to "take the leap" and leave his agency, sure enough, it was "opportunity cost" that drove my decision. The "cost" of me staying had become greater than the "opportunity cost" of me leaving—and seeing what else I could learn on my own. It was the moment I had been working toward for years. But when it finally came, I wasn't just "leaping" with a gut feeling. I was taking an educated, informed step based on the theory of opportunity cost.
And I went on to start my own company shortly after.
Related Topics:Decision-Makingpersonal developmentpersonal growth
Nicolas Cole is the founder of Digital Press, a content marketing agency that turns founders, executives, and entrepreneurs into world-renowned thought leaders. As an author, Cole is a 4x Top Writer on Quora and Top 30 Columnist for Inc Magazine with over 50 million views on his work. His writing has appeared in TIME, Forbes, Fortune, Business Insider, CNBC, The Chicago Tribune, and more.


I hear two complaints about Lionel/American Flyer/Marx electric train layouts (besides the common complaints from uptight scale modelers, that is). One is the amount of space they take up, and the other is the noise.
Let's tackle the noise. While we're at it, we'll tackle reliability.
The main reason for the noise is track screwed or nailed directly to a piece of plywood. The plywood acts as an amplifier; the track itself vibrates like a guitar string. Metal screws or nails make matters worse by transmitting the sound deeper into the plywood.
The usual approach to deadening sound is to put down Homasote between the track and the board. Either you put down enough large sheets to cover the whole layout, or you cut out roadbed from the Homasote and lay it under the track. It works well. The biggest problem with Homasote is finding the stuff, as it's just not available in some parts of the country.
Some people put down cork roadbed in addition to, or instead of, the Homasote. The problem with that is that the cork roadbed just isn't as effective at sound deadening.
Foam weatherstripping and zip ties.
It's effective and cheap, just how I like my projects.
Simply cut a piece of foam weatherstripping to fit underneath each tie, then stick it under the tie and place the track section. To secure the track, drill a hole through the existing hole in the tie, through the weatherstripping and all the way through the plywood. Now run a nylon zip tie through the track and through the table. On the underside of the table, secure the end with a second tie. You want it to be tight enough to hold the track in place securely, but loose enough to leave just a little bit of "float" between the plywood and the track due to the thickness of the weatherstripping.
Try the weatherstripping on half an oval of track, leaving the other half right on the board, and you'll be able to hear the difference. Wheel noise is almost eliminated, leaving only the motor noise. Depending on the make and vintage of your train that can still be significant, but the decrease in volume will be noticeable. You can reduce the noise a bit more by adding more ties to the track, reducing vibration a bit further. Some people cut extra ties from wood; since I have lots of rusty track laying around, I just pry ties off otherwise unusable track, put a piece of electrical tape on the fiber insulator, and crimp the salvaged tie onto the track.
One way to attach the wires is to just solder them right to the track. Clean the spot you're going to solder to with an abrasive scouring pad, then use rosin core solder and a little bit of flux to make it go easy. Some people use big 200-watt Weller guns; with some patience I've done it with as little as a 15-watt pencil. The tin plating on track takes solder well; older track that's lost most of its plating is more likely to require a big gun.
If you don't like soldering, use solderless quick disconnect terminals. They crimp right onto the wire with a pair of locking pliers. As long as the lug is a good match for the gauge of wire you're using (18 gauge is about the safest minimum and 14-16 gauge is much better), the connection will be reasonably secure. Spread the opening in the bottom of the rail slightly with a slotted screwdriver, then push the lug in. Secure it with some pressure around the rail from a pair of needlenose pliers if necessary.
Even if I solder my connections, I usually put ring terminals on the ends of the wires that go to the transformer. It makes attaching the wires to the leads on postwar-era transformers much easier. Modern transformers such as a Lionel CW-80 don't need lugs; the wires just push into terminals on the unit.
I like to set up the track, mark good locations for each pair of wires, move the track, drill the holes, and then attach my lugs or solder the wire to the track.
After running a few wires, you'll be amazed at how much more consistently your trains run.


Editor's note: Allentown is the fourth largest school system in the state with nearly 18,000 students.
All Allentown students will be required to wear uniforms next school year under a plan the school board Education Committee approved Thursday.
The committee voted 8-1 for uniforms after hearing a presentation from Superintendent Russ Mayo, staff and students. The board will formalize the committee's decision at its Jan. 24 meeting.
The colors and styles of the shirts, pants, belts and shoes have not been decided for students. Nor has the administration worked out the consequences for students who do not adhere to the uniform.
Those rules will be presented to the committee on Feb. 14 with a board vote to follow later that month.


This stunning venue located in the dining precinct of Wooloongabba, is a true favourite of the locals. Separate from the main dining area of Pawpaw café; enter a gorgeous Bali-chic Garden Room, perfect for boutique functions of up to sixty guests. With private chefs and staff, bar and beautifully styled decor and furniture, it's a visual delight and just like the food served up – totally Instagram-worthy!
No room hire fee, simply a minimum spend on food and drink, including celebratory cakes and more. Pawpaw can accommodate up to 60 people for a cocktail/standing event and 40 for a seated dining event.
Select from a range of delectable Southeast Asian cuisine, including banquets, canapes, dinner boxes. Pawpaw also offers glamorous grazing platters, high teas and more. Specialising in gluten free, vegetarian and vegan, enables Pawpaw to tailor a food and drink package to suit any occasion.
Whether it's simply a get together with your friends, strictly business, or a bridal or baby shower, engagement, hens, high tea, birthday party or intimate wedding, Pawpaw look forward to planning your celebration to remember!


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Vogal Children At Home And Abroad
Why is the monroe doctrine important - rectoria.unal.edu.co
Why is the monroe doctrine important Video
Monroe Doctrine (1823) why is the monroe doctrine important.
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Social Studies , Answers: 3. Answer from: ajayrose. Answer from: Andyrogers. Another question on Social Studies. What is the term used for the belief that the white race is superior to all other races. Which of the following methods could be considered a "best practice" in terms of informing respondents how their answers to an on-line survey about personal information will be protected? You are a migrant worker from india who has come to key wait image and you do you are you most likely to seek work. Which statement correctly compares the "Analysis" and "Conclusion" sections of a lab report? Only the "Conclusion" section describes errors that occu
Editor's note: Over the next several weeks, reporters from the Pocono Record will be examining the impact of gun violence in Monroe County and the Poconos for a series of stories.
Tokugawa Government Essay
Read the last installment: Recent violence prompts examination of shootings in the Poconos. This maxim, a common law that dates back hundreds of years, seems like a simple enough statement, one that is embodied in Pennsylvania's Castle Doctrine.
But, in reality, it is one of the most misconstrued legal concepts when it comes to gun law, according to Monroe County Why is the monroe doctrine important Assistant District Attorney Michael Mancuso. The Castle Doctrine — which has been in place for some time, but was amended to include additional protections in — works like this: If a person unlawfully and forcefully enters your home, your vehicle or please click for source, and attempts to kill, harm sexually assault or remove you from your home, Pennsylvania — or any other state that employs the law — allows for the use of deadly force, if immediately necessary.
The issue here is that there is far more to consider than just a simple assumption that one is permitted to shoot intruders, legal experts say. According to a guide pamphlet from U. First, the use of deadly force must be justified under the law. Second, the person utilizing said force must be attacked in a location where they have a legal right to be.
That person must be in lawful possession of a firearm and cannot be engaged in criminal activity. And finally, the person or persons attacking a victim employing the doctrine must use or display a firearm or other lethal weapon.
Mancuso said the shooter's state of mind is a key part of the decision process when it comes to applying Castle Doctrine. Mancuso noted that police and district attorneys, who determine whether a shooting was a crime and charges should be filed, often try to give the person who used a deadly weapon to protect their home the benefit of the doubt, but many things have to be considered.
Consider the case of Stroudsburg resident Randy Halterman, who shot Adam Schultz and his girlfriend Chastity Frailey after Halterman found the pair inside his home. Schultz, of East Stroudsburg, later died. The couple happened upon Halterman's building as they were walking why is the monroe doctrine important Paradise Trail on the way to explore the remains of Penn Hills Resort. Frailey said that they assumed the structure, which was surrounded by garbage and debris, to be abandoned. Schultz initially called out to ask if anyone was inside the building, and when they received no response, the pair entered and explored for about 20 to 25 minutes.
When Frailey joined Schultz on a second floor catwalk to look around further, she pointed a flashlight toward a wall and saw a firearm emerge from behind a covering. Two shots were fired, and Frailey reported that she felt a "pinch" in her abdomen. Schultz pushed her along the catwalk to escape as several more shots were fired.
Frailey said that she collapsed at the bottom of the staircase, with Schultz landing on top of her legs, pinning her. And he fell face-down on the stairs and the guy shot him again. Sometimes, like in the Halterman case, the answers were readily apparent ," Mancuso said. In a preliminary hearing for the Halterman case held in MarchMagisterial District Judge Michael Muth also noted that the Castle Doctrine would likely not stand as a defense, playing into his decision to maintain the charge of homicide over self-defense. More: Preliminary hearing reveals details in fatal Stroud Twp. In Junea Cambria County woman fatally shot year-old Thomas Deal, who broke into her home, though in this case, District Attorney Greg Neugebauer stated that his office treated moonroe why is the monroe doctrine important as a justified use of force. At that point, she discharged her weapon.
Cambria County Coroner Jeff Lees said that Deal was within six feet of the homeowner when she fired her gun, providing evidence that he was relatively close to her by the time she used the weapon. Neugebauer noted that those details indicated the homeowner had a reasonable fear of being harmed or even killed, and thus was docttrine in using deadly force to stop him. The Cambria County homeowner issued clear warnings to Deal before firing, and in ignoring those warnings, It can be inferred that she was in fear for her life, or the lives and safety of her family click here. Kresge's attorney argued that his client acted in self-defense.
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Kresge was a felon not to possess a weapon, a firearm. The firm serves the Pocono area. At the moment, it is unknown if Halterman's attorney or attorneys will attempt to claim teh or the Castle Doctrine during trial, though it is possible. Some criminal defense attorneys might employ such a strategy, while others would pursue a different approach.]
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Recess by Narciso Desmadryl from Perkins Bacon Plates 1854 (Jan-Feb): 5 c. "chocolate" brown, fine impression, wmk. pos. 1, the famous unused example with huge margins on three sides and close but clear at upper left, printed in this resonant shade of very deep reddish brown on quadrille paper, most probably at the very beginning of the print-run; fresh and very fine, without gum. Illustrated in 'Chile, The First Postage Stamps' by Gerhard Blank on colour plate 3. A delightful stamp, finer than the Galvez example, of great beauty and rarity with just 5 sheets printed (1'200 stamps). Cert. Sociedad Filatelica de Chile (1977), BPA (1992) Scott = unpriced.rnProvenance: Collection Alfred H. Caspary, Harmers, June 1958, lot 616; Collection Gerhard Blank, RL, Dec 1991, lot 946.


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Archaica The Path of Light
System requirements Archaica The Path of Light
Support only 64-bit systems
OC Windows: 7, 8, 10
Processor: Intel Core i3 2.00 GHz
Video card: 1 GB of video memory that supports DirectX: 11
Archaica The Path of Light will force each of you to follow the Path of Light. The game is a fully three-dimensional quest with unique puzzles and non-standard puzzles, most of which are based on the physics of rays and mirrors. To get to the truth, it is not at all necessary to closely follow the plot narration in Russian – it is enough just to go with the flow of the gameplay and at the end of the game everything will become clear and understandable.
The independent development team of Two Mammoths invites users to plunge into a completely new wondrous world, the atmosphere of which will charm you, and the soundtrack will make you feel all about the little things here. As the player copes with the riddles, the plot will acquaint him with the ancient civilization that had died out thousands of years ago. But these people disappeared without a trace – they left behind them mechanisms and treasures, which could not be obtained by everyone. Only the most erudite and savvy gamers will be able to reach the truth, having passed through a string of tests. It is noteworthy that the complexity of the puzzles increases in proportion to the achievements of the gamer. In other words, the further the user is able to reach, the more difficult it will be to deal with these or other puzzles. Due to the low threshold of entry into the gameplay, each user is free to pick up the pace of the game for themselves and enjoy the action.
Yakuza Kiwami


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Lincoln City Centre
Costa in Lincoln STILL closed over plumbing issue
The coffee shop on the high street has been closed for ten days
Holly O'Flinn
Newspaper covers the front of Costa which has now been closed for ten days
Costa on Lincoln High Street remains closed after initially closing on Monday, October 9 "due to unforeseen circumstances".
At the time, staff told Lincolnshire Live that they believed the plumbing problem would be resolved by the following day.
But this has now not appeared to be the case as the coffee shop continues to be closed ten days later.
Bad news - no end in sight as Costa remains shut in Lincoln
Costa on the High Street is closed
And now, newspaper pages have been spotted covering the inside view of Costa and the sign still remains on the shop front.
When Lincolnshire Live attended the shop this morning, chairs could be seen stacked up and tables pressed against the door of the shop inside.
A man in a high visibility jacket was also spotted inside the shop just before 8am - the shop is due to open at 6.30am every day except Sunday, according to Google opening times.
The store shut on Monday, October 9, and a sign was placed in the window stating: "Due to unforeseen circumstances regarding our plumbing, this store is closed until further notice."
There was a mixed reaction when the store first closed - with some disappointed and others not too bothered.
One woman, who occasionally visits the coffee shop, said: "It's a bit annoying. I like going to Costa. I bet some people will be left disappointed. I hope it opens soon because I like a good Costa."
Another person added: "That's a popular place to get a hot drink. I always see people inside. I'm sure some people will be left disappointed about the closure. But it doesn't look like it'll be shut long, which is good."
But one man, who isn't too bothered about the move, said: "I think it's obscene how much these such places charge for coffee when you can actually save loads of money by making the stuff yourself."
Costa has been contacted for comment on the closure.
The branches at the Odeon and at St Marks are both believed to be open as usual.