text:
\section{Introduction}
Correlating independent observations of the same event is at the heart of the scientific quest for revealing the laws of nature. Investigations of how local timescales can be connected in space consequently are pivotal for advancing science. This is the scientific field of time transfer.\\Time transfer can be established using different transmission channels. Transfer via satellites \cite{bauch2006,piester2008}, which typically involves microwave carriers, currently is the only means of achieving global time transfer. On the other hand earth bound optical synchronisation and time transfer via silica fiber links recently has met increased interest, benefiting from high frequency resolution and a low instability \cite{kim2008,whiterabbit, rost2012,lopez2012time,wang2012,sliwczynski2013}.\\At present, time transfer is performed using mainly three approaches \cite{levine2008}: one-way time transfer, two-way time transfer and common-view time transfer. In one-way transfer, a timing signal derived from a local timescale is sent from a local station to a remote one, where it is used for a comparison to the remote timescale; here the path delay experienced by the time signal is assumed to be known with sufficient accuracy by some other means. In two-way transfer, both stations exchange timing signals derived from their respective time scales. The signals are constructed such that timestamps for the reception and transmission of the time signals can be derived for both timescales. From this, the path delay is derived as half of the round-trip travel time \cite{rost2012,levine2008}. In the common-view approach, a ``transfer clock'' is observed by both stations. Adding the transfer of a high-frequency signal and phase measurements \cite{whiterabbit,sliwczynski2013,levine2008} typically allows for a higher resolution. Evaluating the phase of an oscillation at a stable frequency of $1/T$ for time transfer requires some ``pre-synchronisation'' to better than $T$ for avoiding ambiguity. A more detailed discussion of the different approaches can be found in \cite{levine2008}.\\Here we would like to propose and demonstrate a further approach, which we hope to be a useful addition to the toolbox of time transfer. It is based on the actively stabilized transfer of a linearly chirped frequency, counted at both ends of the link. This is illustrated schematically in fig. \ref{fig:generalscheme:activepassive}. The key ingredients are the transmission of a linearly chirped frequency and an active phase stabilization of the link to suppress the effect of the path delay.\\The frequency counters used at the ends of the transmission path define their gate times from a reference oscillator connected to the counters. Here we use a 10 MHz oscillation derived from a hydrogen maser. These gates here are used in analogy to the 1 PPS signals tyically used in metrological time transfer. This grid of internal gates can be related to a grid of 1 PPS signals derived from a clock. Measuring the synchronisation via chirped frequency transfer provides a means for time transfer independent from e.g. the global positioning system (GPS) and can be used to check the results of satellite time transfer.\\Here, we remotely measure the synchronisation of remote counters' gate intervals without using an external time reference. The results are directly applicable to the remote synchronisation of frequency measurements, e.g. for link characterization \cite{predehl2012}, synchronous sampling \cite{takamoto2011,hinkley2013} or \textit{a posteriori} correlation of frequency noise \cite{calosso2013}.\\
The approach demonstrated here does not require a measurement and calibration of the symmetrical path delay \cite{sliwczynski2013} and can be integrated easily into standard setups for optical frequency transfer. Also, it does not require a specialized correlator to exploit pseudo-random codes  \cite{rost2012,lopez2012time} or intricate chirps \cite{boumard2009}. The timing offset is obtained directly from the difference of the frequencies measured at both ends of the links. Using techniques for frequency extraction \cite{grosche2013,bercy2014}, its application can be generalized to network configurations. Its range of unambiguousness can be made ``arbitrarily'' large. It allows for a straighforward definition of simultaneity of remote locations of variable frequency sources, and is well adapted to synchronisation in frequency transfer. Though not demonstrated here, it is expected to intrinsically address the situation of synchronisation measurements between different inertial frames.

\section{Chirped frequency transfer}
Chirped frequency transfer relies on evaluating supposedly ``simultaneous'' measurements of a chirped frequency by two observers, where this frequency is transmitted by the local observer to the remote observer via a phase stabilized link. Here we assume that the timescales of the local end (sender) and the remote end (receiver), $t'1,t'2$ in fig. \ref{fig:generalscheme:activepassive}, are realized using the gates of the local and remote frequency counter.\\From the difference $\Delta\omega$ of the beat frequencies measured at the local end and at the remote end, and from the constant frequency slope $k=\dot\omega$ at the local end, the timescale offset $\Delta t$ is determined as:
\begin{equation}
\Delta t = \frac{\Delta\omega}{k}.
\label{eq:deltaT}
\end{equation}
In eq. \ref{eq:deltaT} we assume, that the time at both ends ``flows at the same speed''. This can be realized e.g. by the stabilized transfer of a constant frequency from the local end to be used for driving the remote frequency counter.\\For achieving a more general form of eq. \ref{eq:deltaT}, we would allow for a time varying scaling factor $\gamma(t)$ of the timescale at the remote end with respect to that at the local end. In this case, eq. \ref{eq:deltaT} would become:
\begin{equation}
\Delta t(t) = \frac{\Delta\omega(t)}{k} = (1-\gamma(t))t+\Delta t.
\label{eq:deltaT:general}
\end{equation}
The most simple example would be oscillators running at slightly different frequencies being used to drive the local and remote frequency counters, thus leading to a constant scaling factor. In these cases, the remote timescale would need to be corrected for $\gamma$, derived e.g. from the slope of the observed frequency difference $\Delta\omega(t)$. Synchronisation is then obtained by shifting the remote timescale such that $\Delta t = 0$. Consequently simultaneity of the measurements at remote locations means $|\omega_1(t'_1) - \omega_2(t'_2)| = \mathrm{const.} = 0$ for $t'_1 = t'_2= t$ and $\gamma(t) = \gamma_0 = 0$.\\
In the proof-of-principle experiment presented here, we realize the case of eq. \ref{eq:deltaT} by performing a loop experiment and using co-localized counters driven by the same oscillator, see fig. \ref{fig:generalscheme:loop}. As will be demonstrated below, active phase stabilization \cite{williams2008} intrinsically adapts to and suppresses symmetrical effects, such as those related to the path length delay along the link. It is interesting to note, that this also applies to synchronisation measurements between different inertial systems, i.e. systems moving at some relative velocity: The backreflected signal reflected off the mirror located in the remote inertial system experiences twice the Doppler shift seen by the remote observer. Therefore the Doppler effect caused by a relative motion at a constant velocity plays the same role as the changing path delay. The Doppler effect adds to it, and hence is expected to being corrected for accordingly by the stabilization. This directly corresponds to the situation of phase-stabilized frequency transfer in a free-space ground to satellite link \cite{djerroud2010,chiodo2013}, which could be extended to time transfer.\\In this paper, however, we restrict ourselves to a practically constant path delay. In the sense that effects of symmetrical delays are intrinsically suppressed, we achieve a ``Zero delay-effect''-link.\\
In the following we will describe the proof-of-principle experiment, where we transfer a linearly chirped optical frequency via an underground fiber link of around 149 km. For the interested reader, we will first technically describe the setup of the optical proof-of-principle experiment in detail. We then demonstrate the transfer of the chirped frequency. In a third step we will demonstrate the remote measurement of the synchronisation between the local and the remote timescale, as represented by the gates of the respective frequency counters.

\subsection{Experimental Setup}
\label{Setup}
The optical setup is shown schematically in figure \ref{fig:scheme}. To facilitate verification of the results, a pair of single mode, standard telecom silica fibers connecting PTB (Braunschweig/Germany) and Leibniz University (Hanover/Germany) are patched to form a loop. Both ends of the loop are located in the same laboratory at PTB. Two infrared fiber lasers (L1, L2; around 194.4 THz / 1542 nm) are phase locked to the same master laser (M). This allows full control over their relative frequency. In the lock of L1, the reference radio frequency (rf) delivered by a direct digital synthesizer (DDS; AD9956, 400 MHz clock, 48 bit) can be tuned (step size here around 23.84 Hz). Thereby the optical frequency of L1 is tuned relative to that of L2. The applied frequency tuning here is about $\pm$238 418.6 Hz/s over a range of 20 MHz. Here, in between the chirps there is also an interval of about 30 s, where the frequency remains constant (see fig. \ref{fig:unstabilized:stabilized}, blue curve).\\
For stabilization of the fiber link \cite{williams2008}, the light enters a fiber Michelson interferometer. It is formed by the 149~km fiber link, and a second, short fiber arm serving as a reference for the phase of the light travelling along the link and back. For correcting for the measured deviations, an acousto-optic modulator is used at the input of the fiber link. Care is taken to place the photodetectors for the local and the remote beat at about the same distance with respect to the respective, local Faraday rotator mirror to within 0.02 m. The total systematic uncertainty of the delay due to path length differences is estimated conservatively as 250 ps. The differential delay between the photodetectors is measured by simultaneously detecting the same beatnote on both detectors. It amounts to $(450\pm100)$~ps.\\Unless e.g. an optical clock is located at both ends of the link, also the constant frequency of L2 would have to be transferred to the remote end \cite{predehl2012,williams2008,lopez2012frequency}. At the remote end, the beat frequency $\omega2(t'2)=|\nu_{\mathrm{L1}}-\nu_{\mathrm{L2}}|$ could be detected either directly on a photodetector, or a virtual beat frequency could be obtained using heterodyne detection and an optical transfer oscillator \cite{telle2002}. The transfer of the frequency could be done either on the second fiber of the pair or, taking advantage of common mode suppression of fiber noise, in the same fiber. This can be implemented by using radio frequency transfer \cite{lopez2010} or single-sideband \cite{schediwy2012} or two-carrier transfer using e.g. appropriate optical \cite{rohde2013,zou2013} or rf filters for the inloop beat notes. In these implementations, the residual unsuppressed fiber noise of the long link would be common mode to both transferred frequencies. Also, at the remote end $\nu_{\mathrm{L2}}$ could be used further for the remote generation of a local ``timetick'' by deriving an ultrastable radio frequency from it using a frequency comb \cite{fortier2011}.\\In this proof-of-principle experiment only the varying frequency of L1 is transferred over the link. Separate, short pieces of unstabilized fiber guide the light of L2 to the photodetectors, see fig. \ref{fig:scheme}. Here, in the absence of common mode suppression the residual unsuppressed fiber noise of the 149 km link fully enters the result.\\Two separate, dead-time free frequency counters operated in $\Lambda$-mode \cite{kramer2001,dawkins2007} are used to measure the local and remote beat frequencies. The counters are connected to the same reference source (10 MHz, derived from a hydrogen maser). We change their timing offset by switching them on at arbitrary points in time and by changing the length of the cable delivering the 10 MHz driving frequency.\\In the following we first discuss the results of high fidelity transfer of the chirped frequency, before presenting the results from synchronisation measurements.

\subsection{Simultaneity of the Chirped Frequency}
\label{sec:results}
The simultaneity of the local and remote frequencies for stabilized frequency transfer is illustrated in fig. \ref{fig:unstabilized:stabilized} as discussed in the following.\\For the unstabilized case, see panel a), we observe an inloop beat frequency offset of $\pm(348.8\pm1.3)$ Hz, where the uncertainty is given by the instability (modified Allan deviation) of the frequency values. From the frequency slope of around 238~418.6~Hz/s, the inloop beat frequency offset corresponds to a signal delay of around $1.463\pm0.006$~ms. Using a group index of refraction of 1.468 as specified for SMF28 fibre, this yields a length of the round-trip of $(298.8\pm1.1)$~km. This agrees with a one-way length of around 148.8 km, obtained from optical time domain reflectometry.\\
For the stabilized case, the absence of such a delay related frequency offset is illustrated by the inloop beat frequency shown in panel b) of figure \ref{fig:unstabilized:stabilized} (red curve; note the difference in scales).\\
For data analysis, only the central $\pm8$ MHz of each chirp (blue curve) are used, corresponding to a chirp time of 67 s. No further data are rejected. Note that from eq. \ref{eq:deltaT}, when averaging over frequency chirps of opposite sign, a constant time delay would cancel out when calculating the average of the frequency difference offset $\Delta \omega$, while for the calculation of $\Delta t$ a constant frequency offset cancels out.\\In a first step, the remote and the local beat frequencies both are measured simultaneously on the \emph{same} counter (figure \ref{fig:unstabilized:stabilized}, black curve). This allows determining the instability and accuracy of the frequency transfer, i.e. the simultaneity of the frequencies at both ends. We calculate the unweighted mean and the Allan deviation of the frequency difference offset, as well as the modified Allan deviation of $\Delta\omega$ \cite{dawkins2007,riley2008}, shown in figure \ref{fig:ADEV:samecounter}.
The modified Allan deviation (modADEV) initially averages down slightly faster than for pure white phase noise \cite{droste2013}, and is $\propto1/\sqrt{\tau}$ for large $\tau$, because of averaging over separate frequency intervals. The unweighted average value of the fractional frequency difference is $1.92\times 10^{-19}$ (around 73000 data points of 1~s averaging time each, not including the ``dead time'' data points in between the analysed parts of the chirps). While this compares well with results from long-distance stable frequency transfer \cite{predehl2012,droste2013}, this value is slightly larger than that of the last point on the instability curve (Allan Deviation at an interval of 18000 s), which is $1.62\times 10^{-19}$ (modADEV: $1.25\times 10^{-19}$), and may hint at a systematic offset on the $10^{-19}$-level. Individually, the mean fractional frequency values for chirps with opposite sign are $+9.22\times 10^{-19}$ and $-5.38\times 10^{-19}$. These offsets indicate the presence of undetected, chirp-dependent effects. In particular delays introduced in the process of detection of the local and remote beat signal are not detected and are not suppressed by the stabilization. We have identified the tracking oscillators as a significant and variable source of delay not related to the link, and their differential delay is calibrated at each measurement run.

\subsection{Remote Synchronisation Measurement}
For demonstrating the remote measurement of timescale synchronisation, the remote and local beat frequencies are measured on \emph{different} counters.\\
Between the runs we change the offset between the frequency counters' timescales by briefly interrupting the reference of one of the counters, and by changing the cable length. Also, we swap the counters between measurement run 1 and 2. We perform three separate measurement runs, lasting for around 36.5 hours, 11 hours and 12.5 hours, respectively.\\To assess the accuracy of the synchronisation measurement, for each run we obtain reference values by directly connecting both counters to one tracking oscillator tracking the chirped output of the DDS. We determine the reference value for the offset of the ``timescales'', represented by the gates of the frequency counters, from this direct side-by-side measurement. This is done by performing the chirped frequency analysis according to eq. \ref{eq:deltaT}, i.e. using the same analysis as for the case of optical frequency transfer. For this laboratory measurement, we obtain a statistical uncertainty of around 1~ps and a systematic uncertainty of order 10~ps. This constitutes a method for precise synchronisation of frequency counters over short distances. When measuring the reference values, care is taken to use the same electrical cables as in the measurement via the link.\\Furthermore, the counters offer the feature to directly extract a copy of their internal 1 pulse-per-millisecond (1 pp-ms) grid. This allows obtaining a second, coarse reference value by measuring the 1 pp-ms signals on a digital oscillocope. In the process, we discovered an internal asymmetry of the two counters' internal processing of the 10 MHz reference. This led to a total asymmetry of around 16 ns between the internal 1 pp-ms grid and that measured externally, which is corrected for.\\The corrected data of the first run are shown in figure \ref{fig:timedifference:localremote}. Figure \ref{fig:timedifference:localremote}a shows the scatter of the data for pairs of one positive and one negative chirp. Each data point therefore corresponds to an analysed chirp time of about 134 s, while the total chirp time per ramp pair would be about 3 min and the total measurement interval per ramp pair is about 4 min, including the times of unchirped frequency. Figure \ref{fig:timedifference:localremote}b shows the according time deviation (TDEV) as a measure of statistical uncertainty \cite{rost2012}. The time deviation seems to reach a flicker floor below 200 ps, where the last point of the TDEV is 140 ps. The mean of the corrected data shown in fig. \ref{fig:timedifference:localremote}a is around 140 ps, comparable to the uncertainty given by the instability.\\
 The results of all three runs are listed in table \ref{tab:results}. The corrections applied to the synchronisation measurement via the link are those arising from the calibration of the differential delay introduced by the tracking oscillators and for the differential delay introduced by the remote and inloop photodetectors. The systematic uncertainties include the sensitivity of the results to determining the frequency slope from the data using either the previous or the following data point. For active synchronisation, where $\Delta t$ would be minimized iteratively, this contribution would be minimized accordingly. Another major contribution to the systematic uncertainty arises from the variable delay introduced by the tracking oscillators, leading to an uncertainty contribution of 230 ps. Statistical uncertainties are the instabilities obtained from the time deviation, calculated using commercial software.\\For the 1 pp-ms measurements, we apply corrections for the aforementioned asymmetry and the inaccuracy of the oscilloscope's internal clock, which is calibrated during each measurement.\\The results of the proposed method agree well with those from direct side-by-side measurements, demonstrating the viability of the proposed method.\\Effects which are non-symmetric, such as dispersion asymmetric with respect to the outgoing and the returning path, or which are not cumulative with respect to the roundtrip path (i.e. the sum of outgoing and returning path) cannot be suppressed by the stabilization. The most prominent example is the rotational delay (Harress-Sagnac effect) in a rotating reference frame \cite{footnoteHarressSagnac,laue1911,sagnac1913a,sagnac1913b,harzer1914,knopf1920,laue1919}, such as Earth rotating around its axis \cite{post1967,allan1985}. If required, such effects would have to be corrected for separately in a point-to-point connection. However, as discussed in the appendix, due to the small frequency differences involved in our method, the effect of chromatic dispersion is well below 1 ps here. The overall potential effect of dispersive asymmetries on the time transfer is estimated conservatively to be not more than 10 ps. Also, the rotational delay in our experimental setup is negligible, where the area enclosed by the 149 km parallel fiber loop, and accordingly its projection onto the equatorial plane, is very small.\\To assess the overall statistical uncertainty of the measurements, we combine the corrected data of all three runs, and subdivide the combined set into measurement intervals of around 4 hours each. The result is shown in figure \ref{fig:subintervals}.
The overall mean is +3 ps with a standard deviation of the mean of 110 ps, while the overall median is -7 ps with a median absolute deviation of 260 ps. Calculating the total time deviation \cite{riley2008} of the data indicates an overall instability of around 210 ps.

\subsection{Technical Improvements}
The results achieved in this proof-of-principle experiment do not yet achieve the best results obtained in other experiments on optical time transfer via fiber \cite{rost2012,lopez2012time,sliwczynski2013}.\\Using advanced equipment from two-way satellite time and frequency transfer (TWSTFT) \cite{rost2012,lopez2012time}, two-way time transfer was demonstrated, along with optical stable-frequency transfer \cite{lopez2012time}, over up to 540 km of installed fiber. For this distance statistical uncertainties of around 10 ps (time deviation, (TDEV) \cite{riley2008}) and a total uncertainty of 250~ps were reported. In a second approach \cite{sliwczynski2013}, the delay of timing signals sent over a fiber link is calibrated and actively kept constant. For advanced laboratory measurements using up to 480 km of fiber, record statistical uncertainties (TDEV) down to 0.5 ps \cite{sliwczynski2013} were reported with a total uncertainty of around 23~ps. For data network synchronisation, also techniques for simultaneous transfer of network traffic and time are being investigated \cite{sotiropoulos2013}.\\
The proof-of-principle setup used here could be improved in several ways to achieve higher performance.\\Here only the chirped frequency was actually transferred via the fiber link, such that residual unsuppressed fiber noise fully enters the ``remote'' beat note between the stable and the chirped frequency, see section \ref{Setup}. In that sense the present setup realizes a worst case. Transferring both frequencies in the \emph{same} fiber will suppress the relative frequency noise improving the precision and reducing the required averaging time. This is similar to the stabilized transfer of a single sideband modulated optical carrier. For the transfer of a microwave frequency amplitude-modulated onto an optical carrier, an absolute precision of around $10^{-8}$ Hz was reported \cite{lopez2010}. If this precision can be maintained also for \emph{chirped} microwave frequency transfer via optical fiber, according to eq. \ref{eq:deltaT} for a chirp of 100~kHz/s this would allow for sub-picosecond precision of chirped-frequency time transfer.\\We note that taking advantage not only of the stabilized frequency but also of the stabilized phase would immediately increase the attainable precision further.
Also, longer chirps could be used to increase the duration of continuous measurement, i.e. to achieve a faster averaging of the instability, but would require an accordingly large acceptance range of the frequency counters. Furthermore, for a given absolute frequency precision (in [Hz]), the resolution scales with the slope of the frequency chirp, see eq. \ref{eq:deltaT}. Therefore, using a stronger chirp \cite{chiodo2013} would be advantageous. Note, that for a constant delay the correction applied to the outgoing frequency by the stabilization loop is \emph{not} a chirp. It is also a - apart from the fiber noise - constant offset corresponding to the inloop frequency offset shown in panel a) of fig. \ref{fig:unstabilized:stabilized}.\\To reduce the systematic uncertainty, the detection electronics as well as the tracking oscillators would have to be replaced or developed further (here standard equipment from ultrastable frequency transfer was used). In fact, when approaching sub-100~ps accuracy, the calibration of the local equipment as well as the stability of this calibration will become highly demanding.

\section{Conclusions}
We have proposed and in a proof-of-principle experiment demonstrated an approach to simultaneous transfer of time and optical frequencies. It is based on the phase-stabilized transfer of a chirped frequency.\\
In the proof-of-principle experiment we transferred a chirped optical continuous-wave frequency via a fiber link of around 149 km. The frequency was chirped linearly by about 240 kHz/s. We observed the suppression of symmetrical delays. Using two channels on the same frequency counter, we found an accuracy, indicating simultaneity, and a precision of chirped frequency transfer of around $2\times10^{-19}$. In a second step we employed chirped frequency transfer for remote timescale synchronisation measurements. We here found a precision of around 200 ps, and an estimated overall uncertainty of around 500~ps. The results agreed with reference measurements, and were well within the estimated overall uncertainty. We have outlined straightforward technical improvements.\\Compared to other approaches to time transfer, the demonstrated approach does not require a correlator or a calibration of symmetrical delays. It is particularly well-adapted to the synchronisation of frequency measurements, as the gate intervals of the frequency counters directly can be treated as the realizations of the timescales. In the present setup the time interval within which the synchronisation can be measured unambiguously is around 4 min. This range is limited by the repetition intervals of the chirps. However, in principle the demonstrated technique does not require a periodic modulation. Instead, a single, long chirp would be sufficient, allowing for unambiguous synchronisation within ``arbitrarily'' long time intervals, constrained by the duration of the chirp only.

\section*{Acknowledgements}
We acknowledge helpful comments by U. Sterr and A. Bauch, and thank A. Koczwara and M. Misera for excellent technical support. Financial support by the European Metrology Research Programme (SIB-02, ``NEAT-FT'') and the Centre for Quantum Engineering and Space-Time Research QUEST is gratefully acknowledged. The EMRP is jointly funded by the EMRP participating countries within EURAMET and the European Union.

\section*{Appendix}
Here we discuss sources of asymmetric delays experienced by the light traveling along the link, that may affect phase-stabilized chirped-frequency transmission. In the following we assume that the optical frequency $\nu$ is chirped linearly.\\Before the feedback loop for link stabilization is active, i.e. when $\nu_{\mathrm{input}}(t)\neq \nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t) \neq \nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t)$, the frequencies before and after a roundtrip, as well as the remote frequency, at time $t$ are given by:
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{eq:InputRemoteInloop}
\nu_{\mathrm{input}}(t)&=& \nu_0 + k ~t\\
\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t)&=& \nu_0 + k ~(t - \tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}})\\
\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t)&=& \nu_0 + k ~(t - \tau_{\mathrm{Link,roundtrip}})
\end{eqnarray}
Here, $k$ is the slope of the frequency chirp, $\tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}}$ is the delay caused by the propagation along the link to the remote end in the fiber, and $\tau_{\mathrm{Link,roundtrip}}$ is the delay corresponding to a roundtrip of the light to the remote end and back to the local end.\\The one-way delay $\tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}}$ is given by:\\
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}} &=& \tau_0\nonumber\\&& + \tau_{\mathrm{CD}}(L,\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t))\nonumber\\&&+ \tau_{\mathrm{PMD,outgoing}}\nonumber\\&&+ \tau_{\mathrm{rot}},
\end{eqnarray}
where
\begin{equation}
\label{eq:tau0}
\tau_0 = \frac{n(\nu_0)L}{c}.
\end{equation}
Here $c$ is the vacuum speed of light, $n(\nu_0)$ is the group index of refraction, see e.g. section \ref{sec:results}, at $\nu_0$; $L$ is the geometric length of the fiber, $\tau_{\mathrm{PMD}}$ is the polarization-dependent delay caused by birefringence of the fiber, and $\tau_{\mathrm{rot}}$ is the rotational delay (Harress-Sagnac effect) \cite{sagnac1913a,sagnac1913b,harzer1914,knopf1920,post1967,allan1985}; $\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}(\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t))$ is the differential delay experienced by the light at $\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t)$ relative to light at $\nu_0 $ due to chromatic dispersion, where $\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t)=\nu_{\mathrm{input}}(t-\tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}})$. In the following we assume linear dispersion, where $D_{\mathrm{CD}}$ (in units of [ps/(nm km)]) is the group velocity dispersion constant for a difference in wavelength $\Delta\lambda$ and a fiber length $L$.\\
Hence:
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{eq:tCD:remote}
\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}^{\mathrm{remote}} &=& D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~(\lambda_{\mathrm{remote}} - \lambda_0)\nonumber\\
                    &=& D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c\left(\frac{1}{\nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t)} - \frac{1}{\nu_0}\right)\nonumber\\
                    &\approx& D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c \frac{\nu_0 - \nu_{\mathrm{remote}}(t)}{\nu_0^2}\nonumber\\
                    &=& -D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c \frac{D_0~(t - \tau_{\mathrm{Link,remote}})}{\nu_0^2}\nonumber\\
                    &\approx& -D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c~D_0 \frac{t - \tau_0}{\nu_0^2}.
\end{eqnarray}
The contribution of chromatic dispersion to the frequency measured at the remote end is:
\begin{equation}
|\Delta\nu_{\mathrm{CD}}| \approx  \left|-D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c~D_0^2 \frac{t - \tau_0}{\nu_0^2}\right|.
\end{equation}
In the last line of eq. \ref{eq:tCD:remote} we have used that typically $\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}, \tau_{\mathrm{PMD}} \ll \tau_0$. Furthermore, we used that even for a east-/westward fiber link, yielding the maximum rotational delay, we would have:
\begin{equation}
\frac{\tau_{\mathrm{rot}}}{\tau_0} = \frac{R_E\cos(\phi)\Omega}{nc},
\end{equation}
where $R_E$ is Earth's radius, $\phi$ is the latitude, $n$ is the refractive index, and $\Omega$ is Earth's angular velocity. As an example, for a latitude of 52$^\circ$ (Braunschweig) and using $R_E \approx 6371$ km, and $\Omega \approx 7.29\times10^{-5}$~/s,  this yields $\tau_{\mathrm{rot}}/\tau_0~\approx7\times10^{-7}$. Even on the equator this ratio would be around $10^{-6}$ only, so here we can safely neglect $\tau_{\mathrm{rot}}$ relative to $\tau_0$.\\
The delay caused by polarization mode dispersion will be discussed below.\\
The delay of the roundtrip signal can be written as:
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau_{\mathrm{Link,inloop}} &=& 2\tau_0\nonumber\\
&& + \tau_{\mathrm{CD}}^{\mathrm{outgoing}}(L,\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t))\nonumber\\
&& + \tau_{\mathrm{rot}}\nonumber\\
&& + \tau_{\mathrm{CD}}^{\mathrm{return}}(L,\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t)+2\nu_{\mathrm{AOM}})\nonumber\\
&& - \tau_{\mathrm{rot}}\nonumber\\
&& + \tau_{\mathrm{PMD,outgoing}} + \tau_{\mathrm{PMD,return}},
\end{eqnarray}
where $\tau_{\mathrm{PMD,outgoing/return}}$ are the delays caused by polarization mode dispersion of the outgoing and returning light, $\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t) = \nu_{\mathrm{input}}(t - \tau_{\mathrm{Link,roundtrip}})$, and $2\nu_{\mathrm{AOM}}$ is the frequency shift induced by double-passing the acousto-optic modulator (AOM) at the remote end. From equation \ref{eq:tCD:remote}:
\begin{equation}
\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}(L,\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t)) \approx -D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c \frac{D_0~(t - 2\tau_0)}{\nu_0^2},
\end{equation}
and
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}(L,\nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t)+2\nu_{\mathrm{AOM}})\approx&-D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c \frac{D_0~(t - 2\tau_0)}{\nu_0^2}\nonumber\\
&-D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c\frac{2\nu_{\mathrm{AOM}}}{\nu_0^2},
\end{eqnarray}
where $D_0~(t - 2\tau_0) \approx \nu_{\mathrm{inloop}}(t) -\nu_0$.
Hence
\begin{eqnarray}
\label{eq:tCD:inloop2}
\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}^{\mathrm{inloop}} &=&2~\tau_{\mathrm{CD}}^{\mathrm{remote}}\nonumber\\
                                     &&-D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c\frac{2\nu_{\mathrm{AOM}}}{\nu_0^2}\nonumber\\
                                     &&-2~D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L~c\frac{D_0~\tau_0}{\nu_0^2}
\end{eqnarray}
As can be seen from equation \ref{eq:tCD:inloop2}, there are two sources of delay asymmetry due to chromatic dispersion. From eq. \ref{eq:tau0}, the last term can be expressed as $2~D_{\mathrm{CD}}~L^2~n(\nu_0)~D_0/\nu_0^2 \approx 10^{-23}$s. The frequency shift by the AOM on the other hand might introduce a noticeable asymmetry of the delay, half of which consequently would be imposed onto the stabilized signal by the stabilization loop. For a link length of 149 km, an AOM-frequency of 40 MHz and a typical value for the chromatic dispersion of standard single mode fiber (G.652) at 1542 nm of around 16.6 ps/(nm~km) \cite{itug652}, the resulting asymmetry is around 1.6 ps. Consequently the stabilization may be expected to impose a synchronisation mismatch of around 800 fs at the remote end. This can be modelled or measured \cite{sliwczynski2013} and corrected for. Furthermore, if required this contribution could easily be reduced further here by e.g. choosing a smaller offset frequency for the frequency shifter at the remote end.\\A separate source of asymmetry is polarization mode dispersion: As the light is reflected by a Faraday rotator mirror at the remote end, the polarizations of the outgoing and the returning light are orthogonal. Generally the delays might be asymmetric, i.e. $\tau_{\mathrm{PMD,outgoing}} - \tau_{\mathrm{PMD,return}}\neq 0$. Using a link design value of around 0.1 ps/km$^{1/2}$ \cite{sliwczynski2013}, a value of the order of 1 ps would be estimated, while measurements over 540 km of installed fiber \cite{lopez2012time} indicate a somewhat higher uncertainty due to PMD. For a 149 km link this would correspond to around 10 ps. This could be suppressed further by averaging over consecutive measurements performed with orthogonal input polarizations.\\Finally, the rotational delay is conventionally corrected for, i.e. the rotating system is effectively transformed into a non-rotating one. In our experiment the rotational effect due to Earth's rotation is negligible, as both ends of the link are located in the same laboratory, and the fibers are running in parallel in the same bundle, with a negligible net distance difference orthogonal to Earth's rotational axis. For a point-to-point east-/westward link of $L=$150 km at the same latitude, we obtain a $\tau_{\mathrm{rot}}= L R_E\Omega\cos(\phi) / c^2 $ between the sending end and the remote end of around 500~ps. We note that the rotational delay does not depend on the index of refraction \cite{laue1919,wang2003,arditty1981}.\\Finally we note that in case of linear dispersion the slope of both the inloop and the remote frequency time trace remains linear. With respect to non-linear dispersion it is interesting to note that even for a link of around 1000 km (one-way delay $\tau$: 5 ms) and a ramp speed of 2 MHz/s, the relevant frequency range covered within the reciprocal of the feedback loop's bandwidth $4\tau$ \cite{williams2008} is 40 kHz only. Hence the effect of non-linear dispersion will in general be quite small. If using non-linear chirps of the input frequency, the feedback loop used for stabilization of the fiber link may ultimately benefit from a corresponding adaption to the continuously changing slope.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Zayn Malik is taking a moment to give thanks.
The former One Direction member tweeted for the first time since leaving the British boy band last month, showing his appreciation for the support he's received.
"Wanna say thanks to everyone that's been there for me over the last few weeks, love you all.. you know who you are x," he posted on Monday.
"The x is a kiss by the way ha it's not a mystery .. ? sorry to any confused ... ?," the 22-year-old singer quickly followed up.
The last tweet Zayn posted was on March 18, when he denied he cheated on his fiancee, Little Mix's Perrie Edwards.
"I'm 22 years old... I love a girl named Perrie Edwards. And there's a lot of jealous f**ks in this world I'm sorry for what it looks like x," he tweeted.
Zayn's new message comes after he debuted his newly shaved head at the Asian Awards on Friday, April 18, walking the red carpet with his mother Trisha. He took some time at the event to thank his former bandmates during his acceptance speech for the Outstanding Achievement in Music award.
"I'd also like to take this moment to thank four of the best guys I've ever met," he said, referring to Liam Payne, Harry Styles, Niall Horan and Louis Tomlinson. "What we did will stay with me for the rest of my life, and I thank them for that."
Late last month, Zayn broke his silence about his surprising decision to leave 1D in an interview with The Sun.
"I did try to do something that I wasn't happy doing for a while, for the sake of other people's happiness," he said. "It is crazy and wild and a bit mad, but at the same time I've never felt more in control in my life. And I feel like I'm doing what's right -- right by myself and right by the boys, so I feel good."


text:
London Boys — британско-германский танцевальный дуэт, основанный Эдемом Эфраимом () и Денисом Фуллером (Dennis Fuller), который стал известен благодаря песням «I'm Gonna Give My Heart», «Harlem Desire», «Requiem», «Chapel of Love».

Музыкальная карьера
Группа была образована в 1985 году, в Германии в Гамбурге. Она была сформирована двумя школьными друзьями Денисом Фуллером (родился 19 июня 1959, Ямайка) и Эдемом Эфраимом (1 июля 1959, Лондон), познакомившихся в средней школе в Гринвиче.
После переезда в 1981 году в Гамбург Эдем и Деннис присоединились к коллективу Roxy Rollers, где выступали в качестве музыкантов и актёров.

В 1986 году группа London Boys, продюсером которой стал Ральф Рене, выпустила дебютный сингл «I'm Gonna Give My Heart», который не попал ни в один чарт, однако добился популярности. В 1987 году вышел второй сингл коллектива, «Harlem Desire», записанный в стиле евродиско. Аранжировка и исполнение песни напоминали композиции знаменитых немцев Modern Talking, но как и «I'm Gonna Give My Heart», он не был замечен в Германии, хотя «Harlem Desire» наблюдался в топ-10 в UK Singles Chart.
В 1988 году London Boys издали композицию «Requiem» синглом, а следом вышел и дебютный альбом группы The Twelve Commandments of Dance (), он продавался хорошо, но так как тираж был рассчитан на Германию и Японию, пришлось делать дополнительный тираж на всю Европу. Позднее в 1989 году вышло специальное издание альбома.
Успех стал возможным благодаря качественно проделанной работе продюсера, отличному вокалу London Boys, аранжировкам и хорошему звуку альбома, а песня «London Nights», появившаяся в дополнительном издании альбома заняла 2 строчку в Соединенном Королевстве.

Группа стала частым гостем телевизионных шоу и клубных площадок, а каждая новая записанная песня представляла собой полноценный концертный и танцевальный номер.
Второй альбом, Sweet Soul Music, вышел в 1991 году, его стиль был непохож на предыдущую работу команды, на нем композиции были представлены в стилях хаус и регги, одна из них была посвящена знаменитому музыканту стиля регги — Бобу Марли, а почти каждая композиция содержала в себе элементы рэпа, исключение составила песня «Chapel of Love», единственная на альбоме, напоминавшая музыкальный стиль London Boys 1989 года.
Диск Love 4 Unity, вышедший в 1993 году, снова стал успешной работой London boys. Танцевальные ритмы для дискотек были улучшены ради коммерческого успеха и желания следовать за модой. Несмотря на все старания Ральфа Рене, альбом не выдал хитов.

Следующий альбом, Hallelujah Hits, стал скорее разочарованием, чем успешной работой, его стиль звучания сочетал в себе ритмы техно 1990-х годов и госпела, что крайне не пришлось по вкусу публике. В чарты он не попал, а его продажи были низкими.

21 января 1996 года Эдем, Денис, жена Эдема и диджей из Гамбурга погибли в автокатастрофе в Австрийских Альпах. В момент гибели у Эдема был трёхлетний сын, у Дениса — дочь, которой было десять лет.
За свою карьеру London Boys выпустили четыре студийных альбома, внесли вклад в развитие европейской диско-музыки. Их песни были посвящены дружбе, любви, расовой терпимости и вере в Бога. Они успели продать 4,5 млн дисков и завоевали любовь многих миллионов поклонников.

Дискография

Альбомы

Синглы

Примечания

Ссылки
  Дискография на Discogs
  Неофициальный сайт

Родившиеся в 1959 году
Умершие в 1996 году
Музыкальные коллективы Германии
Музыкальные коллективы, появившиеся в 1986 году
Музыкальные коллективы, распавшиеся в 1996 году
Исполнители Atlantic Records
Музыкальные дуэты
Группы в стиле диско

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Planète Gascogne: Every Gîte Should Have a Copy
First published: July 15, 2020 by Guy Hibbert
Combine a talented illustrator and a soupçon of British eccentricity. Add a dose of rural Gascony and soon you have a unique recipe – cartoons and drawings that make the French laugh at themselves.
That's Anglo-Gascon Perry Taylor's talent in a nutshell. Having lived in rural France I can vouch for his super-keen observations of French country life. The sacrosanct traditions of winemaking, hunting, fêtes, local markets and of course le répas, are the objects of Perry's wry humour. And it being Gascony, the cast list includes numerous amusing farm animal portraits – especially geese and ducks – ably supported by the legendary musketeers, vignerons, chasseurs, housewives and other recognisable characters from the tableau of French country life.
Everyday holiday. Photo © Perry Taylor
All of this could go horribly wrong in clumsy hands – an Englishman making fun of French traditions! Oh la vache! But not in this case. There's a delight in the gentle observational humour and an obvious charm to the work which simply puts a smile on your face. And not just on Anglo-Saxon faces – Perry's books are enjoyed by the French as much as the English. In fact, many of the witty captions are in French with English translations and the humour genuinely crosses borders.
This new book, Planète Gascogne, is a generous helping of Perry's art which is guaranteed to put a smile on your face. Perfect holiday browsing with a glass of wine to hand – every gite should have one of these!
For more information visit www.perrytaylor.fr/en
Photo © Perry Taylor
Perry and Rusty. Photo © Perry Taylor
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


NBC - "YALE GRAD WINS GRAMMY AS MEMBER OF FAMED QUINTET PENTATONIX"
Lifelong musician and Yale University graduate Kevin "K.O." Olusola soared to fame as a member of popular vocal quintet Pentatonix and brought home his first Grammy Award Sunday night.
"AHHHHHH WE WON A GRAMMY!!!!!!!!!!" Olusola tweeted from the awards ceremony, before taking the stage again to accompany Pharrell on cello.


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You guys!! Guess who is back?? It has been 3 years since we've had an entirely new workout program from Shaun T. We got to spend a little time with him in SHAUN WEEK but it's now time to TRANSFORM our bodies and minds in 20 minutes a day, 6 days a week with Transform :20! Yep – you read that right. 20 MINUTES a day.
T25 was my first program EVER! It changed my mindset completely, got me in the best shape of my LIFE and sparked a passion in me I didn't know existed with Coaching. I went from over-tired mom to feeling AMAZING and I couldn't help but share what I was doing. I was compelled to show other women – other moms – that they COULD make time for themselves and have more energy for their family!
I'll be totally honest with you…I'm not a cardio girl, but there is NO other trainer that motivates me the way Shaun T does. THAT is why I am SO excited for this program!! I feel like I'll be going back to my roots! And knowing him, it's going to be an awesome mix of cardio and strength.
Total body workout for both the body and mind. Cardio, Strength, and Core Balance work using a Step riser. It is not step aerobics but rather a nonstop 20-minute workout to burn mad calories, sculpt your body, and build long lean muscles. If you know Shaun T, you know he takes cardio to a whole new level of burn!
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Well, if you were actually reading above you know the workouts are 20 minutes. 20 minutes. Not 21, not 24, 20. So you know, when Shaun T says "let's go," you better be ready to MOVE.
Test group participants have said this first workout will test your will to continue — just keep going. You will get stronger.
A Transformer is a move timed for a minute where you have to push yourself to complete as many reps as possible. You track these in the Transformation Trackers. This will measure your improvements week-to-week.
The nutrition plan is simple. You get the option of following the portion control system or 2B Mindset. The plan provides simple bracket calculations.
READY TO DO THIS WITH ME?
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President Moon Jae-in says there should be another inter-Korean summit soon.
"Now is the time to go ahead with an inter-Korean summit. North Korea has shown its determination to keep the dialogue going."
During Monday's cabinet meeting, he commented for the first time on North Korean leader Kim Jong-un's speech at the Supreme People's Assembly.
He said Kim reaffirmed his commitment to achieving peace and denuclearization on the Korean Peninsula, and sitting down for the third time with U.S. President Donald Trump.
Moon said Kim has also shown his willingness to implement inter-Korean agreements, and he called for a fourth inter-Korean summit when the North is ready.
"I hope South and North Korea will be able to sit down, not bound to any location or format, to discuss ways to achieve a fruitful outcome beyond the two North Korea-U.S. summits."
The South Korean president also said he and President Trump agreed to work together to bring North Korea back to the nuclear negotiations.
They also reaffirmed the importance of "top-down" diplomacy, based on the trust and determination of the leaders themselves, for the peace process on the Korean Peninsula.
There was, however, no mention of any plans to send a special envoy to North Korea.
But President Trump has asked President Moon to let him know Pyeongyang's stance as soon as possible.
And with the South Korean president ready to meet Kim, it's possible that the trip could take place during his three-nation Central Asia tour, which begins Tuesday.
"President Moon has officially put a fourth inter-Korean summit on the table. Sending a special envoy to Pyeongyang will accelerate preparations for the summit, which should lead to further progress along his roadmap for peace on the Korean Peninsula, something he says is a matter of survival. Park Hee-jun, Arirang News."


text:
Next stop: Zippy's new home in Las Vegas
Sat, 03/30/2019 - 10:31am
Source: Hawaii News Now
Las Vegas, NEVADA — Zippy's officially has a home on the ninth island!
Zippy's, one of Hawaii's favorite eateries, announced Friday it completed the purchase of vacant land in southwest Las Vegas, making this the first Zippy's location outside of Hawaii.
The new site, currently undeveloped, will be located at the southeast corner of Badura Avenue and Montessouri Street.
"The location in southwest Las Vegas is ideal for Zippy's Restaurants," CEO Jason Higa said, in a statement. "This area is burgeoning with residential housing."
The site will include a 7,000-square-foot restaurant, take-out and retail bakery as well as a 12,000-square-foot central kitchen and bakery to support future growth in Vegas. The central kitchen and bakery, the restaurant said, will add "considerable complexity beyond a standard build."
The new Zippy's in Vegas is slated to open in late 2020.
Read more at Hawaii News Now
Zippy's


You are here: Home / Politics / What does Putin want in Syria?
The United Nations Security Council ushered in the new year by unanimously passing a resolution on a nationwide ceasefire in Syria, welcoming a Russian and Turkish initiative announced just six days after Syrian President Bashar al-Assad's forces regained control of Aleppo on 22 December 2016. Having spent much of 2016 riding a diplomatic rollercoaster after Turkey's November 2015 downing of a Russian Sukhoi Su-24 fighter jet, Moscow and Ankara – though on opposite sides of the conflict in question – suddenly emerge as aspiring humanitarians and peacemakers.
The seizure of Aleppo itself – seen as a major turning point in Syria's soon-to-be-six-year civil war – was accompanied by several pushes to evacuate tens of thousands of civilians trapped in the city's rebel-held eastern sections. This rescue mission was made possible by another Russo-Turkish deal that facilitated a series of localised ceasefires between rebels and pro-government forces. The long-awaited UN-backed resolution is, in turn, expected to "allow rapid, safe, and unhindered humanitarian access throughout Syria" in yet another small victory for the pop-up entente. The resolution has also called for negotiations in Astana, Kazakhstan at the end of January, negotiations that may at last effectuate the conflict's end.
Meanwhile, the city of Aleppo – once a flourishing centre of commerce and culture – is piled with rubble and stained with human blood in the aftermath of what United States President Barack Obama has called "a deliberate strategy of surrounding, besieging, and starving innocent civilians [and] relentless targeting of humanitarian workers and medical personnel" by Russia and its allies.
The Syrian Civil War has come at a terrible price, taking 16,913 civilian lives in 2016 alone, according to a recent report published by the Syrian Network for Human Rights. Russia – Bashar al-Assad's most powerful ally – joined the game in September 2015 with airstrikes against oppositionist forces. Since 2011, the Kremlin has thwarted numerous diplomatic efforts to end the Syrian conflict, vetoing six UN resolutions, most of them aimed at helping the tens of thousands of men, women, and children struggling to remain alive amidst the fallen concrete and dust.
The butcher of Aleppo – that is the nickname that Russia's President Vladimir Putin has earned in the war-torn Middle Eastern country and the legacy that he will bear. After so much devastation, any Russia-endorsed humanitarian efforts – though certainly still welcome out of practical necessity – come as too little, too late.
Whether proven or alleged players, the words Putin, the Kremlin, Russian nationalists, or pro-Russian separatists have featured prominently in scandalous news in recent years, amongst them the Ukrainian conflict, the annexation of Crimea, the murder of opposition politician Boris Nemtsov, the poisoning of former intelligence officer Alexander Litvinenko, a plan to stage a coup d'état in Montenegro, institutionalised torture in Russian prisons, and, just recently, Russia's hacking to influence the outcome of the United States' 2016 presidential election, to name but a few. And sadly, heart-wrenching Syria-related national misfortunes – like December's assassination of Russia's Ambassador to Turkey Andrei Karlov by a Turkish policeman screaming "Do not forget about Aleppo! Do not forget about Syria!" or the Christmas Day death of 92 passengers aboard Russia's fallen Tu-154 airliner en route to Khmeimim Air Base in Syria – have done little to encourage Russia to reassess its involvement in yet another debilitating situation.
Instead, the Kremlin has chosen to position itself right in the spot light and side-line the United States to influence Syria's fate, at the same time as reaffirming its spheres of influence and, in its quasi-unilateralism, rendering traditional reconciliatory mechanisms and institutions, such as the United Nations, redundant. Yet despite Russia's resolve, it still remains unclear what exactly Putin wants in Syria. What could possibly have costed the lives of nearly half a million innocent civilians? And what could have compelled a country with a dubious interest in the Middle East to invest so much money and manpower into preserving a distant dictatorship when it could have been focused on alleviating the economic instability, poverty, and infrastructural decay corroding it from the inside out?
I spoke with Royal United Services Institution's research fellow Sarah Lain, political scientist, conflict analyst, and university lecturer Julien Théron*, and Riga-based independent journalist and POLITICO, Bloomberg, and Guardian contributor Leonid Ragozin to better understand what it is the Kremlin may be counting on and what a Russian-led victory would represent in what is supposed to be a post-Cold War world.
Russia's relationship with Syria can be traced back to the mid-twentieth century, a period which saw "strategic shifts of alliances in the Middle East," said conflict analyst Julien Théron. Britain and France were out of the picture after the 1956 Suez Crisis – a humiliating failed attempt to oust Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser from power and reaffirm European colonial presence in the Middle East. Ba'athism was well on its way to inculcating the Middle East with superficially socialist dogmas in the hopes of summoning an Arab national renaissance and a corresponding unified Arab state. Throughout this period, the Middle East, including Syria, remained conscious of the damaging effects of Western colonialism. The February 1966 split of the Ba'ath Party resulted in the creation of a Syria-dominated faction and an Iraqi-dominated faction, the latter being the party of Saddam Hussein. The former came to power with the ascension of Bashar al-Assad's father Hafez al-Assad to the Syrian presidency in 1970. Though Syria had long been a victim of repeated coups and instability in the years after its 1946 independence from France, Assad Senior transformed it into a regional power.
Moscow and Damascus – united in their anti-Western position – grew into reliable allies. Of course, they were never on equal footing: the USSR was a superpower, whilst Syria's economic and military clout was restricted to its own region. The situation is similar today: Damascus clearly plays the role of Moscow's pupil and quasi-protectorate, and the Kremlin sees Bashar al-Assad as nothing more than a convenient diplomatic asset, maintains Théron.
On a practical level, Russia would find victory in Syria useful, explained Théron. Firstly, he said, Russia has economic interests to protect, including a number of "business contracts, bilateral arms contracts, [promised] post-conflict reconstruction contracts, and involvement in oil production." Secondly, Russia has military assets and positions to defend, including the Tartus naval base, the Khmeimim airbase near Latakia, and control of the regime's air zone.
Moreover, he said, a presence in Syria has granted the Kremlin the opportunity to develop its hybrid attack strategies, to give its armed forces a field for practical experience and its private military contractors a field for experimentation, and to test the defensive potential of its aircrafts, warships, cruise missiles, and tanks. I suggest that such practical experience is necessary either to bolster Russian confidence and preventatively intimidate prospective opponents through a display of military might or to identify its weaknesses and hone its skills in time to apply its improved potential elsewhere.
Leonid Ragozin, who has also written for Aljazeera and The Moscow Times, maintains that the Kremlin also benefits from upholding friendly relations with Damascus because Syria's Chechen community is pro-Assad and because Assad's regime is the protector of Orthodox Christians in Syria. Though neither of these realities necessitate close ties with Syria, being conscious of them in diplomacy could facilitate Russia's pursuit of certain domestic and foreign goals. In the case of the former, a friendly relationship with Assad ensures that Syria's Chechens do not incite unrest amongst their oppressed brethren living in Chechnya and, in the case of the latter, it ensures that Putin is able to keep his promise to protect persecuted Christians in countries across the world, a responsibility that Moscow feels it has borne since the 15th century, when it dubbed itself the 'Third Rome' and vowed to act as preserver of Eastern Orthodox Christianity. So, the former reality helps to temper destruction from within, whilst the latter helps to maintain a gilded veneer without.
Nevertheless, none of these benefits are as important as what Russia is gaining regionally and globally from its involvement in the Syrian crisis. Firstly, the civil war has offered Russia the opportunity to forge regional new alliances. "The great Middle Eastern game of alliances appears to be favourable to Moscow's strategic interest with a progressive realisation of a Lebanese-Syrian-Iraqi-Iranian axis," said Théron, referring to the alliances that Russia is both upholding and building by backing its long-time allies – Syria and Iran – and engaging with new allies such as Hezbollah and the Iraqi Shia militia. Additionally, Russia has been able to improve relations with other Middle Eastern countries such as Turkey. Alliances across adversaries could give Moscow an impressive voice as a mediator in a region – the Middle East – that the United States and Europe are now inclined to withdraw from, as well as to secure access to the Mediterranean and trade passing through the Suez Canal.
Secondly, and most importantly, in presenting itself as an alternative to the West, Russia is able to use its campaign in Syria to assert itself on the world stage. "Syria is intended to show the world that the West is inefficient, that the West has failed, and that Russia can come and sort the situation out," said Ragozin.
According to Lain, Russia wants to prove a point: "[In Moscow's point of view,] there is this unipolar world where the United States sets the rules and people follow them. [Russia] is trying to challenge that by exerting its position as a power that needs to be involved in the decision-making and forcing the international community, especially the US-led collation, to take it seriously … There is also a broader foreign policy aim to prove that the Western approach is not effective in dealing with issues in the Middle East and that toppling [leaders] perceived to be bad and [democratising a region] is not always the most successful approach to solving a crisis," she said.
According to Théron, there is also an impression that the Obama administration has abandoned the game. He gave several concrete examples of American passivity in the face of Russian misbehaviour in the Syrian conflict, amongst which were the United States' repeated failure to reprimand Russia for disrespecting ceasefires and its inaction in August 2016 when a UN investigation maintained that, despite having supposedly turned over its stockpile of chemical weapons three years earlier, Assad's regime was responsible for at least two deadly attacks on its own people since 2013.
Théron maintains that the West's weakness in Syria and hesitation to be too engaged in Middle Eastern conflicts has created a vacuum that an emboldened Russia has sought to fill by leading the way to resolution. "Russia is going forward with victory in mind," the analyst said. Nevertheless, it is ironic that Russia, which, as mentioned previously, had spent years shooting down UN Security Council resolutions seeking to help those affected by the civil war, is suddenly presenting itself as a long-awaited saviour. In fact, Russia's previous behaviour suggests that it never really prioritised negotiation or resolution to begin with and was, instead, strategically waiting for the opportunity to end the conflict on its own terms.
"From the Russian perspective, it is crucial to show the whole world that whatever Russia is doing in Syria is efficient and that it achieves results," said Ragozin, who maintains that Russia also seeks to sow disunity in the Western alliance by showing the European countries that their choice to support the United States was an invitation for failure. Furthermore, said Ragozin, shifts in Western geopolitics, including the impending election of either of France's leading candidates – François Fillon and Marine le Pen – and America's election of Donald Trump, are likely to change the West's position on Syria. "The stars have aligned favourably for Putin's Russia; they really are spoiled for choice," said the journalist.
Sadly, the economic situation in Russia continues to deteriorate and support for pro-Kremlin political party United Russia continues to fall. The country's GPD per capita has drastically worsened since the start of the Ukraine conflict and approximately 13.4 percent of Russians are now living in poverty. What is more, Putin's likability rating fell from 37 percent in March 2015 to 29 percent in July 2016, showed a report from Russia's independent polling agency Levada Center.
Averting our eyes from Ukraine?
According to Ragozin, Syria serves one principle function for Russia – it is a cover-up operation for Ukraine. "I think Russia is in Syria because it needed a way out of the Ukraine situation and wanted to shift the international community's attention to something else," said the journalist, who breaks the succession of events up into the following: Russia started a war in Eastern Ukraine as a cover-up operation to ensure that the occupation of Crimea was off the negotiating table and then intervened in Syria to freeze the Donbas situation for years to come.
"But why Crimea? Would such a small imperialistic ambition really have warranted contributing to such devastation in Syria?" I asked. According to Ragozin, Crimea was never really that important. "Occupying Crimea was a spontaneous development caused by the Euromaidan [and] a symbolic act of defying the West. They managed to consolidate society under chauvinistic and imperialistic slogans for a few more years. They managed to buy time. But the goal was to make sure that Ukraine continued to bleed, so that it could never evolve into an alternative Russia – a better place for Russian speakers than Russia itself, a role model," the journalist said.
In December 2013, Levada Center reported that – at 61 percent – Putin's public approval rating had fallen to its lowest level since June 2000 – the last time it was at 61 percent. From 2000 to 2008, thanks to an oil-fuelled economic boom, Putin was able to fulfil his social contract with greater facility and, accordingly, enjoyed a rating of 70 percent and higher. Sometimes, this figure even rose above 80 percent.
Ragozin maintains that the Kremlin also precipitated the very crisis that led to the Euromaidan by offering then-Ukrainian President Viktor Yanukovich a $15 billion aid package and lowering the price of Russian gas deliveries not, as was reported, after the leader had decided to shelve an agreement he was intending to sign with the European Union in Spring 2014, but instead of it.
The journalist's hypothesis goes hand in hand with what analysts see as the Kremlin's fear of colour revolutions and general social unrest both in neighbouring countries, examples of which include Georgia's Rose Revolution (2003) and Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2004-2005), and within Russia itself.
So far, Iran and Russia have made great efforts to demonstrate that they are a united front on Syria. However, according to Lain, Iran wants to gain more political influence in the region and Russia's preoccupation with securing its economic presence could cause concerns in the future, especially in light of Russian fears of extremism in the North Caucasus. This risk of future antagonism exists largely because of Iran's vulnerable position as a Shia country encircled by Sunni forces and fearful memories of the 1980-1988 Iran-Iraq War.
At this juncture, I asked our analysts whether Russia was at all concerned about propping up Shia power in the Middle East whilst it has its own potentially restive and fairly sizeable mostly Sunni, Muslim population in the Caucasus. According to the Pew Research Center, Shia Muslims only make up 10-13 percent of the world's total Muslim population, whilst the Sunnis make up 87-90 percent; these statistics are also reflective of the Shia-Sunni distribution within Russia itself. "I do not think that Russia thinks in these terms," said Ragozin. "Russia wants to have allies amongst the Shias and the Sunnis." Indeed, Russian-based Islamic associations and leaders, such as academic and chairman of the Russian Society of Islamists Tawfic Ibrahim, have been vocal about the importance of unity amongst the country's Muslims in the fight against extremism and the Islamist State group.
Théron agreed, saying that if there is, indeed, a risk of Sunni retaliation, it is a small one. According to the analyst, Russia has been sufficiently clear on the consequences of nationalist or Islamist Sunni rebellions in its own borders. "Chechnya and Dagestan are examples of how far Moscow is ready to go to kill any kind of contestation," said the analyst. In the case of Chechnya, in particular, fear of Kremlin-appointed local leader Ramzan Kadyrov, who is infamous for his attacks on dissenters, is enough to quell any separatist sentiment for the time being.
Furthermore, "the political manipulation of religion, [namely Orthodoxy and Sunni Islam], is well established in Russia," said Théron, giving the examples of Orthodox bishops blessing missiles being shipped to Syria, Chechnya's deputy mufti Aslan Abdullayev stating that Russia's policy in Chechnya has brought stability and nudged worshippers back towards their mosques, and Russia's Patriarch Kirill declaring a 'holy war' on terrorism.
Finally said Théron, Moscow has made a conscious effort to be transparent in its attitudes towards Sunni Islam. "An international conference on Sunni Islam was held recently in Chechnya," the analyst said. "It gathered more than 100 clerics, with the noticeable exception of Saudis, in order to separate Wahhabi and Salafi ideologies from the rest of the Sunni world. This conference aimed to stabilise Sunni areas inside Russia by assuring Russian Muslims that the Kremlin is not leading a religious war against Sunnis … [it also] ostracised Saudi Arabia – the archenemy of Moscow's ally Iran." Wahhabism and Salafism are two strictly orthodox sects in Sunni Islam which, merged since the 1960s, support the implementation of Sharia law. The latter in particular contains a minority group that endorses jihad. This conference, according to Théron, was also useful in feeding the narrative that Moscow is fighting against Sunni radicalism, a position that must be clear if Russia is to further unite its own Muslim population to support its political agenda. And a united population is one that is less likely to be restless.
It seems that any practical benefits, whether economic, military, or ideological, that Russia is able to reap in Syria are relatively unimportant for Putin. Instead, this war – in all of its complexity and distressing human tragedy – represents a lucrative and hither-to unprecedented (since the dissolution of the Soviet Union) opportunity for a one-time superpower – now frail, turbulent, and rancorous – to remind a world nestled in a false sense of security that the bully still stands on the playground. Ironically, in Russia's eyes, the bully is none other than the West and its strategy is one of self-defence. However, in relying on force, not within its own borders, as was the case with Chechnya in the 1990s, but on an international scale, Putin gas given a clear message: Russia – in the broil of an existential crisis – finds the post-USSR order wholly unsatisfactory and is prepared to change it. It is, therefore, unlikely that January's negotiations in Kazakhstan will prioritise terminating hostilities out of respect for justice, compassion, or humanitarianism. Questions of influence will surely be on the forefront of any diplomatic efforts.
Jeffrey Goldberg's use of the terms "irresolution" and "naïveté" in describing the Obama administration were perfectly on point. Whether it intended to or not, the West, collectively, ended up treating Putin as an equal in so far as it assumed that he too, regardless of his practical interests in backing Assad, respected the rules of the game. It is likely, however, that Putin was playing a whole different game to begin with and that the West, with its red lines and hesitation and carefulness-bordering-on-complaisance, allowed its diplomatic nature and politesse to be taken advantage of as if these honourable values were flaws.
To play devil's advocate, what alternative course of action could the West have embraced? If the West truly had faith that Assad's opponents – the Free Syrian Army – were moderate in their nature, it may have taken a more confident stand against Russia's power play. Even so, having seen the consequences of eliminating Saddam Hussein, the West could never have played a truly active role in taking down another secular dictatorship keeping a lid on uniquely heinous Islamist terrorists, because the risk of such a venture could have been far worse than enduring humiliation at Russia's hands. It is unclear precisely how successful the rebels would be at filling a void left by Assad and their failure would create a dangerous power vacuum that could easily be filled by Jabhat Fateh al-Sham, formerly known as the al-Nusra Front, or by ISIS.
Furthermore, can it be said with certainly that the Free Syrian Army is a force for good? In a December 2016 editorial, Independent journalist Patrick Cockburn cited UN chief of humanitarian affairs Stephen O'Brien's suggestion that the Syrian rebels in east Aleppo were stopping civilians from departing. It is ironic that the Western media has barely investigated O'Brien's statements considering how extensive its coverage has been of ISIS's use of civilians as human shields in neighbouring Iraq. Why does the Western media, as Cockburn wrote, focus on "descriptions of the inhuman savagery of President Assad's forces indiscriminately slaughtering civilians," but shy away from describing similar atrocities perpetrated by those fighting against Assad? It just may be that the West's irresoluteness in the Syrian war is actually a consequence of its own uncertainty. If this is the case, it would be safe to conclude the West's decision to side itself against Assad and, therefore, against Russia was not a moral one, but one based entirely on its desire to maintain a West-East geopolitical balance. In being passive in its practical commitments, however, the West inadvertently allowed Russia to take the reins.
In regards to Ragozin's hypothesis that Russia's interference in Syria is nothing but a distraction from Ukraine: it must be acknowledged that, whilst the world has focused its eyes on Syria, ISIS, the rise of raging populism in Western democracies, the election of Donald Trump to the American presidency, and Brexit, the war in Ukraine rages on. The annexation of Crimea, which left the world speechless and aghast just under three years ago, is no longer being challenged, and, other than Western sanctions, no efforts have been made to restore this land to Ukraine. Blood continues to be shed and lives continue to be taken, but this war is now largely forgotten. Meanwhile, Ukraine has not made any substantial progress in improving its standard of living or eliminating corruption since its change of leadership in 2014. As a result, just as Ragozin said, the country has proven unable to transition to a true democracy and land of opportunity.
Since the early days of the Syrian conflict, foreign policy think tanks such as the Brookings Institute have published papers advocating for "the creation of safe-havens and humanitarian corridors … backed by limited military power." Such proposals were, of course, strategically intended to help the West in its endeavour to topple Assad, but they would also have served a greater, human purpose. Sadly, the zones never materialised. Why is it that human life never became a priority for either parties? Ultimately, powers on both sides of the equation have comfortably stood by as hundreds of thousands of innocent people – as if pawns casually flicked off of a chessboard – took their last breaths not in defence of noble human principles, but for the egotistical and calculated pursuit of power. Whether the casualties were Syrian or Ukrainian or of any other nationality makes little difference, and any new world order achieved as a spoil of such turmoil will be forever tainted.
Putin and Erdogan are not benevolent humanitarians, but the West will likely welcome their initiative in brokering peace in Syria if not out of fatigue or the same politesse that it exhibited previously, then out of necessity, necessity that has arisen out of the West's own inaction. Forcing Russia out of the equation is likely to invite antagonism and possibly retaliation, and this is not a risk that the West should be willing to take lest any aggression escalate into a grander, global catastrophe such as another world war. Provocation between countries that command such formidable nuclear arsenals should be avoided at all costs.


The sink, having been delivered twice (once damaged, once the wrong color) is still not here, though I give high marks to Restoration Hardware customer service.
The sconces, towel bars, and decorative wastebasket, which cost as much as a dinner out, are all in boxes...in my room.
Blinds are being compared, and I need to run to the mall for hooks as they are out of stock on line but, supposedly, in stock in the store.
There are three niches in the room: one on either side of the window and one above it.
The niche to the left of the window is going to be hidden.
I don't think we want to cover it with a mirror as it's just above the toilet - and would reflect the shower. I think we are going to hinge a picture frame over it and I've been perusing what to put in that picture frame.
This caught my eye right away.
And then, whilst considering the men in our house standing next to it and peeing, I just cracked myself up too much.
Naaaaah. I don't like pictures of penises I don't know in my bathroom.
A cleft! In the cliff! And tigers! This is too much drama for me for my bathroom, which is supposed to be a place of repose.
peaceful, interesting...but, sadly, not complimentary to our color scheme.
My mom has a poster of doors in her loo.
K would love this fabulous photo of moi, post shower. But why belabor the obvious?
Wouldn't this be an amusing little piece of bathroom art?
And, speaking of amusing, ELEPHANTS! ELEPHANTS RUNNING FREE! ELEPHANTS RUNNING FREE IN PARIS!
Who, do you suppose, is purchasing this print of scary DNA, test tube, bar code stuff, which reeks of conspiracy and fear? And should I hang it in my bathroom?
Andy Warhol's Mickey. Serious, but not too.
and JUST LEAVE ME ALONE IF THAT SENTENCE WAS AWFUL. DID I TELL YOU THEY SENT THE WRONG SINK? TWICE?!
HERE. This contemplative soldier from the Great Tuvalan Outburst of 1717 could gaze upon me whilst I sit. His pallor goes nicely with the off off white tile.
Queen Anne's Lace. I have a nice story for you about my dear grandmother and Queen Anne's Lace. But it's not for today.
I like this print very much.
Note to me: show to K.
I have a large Monet Print hanging in my bathroom.
Re: the acrobats in NYC. Where exactly is the middle mans head?
the acrobats photo would give me vertigo.
I bought a vintage Cape Cod cranberry crate label off eBay and framed that. Also, old postcards of the area I liked. FYI, also.
I'm thinking you could switch out the pictures seasonally. I'm picturing your fabulous photograph of sunflowers... Perhaps a b/w rendering?
laughing uproariously at your commentary. thank you.


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ISLE Summer School 2022
Workshop Leaders
Pop-up Mentors
EDI Statement
This page shows biographies for the various academics who will present papers and act as tutors on the ISLE Summer School. Please note that it is still under construction and will be expanded as soon as new information becomes available.
Prof. Carolina Amador-Moreno
University of Bergen, NO
Carolina Amador-Moreno is a Professor in English Linguistics. Her research interests focus on the English spoken in Ireland and include a variety of subdisciplines, including (historical) sociolinguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis, stylistics and corpus linguistics. Her recent publications have focussed on the use of corpora to investigate Irish English.
Prof. Umberto Ansaldo
Curtin University, AU
Umberto Ansaldo is the Head of School of Media, Creative Arts and Social Inquiry at Curtin University, and has strong disciplinary roots in linguistics, most specifically in the study of language contact, linguistic typology, and language documentation. His recent publications have focussed on the rethinking of Englishes in multilingual ecologies, as well as pidgin and creole languages.
Prof. Jane Setter
University of Reading, UK
Jane Setter is Professor of Phonetics in the Department of English Language and Applied Linguistics at the University of Reading. A National Teaching Fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy, Jane's research interests include aspects of the phonology of learner and global varieties of English and speech prosody in atypical populations. Jane's most recent publications include the Cambridge Handbook of Phonetics (Cambridge University Press, 2022, co-edited with Rachael-Anne Knight) and popular science book Your Voice Speaks Volumes (Oxford University Press, 2019).
Prof. Alfred Buregeya
University of Nairobi, KE
Alfred Buregeya is Associate Professor in the Department of Linguistics and Languages. For over 20 years, his research has focused on describing the features of the English used in Kenya as a second language variety. In 2019, his 258-page monograph on the topic was published by De Gruyter Mouton as Kenyan English. In 2012, a chapter by the same title was published in Bernd Kortmann & Kerstin Lunkenheimer's (eds) The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English. Since then, he has also been the informant on Kenyan English for Kortmann et al.'s (2013/2020) The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English (eWAVE) .
Dr Lynn Clark
University of Canterbury, NZ
Lynn Clark is a Senior Lecturer in linguistics, with interests in phonetics and phonology, sociolinguistics, and usage-based models of linguistics. Her recent publications have focussed on various aspects of New Zealand English, including systematic co-variation of monophthongs across speakers.
Dr Aris Clemons
University of Tennessee, US
Aris Clemons is an Assistant Professor of Hispanic Linguistics, whose work spans the fields of linguistics, education, anthropology, and Black and Latinx studies. She is a scholar of raciolinguistics and questions the linguistic mechanisms behind the construction and maintenance of racialising and marginalising ideologies.
Ms Glenys Collard
The University of Western Australia, AU
Glenys Collard is an Honorary Research Fellow and a Noongar educator and writer. She is a member of the Stolen Generation and has been involved in the production of a range of works on Australian Aboriginal English alongside Dr Celeste Rodriguez Louro.
Dr Celeste Rodriguez Louro
Celeste Rodriguez Louro is a Senior Lecturer and an Australian Research Council DECRA Fellow. She is a variationist sociolinguist, and her current research examines variation and change in varieties of Aboriginal English.
Prof. Karen Corrigan
Newcastle University, UK
Karen Corrigan is Professor of Linguistics and English Language. She has conducted extensive research on language and dialect in Ireland and has published widely in this field, in socio-historical linguistics and the sociology of language. She is also the current president of ISLE.
Dr Alexandra D'Arcy
University of Victoria, CA
Alexandra D'Arcy is an Associate Professor and a quantitative variationist sociolinguist, trained in the Labovian paradigm. Her recent publications have focussed on the discourse-pragmatic variation of like and on various aspects of linguistic change.
Dr Derek Denis
University of Toronto Mississauga, CA
Derek Denis is an Assistant Professor of Linguistcs with a particular interest in language change and innovation. His early work investigated earlier Canadian English using archival oral history recordings in an effort to understand a previous stage of Ontario English, and his current work looks toward the future.
Dr David Deterding
Universiti Brunei Darussalam, BN
David Deterding is a Professor with wide research interests in phonetics, world Englishes, the pronunciation of Malay and intelligibility in English as a lingua franca. His recent publications have investigated the features of Asian Englishes, including intelligibility in Chinese English in Central China.
Prof. Dr Robert Fuchs
University of Hamburg, DE
Robert Fuchs is an Associate Professor in English Linguistics with an interest in a variety of linguistic disciplines, including language variation and change and learner Englishes. His recent publications have focussed on collostructional investigations of British English and sociophonetic variation in Trinidadian English prosody.
Prof. Jette Hansen Edwards
The Chinese University of Hong Kong, HK
Jette Hansen Edwards is a Professor with interests in second language phonology and World Englishes. Recent publications have included the impact of various factors on second language pronunciation, as well as the popularity of American English in Hong Kong.
Prof. David Jowitt
University of Jos, NG
David Jowitt is a Professor with a primary interest in all aspects of Nigerian English, i.e. the Nigerian variety of (Standard) English. This interest springs from his general interest in English language, in particular its contemporary grammar, phonology and history.
Dr Dania Bonness
Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, NO
Dania Bonness is an Associate Professor with particular interests in Irish English. Her recent publications have focussed in the language used in emigrant letters in New Zealand and Ireland, having published a chapter on the topic as part of Keeping in Touch: Emigrant letters across the English-speaking world.
Prof. Keith Lilley
Queen's University Belfast, UK
Keith Lilley is a historical geographer with particular research expertise in interpreting historic landscapes, maps and built environments. His research includes various aspects of cartography and historical geography.
Prof. Dr Isabel Martin
Karlsruhe University of Education, DE
Isabel Martin is a professor in English language and didactics and the head of the English department at Karlsruhe University of Education. Her work focusses strongly on literature and Early Englishes.
Curtin University, AU; University of Sydney, AU; HKU, HK
Lisa Lim is an Associate Professor with research interests in multilingualism and language contact, World/Asian Englishes, especially those of Hong Kong, Singapore, and the Peranakans, language shift, endangerment and postvernacular vitality, and the sociolinguistics of globalisation. She is a consultant for the Oxford English Dictionary for Singapore and Hong Kong English, and columnist of the fortnightly 'Language Matters' column for the South China Morning Post's Sunday Post Magazine.
Prof. Devyani Sharma
Queen Mary University of London, UK
Devyani Sharma is Professor of Sociolinguistics at Queen Mary University of London. Her research is on new English dialects, inter-ethnic contact, dialect variation, language change, bilingualism, and language attitudes. Her edited books include The Oxford Handbook of World Englishes, Research Methods in Linguistics and English in the Indian Diaspora. She co-directs the online resources Accent Bias Britain, Teach Real English!, and Multilingual Capital.
Dr Kate Spowage
University of Leeds, UK
Kate Spowage is a Lecturer in English Language at the University of Leeds. Her research interests include decolonial approaches to language, political economy, and theories of ideology. She is currently working on Language as Statecraft, a monograph investigating the politics of language in Rwanda from the pre-colonial era to the present. She has published articles in Language Sciences and Language Matters.
Dr Mario Saraceni
The University of Portsmouth, UK
Mario Saraceni is a Reader in English and Linguistics, with primary research interests in all issues relating to the roles of English as a transnational and de-anglicised language, especially from a political and ideological perspective. He is specifically interested in the relationship between 'English' and (post-)national identities in the context of decolonisation.
Dr Salbrina Sharbawi
Salbrina Sharbawi is a Senior Assistant Professor with research interests in sociophonetics, world Englishes (particularly Brunei English), language policy and planning and sociopolitical linguistics. Recent publications include investigating Generation Z usage of English in Brunei, and family language policies in the Malays of Brunei.
Dr Alex Leung
Debate panellist
Alex Leung is a Senior Lecturer in TESOL, having been with Northumbria University since 2012. He served between 2013-2019 on the British Association for Applied Linguistics as Meetings Secretary and is a section editor for Open Linguistics with De Gruyter. His research interests are centred around second language acquisition.
Prof. Diana Whaley
Place name tour leader
Diana Whaley is an Emeritus Professor of Early Medieval Studies, who taught at Newcastle University for 36 years. She continues to be active in her research, which focusses around old Norse-Icelandic literature and the onomastics of Northern England. She also holds the role of president for the Society for Name Studies in Britain and Ireland.
© 2023 ISLE Summer School 2022


text:
Budacin (; , Budatin) – osiedle na Białorusi, w obwodzie homelskim, w rejonie homelskim, w sielsowiecie Ułukauje. Sąsiaduje z eksklawami Homla.

Znajduje tu się przystanek kolejowy Budacień, położony na wschodniej obwodnicy kolejowej Homla.

Przypisy

Bibliografia

Wsie w rejonie homelskim


Manufacturers and Exporters of Machinery for the Construction Industry. These are appreciated for precision functionality, optimum performance, longer serviceability,impact resistance and high tolerance and strength. Our products are Automatic Concrete Block Machine, Automatic Concrete Paver / Fly Ash Brick Making Machine, Soil Block Machine, Manual Concrete Block Machine, Construction Equipments, Pan Mix Machine, Fly Ash Brick Making Machine.


gcode nested loops [Archive] - CNCzone.com- Largest Forums for CNC Professional and Hobbyist alike!
the exterior of a cylinder.
On most controls with macro B you can nest up to 4 levels deep.
So it depends on how standard Machs implimentation is, it should be in the manual I would think.
Some other info on macro programming.
It is not a case of can G-code interpret nested loops but a matter of can the controller software interpreting the G-code interpret nested loops. Your analogy with Basic is correct to some extent but not really for plain G-code; this is more analogous to html and just as some browsers cannot interpret some features or interpret them differently some controllers interpret G-code differently. Within G-code there is a subset of commands known as Macro A or B and this is based on Basic and allows most of the operations in Basic but again it depends on whether the controller software has macro capabalities turned on. Again I think an analogy with browsers can be made this time with respect to Java which some browsers could not interpret.
I run commercial machines (Haas) which have their own proprietary controller software and they can handle nested loops; my old machines are limited to nine deep but the newer ones do not seem to have any limit I can find. The subroutine commands are (normally) M97 (P)nnnn which commands go to line nnnn and proceed from there until a M99 is encountered which means return to the line below the M97; I put the P in parentheses because some controllers use a different label. An Lnn, as in M97 Pnnnn Lnn, modifies the meaning so that the return comes back the M97 until the L is counted to zero.
I have several programs that do what you are seeking on the X Y plane and they use subroutines nested three deep (I think); modifying these to use the X and A axes would be trivial.
Of course if Macros are enabled in the machine controller software then nested loops are possible within a macro subprogram in which case the G code command is G65 followed by a string of variables and a target which is a separate program; I think G65 is the standard G code.
I run Siemens 840D control, I think the max. it will nest is 11 deep.


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