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Battle of Dara (530 AD)
Sassanian Persian Cataphract - Sassanid Immortal - Elite Cavalry
Background to War
The wars between the West and the Persian Empire went on for century after century with Greeks, Romans, Armenians, Byzantines and others either attacking Persia or defending themselves from Persia. Sometimes these wars were minor border dust-ups of little importance. But others were either full wars or fights to the death.
The Byzantine Empire was at war with the Sassanids from 507, supposedly because Kavadh I had tried to force the Iberians to become Zoroastrians. The Iberian king fled from Kavadh, but Kavadh tried to make peace with the Byzantines, and attempted to have Justin I adopt his son Khosrau. Justin and his nephew and heir, Justinian I, refused and sent his generals Sittas and Belisarius into Persia, where they were initially defeated.
Flavius Belisarius
Commander of the Roman Army
Justinian tried to negotiate but Kavadh instead sent 40,000 men towards Dara in 529. Belisarius was sent back to the region with Hermogenes as his co-commander and 25,000 men in 530; Kavadh replied with another 10,000 troops under the general Firouz, who set up camp about five kilometers away at Ammodius.
As historians we are blessed with the first person accounts of Procopius. He was a prominent Roman scholar from Palestine. Procopius accompanied the general Belisarius in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, he became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing the Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated Secret History. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world.
I have left a great deal of the detail written by Procopius. That kind of background is almost never available in ancient histories.
From Procopius: After this the Emperor Justinian appointed Belisarius General of the East and bade him make an expedition against the Persians. And he collected a very formidable army and came to Daras. Hermogenes also came to him from the emperor to assist in setting the army in order, holding the office of magister; this man was formerly counsellor to Vitalianus at the time when he was at war with the Emperor Anastasius. The emperor also sent Rufinus as ambassador, commanding him to remain in Hierapolis on the Euphrates River until he himself should give the word. For already much was being said on both sides concerning peace.
Eastern Roman Troops.
BLOG NOTES: The Romans were used to long, hard and almost always meaningless Persian border wars. Being outnumbered 2 to 1 by the Persians, General Belisarius was not interested in a battle on wide open desert lands where there could be total defeat. The Romans fortified their position with the walls of the fortress of Dara at their backs. In the open and dry desert of Mesopotamia the Romans would have walled protection, food and water available.
Procopius says: Suddenly, however, someone reported to Belisarius and Hermogenes that the Persians were expected to invade the land of the Romans, being eager to capture the city of Daras. And when they heard this, they prepared for the battle as follows.
Not far from the gate which lies opposite the city of Nisibis, about a stone's throw away, they dug a deep trench with many passages across it. Now this trench was not dug in a straight line, but in the following manner. In the middle there was a rather short portion straight, and at either end of this there were dug two cross trenches at right angles to the first; and starting from the extremities of the two cross trenches, they continued two straight trenches in the original direction to a very great distance.
6th Century Byzantine Cavalry
Not long afterwards the Persians came with a great army, and all of them made camp in a place called Ammodios, at a distance of twenty stades from the city of Daras. Among the leaders of this army were Pityaxes and the one-eyed Baresmanas. But one general held command over them all, a Persian, whose title was "mirranes" (for thus the Persians designate this office), Perozes by name. This Perozes immediately sent to Belisarius bidding him make ready the bath: for he wished to bathe there on the following day. Accordingly the Romans made the most vigorous preparations for the encounter, with the expectation that they would fight on the succeeding day.
At sunrise, seeing the enemy advancing against them, they arrayed themselves as follows. The extremity of the left straight trench which joined the cross trench, as far as the hill which rises here, was held by Bouzes with a large force of horsemen and by Pharas the Erulian with three hundred of his nation. On the right of these, outside the trench, at the angle formed by the cross trench and the straight section which extended from that point, were Sunicas and Aigan, Massagetae by birth, with six hundred horsemen, in order that, if those under Bouzes and Pharas should be driven back, they might, by moving quickly on the flank, and getting in the rear of the enemy, be able easily to support the Romans at that point.
On the other wing also they were arrayed in the same manner; for the extremity of the straight trench was held by a large force of horsemen, who were commanded by John, son of Nicetas, and by Cyril and Marcellus; with them also were Germanus and Dorotheus; while at the angle on the right six hundred horsemen took their stand, commanded by Simmas and Ascan, Massagetae, in order that, as has been said, in case the forces of John should by any chance be driven back, they might move out from there and attack the rear of the Persians.
Thus all along the trench stood the detachments of cavalry and the infantry. And behind these in the middle stood the forces of Belisarius and Hermogenes.
Thus the Romans arrayed themselves, amounting to five-and-twenty thousand; but the Persian army consisted of forty thousand horse and foot, and they all stood close together facing the front, so as to make the front of the phalanx as deep as possible. Then for a long time neither side began battle with the other, but the Persians seemed to be wondering at the good order of the Romans, and appeared at a loss what to do under the circumstances.
BLOG NOTES: On the first day, there was no general engagement, but instead a series of challenge fights between champions of both sides.
Procopius says: In the late afternoon a certain detachment of the horsemen who held the right wing, separating themselves from the rest of the army, came against the forces of Bouzes and Pharas. And the Romans retired a short distance to the rear. The Persians, however, did not pursue them, but remained there, fearing, I suppose, some move to surround them on the part of the enemy. Then the Romans who had turned to flight suddenly rushed upon them. And the Persians did not withstand their onset and rode back to the phalanx, and again the forces of Bouzes and Pharas stationed themselves in their own position.
In this skirmish seven of the Persians fell, and the Romans gained possession of their bodies; thereafter both armies remained quietly in position. But one Persian, a young man, riding up very close to the Roman army, began to challenge all of them, calling for whoever wished to do battle with him. And no one of the whole army dared face the danger, except a certain Andreas, one of the personal attendants of Bouzes, not a soldier nor one who had ever practised at all the business of war, but a trainer of youths in charge of a certain wrestling school in Byzantium.
Eastern Roman Infantry
Through this it came about that he was following the army, for he cared for the person of Bouzes in the bath; his birthplace was Byzantium. This man alone had the courage, without being ordered by Bouzes or anyone else, to go out of his own accord to meet the man in single combat. And he caught the barbarian while still considering how he should deliver his attack, and hit him with his spear on the right breast. And the Persian did not bear the blow delivered by a man of such exceptional strength, and fell from his horse to the earth. Then Andreas with a small knife slew him like a sacrificial animal as he lay on his back, and a mighty shout was raised both from the city wall and from the Roman army.
But the Persians were deeply vexed at the outcome and sent forth another horseman for the same purpose, a manly fellow and well favoured as to bodily size, but not a youth, for some of the hair on his head already shewed grey. This horseman came up along the hostile army, and, brandishing vehemently the whip with which he was accustomed to strike his horse, he summoned to battle whoever among the Romans was willing. And when no one went out against him, Andreas, without attracting the notice of anyone, once more came forth, although he had been forbidden to do so by Hermogenes.
So both rushed madly upon each other with their spears, and the weapons, driven against their corselets, were turned aside with mighty force, and the horses, striking together their heads, fell themselves and threw off their riders. And both the two men, falling very close to each other, made great haste to rise to their feet, but the Persian was not able to do this easily because his size was against him, while Andreas, anticipating him (for his practice in the wrestling school gave him this advantage), smote him as he was rising on his knee, and as he fell again to the ground dispatched him.
Then a roar went up from the wall and from the Roman army as great, if not greater, than before; and the Persians broke their phalanx and withdrew to Ammodios, while the Romans, raising the pæan, went inside the fortifications; for already it was growing dark. Thus both armies passed that night.
On the following day ten thousand soldiers arrived who had been summoned by the Persians from the city of Nisibis.
The Persian commander wrote, "I expect that on the morrow they will bring the Persians into Daras. But let the bath and lunch be in readiness for me within the fortifications." When Belisarius and his generals read this, they prepared themselves for the conflict.
Belisarius speaking to the troops:
"You know assuredly that the Persians are not altogether invincible, nor too strong to be killed, having taken their measure in the previous battle; and that, although superior to them in bravery and in strength of body, you were defeated only by reason of being rather heedless of your officers, no one can deny.
This thing you now have the opportunity to set right with no trouble. For while the adversities of fortune are by no means such as to be set right by an effort, reason may easily become for a man a physician for the ills caused by himself. If therefore you are willing to give heed to the orders given, you will straightway win for yourselves the superiority in battle. For the Persians come against us basing their confidence on nothing else than our disorder. But this time also they will be disappointed in this hope, and will depart just as in the previous encounter.
And as for the great numbers of the enemy, by which more than anything else they inspire fear, it is right for you to despise them. For their whole infantry is nothing more than a crowd of pitiable peasants who come into battle for no other purpose than to dig through walls and to despoil the slain and in general to serve the soldiers. For this reason they have no weapons at all with which they might trouble their opponents, and they only hold before themselves those enormous shields in order that they may not possibly be hit by the enemy. Therefore if you shew yourselves brave men in this struggle, you will not only conquer the Persians for the present, but you will also punish them for their folly, so that they will never again make an expedition into the Roman territory."
Sassanid Persian Armored Cataphract
Sassanian Persian Cavalry
This video was made for a later period, but it shows the dress and armor.
Belisarius sent slingers, light archers and two bodies of Hun cavalry to harass the Persians. He then positioned his infantry behind a ditch with his armored cavalry on each wing. Behind the infantry were 1,200 Hun cavalry as a central reserve. On the Roman left in the hills some 600 Hun cavalry were secretly positioned.
The Persian infantry approached in two dense lines with a number of war elephants in the rear. The infantry was made up of mercenary slingers, archers, and javelin throwers backed by peasant levies. The Immortals, the Persian heavy armored cavalry, were positioned on each wing backed by lighter cavalry units.
1) The Persians attack both flanks of the Roman army with their cavalry. On the Roman left the Persians made progress and crossed over the ditch. At that point the 600 Hun cavalry that was hidden in the hills appears and takes the Persians in the flank and in the rear. The Persians retreat and rally well to the rear of their lines.
2) In the center the infantry of both armies spent their time indulging in intermittent exchanges of archery fire.
3) On the Roman right the Persian Immortals and their auxiliaries drove the Roman right wing commanded by Count John all the way back to the city gates where he was able to rally his troops.
4) Up near the gates of Dara, the Persian left now found itself separated from their infantry in the center. Belisarius saw the gap and acted. He summoned the 1,200 Hun cavalry reserve from the center and hurled them against the rear of the victorious Persian left wing. He then launched his elite personal reserve against the Persian cavalry flank. Attacked on three sides the Immortals broke and fled the battlefield.
5) Belisarius left the chase of the crushed Persians to his original right wing cavalry which had now rallied. Belisarius then led his bodyguard and the Huns against the unprotected left flank of the Persian infantry. With no cavalry support, the entire Persian infantry center was reduced to a mass of fugitives, shattered beyond recall.
Some 8,000 Persians were left dead on the battlefield.
In this battle Belisarius demonstrated his great skill at tactics.
The battle of Dara illustrates the consequences of the failure of a double envelopment, the effects of a force attacking from a concealed position in an outflanking move, and the use of entrenchments to "refuse" part of the battle line.
By keeping the infantry out of the battle, Belisarius largely neutralized the overwhelming strength of the Persian center.
Finally it illustrates the advantages in fighting from a strong defensive position. Belisarius was able to hold the enemy infantry in place. Then with his crack cavalry units he checked the Persian attacks and then repulsed and routed the two cavalry wings before turning on the infantry.
Procopius says: But up to midday neither side began battle. As soon, however, as the noon hour was passed, the barbarians began the fight, having postponed the engagement to this time of the day for the reason that they are accustomed to partake of food only towards late afternoon, while the Romans have their meal before noon; and for this reason they thought that the Romans would never hold out so well, if they assailed them while hungry.
At first, then, both sides discharged arrows against each other, and the missiles by their great number made, as it were, a vast cloud; and many men were falling on both sides, but the missiles of the barbarians flew much more thickly. For fresh men were always fighting in turn, affording to their enemy not the slightest opportunity to observe what was being done; but even so the Romans did not have the worst of it. For a steady wind blew from their side against the barbarians, and checked to a considerable degree the force of their arrows. Then, after both sides had exhausted all their missiles, they began to use their spears against each other, and the battle had come still more to close quarters.
On the Roman side the left wing was suffering especially. For the Cadiseni, who with Pityaxes were fighting at this point, rushing up suddenly in great numbers, routed their enemy, and crowding hard upon the fugitives, were killing many of them. When this was observed by the men under Sunicas and Aigan, they charged against them at full speed. But first the three hundred Eruli under Pharas from the high ground got in the rear of the enemy and made a wonderful display of valorous deeds against all of them and especially the Cadiseni.
And the Persians, seeing the forces of Sunicas too already coming up against them from the flank, turned to a hasty flight. And the rout became complete, for the Romans here joined forces with each other, and there was a great slaughter of the barbarians. On the Persian right wing not fewer than three thousand perished in this action, while the rest escaped with difficulty to the phalanx and were saved. And the Romans did not continue their pursuit, but both sides took their stand facing each other in line. Such was the course of these events.
Hun Warrior - Byzantine Ally.
But the mirranes stealthily sent to the left a large body of troops and with them all the so-called Immortals. And when these were noticed by Belisarius and Hermogenes, they ordered the six hundred men under Sunicas and Aigan to go to the angle on the right, where the troops of Simmas and Ascan were stationed, and behind them they placed many of Belisarius men. So the Persians who held the left wing under the leadership of Baresmanas, together with the Immortals, charged on the run upon the Romans opposite them, who failed to withstand the attack and beat a hasty retreat.
Thereupon the Romans in the angle, and all who were behind them, advanced with great ardour against the pursuers. But inasmuch as they came upon the barbarians from the side, they cut their army into two parts, and the greater portion of them they had on their right, while some also who were left behind were placed on their left. Among these happened to be the standard bearer of Baresmanas, whom Sunicas charged and struck with his spear.
And already the Persians who were leading the pursuit perceived in what straits they were, and, wheeling about, they stopped the pursuit and went against their assailants, and thus became exposed to the enemy on both sides. For those in flight before them understood what was happening and turned back again. The Persians, on their part, with the detachment of the Immortals, seeing the standard inclined and lowered to the earth, rushed all together against the Romans at that point with Baresmanas. There the Romans held their ground. And first Sunicas killed Baresmanas and threw him from his horse to the ground.
As a result of this the barbarians were seized with great fear and thought no longer of resistance, but fled in utter confusion. And the Romans, having made a circle as it were around them, killed about five thousand. Thus both armies were all set in motion, the Persians in retreat, and the Romans in pursuit. In this part of the conflict all the foot-soldiers who were in the Persian army threw down their shields and were caught and wantonly killed by their enemy.
However, the pursuit was not continued by the Romans over a great distance. For Belisarius and Hermogenes refused absolutely to let them go farther, fearing lest the Persians through some necessity should turn about and rout them while pursuing recklessly, and it seemed to them sufficient to preserve the victory unmarred.
For on that day the Persians had been defeated in battle by the Romans, a thing which had not happened for a long time. Thus the two armies separated from each other. And the Persians were no longer willing to fight a pitched battle with the Romans. However, some sudden attacks were made on both sides, in which the Romans were not at a disadvantage. Such, then, was the fortune of the armies in Mesopotamia.
Procopius - The History of the Wars
Sassanian Immortal Troops
(www.radpour.com/armor)
6th Century Eastern Roman Cavalry
The Eastern Roman and Persian Empires about 500AD
Posted by Gary at 9:34 PM
Labels: Army, Belisarius, Byzantine Empire, Eastern Roman Empire, Mesopotamia, Middle East, Persia, War - Battle of Dara - Romans vs Persians
Gold Coins found at Byzantine Fortress of Apolloni...


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During the War of Resistance, our Party combated ideas similar to those of the capitulationists [referring to Chen Tu-hsiu's capitulationism in the period of the First Revolutionary Civil War], that is, such ideas as making concessions to the Kuomintang's anti-popular policies, having more confidence in the Kuomintang than in the masses, not daring to arouse and give full rein to mass struggles, not daring to expand the Liberated Areas and the people's armies in the Japanese-occupied areas, and handing over the leadership in the War of Resistance to the Kuomintang. Our Party waged a resolute struggle against such impotent and degenerate ideas, which run counter to the principles of Marxism-Leninism, resolutely carried out its political line of "developing the progressive forces, winning over the middle forces and isolating the die-hard forces", resolutely expanded the Liberated Areas and the People's Liberation Army. Not only did this ensure our Party's ability to defeat Japanese imperialism in the period of its aggression, but also, in the period after the Japanese surrender when Chiang Kai-shek launched his counter-revolutionary war, it ensured our Party's ability to switch smoothly and without loss to the course of opposing Chiang Kai-shek's counter-revolutionary war with a people's revolutionary and to win great victories in a short time. All Party comrades must keep these lessons of history firmly in mind.
branches inside the Kuomintang and its government or army, and so set the Kuomintang's mind at rest, to the advantage of the War of Resistance. The saying, "Refrain from doing some things in order to be able to do other things", exactly meets the case. A national war of resistance would have been impossible without the reorganization of the Red Army, the change in the administrative system in the Red areas, and the abandonment of the policy of armed insurrection. By giving way on the latter we have achieved the former; negative measures have yielded positive results. "To fall back the better to leap forward" -- that is Leninism. To regard concessions as some thing purely negative is contrary to Marxism-Leninism. There are indeed instances of purely negative concessions -- the Second International's doctrine of collaboration between labour and capital resulted in the betrayal of a whole class and a whole revolution. In China, Chen Tu-hsiu and then Chang Kuo-tao were both capitulators; capitulationism must be strenuously opposed. When we make concessions, fall back, turn to the defensive or halt our advance in our relations with either allies or enemies, we should always see these actions as part of our whole revolutionary policy, as an indispensable link in the general revolutionary line, as one turn in a zigzag course. In a word, they are positive.
To sustain a long war by long-term co-operation or, in other words, to subordinate the class struggle to the present national struggle against Japan -- such is the fundamental principle of the united front. Subject to this principle, the independent character of the parties and classes and their independence and initiative within the united front should be preserved, and their essential rights should not be sacrificed to co-operation and unity, but on the contrary must be firmly upheld within certain limits. Only thus can co-operation be promoted, indeed only thus can there be any co-operation at all. Otherwise co-operation will turn into amalgamation and the united front will inevitably be sacrificed. In a struggle that is national in character, the class struggle takes the form of national struggle, which demonstrates the identity between the two. On the one hand, for a given historical period the political and economic demands of the various classes must not be such as to disrupt co-operation; on the other hand, the demands of the national struggle (the need to resist Japan) should be the point of departure for all class struggle. Thus there is identity in the united front between unity and independence and between the national struggle and the class struggle.
"EVERYTHING THROUGH THE UNITED FRONT"
Party once put forward a similar slogan, but that was probably because in France, where a joint committee of the parties already existed and the Socialist Party was unwilling to act in accordance with the jointly agreed programme and wanted to have its own way, the Communist Party had to put forward such a slogan in order to restrain the Socialist Party, and certainly it did not do so to shackle itself. In the case of China, the Kuomintang has deprived all other political parties of equal rights and is trying to compel them to take its orders. If this slogan is meant to be a demand that everything done by the Kuomintang must go through us, it is both ridiculous and impossible. If we have to secure the Kuomintang's consent beforehand for everything we do, what if the Kuomintang does not consent? Since the policy of the Kuomintang is to restrict our growth, there is no reason whatever for us to propose such a slogan, which simply binds us hand and foot. At present there are things for which we should secure prior consent from the Kuomintang, such as the expansion of our three divisions into three army corps -- this is to report first and act afterwards. There are other things which the Kuomintang can be told after they have become accomplished facts, such as the expansion of our forces to over 200,000 men -- this is to act first and report afterwards. There are also things, such as the convening of the Border Region Assembly, which we shall do without reporting for the time being, knowing that the Kuomintang will not agree. There are still other things which, for the time being, we shall neither do nor report, for they are likely to jeopardize the whole situation. In short, we must not split the united front, but neither should we allow ourselves to be bound hand and foot, and hence the slogan of "everything through the united front" should not be put forward. If "everything must be submitted to the united front" is interpreted as "everything must be submitted to" Chiang Kai-shek and Yen Hsi-shan, then that slogan, too, is wrong. Our policy is one of independence and initiative within the united front, a policy both of unity and of independence.


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Allan is a much sought after, coach, trainer, author and speaker who specialises in supporting and enabling organisations to develop their teams to high performance and to develop managerial "people development" skills such as managerial coaching and team leadership. His simple but highly effective approach to training and coaching managers and teams is done via his branded courses, 'Brand New Manager!' and 'TeamBuilder!' He is the founder of 'The Brand New Manager Academy' a dedicated development centre for the training new managers, team leaders and supervisors and the invigoration of existing managers.
Added to this he supports organisations to implement motivational and productive performance management processes and coaching programmes. Supporting the development of internal company coaches is a particular passion having been one of the first pharmaceutical industry internal coaches at Glaxo Pharmaceuticals (UK) in 1993.
Allan has worked with employees and teams from international companies such as GlaxoSmithKline, AstraZeneca, Sanofi-Aventis, Janssen-Cilag, Thyssenkrupp Automotive, Thyssenkrupp Elevator, Goodrich Aerospace, Vickers Pressings and Takeda as well as numerous local and national organisations within the United Kingdom, including professional rugby union teams, the Newcastle Falcons and Glasgow Warriors.
After nineteen years in the UK pharmaceutical industry and with the last six of these, being spent as one of GlaxoSmithKline's Management Coaching team, he decided to set up his own business in May 2001 in order to bring the power of teams and performance coaching to management within organisations.
To support his work he has become an accomplished facilitator and conference speaker and became a published author for the first time in 2003, with the launch of his first published book, "The Successful Coaching Manager." At the time of writing this profile, two new books, 'Brand New Manager!' and 'Teambuilder!' are close to completion and these will back up the branded courses of the same names.
As well as writing the books, Allan is a prolific writer of e-books and articles many of which have appeared in trade magazines, books and websites within the UK, USA, Spain and India.
Allan has also developed three unique management coaching models entitled OUTCOMES®, CHANGES™ and CARERS™ which have been developed to further enhance management performance coaching capability. A more recent 'performance' model is his 'DIAMOND MOTIVATION™' a simple but highly effective (and practical) model of motivation which will enable managers to ensure their employees and teams become more self-motivated.
Passionate about supporting sales managers, given his sales and sales management background, he has also developed the ASPIRES™ Model of 'field' coaching and is seen as an industry expert in the art of 'Field Visits'.
Allan is a elected Member of The Professional Speakers Association in the UK as well as being a Fellow of The Institute of Sales and Marketing Management.
A keen sportsman Allan is a former President of a rugby union club in Scotland. Marr Rugby, based between the towns of Troon and Prestwick, supports the development of over 300 rugby players between the ages of 7 and 50. He is also a Director of Glasgow Hawks Ltd, one of the leading Premiership rugby teams in Scotland. Allan is well known in Scottish rugby circles for his drive and innovation in attempting to develop the game in Scotland.
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\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:introduction}
The cosmic epoch in the redshift range $10 \lsim z \lsim 30$ was characterized by the formation of the first stars (Pop III) and of the first black holes (see \citealt{2011ARA&A..49..373B}, \citealt{Volonteri_2010}, \citealt{Volonteri_Bellovary_2012}, \citealt{Haiman_2013} for recent reviews).
Detecting these sources directly is at, or beyond, the sensitivity edge of current observatories. While recently \cite{Sobral_2015} have shown that a very luminous $\mathrm{Ly}\alpha$ emitter at $z \approx 6.6$ may be consistent with having a mixed composition of Pop III and second-generation (Pop II) stars, to date there are no confirmed observations of the first black holes, partly due to the uncertainty on their observational signatures. The next generation of observatories will most likely detect the first glimpses of light in the Universe, both in the electromagnetic spectrum (e.g. ALMA, JWST, ATHENA) and in the gravitational waves domain (e.g. e-LISA, DECIGO).

The formation process of the first black holes is likely to produce a strong imprint on their observational signatures, as well as on their mass growth.
The standard theory of Eddington-limited accretion predicts that black holes grow in mass over a time scale $\sim 0.045\epsilon_{0.1} \, \mathrm{Gyr}$, where $\epsilon_{0.1}$ is the matter-energy conversion factor normalized to the standard value of $10\%$. With black hole seeds of initial mass $\sim 100 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$, formed at the end of the very short ($\sim 1-10 \, \mathrm{Myr}$) lifetime of Pop III stars, it is, at best, challenging to explain recent observations of optically bright quasars with $M_{\bullet} \sim 10^{9-10} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ at $z \sim 7$ \citep{Mortlock_2011, Wu_2015}.
An alternative, attractive solution is based on Massive Black Hole (MBH) seeds  ($10^{3-5} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$) appearing at $z\sim 10-15$, giving a jump start to the growth process \citep[e.g.,][]{2006ApJ...652..902S,Begelman_2006,Lodato_Natarajan_2006}.
Under specific conditions (\citealt{Bromm_Loeb_2003, Begelman_2006, Volonteri_2008, Shang_2010, Johnson_2012,Agarwal_2014}), the collapse of a primordial atomic-cooling halo may lead to the formation of MBHs with a birth mass function peaked at $M_{\bullet} \sim 2\times 10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ \citep{Ferrara_2014}. The subsequent gas accretion from the host halo leads to further growth into $\gsim 10^7 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ objects.

The expected abundance of MBHs is largely unconstrained. \cite{Salvaterra_2012} and \cite{Treister_2013} provided upper limits of order $\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 10^{3-4} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$, using the X-ray background and the stacked X-ray luminosity of high-redshift galaxies, respectively. Upper limits for the $z=6$ MBH mass density provided by \cite{Willott_2011}, \cite{Fiore_2012} and \cite{Cowie_2012} are even lower ($\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 10^{2-3} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$), although none of these constraints take into account Compton-thick sources that can be buried deep inside dense nuclei in proto-galaxies. \cite{Yue_2013,Yue_2014} noted that if MBHs are responsible for the near-infrared background fluctuations, their high-redshift mass density should be comparable to the present-day value: $\rho_{\bullet}(z=0) \sim 2 \times 10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$, see \cite{Yu_2002}. The population of high-redshift MBHs would produce gravitational waves, during their collapse \citep{Pacucci_2015_GW} or ensuing MBH-MBH mergers \citep{GW3, Sesana2011}, detectable with upcoming observatories.

Our previous works \citep{Pacucci_2015,PVF} focused, through accurate 1D radiation-hydrodynamic simulations, on the dynamical evolution of $z \sim 10$ MBH seeds with initial mass $M_{\bullet} \sim 10^{3-6} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$, embedded in dark matter halos with total mass $M_h \sim 10^8 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ and accreting in the standard Eddington-limited scenario, or including a model for super-Eddington accretion through slim disks (see also \citealt{Volonteri_2005, Volonteri_2014}).
In the present work we focus on their emission spectrum with three objectives: (i) predict the time evolution of the spectrum, (ii) assess the observability with current (Chandra Deep Field South, CDF-S) and future (JWST, ATHENA) surveys, and (iii) estimate the mass density $\rho_{\bullet}$ of high-redshift MBHs.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In $\S 2$ we describe the physical and numerical implementation, while in $\S 3$ we present our results for the spectral evolution of high-redshift MBHs. Finally, in $\S 4$ we provide some further discussion and the conclusions.
We adopt recent Planck \citep{Planck_2015} cosmological parameters throughout: $(\Omega_m, \Omega_{\Lambda}, \Omega_b, h, n_s, \sigma_8 )= (0.32, 0.68, 0.05, 0.67, 0.96, 0.83)$.

\section{Physical and Numerical Implementation}
\label{sec:physical_numerical_implementation}
The present work is based on radiation-hydrodynamic simulations post-processed with \texttt{CLOUDY}, a spectral synthesis code \citep{Cloudy}.

The physical framework is the following: a high-redshift ($z=10$) MBH seed with initial mass $10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ is located at the center of a dark matter halo with primordial composition and total mass $M_h \sim 10^8 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ ($T_{\mathrm{vir}} \sim 10^4 \, \mathrm{K}$).
The MBH accretes mass from the inner parts (within $ \sim 10 \, \mathrm{pc}$) of the host halo until complete gas depletion.

Our radiation-hydrodynamic code takes into account the frequency-integrated radiative transfer through the gas, with appropriate: (i) cooling and heating terms, (ii) matter-to-radiation coupling, and (iii) energy propagation through a two-stream approximation method.
The code computes the accretion rate through the inner boundary of the simulation domain, from which we derive the total bolometric energy radiated by accretion, assuming a radiatively efficient or inefficient disk. The full {\em frequency-dependent} radiative transfer through the host halo is then performed in a post-processing step using \texttt{CLOUDY}. This code computes the detailed time-evolving spectrum emerging from the host halo using as input the matter distribution obtained from our radiation-hydrodynamics simulations and the realistic irradiation spectrum at the inner boundary, scaled to the appropriate bolometric luminosity. Additional details are given in sections 2.1 and 2.2.

\subsection{Dynamics and thermodynamics}
Our radiation-hydrodynamic code (see \citealt{Pacucci_2015} for an extensive description) solves the 1D spherically-symmetric equations of hydrodynamics and a frequency-integrated version of radiative transfer equations. The code evolves self-consistently the radial component of the standard system of ideal, non-relativistic Euler's equations (neglecting viscosity, thermal conduction and magnetic fields) for a gas accreting, with no angular momentum, onto the central MBH, assumed at rest and already formed at the time $t=0$, with a given initial mass $M_{\bullet}(t=0)$. The simulation domain spans from $0.1 \, \mathrm{pc}$ to $10 \, \mathrm{pc}$, largely encompassing the characteristic spatial scale for accretion, the Bondi radius:
\begin{equation}
R_B = \frac{GM_{\bullet}}{c_{s(\infty)}^2} \sim 3.0 \, \mathrm{pc} \, ,
\end{equation}
where $G$ is the gravitational constant and $c_{s(\infty)}=\sqrt{\gamma R T_{\infty}/\mu} \sim 12 \, \mathrm{km \, s^{-1}}$ is the sound speed at large distances from the accretion boundary; $\gamma = 5/3$ is the ratio of specific heats, $R$ is the gas constant, $T$ is the gas temperature and $\mu=1.15$ is the mean molecular weight for a primordial H-He composition gas with helium fraction $Y_P=0.24665$ \citep{Planck_2015} and no metals.
For a $10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ object, the inner boundary of our spatial domain is $\sim 10^7$ times larger than the Schwarzschild radius and $\sim 10^5$ times larger than the centrifugal radius, i.e. the spatial scale below which deviations from spherical symmetry become important and an accretion disk may form.
Moreover, the angular momentum transfer in the outward direction of the accretion flow is very efficient, due to gravitational torques induced by dark matter and gas distributions of the halo \citep{Choi_2015}. The gas loses its angular momentum efficiently and flows well beyond its centrifugal barrier. Therefore, despite its simplifications, our 1D approach is significantly helpful in acquiring physical insights on the mechanisms regulating the black hole growth. For the same reason, neglecting viscosity, thermal conduction and magnetic fields is a safe choice, since they play an important role only on spatial scales comparable with the radius of the accretion disk.

The gas accretion through the inner boundary of our spatial domain produces an accretion rate $\dot{M}_\bullet$, which in turn generates an emitted luminosity $L$ via two different accretion models: (i) a standard Eddington-limited model in which $L=\epsilon c^2 \dot{M}$, $\epsilon=0.1$, and (ii) a radiatively inefficient model, the slim disk, in which $L\propto \ln(M_{\bullet})$ and $\epsilon \lsim 0.04$ is a function of $\dot{M}_{\bullet}$.
The main physical quantity which determines the properties of the accretion disk, and consequently the radiative efficiency, is the accretion rate.
Accretion of gas at moderate rates ($0.01 \lsim f_{Edd} \lsim 1$) is expected to form a radiatively efficient, geometrically thin and optically thick accretion disk, which is typically modelled with the standard $\alpha$-disk model \citep{Shakura_Sunyaev_1973}. In a Shakura \& Sunyaev disk the radiative efficiency is determined only by the location of the innermost stable circular orbit, which in turn depends only on the spin of the black hole, and it varies between $\sim 6 \%$ and $\sim 32 \%$ for a non-spinning and a maximally spinning black hole, respectively \citep{Thorne_1974}.
In a super-critical ($f_{Edd} > 1$) accretion environment the structure of the accretion disk is, instead, expected to be geometrically and optically thick and radiatively inefficient (but see \citealt{Jiang_2014, McKinney_2015}).
The most common solution proposed for such accretion flows is the slim disk (\citealt{Paczynski_1982, Abramowicz_1988, Mineshige_2000, Sadowski_2009, Sadowski_2011, McKinney_2014}). In these scenarios, part of the energy produced inside the disk is advected inwards (see, e.g., \citealt{Abramowicz_2013, Lasota_2015}) out to a spatial scale named the photon trapping radius ($R_{tr} \sim R_s f_{Edd}$, where $R_s$ is the Schwarzschild radius). Therefore, only a fraction of the photons produced in the accretion disk is able to free stream out of $R_{tr}$: consequently, the effective radiation and radiation pressure escaping to infinity is decreased (see e.g. \citealt{Begelman_1978, Ohsuga_2002}).
While the slim disk solution is the simplest and most tested model for super-critical accretion, alternatives exist, e.g the ZEro-BeRnoulli Accretion (ZEBRA, \citealt{Coughlin_2014}) and the ADiabatic Inflow-Outflow Solutions (ADIOS, \citealt{Blandford_1999, Begelman_2012}) models. These theoretical models also include a parameter which describes the fraction of the inflowing mass which is lost due to radiation pressure.

Radiation pressure accelerates the gas via:
\begin{equation}
a_{rad}(r) = \frac{\kappa(\rho, T) L(r)}{4 \pi r^2 c} \, ,
\end{equation}
where the gas opacity $\kappa(\rho, T)$ includes Thomson and bound-free terms, with the inclusion of a temperature dependence \citep{Begelman_2008}.
The radiation pressure may be able to temporarily interrupt the gas inflow, resulting in an intermittent accretion and outflows. The physical parameters regulating this occurrence are investigated in \cite{PVF}.

We assume that the gas initially follows the isothermal ($T \sim 10^4 \, \mathrm{K}$) density profile derived from the simulations in \cite{Latif_2013}, approximated by the functional form:
\begin{equation}
\rho(r) = \frac{\rho_0}{1+(r/a)^2} \, ,
\end{equation}
where $a$ is the core radius and $\rho_0$ is the central density. To understand how the matter distribution influences both the accretion and the emerging spectrum (through the hydrogen column density), we implemented two different density profiles, both of them yielding a gas mass $\sim 10^7 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$: (i) a high density profile (HDP) with a central density $\rho_0 = 10^{-12} \mathrm{g \, cm^{-3}}$ and a core radius $a=0.002 \, \mathrm{pc}$, and (ii) a low density profile (LDP) with a central density $\rho_0 = 10^{-18} \mathrm{g \, cm^{-3}}$ and a core radius $a=2 \, \mathrm{pc}$. The LDP may be thought as the density profile resulting after the formation of a MBH of mass $\sim 10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ at the halo center (see \citealt{Latif_2013c, Latif_2014b}), while in the HDP case the seed formed is very small ($\lsim 10^3 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$). A density floor of $10^{-24} \, \mathrm{g \, cm^{-3}} \sim 1 \, \mathrm{cm^{-3}}$, a factor at least $10^6$ times smaller than the central density for both profiles, is imposed for numerical stability reasons. In summary, we have four models: standard accretion - LDP, standard accretion - HDP, slim disk accretion - LDP, slim disk accretion - HDP.

\subsection{Spectrum}
Our code evolves the system in time until gas depletion and provides \texttt{CLOUDY} with data to compute the spectrum emerging from the host halo.
This code takes into account: (i) the spatial profiles for hydrogen number density $n_H(r)$ and temperature $T(r)$, (ii) the source spectrum of the central object, and (iii) the bolometric luminosity $L$ of the source, computed self-consistently from $\dot{M}_{\bullet}$.
The spherical cloud of gas is assumed to be metal-free, so that only H and He recombination lines are present. The addition of a small amount of metals, formed by the first Pop III stars, would increase the number of lines and the absorption of high-energy photons.
The source spectral energy distribution is taken from \cite{Yue_2013} and can be described as the sum of three components: (i) a multi-colour blackbody, (ii) a power-law, and (iii) a reflection component.
The source spectrum is extended from far-infrared to hard X-ray ($\sim 1 \, \mathrm{MeV}$).

\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}
We describe in the following the standard accretion - LDP case, and discuss the differences with the other cases when needed.

The balance between the inward gravitational acceleration and the outward radiation pressure keeps the accretion rate close to the Eddington level ($f_{Edd} \approx 1.2$) for most of the time, ensuring a continuous accretion. The top panel of Fig. \ref{fig:f_Edd_M} shows the time evolution of $f_{Edd}$ and of $M_{\bullet}$ in this accretion scenario. Defining the duty cycle, ${\cal D}$, as the fraction of time spent accreting during the total evolutionary time of the system, we find that in the LDP cases ${\cal D} =1$, while other accretion scenarios may be characterized by quiescent phases (${\cal D} < 1$, see Table \ref{tab:outline}). The system evolves for $\sim 120 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, until complete depletion of the $\sim 10^7 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ gas reservoir within $\sim 10 \, \mathrm{pc}$. However, this time scale is a lower limit, since in a real galaxy the gas would extend much further.

Fig. \ref{fig:luminosity_cd} (top panel) shows the time evolution of the bolometric luminosity emitted at the inner boundary, before traversing the host halo gas.
The corresponding Eddington luminosity:
\begin{equation}
L_{Edd} \equiv \frac{4 \pi G M_{\bullet} c}{\kappa_T} \propto M_{\bullet} \, ,
\end{equation}
with $\kappa_T$ being the Thomson opacity, is also shown for comparison.
The luminosity increases for the first $\sim 115 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, reaching a peak of $\sim 5\times 10^{44} \, \mathrm{erg \, s^{-1}}$ and is, on average, mildly super-Eddington as long as the amount of gas is sufficient to sustain this accretion rate. Afterwards, the luminosity plummets, when all the available gas has been consumed.
For comparison, the interested reader is referred to \cite{Pacucci_2015}, where a plot of the same physical quantities is shown in Fig. 8.
Moreover, Fig. \ref{fig:luminosity_cd} also shows the values of the hydrogen column density, $N_H$, computed at selected times ($t_s=5, \, 75, \, 110, \, 115, \, 120 \, \mathrm{Myr}$) when also the emergent spectrum is computed. The system is initially Compton-thick ($N_H \gsim 1.5 \times 10^{24} \, \mathrm{cm^{-2}}$, see the horizontal line). As the gas is progressively accreted by the MBH, $N_H$ steadily decreases before a sudden drop ($t_s \approx 115$ Myr) corresponding to the remaining gas evacuation by radiation pressure. Table \ref{tab:outline} lists duty cycles and accretion time scales for all four models.
\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/F_Edd_Mass_trends.pdf}
\caption{Time evolution of the Eddington factor $f_{Edd}$ and of the black hole mass $M_{\bullet}$, in the standard accretion - LDP (top) and the slim disk accretion - LDP (bottom) scenarios. The Eddington ratio is reported as a running average over periods of $\sim 0.1 \, \mathrm{Myr}$.}
\label{fig:f_Edd_M}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/luminosity_trend.pdf}
\caption{Time evolution of the bolometric luminosity emitted at the inner boundary, before traversing the host halo gas, in the standard accretion - LDP (top) and the slim disk accretion - LDP (bottom) scenarios. The luminosity is reported as a running average over periods of $\sim 0.1 \, \mathrm{Myr}$. The corresponding Eddington luminosity, $L_{Edd} \propto M_{\bullet}$, and the values of the hydrogen column density (blue curves, right axis) are also shown.}
\label{fig:luminosity_cd}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

The bottom panels of Fig. \ref{fig:f_Edd_M} and Fig. \ref{fig:luminosity_cd} show the time evolution of $f_{Edd}$, $M_{\bullet}$, $L$ and $N_H$ in the slim disk - LDP case. In this accretion scenario, the Eddington rate reaches high values ($f_{Edd} \sim 20$) only for a short amount of time ($\sim 2 \, \mathrm{Myr}$), while afterwards the accretion rates are sub-Eddington. The evolution is much more rapid (the available gas is consumed in $\sim 6 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, a factor of $\sim 16$ faster than in the standard case) and the host halo becomes Compton-thin ($N_H \lsim 1.5 \times 10^{24} \, \mathrm{cm^{-2}}$) in $\lsim 2 \, \mathrm{Myr}$.
As already noted in \cite{PVF}, in the slim disk accretion - LDP case, the black hole is able to accrete up to $\sim 80 \%$ of the gas mass within $\sim 10 \,  \mathrm{pc}$, with respect to the $\sim 15 \%$ in the standard accretion scenario, and the black hole grows to $\sim 8 \times 10^6 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ in $\sim 6 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, while in the standard case the black hole grows to $\sim 1.5 \times 10^6 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ in $\sim 100 \, \mathrm{Myr}$.

\subsection{Spectral evolution}
The time-evolving spectrum emerging from the host halo, in the standard accretion - LDP case, is shown in Fig. \ref{fig:spectrum} at $z=9$, i.e. $\sim 100 \, \mathrm{Myr}$ after the beginning of the simulation ($z=10$).
The spectrum is composed by: (i) the continuum emitted by the source and attenuated by the gas, and (ii) the diffuse emission of the gas. Most of the energy emerges in the \emph{observed } infrared and X-ray bands. The latter is characterized by a bell-shaped spectrum peaked around $1 \, \mathrm{keV}$, while in the infrared band a large number of H-He nebular lines is present.
Photons with frequency shortwards than the Ly$\alpha$ line are absorbed by the intervening matter at column densities $N_H \gsim 10^{23} \, \mathrm{cm^{-2}}$ and reprocessed at lower energies, boosting the infrared emission of the halo.
X-ray emission occurs predominantly within the rest-frame energy range $4 \, \mathrm{keV} < E_{\gamma} < 10 \, \mathrm{keV}$. The mean free path of such photons is much larger than the Hubble radius at $z=9$: $\lambda_X \gsim 8 \, \mathrm{Gpc} \gg R_H(z=9) = 165 \, \mathrm{Mpc}$. Hence growing MBH seeds negligibly contribute to reionization.
The increase with time of the continuum normalization in the X-ray is mainly due to the progressive rise of the bolometric luminosity of the central object.
The ratio between the infrared and the X-ray continua depends on the column density, since in the Compton-thick case ($N_H \gsim 1.5 \times 10^{24} \, \mathrm{cm^{-2}}$) the high-energy frequencies are heavily absorbed and reprocessed at lower energies, leading to an overall increase of the infrared emission.
When the gas becomes Compton-thin at $\sim 75 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, the X-ray continuum progressively increases, while the infrared one starts to decrease.
Approaching the complete gas depletion within $\sim 10 \, \mathrm{pc}$, at $\sim 120 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, the column density is so low (see Fig. \ref{fig:luminosity_cd}, top panel) that the outgoing radiation is nearly unimpeded (the emerging spectrum is very similar to the source spectrum, reported, at peak luminosity, $t=115 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, as a dashed line) and the continuum normalization drops by $\sim 3$ ($\sim 4$) orders of magnitude in the X-ray (infrared) band.
\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_LDP_standard.pdf}
\caption{Time evolution of the spectrum emerging from the host halo for a source located at $z=9$, in the standard accretion - LDP case. The infrared, optical and X-ray bands are highlighted with shaded regions, while the unprocessed spectrum is reported, at peak luminosity ($t=115 \, \mathrm{Myr}$), with a dashed line. The flux limits for future (JWST, ATHENA) and current (CDF-S) surveys are also shown.}
\label{fig:spectrum}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
\subsection{High-redshift MBH mass density}
The approximate flux thresholds for two future-generation observatories (JWST\footnote{For a NIRcam observation with a Signal-to-Noise ratio of $10$ and a total integration time of $10^4 \, \mathrm{s}$.} in the infrared band, ATHENA\footnote{For a $3\sigma$ detection with a total integration time of $3 \times 10^5 \, \mathrm{s}$.} in the X-ray) and for the CDF-S\footnote{Ultra-deep survey in the X-ray with a total integration time of $4 \times 10^6 \, \mathrm{s}$.} survey are shown in Fig. \ref{fig:spectrum}.
We predict that the JWST will be able to observe most ($\gsim 95\%$) of the accretion process onto a $10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ MBH seed up to a comoving distance corresponding to $z \sim 25$, while ATHENA will only detect $\sim 25\%$ of the total evolution, around the peak luminosity, up to $z \sim 15$.

Comparing the predicted peak flux (in the $1 \, \mathrm{keV}$ observed band) with the CDF-S sensitivity, we find that this ultra-deep survey could have observed the accretion process onto a typical MBH up to $z_{max} \sim 15$.
In the CDF-S survey, $N_{C} = 3$ AGN candidates at $z \gsim 6 \equiv z_{min}$ have been identified (\citealt{Giallongo_2015}, but see also \citealt{Weigel_2015} where the authors question some of these candidates) inside a sky region of $\sim 170 \, \mathrm{arcmin^2}$.
An upper limit for the number density of MBH seeds can be derived as:
\begin{equation}
n_{\bullet} (6<z<15) \lsim \frac{N_C}{\Omega_{CDF}{\cal V}{\cal D}{\cal F}} \, ,
\end{equation}
where $\Omega_{CDF} = 1.1 \times 10^{-6}$ is the sky fraction observed by the CDF-S, ${\cal V}=2.3 \times 10^{12} \, \mathrm{Mpc^3}$ is the comoving volume of the Universe between $z_{min}$ and $z_{max}$, ${\cal D}$ is the duty cycle for accretion and ${\cal F} \equiv t_{det}/t_{obs}$ is the fraction of time during which the object is detectable within the time frame $t_{obs}(6<z<15)=670 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, assuming a single episode of MBH growth at these redshifts\footnote{This calculation assumes spherical symmetry of the host halo and an isotropic irradiation of the MBH. If the density along the poles is much lower, then a fraction of the sources would be completely unobscured.}.
The predicted flux, within the spectral range $0.5 - 2.0 \, \mathrm{keV}$, is above the CDF-S sensitivity between $\sim 85 \, \mathrm{Myr}$ and $\sim 115 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, so that $t_{det}= 30 \, \mathrm{Myr}$ and ${\cal F} =0.045$. Using these values we obtain the following upper limit for the number density of MBH seeds:
\begin{equation}
n_{\bullet} (6<z<15) \lsim \frac{2.5 \times 10^{-5}}{{\cal D}} \left( \frac{0.045}{{\cal F}} \right) \, \mathrm{Mpc^{-3}} \, .
\end{equation}
Considering MBHs of initial mass $10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ growing up to $\sim 10^7 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ \citep{Pacucci_2015}, we finally obtain the following upper limit for the MBH seeds mass density:
\begin{equation}
\rho_{\bullet} (6<z<15)  \lsim \frac{2.5 \times 10^{2}}{{\cal D}} \left( \frac{0.045}{{\cal F}} \right) \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}} \, .
\end{equation}

The discussion so far has been limited to the scenario in which a MBH with an initial mass close to the peak of the birth mass function devised in \cite{Ferrara_2014} accretes gas from a LDP host halo in the Eddington-limited mode. However, this is not the only possible scenario.
Table \ref{tab:outline} provides a general outline of the accretion history and CDF-S observability for a MBH seed with initial mass $10^{5} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ in three additional scenarios: standard accretion - HDP, slim disk accretion - LDP and slim disk accretion - HDP.
Table \ref{tab:outline} includes the depletion time $t_{end}$, the duty cycle ${\cal D}$, the detection time $t_{det}$ with its related value of ${\cal F}$ and the upper limit on $\rho_{\bullet}$.
In the Eddington-limited cases the depletion times are lower limits since, while our simulations are run in isolation, in a cosmological framework the halo growth by mergers and accretion would not be negligible within $\sim 100 \, \mathrm{Myr}$. In the slim disk case, given the depletion times of order $\sim 10 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, the hierarchical growth of the halo plays a minor role.
\begin{table*}
\begin{minipage}{170mm}
\begin{center}
\caption{Accretion history and CDF-S observability for a MBH seed with initial mass $M_{\bullet} = 10^{5} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$ in the four indicated accretion scenarios.}
\label{tab:outline}
\begin{tabular}{|c|c|c|c|c|c|c|}
\hline\hline
Accretion scenario & Observable & $t_{end} \, \mathrm{[Myr]}$ & ${\cal D}$ & $t_{det} \, \mathrm{[Myr]}$ & ${\cal F}$ & $\rho_{\bullet} \, [\mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}]$\\
\hline
Standard accretion - LDP  & YES & $ 120 $    &$1.0$  & $30$ & $0.045$ & $\lsim 2.5 \times 10^{2}$ \\
Standard accretion - HDP & YES & $240 $    & $0.4$ & $110$ & $0.16$  & $\lsim  1.8 \times 10^{2}$  \\
Slim disk accretion - LDP & NO &$7$    & $1.0$ & $0$ & $0$ & No constraints\\
Slim disk accretion - HDP &YES & $12$    & $1.0$ & $1$ & $0.0015$  & $\lsim  7.6 \times 10^{3}$\\
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{minipage}
\end{table*}

Interestingly, the accretion process is undetectable by the CDF-S in the slim disk - LDP case, whose time-evolving spectrum is shown in Fig \ref{fig:spectrum_SD}. Therefore no constraints on $\rho_{\bullet}$ can be obtained in this case.
\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_LDP_SD.pdf}
\caption{As in Fig. \ref{fig:spectrum}, but for the slim disk accretion - LDP case.}
\label{fig:spectrum_SD}
\end{center}
\end{figure}
The slim disk - HDP case is instead observable, albeit only for a very short time, $t_{det} \sim 1 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, due to the larger accretion rates in this scenario, which produce a sufficiently high luminosity despite radiation trapping. The very low value of ${\cal F} \sim 1.5 \times 10^{-3}$ produces an upper limit for $\rho_{\bullet}$ higher than in other accretion scenarios by a factor $\sim 35$.

Let us now focus on the reason why the slim disk case leads to a very different value for $\rho_{\bullet}$ with respect to the standard accretion case.
The amount of mass which is available for accretion is equal in both cases ($\sim 10^7 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$) and, to a first-order approximation, also the mass actually accreted is similar. This is not strictly true, since the radiation pressure is more efficient in the standard case in creating mass outflows \citep{PVF}, but the produced outflows are fairly weak regardless of the accretion scenario.
The real difference between the slim disk and the standard cases is due to radiation trapping, which decreases the effective bolometric luminosity (i.e. the luminosity escaping to infinity) in the former case, with respect to the latter.
Since the accreting black hole is intrinsically fainter in the slim disk case, it will be observable for a smaller fraction of time, ${\cal F}$ (with the extreme ${\cal F}=0$ for the LDP case), during its evolution: this eventually leads to a larger upper limit on $\rho_{\bullet}$.

The initial mass of the MBH seed influences the time scale of the process and its observability. If, for instance, the high-redshift population of MBHs is characterized by a larger average mass, the evolutionary time scale would be smaller (since $t_{end} \propto \dot{M}_{Edd}^{-1} \propto M_{\bullet}^{-1}$, where $\dot{M}_{Edd}$ is the Eddington accretion rate), but the emitted luminosity would be higher (since $L \propto L_{Edd} \propto M_{\bullet}$).
The effect on ${\cal F}$ may vary from case to case, but in general a larger average mass is likely to decrease ${\cal F} \equiv t_{det}/t_{obs}$ since $t_{det} \leq t_{end} \propto M_{\bullet}^{-1}$. This would lead to a less stringent upper limit on $\rho_{\bullet}$.

\section{Discussion and Conclusions}
\label{sec:disc_concl}
Using a combination of radiation-hydrodynamic and spectral synthesis codes, we have investigated the time-evolving spectral energy distribution of an accreting $z \sim 10$ MBH. The MBH seed, whose initial mass is $10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$, is embedded in a dark matter halo of total mass $10^{8} \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$. Employing two gas density profiles and two accretion modes (Eddington-limited and slim disk) we simulated the system until complete gas depletion and we accurately calculated the time-evolving spectrum of the radiation emerging from the host halo.
The main results of this work are summarized in the following.
\vspace{-0.2cm}
\begin{itemize}
\item The spectrum of the emerging radiation, for a MBH observed at $z=9$, is dominated by the infrared-submm ($1-1000 \, \mathrm{\mu m}$) and X-ray ($0.1 - 100 \, \mathrm{keV}$) bands.  Photons with frequency shortwards than the Ly$\alpha$ line are absorbed by the intervening matter at column densities $N_H \gsim 10^{23} \, \mathrm{cm^{-2}}$ and reprocessed at lower energies, in the infrared band.  Due to the very large mean free path $\lambda_X > 1 \, \mathrm{Gpc}$ of X-ray photons, growing MBH seeds negligibly contribute to reionization. The continuum normalization is set by: (i) the bolometric luminosity of the source and (ii) the column density of the host halo. The former determines the overall normalization, while the latter determines the ratio between the low-energy and the high-energy continua.
\item Our predictions show that the JWST will detect in the infrared a fraction $\gsim 95\%$ of the accretion process onto a typical MBH seed observed at $z \sim 9$, while ATHENA should observe it in the high-energy bands only around the peak luminosity, a fraction $\sim 25\%$ of the total evolution. Similarly, long-exposure surveys in the X-ray, like the CDF-S, could have already observed the accretion process on a $z \sim 9$ object for a comparable fraction of time.
The redshift of the sources sets their luminosity distance, hence influences their detectability. For instance, the standard accretion - LDP system is observable by the CDF-S for $\sim 41\%$ of the time at $z_{min}=6$, while it becomes undetectable at $z \gsim z_{max}=15$.
\item From the $z \gsim 6$ candidates detected in the CDF-S survey \citep{Giallongo_2015} we estimate the following upper limits on the $z \gsim 6$ MBH mass density: (a) $\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 2.5 \times 10^{2} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$ assuming Eddington-limited accretion; (b) $\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 7.6 \times 10^{3} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$ if accretion occurs in the slim disk, highly obscured mode. However, the accretion process is undetectable with the CDF-S sensitivity in the slim disk accretion - LDP case, due to the flux suppression caused by radiation trapping, and no constraints on  $\rho_{\bullet}$ can be given.
\end{itemize}

Very recently, we proposed that the first detection of a high-redshift MBH seed could have already occurred. Indeed, in \cite{Pallottini_Pacucci_2015} we showed that the observational features of CR7 \citep{Sobral_2015}, a bright Ly$\alpha$ emitter at $z=6.604$, may be explained by accretion onto a MBH of initial mass $\sim 10^5 \, \mathrm{M_\odot}$.

For  Eddington-limited accretion, our upper limit, $\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 2.5 \times 10^{2} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$, is compatible with the one set by \cite{Cowie_2012} using observations of faint X-ray sources in the CDF-S, while it is more stringent than limits by \cite{Willott_2011}, \cite{Fiore_2012} and \cite{Treister_2013} ($\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 10^{3} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$) and particularly by \cite{Salvaterra_2012} ($\rho_{\bullet} \lsim 10^{4} \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$, using the unresolved X-ray emission). The current observational constraints, however, do not take into account heavily buried, Compton-thick objects or radiatively inefficient accretion. Recently, indeed, \cite{Comastri_2015} suggested that recent revisions to the local SMBHs mass density, up to $\rho_{\bullet}(z=0) \sim 10^6 \, \mathrm{M_\odot \, Mpc^{-3}}$, seem to imply that a significant fraction of the local SMBHs have grown in heavily buried, Compton-thick phases, or by radiatively inefficient accretion.
Our model is a first step towards testing the role of Compton-thick or radiatively inefficient phases in the early growth of MBHs.

In the present paper, we provided a general picture of the interconnection between the main accretion mode at work in the high-redshift Universe and the black hole mass density. To summarize our rationale: assuming that, for MBHs at $z\gsim 6$, the main accretion channel is the standard, Eddington-limited one, we are able to provide an upper limit on $\rho_{\bullet}$ which is consistent (and competitive) with current estimates. In the standard disk scenario, MBHs have grown in heavily buried, Compton-thick phases for about $70\%$ of the total evolution time (e.g., $\sim 70 \, \mathrm{Myr}$ for the LDP), but they are long-lived and intrinsically bright, and visible for a substantial amount of time. Assuming instead that at super-critical accretion rates the accretion disk thickens, with radiation trapping playing a significant role, the suppressed radiative efficiency leads to a much lower intrinsic luminosity. These sources are intrinsically faint, not obscured: the Compton-thick phase is short ($\sim 2 \, \mathrm{Myr}$, $30\%$ of the total evolution time for the LDP) because the obscuring gas is consumed rapidly. Our slim disk simulations suggest, as one would expect, that these short-lived and fainter MBHs are more difficult to detect in current surveys compared to brighter objects accreting in the Eddington-limited mode. As a consequence, the upper limit on $\rho_{\bullet}$ is inevitably higher than currently predicted, up to a factor $\sim 35$.

\vspace{0.5 cm}
\noindent
MV acknowledges support from a Marie Curie FP7-Reintegration-Grant (PCIG10-GA-2011-303609).
GD acknowledges support from the Centre Nationale d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES).

\section{Supplementary Figures}
In the following page we include additional figures showing the time evolution of the emerging spectrum (in $\nu f_{\nu}$ units) for the four accretion scenarios discussed so far.
\clearpage

\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_LDP_nufnu.pdf}
\caption{Standard accretion - LDP case.}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_HDP_nufnu.pdf}
\caption{Standard accretion - HDP case.}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_LDP_SD_nufnu.pdf}
\caption{Slim disk accretion - LDP case.}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\vspace{-1\baselineskip}
\hspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[angle=0,width=0.50\textwidth]{Plots/spectrum_HDP_SD_nufnu.pdf}
\caption{Slim disk accretion - HDP case.}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\bibliographystyle{mnras}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


HARTFORD, Conn. – The trend in New England and the nation finds an increase in the number of older workers on the job and looking for work, and a recent study is doing some myth busting about the supposed costs of those workers.
Laura Bos, manager of education and outreach for financial security with AARP, says many companies look to older workers for their knowledge and management skills, and AARP's study shows that any costs associated with hiring and retaining those age 50-plus is outweighed by the value of their experience.
"The business case for hiring and retaining workers 50-plus is strong," she points out. "And it's even stronger than it was 10 years ago when we first did this study."
Bos says the AARP study finds professionalism, work ethic and low turnover are among the valuable attributes that workers 50-plus bring to the job. She says Connecticut is ahead of the tide with older workers comprising about 37 percent of the workforce.
Bos concedes there are potential cost differences in hiring and retaining older workers, but she notes that retirement plans aren't what they used to be, and older workers tend to be more healthy – and that's tilting the scales.
"The cost differential between hiring an older worker and younger workers has actually shrunk somewhat," she states. "And our study shows that really the value of older workers can more than offset that cost."
Bos adds there are potential benefits for employers because older workers tend to be more engaged.
"They're more likely to say that even if they had the opportunity they would not leave their job because they're committed to the company – that, it would take a lot for them to leave their company," she explains.
Experienced workers seeking employment or looking to change jobs can get help both in person and on-line through the AARP 50-plus Job Seeker Series.


Molding technology and automatically-adjusted quenching technology, not only reduces the time spent in making chillers, it also reduces the cost of the final product.
Longer heating and tempering sections ensure that glass sheets can be heated to the correct temperature and that it can be tempered and cooled quickly without oscillation.
The machine's base is made up of an extremely rigid structure upon which is placed an aluminium worktable rectified to grant maximum flatness of the work area.


While the United States continues imperiously contending itself exceptional above all other nations, even its Western allies must recognize the sun setting fast upon American empire: European central banks revealed recently they've already invested in Chinese yuan — in some cases, dumping previously-sacrosanct petrodollars to bolster reserves with the currency — sounding the first creaks in a major pivot away from the once-monolithic superpower.
"Two-thirds of the world's $6.9 trillion allocated foreign exchange reserves are held in US dollars. The yuan took a major step towards broader international adoption in 2016 when the IMF decided to include it in the basket of currencies that make up the Special Drawing Right, an alternative reserve asset to the dollar.
For seven decades, the petrodollar has more-or-less occupied the role of world currency; but — like its self-appointed and largely despised role as the world's police — the position looks to be vacant soon.
Still, despite central banks acknowledging the transformation of reserves into yuan-friendly havens, the process inches along with all the speed of an iceberg — particularly as China maintains meticulous controls on the flow of currency — the vestiges of an intensely-scrutinized economy, which must be shed in order for the nation to achieve internationalization or fulfill its aspirations of power.


Another beautifully printed copy of our magazine has just landed on my desk as scheduled. I'd like to thank Printgraphics for the consistently excellent print service you have provided. It is always prompt, high quality and reliable print job with impressive quality control in place and reassuring environmental policies. And of course customer service second to none in my experience.
Fantastic Job, I was so impressed with the print quality, and shall recommend you to anyone else I know who is embarking on print jobs.
It's a pleasure to collaborate with you on so many wonderful issues, and I wanted to thank you for always putting so much heart and thoughtfulness in each of our magazines.
We are extremely happy with the printing of the magazine!
I just wanted to say thanks very much for your great work in turning the November issue of Ecolibrium and the AIRAH wall planner around so quickly. Both look awesome, thank you.
Importantly, the delivery has made it to the mail house in time for the November issue to be posted on time.
Your professionalism and customer service is very much appreciated.
Many thanks for delivering this job last Thursday. It looks fantastic. Great Job Printgraphics as per usual.
Thanks for the quick turnaround with the printing of Southland Edition 5 Catalogue! We are very happy with the printing, the quality, the colours are vibrant and overall its great!
I love the supporter Newsletter. I like it flat and folded. I don't think I've ever printed anything on that sort of thin dewsy stock before and it's great. The print quality, even on that sort of stock, is just out of this world, so thank you. You're a great asset to have on our team!
I was able to show off the new Hamilton Catalogue at the conference and received a great response from all. It looks fantastic!


The default map view works great out of the box – you can pan around, zoom in and out, and so on. If you were wondering, you need to hold down Option to trigger a virtual "pinch" gesture – just click and drag as if you were moving one finger, and the other "finger" will move in the opposite direction.
Using the assistant editor, please create an outlet for your map view called mapView. You should also set your view controller to be the delegate of the map view by Ctrl-dragging from the map view to the orange and white view controller button just above the layout area. You will also need to add import MapKit to ViewController.swift so it understands what MKMapView is.
Note: If you don't set the map's delegate, the rest of this project won't work too well.
With that done, we're going to add some annotations to our map. Annotations are objects that contain a title, a subtitle and a position. The first two are both strings, the third is a new data type called CLLocationCoordinate2D, which is a structure that holds a latitude and longitude for where the annotation should be placed.
Map annotations are described not as a class, but as a protocol. This is something you haven't seen before, because so far protocols have all been about methods. But if we want to conform to the MKAnnotation protocol, which is the one we need to adopt in order to create map annotations, it states that we must have a coordinate in our annotation. That makes sense, because there's no point in having an annotation on a map if we don't know where it is. The title and subtitle are optional, but we'll provide them anyway.
Create a new file and choose iOS > Source > Cocoa Touch Class. Make it a subclass of NSObject and name it "Capital". With map annotations, you can't use structs, and you must inherit from NSObject because it needs to be interactive with Apple's Objective-C code.
There are our three properties, along with a basic initializer that just copies in the data it's given. Again, we need to use self. here because the parameters being passed in are the same name as our properties. I've added import MapKit to the file because that's where MKAnnotation and CLLocationCoordinate2D are defined.
With this custom subclass, we can create capital cities by passing in their name, coordinate and information – I'll be using the info property to hold one priceless (read: off-the-cuff, I sucked at geography) informational nugget about each city. You're welcome to do better!
That creates an array out of the annotations and sends it in one lump to the map view.
If you run your program now, you'll see pins on the map for each city, and you can tap any of them to see the city name. But where's the info property? To show more information, we need to customize the view used to show the annotations.


text:
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namespace JsonApiPhp\JsonApi;

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use JsonApiPhp\JsonApi\Internal\PrimaryData;
use JsonApiPhp\JsonApi\Internal\ResourceMember;

final class ResourceObject extends BaseResource implements PrimaryData {
    public function __construct(string $type, private readonly string $id, ResourceMember ...$members) {
        parent::__construct($type, ...$members);
        $this->obj->id = $id;
        $this->type = $type;
    }

    public function identifier(): ResourceIdentifier {
        return new ResourceIdentifier($this->type, $this->id);
    }

    public function key(): string {
        return compositeKey($this->type, $this->id);
    }

    /**
     * @param object $o
     * @internal
     */
    public function attachTo(object $o): void {
        $o->data = $this->obj;
    }

    /**
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     */
    public function attachAsIncludedTo(object $o): void {
        $o->included[] = $this->obj;
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    /**
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    public function attachToCollection(object $o): void {
        $o->data[] = $this->obj;
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    public function __toString(): string {
        return $this->key();
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}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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text:
Tim Jeffers is a candidate for House District 90
Tim Jeffers
Tim Jeffers, an Iraq War veteran and ex-chief of staff for former House Speaker John R. Gregg, has announced his candidacy for House District 90.
Jeffers said his military and government experience will be the backbone of a campaign that will focus on service first with an emphasis on community connectivity issues: improving local infrastructure, including new sidewalks for neighborhoods; lowering the high cost of internet and cable services; appropriate education funding; access to quality schools; and redistricting and elections reform.
Jeffers said he wants to encourage the young and young at heart throughout the district to mobilize and get engaged in their government. "We are seeing young people across the nation leading a movement for change in America. I think this is a positive sign for the future, and I look to my children for inspiration as I undertake this campaign.
"My opponent has spent 14 years in public office, but I'm not sure we're getting what we deserve out of our local and state government. We need someone who's willing to fight for our values and our community at the Statehouse, and I look forward to meeting and listening to the concerns of my fellow citizens in Franklin and Perry townships," said Jeffers, who was an executive assistant and deputy legislative director for Gov. Evan Bayh.
A graduate of Wabash College and a baseball coach at the Edgewood Athletic Association, he has served in various public service capacities and is employed by Verizon and CSO Architects.
Jeffers and his wife, Chris, have five children and are members of Calvary Lutheran Church.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
About The Jakarta Post
The Jakarta Post is one of Indonesia's leading English-language daily newspapers.
Headline-2
By The Jakarta Post	March 13, 2020
AirAsia offers 6 millions promo seats amid COVID-19 outbreak
Passengers can get free flights under certain conditions to Kuala Lumpur and Penang in Malaysia, Singapore and Perth in Australia, as well as slashed prices for flights to other destinations, under the carrier's BIG Sale program.
By The Jakarta Post	March 9, 2020
OPINION: COVID-19 wreaks havoc on oil markets as Chinese demand slumps
COVID-19 is arguably the biggest risk to global growth since the Great Recession, S&P Global Platts Analytics said in a recent report.
Combating Covid-19: Toward closer China-Asean community
This meeting is convened at a critical moment when China and Asean are battling the severe challenge of Covid-19.
By The Jakarta Post	February 20, 2020
Climate, immunity, incompetence? Indonesia's zero recorded coronavirus cases raise questions
While the fact that there are zero known cases in the country has brought relief, it has also raised questions about what sets Indonesia apart from countries with confirmed cases.
These problems are 'men-made': Sri Mulyani blames men for creating global uncertainties
In a speech at the Mandiri Investment Forum in Jakarta Finance Minister Sri Mulyani said that the uncertain global conditions in 2019 – caused by the United States-China trade war, Brexit and protests in many parts of the world – were likely to persist in 2020.
By The Jakarta Post	February 6, 2020
115 million Indonesians not yet economically secure: World Bank
Approximately 115 million Indonesians, or 45 per cent of the country's population, have yet to achieve economic security and the lifestyle of the middle class, the World Bank's latest report shows.
By The Jakarta Post	January 31, 2020
OPINION: Asia to have largest GDP: Here's what that means
The bulk of that growth will come from the developing markets of China, India and throughout South-East Asia and it will give rise to a host of new decisions for businesses, governments and NGOs.
Indonesian stocks take a hit as global markets grapple with coronavirus concerns
The Jakarta Composite Index (JCI), the Indonesia Stock Exchange's (IDX) main gauge, fell 1.
Amazon Web Services to build data centres in Jakarta: Minister
By the end of next year or early 2022, Amazon Web Services (AWS) will build an infrastructure "region" in Jakarta, in the biggest investment in Indonesia's information and technology sector.
'Hurry up': Amazon, Grab among global firms urged to invest in Indonesia
To attract investments, including tech behemoth Amazon and Singapore ride-hailing giant Grab, Indonesia has set its eyes on multinational corporations attending the World Economic Forum (WEF) annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland.
Indonesia introduces super-priority tourism destinations at Asean forum
Indonesia's five super-priority tourism destinations were introduced by the Tourism and Creative Economy Ministry to 43 international journalists attending the Asean Tourism Forum 2020 in Brunei Darussalam on Thursday.
Tapanuli orangutan on list of world's most endangered primates
Pushed by the aggressive encroachment of forests, Indonesia's endemic great ape, the Tapanuli orangutan, is officially among the world's most endangered primates as fewer than 800 currently exist in the wild.
By The Jakarta Post	October 11, 2019
Frontier technologies pathway for prosperity, says Indonesian Finance Minister
Frontier technologies bring new opportunities as well as wide-ranging impacts and policy implications for the economy at the national, regional and global levels, writes Sri Mulyani Indrawati in an Oped.
Jakarta to remain ASEAN's capital, secretary-general says
ASEAN will continue to be headquartered in Jakarta even when Indonesia has moved its capital to Kalimantan, says the organization's secretary-general Lim Jock Hoi.
By The Jakarta Post	October 8, 2019
No honeymoon for Jokowi and Ma'ruf after inauguration
Jokowi cannot afford to slow down his busy routine; he and Ma'ruf simply have no time to sit back and relax.
Headline-1, Politics
Hundreds injured, arrested as Jakarta protest ends in clashes on Monday
Clashes between protesters and security forces broke out on Monday, September 30, following a protest against the government and the House of Representatives in the capital city.
Indonesia student protests set to continue as House holds final plenary meeting
The wave of protests against the government and the House of Representatives is expected to continue on Monday as the legislative body is scheduled to hold its last plenary session for the 2014-2019 term.
Culture and society, Curiosity
Indonesian pre-teen writes to Trump
Why do you always export your waste to my country.
By The Jakarta Post	July 15, 2019
Jakarta traffic improves, says global index
The capital's traffic situation has consistently ranked among the world's worse.
By The Jakarta Post	June 17, 2019
Capitalizing on moderate Islam at Osaka's G20 summit
Indonesia has a unique position among G20 countries.
Opinion, Politics
Democratic Indonesia exemplifies truly Asia
An op-ed from Niruban Balachandran in the Jakarta Post.
By The Jakarta Post	June 7, 2019
Indonesia wins S&P upgrade as Jokowi victory fuels growth bets
Jokowi's reelection spells continued growth and continuity leading to the upgrade.
Culture and society, Current affairs
Minister tells Indonesians to uninstall VPNs
Indonesia un-restricts social media, says VPNs no longer needed.
By The Jakarta Post	May 27, 2019
Jokowi winner of elections
The Indonesian General Election Commission have named Joko Widodo winner of the presidential elections.
Jokowi: World leaders congratulate me
Joko Widodo offers rebuke to victory claims from the opposition.
By The Jakarta Post	April 19, 2019
Prabowo declares victory, again
The former military man claims poll win.
Jokowi calls for unity after bitter election battle
Both sides have claimed victory in the last 24 hours.
Joko Widodo blames fake news for electability drop in West Java
Indonesia elections are due later this year.
Current affairs, Environment, Headline-1
Flooding death toll climbs to 50 in Indonesia
Aid agencies say evacuees in 'urgent' need of help.
Universities turn blind eye to sexual harassment, abuse in Indonesia
The Jakarta Post has collaborated with media organizations Tirto.
Culture and society, Headline-1
Feature: The curious case of the Indonesian passport
I will never forget the first time I realized how powerless my Indonesian passport really is.
Lion Air JT610 cockpit voice recorder found
Investigators hope that the discovery will shed new light on the deadly crash.
Current affairs, Environment
Fresh eruption causes panic as search and rescue teams struggle to reach remote villages
Many still have not returned to their homes and are living in makeshift shelters.
By The Jakarta Post	December 26, 2018
Sunda Strait tsunami death toll hits 429
More bodies discovered at sea and as rescuers reach remote areas.
Analysis, Environment, Headline-2
What caused the Sunda Strait tsunami?
A volcanic eruption may have been the cause of the cataclysmic event.
Environment, Headline-1
Sunda Strait tsunami: What we know so far
A round up by the Jakarta Post of what we know so far about the deadly event.
Business, Current affairs, Economics
Indonesia plans to make 30 percent bio-diesel blend mandatory
Studies are ongoing on the correct type of petrol.
Analysis, Environment
Jakarta sinking fast: Experts
Changes must be made or the city faces massive changes within a decade.
By The Jakarta Post	December 6, 2018
Lion Air flight was unfit to fly
A Lion Air flight which crashed in October should not have been in the air, a safety board finds.
By The Jakarta Post	November 29, 2018
Indonesian political parties clash over sharia-based bylaws
Sharia law is once again in the headlines as parties debate its merits and the need for secularism.
Lion Air search focused under water
The search for Lion Air flight JT610 is now focused under water, with 30 skilled divers being deployed to the Java Sea to search for the main body of the aircraft.
At least 11 killed, students missing in North Sumatra floods
At least 11 students have died while another 10 are missing after a flash flood inundated a school building in North Sumatra, on Friday afternoon.
How you can help Indonesia's earthquake survivors
The Jakarta Post has outlined ways you can donate to help the victims of last week's earthquake and tsunami.
Environment, Politics
Finger-pointing over tsunami warning
Indonesia's Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics Agency (BMKG) has stood by its decision to lift a tsunami warning soon after it was issued.
Earthquake survivors struggle to meet daily needs, request govt allowance
As the emergency response period for recent earthquakes comes to an end, survivors continue to struggle with daily needs as they remain displaced from their homes.
By The Jakarta Post	August 27, 2018
Economics, News
Time of reckoning on pace of Belt and Road Initiative
Hundreds of infrastructure projects have been getting off the ground in countries included in China's Belt and Road Initiative, but challenges remain.
By The Jakarta Post	July 6, 2018
Indonesia deserves more presidential candidates
Since the founding of the republic, we have been facing a deficit of candidates for president, forcing the nation to let authoritarianism rule over the country for more than 50 years.
Former Indonesian President Soeharto's most likely successor? How about Prabowo?
Prabowo might be Soeharto's most likely successor.
JAD – the terror group behind Surabaya bombings
JAD, the largest local terror group pledging allegiance to the Islamic State, has played a significant role in the terror attacks.
Similarity between Surabaya church bombings, Sidoarjo bombing
The Islamic State has claimed responsibility for the attack in Indonesia's second-largest city.