The Ptuj Lake is a genuine sea on land. It was formed when the Drava River was damed below Ptuj to serve as an accumulation for the hydroelectric power plant Formin. Measuring 420 hectares, the Ptuj Lake is the biggest Slovenian permanent lake. It is 7.3 km long, in its widest part it measures 1.2 km, its maximum depth is 12 m. Along the lake there are remains of a riverine landscape, which has been protected in the framework of the Šturmovci Nature Park since 1979. It is the home of 230 bird species, among them highly endangered ones, who are dependent on the river dynamics of the rivers Drava and Dravinja. Birds also find a place to nest on the two lake islands, offering home to rare and protected bird species, such as the cormorant, the common tern, the black-headed gull and others.
Along the Ptuj Lake, there is Ranca Marina – the first and the only marina on land in Slovenia. It offers 60 permanent moorings for boats and other vessels with a drift of max 1.3 m. During the boating season – from 1 May to 30 September – visitors can enjoy a panoramic voyage with the Čigra tourist boat, which takes 22 passengers. During the voyage, taking place every day at 5 pm and at 3, 5 and 7 pm on Sundays, you can admire the wonderful sights of the old town of Ptuj and its vicinity. Entry stations are at the marina, at the Gostilna Ribič Inn and in Terme, and since July also in Zabovci. The boat can be hired outside its regular schedule of panoramic rides.
Refreshments are available at the Ranca Bar in the marina, where you can buy different hot and cold drinks, cocktails, snacks and ice cream. For sports enthusiasts there is a playground for beach volleyball, handball or football, where the Beach Master – the biggest international tournament for beach volleyball in Slovenia takes place. On and along the Ptuj Lake there are various interesting events organised: a national kayak championship, the Rancarija event, the Jadro Rance sailing regatta and many other events in the framework of the Summer at the Ptuj Seaside. Every day there are many possibilities for recreation on water or land: water skiing, for which a drag lift is now available (due to a big interest an advance booking by phone is recommended), windsurfing, sailing, kitesurfing, canoeing, kayaking, pedal boats, motor boats and ranch, fishing, beach volleyball, there is a walking trail around the lake, suitable for cycling... Enthusiastic sailors have the possibility of renting two sailing boats J-24 (7.24 m) for the entire day or half a day upon prior notice, accompanied by a skipper or an experienced sailor if requested. The less adventurous can rent a rubber boat powered by an outboard engine or they can turn the pedals of a pedal boat. The Ranca Ptuj Boat Club also rents out canoes or kayaks, making it possible for visitors to row to Terme Ptuj. If you wish the water to carry away all the stress and the strains of your working week, a long ride on the old Drava river bed is the right choice and appropriate recreation for individuals, families and groups. You will also be provided by a transfer of people and all the necessary equipment to the starting point.
Regardless your choice, the Ptuj Lake will delight you – in all the seasons and hours of the day. Romantics are recommended to enjoy the sunset, which is very special on the Ptuj Lake.


• The first live witness against Saddam Hussein testified in an Iraqi court today, after a considerable amount of fireworks in the courtroom. FOX News correspondent Dana Lewis reports the defendant's actions made it clear that he is not enjoying his current predicament.
• And Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld defended the readiness of Iraqi troops to defend their country and criticized in the sharpest terms those who would say otherwise. Bret Baier has the details.
• Plus, Courtney Kealy has a report from Israel, where a homicide bomber blew himself up at an entrance to a shopping mall in Netanya today.
• And, as she left for a trip to Europe, Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice defended the United States' use of renditions in order to gain information from terror suspects. Rice's comments came as European leaders continue to speak out about the U.S.'s alleged use of secret CIA prisons. James Rosen has a report.
• Then, a new report by former members of the 9/11 Commission is critical of what they call the administration's "lack of urgency" related to national security issues. The former commissioners said the U.S. is still vulnerable to attacks, saying that while terrorists are learning and adapting, the feds are moving at a crawl. Jim Angle takes a look at the report.
• And President Bush in address today again touted what he called a strong economy, but said the economy's best days are to come. Wendell Goler has the details.
• In recent weeks President Bush has been more and more critical of Democrats' accusations about the run-up to the war in Iraq. Those remarks alone wouldn't be all that concerning, except that the president has been making the comments to military audiences, but should he be making these remarks to men and women in uniform, who are prohibited from attending partisan political events. Greg Kelly has the story.


text:
Which Target Temperature for Post-Anoxic Brain Injury? A Systematic Review from "Real Life" Studies
The Role of Mental Imagery in Parkinson's Disease Rehabilitation
A Systematic Review of Behavioral, Physiological, and Neurobiological Cognitive Regulation Alterations in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
Schmidt, S.
Wagner, G.
Walter, M.
Stenner, M.
Open AccessOpinion
A Psychophysical Window onto the Subjective Experience of Compulsion
Gerd Wagner
Martin Walter
1,2 and
Max-Philipp Stenner
2,3,*
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Jena University Hospital, 07743 Jena, Germany
Department of Behavioral Neurology, Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology, 39118 Magdeburg, Germany
Department of Neurology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
Brain Sci. 2021, 11(2), 182; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020182
Received: 3 December 2020 / Revised: 19 January 2021 / Accepted: 25 January 2021 / Published: 2 February 2021
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder: Latest Advances and Prospects)
Review Reports Versions Notes
In this perspective, we follow the idea that an integration of cognitive models with sensorimotor theories of compulsion is required to understand the subjective experience of compulsive action. We argue that cognitive biases in obsessive–compulsive disorder may obscure an altered momentary, pre-reflective experience of sensorimotor control, whose detection thus requires an implicit experimental operationalization. We propose that a classic psychophysical test exists that provides this implicit operationalization, i.e., the intentional binding paradigm. We show how intentional binding can pit two ideas against each other that are fundamental to current sensorimotor theories of compulsion, i.e., the idea of excessive conscious monitoring of action, and the idea that patients with obsessive–compulsive disorder compensate for diminished conscious access to "internal states", including states of the body, by relying on more readily observable proxies. Following these ideas, we develop concrete, testable hypotheses on how intentional binding changes under the assumption of different sensorimotor theories of compulsion. Furthermore, we demonstrate how intentional binding provides a touchstone for predictive coding accounts of obsessive–compulsive disorder. A thorough empirical test of the hypotheses developed in this perspective could help explain the puzzling, disabling phenomenon of compulsion, with implications for the normal subjective experience of human action.
obsessive–compulsive disorder; sense of agency; intentional binding; cue integration
Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by obsessions, compulsions, or both. Compulsions include repetitive overt behavior, such as checking, or repetitive mental acts, such as counting, which a person performs in response to an obsession, or following a rigid rule, aiming to reduce distress, or to prevent a dreaded event [1]. Importantly, a defining feature of compulsions is a subjective experience of being driven to these behaviors or mental acts, i.e., a subjective loss of control [2]. Compulsive checking, for instance, is characterized by an overwhelming drive towards seemingly re-assuring, yet unwanted action, a drive that leaves little or no choice. At the same time, patients with OCD often assume, at least implicitly, having more causal influence on the world [3] than they actually do, e.g., an influence on future catastrophic events [4,5], such as magical thinking. Why do patients with OCD experience a loss of control over their own choice, and, at the same time, assume a particularly strong causal influence on the world?
In this perspective, we follow the idea that an answer to these questions, and one way to gain insight into the subjective experience of compulsive action, lies in an integration of classic cognitive models of OCD with contemporary sensorimotor theories of compulsion [6], reviewed in Section 2. We argue that cognitive biases in OCD may obscure an altered momentary, pre-reflective experience of sensorimotor control, at least when experimental observation relies purely on patients' explicit reports of control, e.g., on explicit judgements of agency. To gain insight into this pre-reflective experience, an implicit experimental operationalization of the subjective experience of action and agency is needed instead, one that is more robust to any obscuring effects of cognitive biases than explicit reports to overt inquiry.
We argue that a classic psychophysical test exists that provides this implicit operationalization. This test is the intentional binding paradigm introduced by Haggard et al. [7]. Moreover, we show that intentional binding can pit two ideas that are fundamental to current sensorimotor theories of compulsion against each other. These are the idea of excessive conscious monitoring of action in OCD [8,9,10,11] and the idea that patients with OCD compensate for diminished conscious access to "internal states", including states of the body, by relying on more readily observable proxies [8,12]. These ideas make distinct predictions regarding the cause of an altered experience of action and agency in OCD, and ultimately differ in their implications for therapeutic approaches. We show that intentional binding provides an opportunity to test these predictions, and a useful window onto an altered subjective experience of action and agency in OCD. While some aspects of intentional binding have been tested in a non-clinical population of healthy volunteers, divided into subgroups with relatively high vs. low obsessive–compulsive tendencies [13], the full potential of intentional binding to discriminate between ideas that are fundamental to current theories of OCD has remained unexploited.
We first provide a brief overview on theoretical considerations and empirical evidence in support of the idea that compulsive action is driven, or at least maintained, by an altered subjective experience of sensorimotor function, over and above an undisputed role of cognitive biases. Turning to two ideas that are fundamental to current sensorimotor theories of compulsion, we develop concrete, testable hypotheses regarding altered intentional binding under the assumption of different sensorimotor accounts of compulsion. We discuss to what extent previous experimental work has, and to what extent it has not yet, addressed these hypotheses. Finally, we discuss limitations of intentional binding as a measure of the subjective experience of action and agency in OCD.
2. Altered Experience of Sensorimotor Function in OCD
For several decades, cognitive and metacognitive biases have been a major focus in OCD research. Research into dysfunctional beliefs has provided insight into potential mechanisms of symptom generation and/or maintenance, as well as clinical heterogeneity in OCD [5,14], with implications for treatment [15]. In subgroups of patients with OCD [16], cognitive biases may include an overestimation of threat or vulnerability [17], inflated assumption of responsibility [4], overestimation of the significance of thoughts, including beliefs that a mere thought changes the likelihood of events in the world, or is morally equivalent to carrying out a corresponding action [18], intolerance of uncertainty, and an exaggerated strive for perfection [5].
However, several authors have argued that cognitive biases alone may not sufficiently account for the full spectrum of possible symptoms, and, in particular, may not explain specific phenomenal features of compulsive action. Levy [9], for example, motivates his alternative focus on predictive coding in OCD by previous descriptions of patient subgroups who do not differ in (reported) cognitive biases from healthy individuals [19,20]. Along similar lines, Szalai [6] argues that dysfunctional beliefs do not explain two common features of compulsive action, specifically, the repetitive nature of compulsive behavior, and a feeling of incompleteness of action [21], known to be statistically (at least partly) independent from certain cognitive beliefs [22]. Incompleteness refers to a feeling that an action or intention has not (yet) been properly achieved, a feeling that many patients with OCD have experienced [23].
To accommodate these behavioral and phenomenal features of compulsive action, several authors have argued in favor of altered sensorimotor function, or altered subjective experience of sensorimotor function, in addition to, and interacting with, cognitive biases. These accounts converge on two key ideas: the idea that patients attempt to monitor their actions differently from healthy individuals [8,9,10,24], and the idea that patients have diminished conscious access to "internal states", for which they compensate by relying on observable proxies (see below for a definition of these states in the original model [8,12]). We review these accounts, together with their implications for treatment of OCD, below and in Table 1.
2.1. Abnormal Action Monitoring
Several authors have proposed that patients with OCD differ from healthy individuals in their (conscious) monitoring of, and/or attentional focus on, their own actions [8,9,10,24]. De Haan et al. [10], for example, propose that patients with OCD exert more conscious, deliberate, and reflective control over their own actions, "trying to perform all actions with maximal attention" [25], compared to healthy individuals, who, in turn, are more often pre-reflectively "immersed in […] action". Following the idea of a "hyper-reflexivity trap" [31], de Haan et al. [10] argue that excessive conscious control, e.g., with the goal to reduce uncertainty regarding action completion [25], augments, rather than reduces, insecurity, and thus further amplifies conscious control, driving compulsive repetition in search of re-assurance. Accordingly, improvement of OCD symptoms, e.g., under deep brain stimulation [25], should be accompanied by a reduction in conscious control over (habitual) action [10].
In support of the idea of altered monitoring of action in OCD, Belayachi and Van der Linden [24,26] have provided evidence that compulsive checking may be accompanied by an altered focus in perceiving one's own actions. In their study, checking symptoms in a non-clinical population were associated with a tendency to describe actions in terms of their motoric and mechanistic details, rather than their overarching goals [26]. In reference to Vallacher's and Wegner's Action Identification Theory [32], the authors suggested that this "low-level identification" of action may promote the detection of "inconsistency" and error, and possibly impair "reality monitoring", i.e., discrimination of the intended or imagined from the actually performed action [33]. Indeed, patients with OCD show enhanced electrophysiological responses to performance errors (e.g., Gehring et al. [34]). Enhanced error-related negativity in electroencephalography (EEG) has been proposed as a robust endophenotype of OCD [35], indexing increased sensitivity to errors that may trigger explicit control processes and lead to an error- or harm-avoidant response style associated with tension or distress/anxiety.
Finally, and in line with the idea of altered monitoring of action in OCD, Levy [9] has proposed a predictive coding account of OCD, emphasizing a role of "attention to normally unattended sensory and motor representations". Levy [9] argues that such undue attention in OCD alters the assignment of precision, i.e., certainty, to prior beliefs and sensory evidence (see also Kiverstein et al. [36]), an idea to which we will return in the next two sections.
Similar to the above reviewed accounts by de Haan [10], Belayachi and Van der Linden [11], and Levy [9], Liberman and Dar [8] also assume "a cycle of ever-increasing […] monitoring" in OCD, specifically monitoring of a patient's progress towards their goals. However, in addition to enhanced monitoring attempts, Liberman and Dar [8] argue that patients with OCD also have monitoring difficulties.
2.2. Diminished Conscious Access to "Internal States": The SPIS Model
Following Shapiro's [27] idea of a "loss of conviction" in OCD, Liberman and Dar [8] propose that patients with OCD have diminished (conscious) access to "internal states", which the authors define to include feelings, wishes, and preferences, but also momentary states of the body, in particular as sensed via proprioception [12,28,30]. Importantly, Liberman and Dar [8] assume that patients compensate for this diminished access by relying strongly on "proxies" that are more readily observable, such as behavioral rituals or sensory input from the environment. This is called the "seeking proxies for internal states" (SPIS) model of OCD.
Interestingly, while Liberman and Dar's definitions of "internal states" and of potential "proxies" for these states are both broad and include such diverse categories as wishes, proprioception, and rules, empirical evidence for the SPIS model has come predominantly from studies which examine conscious access to states of sensorimotor systems, and which focus on external stimulation as a putative proxy. For example, in a series of studies, Lazarov et al. [12,29,30] demonstrated that high obsessive–compulsive tendencies in a non-clinical cohort, as well as in subjects diagnosed with obsessive–compulsive disorder, correlated with an over-reliance on visual feedback when participants were asked to produce certain levels of muscle tension, as well as when explicitly estimating and reporting their own muscle tension. Further support for the idea of an imbalance in explicit access to proprioception vs. vision comes from a study by Ezrati et al. [28], who provide evidence that high obsessive–compulsive tendencies may correlate with an over-reliance on visual over proprioceptive feedback when that feedback is used to correct arm movements in a visuomotor rotation paradigm.
While all of the above accounts converge on the idea that compulsive action is characterized by altered explicit monitoring, the SPIS model has potential implications for therapy that are distinct from the other accounts. Following the SPIS model, Lazarov et al. [12,30] argue that training to more accurately monitor "internal states", e.g., training to monitor muscle tension via bio-feedback, may benefit patients with OCD. In contrast, de Haan et al. [10] follow a very different rationale when they argue that too much conscious monitoring, rather than too little (or misguided) conscious access, is driving compulsive action. According to de Haan et al. [10] successful treatment requires attenuating, rather than training, conscious monitoring of action.
2.3. Altered Function of Predictive Models
Feelings of incompleteness, which can accompany compulsive action (e.g., Taylor et al. [22]), may be explained by a very specific sensorimotor monitoring dysfunction, related to predictive internal models. The amplitude of electroencephalographic (EEG) potentials in response to a sensory, e.g., visual, stimulus is smaller when that stimulus is a consequence of one's own action, e.g., a key press, compared to a condition when the same stimulus is passively viewed [37]. This attenuation effect when a stimulus is triggered by one's own action has been explained by assuming that an internal model of the contingency between action and stimulus predicts, and thereby "cancels", actual sensory feedback [38] (but see Brown et al. for an alternative (though predictive) mechanism of sensory attenuation, based on a modulation of precision [39]). Gentsch et al. [40] found that the attenuation of evoked potential amplitude when a visual stimulus was triggered by the participant's key press, compared to a condition when it was passively viewed, was less pronounced in patients with OCD. The authors interpreted this difference between patients and controls as a sign that the formation of internal models, and thus the above "cancellation", are altered in OCD. This idea has attracted considerable attention in Szalai's attempts to integrate sensorimotor function and cognitive biases to describe the sense of agency in OCD [6]. We will return to the idea of altered function of predictive models in OCD in the next two sections.
2.4. Phenomenology and Monitoring
A key challenge is to understand how exactly undue conscious monitoring of action [10,24], over-reliance on proxies [8,29], and/or altered function of internal predictive models [6,40], changes the subjective experience of action and agency in OCD. More specifically, the challenge is to obtain a useful measure of the subjective experience of action and agency in a disorder often characterized by strong cognitive biases. Explicit judgements in response to overt inquiry, including judgements of agency, are likely influenced by such cognitive biases [41]. Gentsch et al. [40], for example, interpreted a trend they observed towards enhanced explicit agency judgements in patients with OCD as a result of a classic cognitive bias to assume inflated responsibility (see also Belayachi and Van der Linden [11]). Furthermore, post-hoc introspective reports, including, in theory, judgements of agency, can be subject to retrospective confabulation [42]. Hence, in a disorder in which beliefs are considered to have a particularly strong influence on subjective experience and behavior [14], explicit reports in response to overt inquiry may not reveal more than a confirmation that these cognitive biases exist, rather than describe a momentary, pre-reflective subjective experience.
Consequently, interpretation of several previous studies into the subjective experience of action and agency in OCD, which were based on explicit reports to overt inquiry, is complicated by a potential confound of a (pre-reflective) experience of sensorimotor function with cognitive biases [24,26,43]. Other studies that (partly) avoid explicit judgements, and instead focus on purely physiological measures, such as the amplitude of evoked responses, on the other hand, require strong, somewhat speculative assumptions of a relation between evoked responses in EEG and the subjective experience of action and agency [40].
Thus, the current OCD literature calls for an experimental operationalization of the subjective experience of action and agency that is implicit, and therefore less prone to the obscuring effect of cognitive biases. Ideally, this operationalization would enable the testing—and pitting against each other— of ideas regarding excessive conscious monitoring, diminished conscious access to "internal states", compensatory over-reliance on observable proxies, and altered internal model function in OCD, as reviewed above.
3. Intentional Binding: A Window onto the Subjective Experience of Action
We propose that a psychophysical phenomenon called intentional binding can provide a useful experimental operationalization in this regard. Intentional binding refers to a contraction of the perceived time interval between one's own motor output and consequent sensory input [7]. For example, the time of a tone is perceived earlier when that tone is caused by a voluntary action, as compared to a condition in which the same tone is presented without voluntary action, i.e., perceived passively, or a condition in which an involuntary movement of the same muscles triggers the tone [7]. The perceived time of a voluntary action, in turn, is bound forward, towards the time of a delayed sensory consequence of that action, e.g., towards a tone triggered by that action after a short delay. Together, these separable phenomena—called "tone binding" and "action binding" in the literature—lead to a contraction of the perceived delay between a voluntary action and its sensory consequence.
Because intentional binding (sometimes called temporal binding) occurs under voluntary, operant conditions, it has frequently been regarded as a phenomenon associated with a sense of agency (see Moore and Obhi [44] for a review). Intentional binding requires both causality and intentionality [45], it depends on the contingency between action and consequence [46], and on prior beliefs of agency [47], and it is attenuated when a person is not free in their choice [48].
Intentional binding can be assessed using a standard psychophysical approach based on the "Libet experiment" [49]. Specifically, participants watch a clock hand rotating at around 0.4 Hz (Figure 1A). In the classic version of the paradigm, there are four conditions. In two conditions, called operant conditions, participants press a button at a time of their own choice and then hear a tone 250 ms later. In separate blocks, they then report the clock hand position they perceived either at the time when they pressed the button, or at the time when they heard the tone. These time judgements are compared to time judgements when the action and the tone are present in isolation, i.e., in the other two conditions, which are called baseline conditions.
We propose that an investigation of intentional binding can provide valuable insight into a pre-reflective experience of agency particularly in OCD, for several reasons. Firstly, intentional binding is an implicit phenomenon. While its experimental operationalization requires explicit time judgements, the effect of interest—a shift in perceived time from baseline to operant conditions—remains unnoticed by participants. Compared to explicit agency judgements, intentional binding is thus assumed to be a pre-reflective phenomenon, and therefore yields insight that is complementary to, rather than confounded with, cognitive biases that are so prevalent in OCD.
Secondly, intentional binding is generally accepted as an indicator of sensed agency [44]. Furthermore, unlike physiological phenomena such as evoked responses, it directly characterizes one aspect of the phenomenology of agency itself, i.e., the subjective experience of time around an action and its consequence.
Thirdly, intentional binding is a compound phenomenon whose component processes are highly relevant to the sensorimotor theories of compulsion reviewed above. Specifically, there are predictive as well as retrospective contributions to the action binding component of intentional binding [50,51]. Moore and Haggard [50], for example, found that the perceived time of a keypress was shifted forward when participants expected a tone presented with high probability, compared to a condition in which the tone was presented with relatively low probability, and therefore less expected. This forward shift of the perceived time of action occurred irrespective of whether a tone was eventually presented or not, providing evidence for a predictive, possibly prospective, component of action binding (Figure 1B, "prospective"). However, presence vs. absence of a tone did change the perceived timing of the preceding keypress in the condition in which tones were presented with relatively low probability. Specifically, presence, compared to absence, of the tone shifted the perceived timing of the preceding keypress forward. Because the tone was presented, or omitted, only after the keypress had already been executed, this forward shift can be interpreted as evidence for a retrospective component of action binding (Figure 1B, "retrospective"). Altered function of predictive internal models in OCD, as proposed by Gentsch et al. [40], may be expected to impact on the predictive component of binding, e.g., manifest as reduced predictive (prospective) binding. An over-reliance on observable "proxies" for "internal states", as in the SPIS model, on the other hand, may be expected to enhance retrospective action binding (see next section).
Additionally, intentional binding depends on the assignment of precision, a process which, as noted above, has received considerable attention in OCD research [9,36]. Specifically, intentional binding has been explained as a process of cue integration, where the contribution of each "cue"—the action, and its sensory consequence—to the perceived time of each event depends on its reliability, i.e., precision [52,53,54]. This, in particular, makes an investigation into intentional binding in OCD highly relevant for discriminating between alternative sensorimotor accounts of OCD, as described in the following section.
4. Intentional Binding as a Touchstone for Sensorimotor Theories of Compulsion
The idea that intentional binding results from cue integration [52,53,54] predicts that the binding effect should change as the precision changes with which an action and its consequence is perceived (Figure 2). Integrating information across the two "cues" seems beneficial when the perception of each cue on its own is somewhat uncertain. Put differently, a common cause of an action and subsequent sensory input (i.e., agency) is likely when the (temporal) disparity between them is not obvious, i.e., when they are perceived with some uncertainty and potential overlap [55]. Similarly, assuming as a "coupling prior" a belief of agency, that coupling prior causes stronger attraction of the two cues when their internal representations are at least somewhat mutable, i.e., uncertain, rather than highly precise [56,57].
Integration would yield little benefit, on the other hand, when perceptual representations of an action and its consequence are highly precise on their own. High precision would emphasize an existing disparity, rather than promote inference of a common cause [55], and weaken an attraction effect of any coupling prior of agency [56,57].
A key regulator of (perceptual) precision is attention (e.g., Vossel et al. [58]). De Haan et al. [25] suggest that patients with OCD pay too much attention to their own action at the time at which that action unfolds. Similarly, Belayachi and Van der Linden [26] assume a misguided focus of attention during action, specifically a focus on its motoric and mechanistic details. Finally, in line with an altered focus of attention, Levy [9] emphasizes a role of altered assignment of precision in OCD. Excessive conscious monitoring of an action, in particular its motoric or mechanistic details, as proposed by De Haan et al. [25], Belayachi and Van der Linden [26], and Levy [9], therefore implies that perception of these details becomes overly precise. Because of enhanced precision, integration of action and sensory consequence should be reduced, resulting in diminished intentional binding (Figure 2, middle row). Furthermore, this increase in precision would be directly detectable as a reduction in variance of time judgements in the intentional binding paradigm (Figure 2, middle row).
The SPIS model, on the other hand, predicts a different pattern of intentional binding. The SPIS model assumes diminished conscious access to internal states, including states of the body as sensed through proprioception, e.g., during movement [28]. Following the idea of a lost "experience of conviction" and, instead, an increase in doubt, as proposed by Shapiro [27], the SPIS effectively assumes an increase in uncertainty, or a loss of precision, as a reason for this diminished access to internal states (Figure 2, bottom row, left distributions). The SPIS model also assumes that patients compensate by enhanced attention to observable proxies, including environmental stimuli. The precision of internal representations of the tone should therefore increase (Figure 2, bottom row, right distributions). Taken together, the SPIS model predicts stronger action binding and weaker tone binding in OCD (Figure 2, bottom row), i.e., interestingly, opposite changes to action binding vs. tone binding. Importantly, the SPIS model also predicts the opposite to the excessive monitoring accounts that do not assume diminished conscious access to "internal states" (see above), specifically regarding the amount of action binding, and the precision of action time judgements. Enhanced action binding due to over-reliance on the tone, following the SPIS model, may even explain, to a certain degree, why patients with OCD assume inflated responsibility, or at least maintain that assumption. Because they serve as "proxies", environmental stimuli may "capture" and bind the subjective experience of an action, even when that action is not the cause of that stimulus.
The SPIS also makes a clear prediction regarding retrospective binding [13]. Because of an over-reliance on the tone as an environmental stimulus serving as a proxy, the SPIS predicts strong retrospective binding (Figure 3B). Prospective (predictive) binding, on the other hand, should be diminished, given a reduced conscious access to predicted future states (Figure 3A). In contrast, excessive monitoring without diminished access, and without over-reliance on proxies, predicts a reduction in both prospective (predictive) and retrospective binding, given that both require uncertainty in perceiving an action, which is reduced due to excessive monitoring (see above; Figure 3A,B). Finally, Gentsch et al.'s [40] and Szalai's [6] ideas of a forward model dysfunction in OCD should also reduce prospective (predictive) binding.
The intentional binding paradigm has been tested in a non-clinical cohort of university students [13], which was divided into subgroups with relatively high vs. low obsessive–compulsive tendencies, as assessed using the Obsessive–Compulsive Inventory-Revised [59]. The authors reported reduced tone binding in individuals with high vs. low obsessive–compulsive tendencies. However, this study by Oren et al. [13] has several important limitations. Firstly, the authors did not examine action binding. This is important, given that action binding, but not tone binding, discriminates the SPIS model from the idea of excessive conscious monitoring without diminished conscious access to internal states, and without over-reliance on proxies (Figure 2, bottom vs. middle row). Secondly, in both subgroups of participants, the authors observed dramatically stronger tone binding than previous studies. Specifically, tone binding in their study was around 10–12 times stronger than in the original report of intentional binding by Haggard et al. [7]. The reason for this large difference remains unclear, and raises concerns regarding plausibility of the observed effect. Thirdly, Oren et al. [13] did not dissociate prospective (predictive) and retrospective binding, despite the potential of these distinct components to disentangle sensorimotor theories of compulsion (Figure 3). They also did not examine the variability of time judgement errors as a measure of precision, even though this parameter is expected to be critically altered in OCD, compared to healthy individuals (Figure 2). Finally, the study provides no direct implications for clinical populations of OCD patients because it was restricted to a non-clinical cohort. For these reasons, Oren et al.'s [13] study does not exploit the full potential of intentional binding as an experimental paradigm that can characterize, in detail, how subjective experience of sensorimotor function is altered in OCD.
5. Precision, Cue Integration, Hyper-Reflexivity: Common Principles of Pathology of a Sense of Agency?
Intentional binding is altered in several neurological and psychiatric disorders. Corticobasal degeneration, for example, which may manifest with symptoms of altered experiences of action such as alien limb phenomena, is characterized by enhanced action binding [60]. Interestingly, this enhancement coincides with increased variability of the time judgement of action, in support of the idea that a core deficit in corticobasal degeneration is an imprecision in neural representations of one's own actions, shifting a balance between time estimates for the action and the tone during cue integration and, thus, altering binding. Along similar lines, an enhancement of intentional binding in schizophrenia [61], and a shift from prospective to retrospective contributions to intentional binding [62], have also been interpretated in a context of altered precision of neural representations of action and sensory consequences [44]. Finally, functional movement disorders, previously considered a disorder of altered precision in a predictive coding/active inference framework [63], are associated with reduced intentional binding, in particular tone binding [64]. Interestingly, a "hyper-reflexivity trap" [31], as assumed in de Haan et al.'s account of compulsive action [10], has also been proposed to underlie functional movement disorder [65]. Our focus on precision in OCD, and its effects on intentional binding via cue integration (Figure 2), is therefore embedded in a broader context of clinical pathology that emphasizes precision as a potential fundamental principle of pathology of a sense of agency. Intentional binding may provide key insight not only into phenomenology, but also into principles of pathophysiology.
On the other hand, previous work in clinical disorders other than OCD points to potential confounds when studying intentional binding in OCD. Enhanced intentional binding in Parkinson's Disease under dopaminergic medication [66] points to an involvement of the dopaminergic system in intentional binding, i.e., a neurotransmitter system also involved in the pathophysiology and treatment of OCD [67]. More than 50% of patients with OCD have psychiatric comorbidities, including mood or anxiety disorders, or tics [68,69]. While not yet formally examined, it is possible that intentional binding is altered in mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder (see, for example, a correlation with scores in the Beck Depression Inventory in Kranick et al. [64]). Zapparoli et al. [70] have shown reduced intentional binding in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Future experimental studies of the hypotheses developed in this perspective should therefore carefully control for psychiatric comorbidities, as well as medication, in OCD.
We think that, for the reasons stated in the previous sections, intentional binding can provide very valuable insight into the pre-reflective subjective experience of sensorimotor function in OCD, and disentangle sensorimotor theories of OCD, with potential implications for future therapy. However, few potential limitations of our reasoning should be kept in mind. Firstly, diminished precision is but one possibility by which conscious access to internal states, such as proprioception or efferent information about imminent movement, could be compromised in the SPIS model. Indeed, Oren et al. [13] imply that a coupling prior of agency, rather than internal representations of an action, may have reduced precision in OCD, and thereby explain the diminished tone binding observed in that study. More generally, the idea that intentional binding results from cue integration has received only partial empirical support. Specifically, Wolpe et al. [53] demonstrated that action time judgements, but not tone time judgements, had higher precision in operant compared to baseline conditions. An increase in precision, however, is a hallmark of cue integration [71]. Instead, tone time judgements were less, rather than more, precise in operant conditions. Yamamoto has argued that both action and tone binding comply with mechanisms of cue integration [52]. To what extent action binding alone, or both action and tone binding, comply with rules of cue integration, remains an open question. Importantly, however, the SPIS model, and the idea of excessive monitoring without diminished conscious access, and without over-reliance on proxies, critically differ in their predictions regarding action binding, while predictions regarding tone binding are identical (Figure 2, middle vs. bottom row). The question whether tone binding, too, results from cue integration is therefore not critical for international binding to be a useful paradigm to understand mechanisms of an altered subjective experience of action in OCD.
How would neuropsychological deficits known to be associated with OCD influence performance in the intentional binding paradigm? Previous work has shown deficits in several neuropsychological domains in OCD, albeit often of small to moderate effect sizes, and of unclear clinical significances [72]. Given the task subjects face during the intentional binding paradigm, deficits in sustained attention, (spatial) working memory, and cognitive flexibility/set-shifting in OCD are particularly relevant to consider. Generally, any effects of these deficits on performance in a typical intentional binding task are expected to influence results in a way that differs substantially from the pattern predicted by the two major models discussed above, i.e., by models assuming excessive conscious monitoring of action, and by the SPIS model. Specifically, it is difficult to explain an increase in precision, i.e., enhanced performance, as predicted by both models, at least regarding time judgement errors for the tone (Figure 2), by a deficit in attention, or in working memory, because these deficits typically decrease precision, i.e., deteriorate performance. Similarly, enhanced perseverance across consecutive conditions, due to impaired set-shifting, is expected to decrease, rather than increase, precision. In addition, in typical intentional binding paradigms, the order of conditions is randomized across participants (e.g., Haggard et al. [7]), such that effects of condition order, including effects of perseverance across conditions, cannot produce systematically biasing effects at the group level. Thus, while a thorough neuropsychological assessment is necessary when testing intentional binding in OCD, typical deficits cannot explain the specific patterns of results predicted by the two models discussed above.
Finally, Moore and Haggard's [50] operationalization of prospective binding remains potentially confounded. The effect labelled as "prospective binding" relies on differences between conditions in predictability of a tone, established via context (Figure 1A). Specifically, keypresses are followed by a tone more frequently in one condition than in the other, so that expectation of a tone is higher. However, expectation may influence action binding retrospectively, i.e., after the action has occurred. For example, when an expected tone is unexpectedly omitted, there is an omission response at the time at which that tone was expected (e.g., Sanmiguel et al. [73]), which could drive the "prospective" component of intentional binding.
Given the prevalence of cognitive biases in OCD, which likely influence explicit reports in response to overt inquiry, including explicit agency judgements, intentional binding can provide a useful implicit operationalization of a pre-reflective experience of agency. In light of an emerging focus on the subjective experience of sensorimotor function in OCD [6,8,9,10,24,29], this implicit operationalization can provide a touchstone for sensorimotor theories of compulsion. Specifically, we have shown how intentional binding can pit ideas of excessive monitoring of action, diminished conscious access to internal states, and over-reliance on observable proxies against each other, ideas that have distinct implications for potential future therapeutic approaches. An empirical test of the hypotheses laid out in this perspective could thus incite a novel view on a puzzling, disabling disorder.
S.S., M.-P.S., G.W., and M.W. conceived the hypotheses laid out in this perspective. S.S. and M.-P.S. wrote the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
M.-P.S. received funding from a Freigeist Fellowship of the Volkswagen Foundation.
We would like to thank Marc Ernst for insightful comments on the basic ideas expressed in the manuscript, and two anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and suggestions.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1. Schematic of the classic intentional binding paradigm (A) and design of a variant of that paradigm, which dissociates prospective and retrospective components of intentional binding (B). p(tone), probability of tone presentation after a keypress.
Figure 2. Intentional binding in healthy individuals (top) and patients with OCD, under the assumption of excessive conscious monitoring of action (middle row) and the "seeking proxies for internal states" (SPIS) model (bottom row). Arrows indicate changes in perceived timing from baseline (light grey) to operant conditions (dark grey).
Figure 3. Prospective (A) and retrospective (B) components of intentional binding of action in healthy individuals (top row) and patients with OCD, under the assumption of excessive conscious monitoring of action (middle row) and the SPIS model (bottom row). Insets on the right represent contrasts used to isolate prospective and retrospective binding, respectively. In (A), the perceived time of action in the 50% tone probability condition (light grey) is aligned in time (x-axis) across groups (healthy controls vs. OCD) to illustrate group differences in a predictive (prospective) shift of the perceived time of action in the 75% tone probability condition (dark grey). In (B), the perceived time of action in the 50% tone probability condition without actual tone presentation (light grey) is aligned in time across groups to illustrate group differences in a retrospective shift of the perceived time of action in the 50% tone probability condition with actual tone presentation (dark grey).
Table 1. Summary of theories of altered subjective experience of sensorimotor function in OCD, together with their implications for treatment.
Altered Monitoring of Action in OCD
Implications for Treatment
Pathological Attempts to Monitor Details of Action to which Humans Normally Have Little Conscious Access "hyper-reflexivity trap" (de Haan et al. [10,25])
low-level action identification (Belayachi & van der Linden [24,26])
altered assignment of precision (Levy [9]) attenuate conscious monitoring of action [10]
Pathologically Diminished Conscious Access to Details of Action "Seeking proxies for internal states" (Liberman & Dar [8,12,27,28,29]) train conscious monitoring of action [12,30]
Publisher's Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Schmidt, S.; Wagner, G.; Walter, M.; Stenner, M.-P. A Psychophysical Window onto the Subjective Experience of Compulsion. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020182
Schmidt S, Wagner G, Walter M, Stenner M-P. A Psychophysical Window onto the Subjective Experience of Compulsion. Brain Sciences. 2021; 11(2):182. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020182
Schmidt, Stefan, Gerd Wagner, Martin Walter, and Max-Philipp Stenner. 2021. "A Psychophysical Window onto the Subjective Experience of Compulsion" Brain Sciences 11, no. 2: 182. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11020182
Brain Sci., EISSN 2076-3425, Published by MDPI

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text:
When was the first Honda Civic type R?
September 20, 2019 Author
1 When was the first Honda Civic type R?
2 What years are the Honda Civic Type R?
3 How many Honda Civic Type R's were made?
4 What is the oldest Honda Civic?
5 Does the FK8 have VTEC?
6 Will there be a 11th Gen Type R?
7 How many ep3s are left?
8 Is Honda Civic a girl car?
9 How many Civic Type your will be produced?
10 What is a Honda Accord Type R?
The 1997 Honda Civic Type R was the first Civic to come equipped with the Type R badge and the performance tweaks that are associated with it. Available only in the Japanese market, the first Civic Type R (CTR) was a potent track car in the form of a three-door hatchback.
What years are the Honda Civic Type R?
When Honda introduced the 2017 Civic Type-R on the market, it ended a 16-year hiatus of rear independent suspension and regained the hot-hatch segment's crown.
Why is the Honda Civic Type R illegal?
10 Doesn't Play By The Rules: 1997 Honda Civic Type R There's a reason why many Americans are so crazy about JDMs. Failing to meet the emission standards, the 1997 Honda Civic Type R remains banned in the States. Of course, the US now has its own Honda Civic Type R as a consolation.
How many Honda Civic Type R's were made?
The Limited-Edition Type R is only available in an exclusive production run of only 600 units.
What is the oldest Honda Civic?
The first generation Civic was introduced in July 1972 as a two-door coupe model, followed by a three-door hatchback that September….
Class Subcompact car (1972–2000) Compact car (2000–present)
What year Type R is best?
Ranking the Best Honda Type R Models to Buy Used
3 2001-2005 Honda Civic Type R EP3.
4 2007-2011 Honda Civic Type R FD2.
5 2015-2016 Honda Civic Type R FK2.
6 2007-2011 Honda Civic Type R FN2.
7 1998 Integra Type R DC2.
8 2001 Integra Type R DC5. Via-Garage Dreams.
9 1998 Accord Type R. Via-Autocar.
10 1992 NSX-R. Via-car.
Does the FK8 have VTEC?
The FK8 still uses the VTEC system, but in a different fashion. That's because Honda did the unthinkable with this car – and the FK2 of course – by fitting it with a turbocharger. At this point, you may be wondering what role VTEC plays in the FK8, as it's the turbo that takes care of the power.
Will there be a 11th Gen Type R?
Honda has shared the first official photos of the next-generation Civic Type R. The new model will arrive in 2022 and is based on the eleventh-generation Civic hatchback. It has similar add-ons as the current model but looks more attractive to our eye due to the new Civic's less tortured lines.
Is the Civic type R overpriced?
The base MSRP of the Civic R has nudged upward by $400, at the same time that Honda has increased its destination fee by $40 for cars, and $55 for trucks and crossovers, spelling out a total price increase of $440 compared to the 2020 model year. …
How many ep3s are left?
HONDA CIVIC TYPE R GT 222
HONDA CIVIC TYPE R I-VTEC 197 206
HONDA CIVIC TYPE R LIMITED EDITION 14
HONDA CIVIC TYPE R MUGEN I-VTEC 146 149
Is Honda Civic a girl car?
Senior Member. As stated, civic is a everyone car due to the natural that it is a staple of the honda cheap entry vehicle.
What type of motor is in a Honda Civic?
The Honda Civic Type R (Japanese: ホンダ・シビックタイプR, Honda Shibikku Taipuāru) is the highest performance version of the Honda Civic made by Honda Motor Company of Japan. It features a lightened and stiffened body, specially tuned engine and upgraded brakes and chassis.
How many Civic Type your will be produced?
As this vehicle is a top-notch special edition, only 600 limited edition 2021 Civic Type R vehicles will be made and sold.
What is a Honda Accord Type R?
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Arcade et al. R-Type is the first game in the series. The series received it's name from the titular R-Series ships; in this case, the R-9A Arrowhead. The "R-Type" refers to Round-Canopy, a trait held by nearly every R-craft ever built.
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Home » Grocers Add Refrigeration Load in Response to Pandemic
Cooling & ChillersCoronavirus Coverage
Grocers Add Refrigeration Load in Response to Pandemic
As grocers adapt to changing consumer shopping habits, they will be remodeling their stores in order to add refrigeration load, including cold storage. Photo courtesy of Danfoss.
Figure 1. Grocers are looking to tools and technology to help monitor and control equipment and systems so that employees can stay focused on providing a positive customer experience. Photo courtesy of Emerson.
Joanna Turpin
KEYWORDS compressor / data / grocery / IOT / refrigeration
This article first appeared on the ACHR NEWS' website on Sept. 1. See the original article in its entirety at https://www.achrnews.com/articles/143717-grocers-add-refrigeration-load-in-response-to-pandemic.
A recent FROSTlines article looked at how food retailers were rapidly adapting to changes brought about by the pandemic. This included accommodating customers who wanted to place their orders online and either pick them up in person — called click-and-collect — or else have those orders delivered to their homes. In either case, stores had to quickly add refrigerated staging areas that could be used to hold the increasing number of online orders that were being placed.
As the pandemic lingers, changes will continue to affect all parts of the cold chain, from food retailers to distribution warehouses. This will give every part of the grocery sector the opportunity to be innovative and perhaps try new technologies that, to date, they have only thought about implementing.
Cold Storage and Controls
As far as cold storage is concerned, Tony Welter, grocery practice director and vice president at Henderson Engineers in Kansas City, Missouri, predicts that the grocery sector is going to see smaller distribution centers in order to address the "last mile" to a customer's home. However, there will likely be a variety of cold storage needs coming with mid-size and large distribution centers.
"Henderson has seen an uptick in grocery cold storage projects in the last year," he said. "Larger cold storage projects can utilize packaged equipment as used in most stores, or they can opt to have a refrigerated plant design. Each client has their own needs when it comes to design, and it is important to present the options and costs in a way an educated decision can be made."
The grocery industry was definitely experiencing growth in distribution warehouse infrastructures even before the pandemic, agreed Katrina Krites, marketing and business development manager, food retail, cold chain at Emerson, and she expects to see this trend continue to support increases in e-commerce fulfillment activities.
"It's likely that we will see continuous innovations in click-and-collect as many retailers experiment with various store formats, including dark stores, micro-fulfillment centers, and automated warehouses," she said. "In many cases, existing stores are not ideally or efficiently laid out to handle large amounts of online orders, and having employees on the sales floor picking to fulfill orders can disrupt the in-store shopper experience. To support this increasing demand, we may see more micro-fulfillment centers and dark stores dedicated exclusively to the fulfillment of online orders."
As retailers integrate more of these types of facilities into their picking and order consolidation processes, ensuring food safety while maintaining fulfillment efficiencies will become increasingly important, said Krites.
"This pandemic has brought even more focus for grocers to increase efforts to protect the health and safety of employees, customers, and food," she said. "As part of this focus, they will look to tools and technology to help them monitor and control equipment and systems so that their employees can stay focused on providing a positive customer experience."
This means greater demand for critical control systems that can identify key refrigeration and facility performance issues, help ensure that periodic air changes are implemented properly, and help grocers to keep food safe and sanitary. Grocers can also leverage tools and technology to do things like enabling connected, warm hand-washing stations for increased sanitation; installing remote, wireless sensors for food quality monitoring; or providing enhanced HVAC controls to help maintain indoor air quality, said Krites.
"The capabilities to perform remote monitoring, troubleshooting, and problem resolution — including predictive failure and maintenance analysis — are becoming essential resources for retailers hoping to schedule service intervals and minimize disruption to in-store shoppers," she said.
In these challenging times, big data, automation, and IoT all have the potential to save food retailers time, money, and energy while preventing food waste, said Peter Dee, sales and services director, North America, Danfoss.
"Connected devices, such as refrigeration system controllers, enable remote alarm monitoring to identify and assess threats to the systems, ensuring food safety around the clock while saving substantial service cost and even more costly down time," he said. "In addition, in-store system managers can collect energy usage and performance data from all connected systems — refrigeration, air conditioning, lighting, and more — enabling food retailers to identify common performance trends among the stores and making incremental improvements across the entire estate."
Opportunities and Challenges
As grocers adapt to changing consumer shopping habits such as click-and-collect, they will likely be remodeling their stores in order to add refrigeration load. This will give them the prime opportunity to move toward lower-GWP refrigerants, said Krites.
"Many retailers have been considering this transition for quite some time but were uncertain about the exact timing," she said. "It would make sense to align store design upgrades with their future refrigerant and sustainability objectives. And in certain areas of the country where grocery demand may be leveling out, many retailers will be well-positioned to invest in equipment or store upgrades."
Glenn Barrett, engineering manager at DC Engineering in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho, agreed, noting he expects grocers deciding to embark on remodels will likely choose equipment that utilizes natural refrigerants (e.g., propane), or lower-GWP/lower-charge systems.
"I expect CO2 condensing units will also become a new option in the refrigeration designer's toolkit," he said. "Not only are they one of the most cost-effective solutions in the low-GWP space, they are also modular, which provides a valuable degree of flexibility in store redesign efforts. As end users balance new store layouts and modifications to existing stores with their ongoing work reducing their carbon footprint, I certainly expect the use of more flexible, environmentally friendly refrigeration design components will increase."
As for challenges, the shortage of refrigeration technicians has been an issue in the grocery store refrigeration industry for years, and technicians becoming sick, along with potential restrictions on site visits, would only exacerbate this issue, said Barrett. That could hinder the ability to keep refrigeration systems operating smoothly, which is why grocers may be interested in new types of equipment and innovative layouts.
"More robust designs and refrigeration system redundancy will become more important the longer the pandemic lingers," he said. "Systems that are running on the ragged edge during an extracted timeline due to the pandemic may fail, and with COVID-19-related shutdowns, one could envision it becoming more difficult to repair and provide replacement parts as well as find technicians to make the repairs."
The good news is that right now, the food chain — which is obviously extremely important to the country — is still intact and functioning at full capacity, said Barrett. But food retailers should not become complacent.
"A few failures at stores that serve vulnerable populations — or are located in 'food deserts' — could become catastrophic to the people who live there," he said. "To offset those risks, food retailers may request more redundancy in their refrigeration system designs, and proactive maintenance would become a valuable improvement to the industry."
That could be good news for refrigeration contractors and technicians, who — as this pandemic has shown — are absolutely essential in keeping the country's cold chain running smoothly.
Recent Articles by Joanna Turpin
The Results Are In: Experts Share A2L and A3 Refrigerant Test Data
New EPA SNAP Rule Proposes Use Of A2L Refrigerants
R-454B Gaining Traction as an R-410A Replacement
Can COVID-19 Be Spread Through HVAC Systems?
Joanna Turpin is a senior editor with the ACHR NEWS. She can be contacted at 248-786-1707 or joannaturpin@achrnews.com. Turpin has been with BNP Media since 1991, first heading up the company's technical book division. She obtained her bachelor's degree in English from the University of Washington and worked on her master's degree in technical communication at Eastern Michigan University.
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text:
Q: How to preserve style of parent I have the following piece of code in a foreach:
FOREACH:

                                            {{ presentationPage.position }}

ENDFOREACH

Which looks like this when rendered:

However, when I add something similar as an element or a div as you can see in the code below:

    FOREACH:

                                            {{ presentationPage.position }}

    ENDFOREACH

The entire thing looks like this when rendered:

And I can't seem to find out why. A simple inspect doesn't bring any insights.

A: That is because the div that you put around the two elements doesn't have a specified width and height. Therefore the div will base its width and height on the size of its content. Then, your two elements will base their width and height on their parent's width and height, so it will get very small.
So if you give the parent div a width and height it should work out okay.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


I spent some mind blowing days in Tulum, Mexico. If it isn't on your bucket list yet, make sure to visit it anytime soon. So worth it. Came back to spring in NYC with a sunkissed skin tone. Winning!
This post was created in partnership with Marc Fisher. Check out their Instagram.
magnificent everything worn here! my love for your taste and blog is impeccable!


text:
package com.urbanairship.automatorutils;

import android.util.Log;

import org.json.JSONArray;
import org.json.JSONException;
import org.json.JSONObject;

import java.util.Map;

public class RichPushSender extends PushSender {

    private static final String RICH_PUSH_BROADCAST_URL = "https://go.urbanairship.com/api/airmail/send/broadcast/";
    private static final String RICH_PUSH_URL = "https://go.urbanairship.com/api/airmail/send/";

    /**
     * Constructor for RichPushSender
     * @param masterSecret The specified master secret for the app
     * @param appKey The specified app key for the app
     * @param appName Name of the application
     */
    public RichPushSender(String masterSecret, String appKey) {
        super(masterSecret, appKey, RICH_PUSH_BROADCAST_URL, RICH_PUSH_URL);
    }

    @Override
    protected String createMessage(String recipientString, String recipientValueString, Map<String, String> extras, String uniqueAlertId) throws JSONException {
        JSONObject jsonPayload = new JSONObject();
        JSONObject jsonPush = new JSONObject();
        if (recipientString != null) {
            JSONArray jsonPushArray = new JSONArray();
            jsonPushArray.put(recipientValueString);
            jsonPayload.put(recipientString, jsonPushArray);
        }
        JSONObject jsonAlert = new JSONObject();
        jsonAlert.put("alert", uniqueAlertId);
        if (extras != null) {
            JSONObject jsonExtras = new JSONObject(extras);
            jsonAlert.put("extra", jsonExtras);
        }
        jsonPush.put("android", jsonAlert);
        jsonPayload.put("push", jsonPush);
        jsonPayload.put("title", "Rich Push " + uniqueAlertId);
        jsonPayload.put("message", "Rich Push Message " + uniqueAlertId);
        jsonPayload.put("content-type", "text/html");

        return jsonPayload.toString();
    }

    /**
     * Sends a rich push message to a user
     * @param user The specified user id to send the rich push message to
     * @return A unique alert Id
     * @throws Exception
     */
    public String sendRichPushToUser(String user) throws Exception {
        Log.i(TAG, "Send message to user: " + user);
        return sendMessage(RICH_PUSH_URL, "users", user, null);
    }

    /**
     * Sends a push message to an APID
     * @param apid The specified apid to send the push message to
     * @return A unique alert Id
     * @throws Exception
     */
    @Override
    public String sendPushToApid(String apid) throws Exception {
        Log.i(TAG, "Send message to apid: " + apid);
        JSONObject jsonAudience = new JSONObject();
        jsonAudience.put("apid", apid);
        return sendMessage(RICH_PUSH_URL, "audience", jsonAudience.toString(), null);
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Q: Authcode for Alexa BDD Tests using LWA During Accountlinking, Alexa server initiates a Acceptgrant API with its Authcode so that it can be exchanged to Access Token. I want to test my API which accepts the Authcode
(postman or BDD Tests). How can we generate this ?  It would be really helpful for automated tests.
I have tried LWA with AWS JS SDK. We need to whitelist the server in security profile. This basically opens a browser instance and appends a Authcode to the redirect_uri. Is there any other way than this? I read about CLI where we can get accesstoken but not authcode.
Also when we create a skill it generates a ClientId. Are there any security profiles for this ClientId ? How can I whitelist my server for this ClientId ? I didnt find a way to link this client ID to security profile.
Some more info:
I will elaborate a bit more. Basically Alexa sends a AcceptGrant directive during account linking when user enables the skill from alexa UI. AcceptGrant consists of Authcode so that User/bussiness(smart device manufacturer cloud) can get accesstoken using LWA. So now the bussiness has API exposed which accepts a Authcode. Now i am trying to test this API. Currently i dont find a way to generate this token.
If i generate authcode with LWA flow , this requires a redirect_uri. But if i use the code which is sent by Alexa (during accountlinking flow) , it doesn't require redirect_uri. From this page
https://developer.amazon.com/docs/login-with-amazon/authorization-code-grant.html#access-token-request
if i use AWS JS SDK it doesnt require a redirect_uri for access_token request. When i tried AWS JS to generate authcode, i get an secuirty error asking user to whitelist the domain. And i dont find a way to whitelist the client_id of Alexa to a security profile.

A: In skill linking, linking out from a skill to a 3p server, Alexa handles the auth code exchange and retrieves the access token for you. The auth code is never exposed to the skill because you don't need it.
It's only good once. After that, you use the refresh token returned when the auth code was used.
Maybe if you describe the use case you're trying to accomplish and why you believe you need the code, it'll be possible to give you more useful help.


text:
Yun Il-lok (ur. 7 marca 1992 w Gwangju) – południowokoreański piłkarz występujący na pozycji napastnika we francuskim klubie Montpellier HSC oraz w reprezentacji Korei Południowej.

Kariera klubowa

Gyeongnam FC
Jest wychowankiem akademii Gyeongnam FC. W 2011 roku został przeniesiony do pierwszej drużyny. W klubie zadebiutował 13 marca 2011 w meczu K League 1 przeciwko Ulsan Hyundai FC (1:0). Pierwszą bramkę dla drużyny zdobył 3 kwietnia 2011 w meczu ligowym przeciwko Incheon United FC (2:1). W sezonie 2011 wraz z zespołem dotarł do półfinału ostatniej edycji Pucharu Ligi Korei Południowej, po którym odpadli z turnieju po porażce z klubem Ulsan Hyundai FC (4:2). W sezonie 2012 jego drużyna dotarła do finału rozgrywek o Puchar Korei Południowej, w którym przegrała z Pohang Steelers (1:0).

FC Seoul
W 2013 roku zmienił barwy klubowe na FC Seoul. Zadebiutował 26 lutego 2013 w meczu fazy grupowej Azjatyckiej Ligi Mistrzów przeciwko Jiangsu Sainty (5:1), w którym zdobył dwie bramki. W K League 1 zadebiutował 2 marca 2013 w meczu przeciwko Pohang Steelers (2:2). Pierwszą bramkę w lidze zdobył 1 czerwca 2013 w meczu przeciwko Jeonnam Dragons (3:0). W sezonie 2013 jego drużyna dotarła do finału Azjatyckiej Ligi Mistrzów, w którym ostatecznie przegrała przez zasadę przewagi bramek w meczach wyjazdowych po dwumeczu z Guangzhou Evergrande (2:2) i (1:1). W sezonie 2014 jego klub dotarł do finału Pucharu Korei Południowej, w którym przegrał z Seongnam FC (0:0, k. 2:4). W tym samym sezonie klub FC Seoul dotarł do półfinału Azjatyckiej Ligi Mistrzów, przegranego po dwumeczu z Western Sydney Wanderers FC (0:0) i (2:0). W sezonie 2015 wraz z drużyną zdobył Puchar Korei Południowej, po zwycięstwie w finale z Incheon United FC (3:1). W sezonie 2016 jego klub zajął pierwsze miejsce w tabeli K League 1 i zdobył tytuł mistrza Korei Południowej. W tym samym sezonie FC Seoul dotarł do finału Pucharu Korei Południowej, w którym przegrał po dwumeczu z Suwon Samsung Bluewings (2:1) i (2:1, k. 9:10).

Yokohama F. Marinos
7 stycznia 2018 podpisał kontrakt z Yokohama F. Marinos. W barwach klubu zadebiutował 25 lutego 2018 w meczu J1 League przeciwko Cerezo Osaka (1:1). W sezonie 2018 wraz z drużyną dotarł do finału Pucharu Ligi Japońskiej, w którym przegrał z zespołem Shonan Bellmare (1:0).

Jeju United FC
10 lutego 2019 udał się na roczne wypożyczenie do drużyny Jeju United FC. W klubie zadebiutował 29 marca 2019 w meczu K League 1 przeciwko Ulsan Hyundai FC (2:1). Pierwszą bramkę zdobył 27 kwietnia 2019 w meczu ligowym przeciwko Sangju Sangmu FC (2:3). 10 lipca 2019 w meczu ligowym przeciwko swojemu byłemu klubowi – FC Seoul, zdobył hat tricka (4:2). W sezonie 2019 jego zespół zajął ostatnie miejsce w lidze i spadł do niższej klasy rozgrywkowej.

Montpellier HSC
17 stycznia 2020 podpisał kontrakt z Montpellier HSC. W barwach klubowych zadebiutował 5 lutego 2020 w meczu Ligue 1 przeciwko FC Metz (1:1).

Kariera reprezentacyjna
W 2013 roku otrzymał powołanie do reprezentacji Korei Południowej. Zadebiutował 20 lipca 2013 w meczu fazy grupowej Pucharu Azji Wschodniej 2013 przeciwko reprezentacji Australii (0:0). Pierwszą bramkę zdobył 28 lipca 2013 w meczu towarzyskim przeciwko reprezentacji Japonii (1:2). W 2014 roku wraz z reprezentacją Korei Południowej U-23 zdobył złoty medal na Igrzyskach Azjatyckich 2014. Następnie w 2017 z pierwszą kadrą zdobył Puchar Azji Wschodniej 2017, a dwa lata później powtórzył ten sukces zdobywając Puchar Azji Wschodniej 2019.

Statystyki

Klubowe
 (aktualne na dzień 12 listopada 2020)

Reprezentacyjne
 (aktualne na dzień 12 listopada 2020)

Sukcesy

FC Seoul
  Puchar Korei Południowej (1×): 2015
  Mistrzostwo Korei Południowej (1×): 2016

Reprezentacyjne
  Igrzyska Azjatyckie (1×): 2014
  Puchar Azji Wschodniej (2×): 2017, 2019

Uwagi

Przypisy

Bibliografia

Reprezentanci Korei Południowej w piłce nożnej
Piłkarze Gyeongnam FC
Piłkarze FC Seoul
Piłkarze Yokohama F. Marinos
Piłkarze Jeju United FC
Piłkarze Montpellier HSC
Ludzie urodzeni w Gwangju
Urodzeni w 1992

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Christopher Kiloh Fai Nsahlai (30 December 1943 – 18 April 2008) was a Cameroonian politician and diplomat. A member of the Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM), he was Cameroon's Ambassador to the Central African Republic from 1985 to 2001, Minister of Transport from 2001 to 2002, and Board Chairman of the Autonomous Port of Douala from 2006 to 2008.

Political and diplomatic career
Nsahlai, a member of the Nso ethnic group, was born in North West Province. After serving as Chargé de mission under Prime Minister Paul Biya from 1975 to 1982, he was First Councillor at the Cameroonian Embassy in West Germany from 1982 to 1984. He was appointed by Biya (who was by this point President) as Assistant Secretary-General of the Presidency of the Republic, with the rank of Minister, in 1984; he was then moved to another diplomatic post in 1985, when he was appointed as Ambassador to the Central African Republic.

Nsahlai wrote a book, Look Up To The Mountain: Beyond Party Politics, while he was Ambassador to the Central African Republic. Although the book stirred controversy among the political establishment for its independent outlook, President Biya took no action against him; some argued that this indicated that dissenting and minority viewpoints were tolerated in the CPDM.

Nsahlai remained Ambassador to the Central African Republic until Biya appointed him to the government as Minister of Transport on 27 April 2001. He remained in the latter post until August 2002, when John Begheni Ndeh was appointed to replace him. Nsahlai helped to create the Bui Common Development Platform, which his supporters credited with improving the CPDM's performance in Bui during the 2002 parliamentary election. He was appointed as the head of a CPDM reforms commission in November 2003. Later, on 24 January 2006, Nsahlai was appointed as Board Chairman of the Douala Port Authority].

Nsahlai worked to persuade the CPDM Central Committee to create a separate Section of the CPDM for Jakiri and campaigned for the party in Jakiri during the July 2007 parliamentary election. After the CPDM won the 2007 election in Jakiri, Social Democratic Front (SDF) Chairman John Fru Ndi alleged on Cameroon Radio and Television's Cameroon Calling that Nsahlai had intimidated voters with gunfire. Nsahlai denied this allegation and said that he did not even know how to use a gun.

Nsahlai, who held various traditional Nso titles, participated in a festival marking Ngonnso, a Nso cultural event, in April 2008, and he hosted a traditional Nso warriors' dance on 12 April. Soon afterwards, suffering from fever and pains, he died at a private clinic in Yaoundé on 18 April 2008, reportedly after injuring his foot. His body was taken from Yaoundé General Hospital on 8 May, and after a wake was held at his home in Yaoundé, the body was moved to Jakiri, where another wake was held. His funeral was held on 10 May. Deputy Prime Minister Jean Nkuete was present at the funeral, representing President Biya, and he posthumously conferred the title of Commander of the Cameroon Order of Valour on Nsahlai.

Nsahlai also served for a time as President of the National Scout Movement.

References

1943 births
2008 deaths
Government ministers of Cameroon
Cameroon People's Democratic Movement politicians
Ambassadors of Cameroon to the Central African Republic
Recipients of the Order of Valour


Our ground stabilisation techniques involve driving small, specialist injection lances into mobile ground consisting of loose soils and gravels. After agreeing the most appropriate resin with a client, we use a continual systematic injection and reaction technique to carefully monitor the stabilisation process.
Once injected, our resins undergo a chemical reaction, changing from a low-viscosity liquid to a solid. This process begins with foaming to four times the injection volume, which helps to significantly reduce the volume and weight of the injection product. This compacts and stabilises the surrounding loose soil.
When a structure is due to receive increased loads – for example when installing heavier machinery in a factory, or adding a loft conversion to a building – our ground stabilisation techniques can be applied. We compact soft soil layers to impede subsidence and provide better support for ground structures.


Is there a way to upgrade an OES2015 server with installed GW2014 to OES2018? ... and how?
Upgrading to OES2018 also installs Apache2.4 which breaks GW2014 install.
First upgrading GW to GW18 is possible but again the following upgrade to Apache2.4 breaks GW install.


text:
Tom Clarke Delighted To Be Back In Pre-Season Training
Tom Clarke says that the new players have instantly blended in to the Lilywhites' squad after meeting for the first time on the opening day of pre-season.
Clarke was speaking to PNE.Com from North End's Springfields training ground, and he is pleased to be back with his team-mates new and old as the countdown to the 2014/15 season cranks up a notch.
"I was looking forward to getting back for pre-season training," said Clarke.
"The last couple of days in the build-up to it have been good, and I'm looking forward to meeting all the new lads and getting on with training – it is a season I am looking forward to.
"With the gaffer, he brings good players in but also good players who can fit in with what we have got already and that's what he has done again.
"The new lads have fitted in straight away and it feels like they have been here for a long time so that is brilliant.
"That's what he does the gaffer; he brings in good players but also good characters."
Clarke knows a couple of new faces better than most, being joined this season by summer capture Calum Woods and former Huddersfield Town fitness coach Tom Little who has been added to the North End backroom staff for the season ahead.
And last season's PNE No.5 believes both will bring a great deal to the table at Preston.
He continued: "With Tom Little the fitness coach, he is very good.
"I had a couple of pre-seasons with him and we had good seasons and hardly any injuries, so touch wood that happens again and he brings a lot of experience.
"The same can be said for Calum Woods.
"He has played at Championship level and has a lot of experience and is someone that can play in a lot of positions."
This summer has been a busier one for Clarke than for most, with the small matter of his wedding following the end of the 2013/14 campaign.
And despite how that season ended, Clarke is ready to put it out his memory and focus on the job in hand of securing Championship football at Deepdale once more.
"The Play-Offs were still on my mind even on my wedding day," stated Clarke.
"It was something that was frustrating, that we couldn't go that one extra step, but you have got to dust yourself down now.
"It is going to be another tough season, the teams that have come up are good teams and the ones that have come down are good, so it is going to be an equally tough season but we have to be up near the Play-Offs and the top two again.
"My wedding was a brilliant day, I couldn't have asked for a better day.
"It was red hot and she turned up which was good!
"It was a brilliant day and nice to get away on honeymoon but it is good to be back now."
Tom Clarke