Our client, a medical device company in Limerick are currently looking to recruit a Senior Software Tester for their site.
Identification and root cause analysis of potential bugs.
Manage defects through a defect tracking system.
Work with the various departments / groups in development and execution of validation activities associated with new system or System upgrades.
Prioritize qualification activities in line with the project schedules and business needs.
Execute qualification protocols as required including risk assessments and regulatory reviews.
Resolve and assist in the closure of deviations initiated during qualification execution.
Implementation and co-ordination of the change control process, review change controls for validation impact, promotes timely approval of all supporting documentation.
Generate SOP's / other documentation as applicable.
Validation representative at daily project management meetings, weekly change control and team meetings.
Work with all departments in ensuring operational effectiveness and developing product Quality for business continuity and process / product introductions.
Run / Manage complaint investigation and resolution of same.


text:
Queen's insight
Queen's awards Honorary Professorship to Former Speaker of the NI Assembly Mitchel McLaughlin
Queen's University Belfast has awarded former Speaker of the Northern Ireland Assembly and MLA, Mitchel McLaughlin an Honorary Professorship in Peace Studies at the Senator George J. Mitchell Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice.
Involved in politics for over 50 years, Mr McLaughlin served as Speaker of the Northern Ireland Assembly from 2015 until 2016, Principal Deputy Speaker from 2013 until 2015, Assembly Private Secretary to the Minister for Education 2011- 2013 and as an MLA for Foyle from 1998 - 2003 and South Antrim from 2007 until his retirement in 2016.
Mr McLaughlin was also Chairman and later General Secretary of Sinn Finn.
Welcoming the appointment Professor Richard English, Pro-Vice-Chancellor for Internationalisation and Engagement at Queen's, said: "Mitchel McLaughlin has played a key role in local politics for over 50 years, and in his work as Assembly Speaker he was widely respected. His significant breadth of experience will complement the work of the Senator George J. Mitchell Institute for Global Peace, Security and Justice and I look forward very much to his contribution over the next three years."
In his role as Honorary Professor Mr McLaughlin will take part in workshops and masterclasses with students and will participate in events at the University.
Mr McLaughlin will give his public first lecture as part of the Queen's Policy Engagement (QPol) series on Tuesday, 26 June 2018, entitled: 'Hope and History'.
The lecture will be free and open to the public. Details regarding registration will be released in due course via Queen's social media channels.
Media enquiries to Queen's Communications Office on comms.office@qub.ac.uk or (028) 9097 3091
Queen's awarded £1 million to tackle plastic waste problems
Queen's develop new eye tests that could help patients and reduce burden on NHS
Professor David Armitage delivers the Annual Frank Wright Lecture at Queen's
Work of late Queen's Professor Frank Pantridge celebrated for transformational impact
Queen's research finds electoral reforms did not cause the rise of Sinn Féin in 1918

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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ST LOUIS CRIMINAL DEFENSE When you are faced with criminal charges in St. Louis, the world can seem like it is collapsing in on you. It is constantly on your mind. And you can certainly feel as if you are on your own. But what if the police officer who issued the criminal citation violated your Constitutional rights? What if the charges leveled against you are grossly inaccurate? In most cases, the simple act of hiring a St. Louis criminal defense attorney can mean the difference between jail time and getting the charges thrown out altogether. At Brinkman & Alter, we want to make sure your rights are protected, but we also want to make sure that you do not end up paying outrageous fees in order to get the job done. Give us a call today, and speak to one of our experienced St Louis criminal defense attorneys today!!
ST LOUIS MISDEMEANORS: Whether it is marijuana possession, drug paraphernalia, trespassing, shoplifting, minor in possession, or disturbing the peace, prostitution, we will look closely at your case to determine the best course of action. Most misdemeanor level cases are only $375.
ST LOUIS FELONIES: If you have been charged with a felony in the St Louis area, then the best thing you can do is contact an attorney immediately (whether it is burglary, robbery, theft, drug possession, or weapons possession). You have certain rights and defenses that can be asserted. But unless you have someone experienced advocating for you, then you are fighting an uphill battle. Low level felonies start at only $750.
ST LOUIS TRAFFIC TICKETS AND WARRANTS At one point or another in your life, there is a very good chance that you will receive a St. Louis traffic ticket. Some of the more common examples would of course be speeding, stop sign violations, lane change violations, driving while suspended, and failure to show proof of insurance. Traffic citations are certainly a nuisance. But unless you hire a St. Louis speeding ticket attorney to get it fixed, then the state of Missouri will assess points to your permanent driving record. This in turn will increase your automobile insurance (and could even lead to a suspension of your driving privileges). And if nothing at all is done with the ticket, the judge will issue a bench warrant for your arrest. But at Brinkman & Alter, we want to handle all your traffic tickets properly and get them reduced to a non-moving violation (so that your car insurance is not affected and your driver's license is kept safe). And if your St. Louis traffic ticket has gone to warrant, we can request that the judge recall it. Fees for most tickets are $35. Fees for a warrant are $150.
ST LOUIS DRIVING WHILE SUSPENDED TICKET This kind of traffic infraction occurs when you are caught operating a vehicle while your driving privileges are currently suspended. As a result, the state of Missouri handles a DWS in a very serious manner. If do not get this type of ticket resolved, then you receive twelve (12) additional points to your record (and you will likely have to endure yet another year of a suspended license). But we can help you get back to an active status, resolve the DWS ticket, and get you back out on the road driving legally!! Fees for most St. Louis Driving While Suspended tickets are $225. Please do give us a call today to find out more!!
Collection agencies are notorious for their aggressive tactics. Endless phone calls, rude comments, harassing threats. It is not uncommon for third-party collectors to engage in unlawful behavior. This is especially true when it comes to the provisions of the FDCPA. This is the federal consumer law that tightly regulates what a collector can and cannot do when it attempts to collect on a debt. At Brinkman & Alter, we take a very close look at all collection activity that has occurred (whether it is a letter, or a voicemail, or a phone call to your place of work). There is absolutely no cost to you for any work that we may do on a Fair Debt Collection Practices Act case (you do not pay us a dime). And if in fact the collector has violated your rights under this law, they have to pay you up to $1,000. If you are dealing with third-party collectors, please do get in touch with our St. Louis bankruptcy attorneys right away!!
If you are an hourly wage earner (i.e. paid by the hour), you may from time to time work more than forty (40) hours in any given week. When that happens, your employer is supposed to pay you an increased rate per hour worked (ex. time-and-a-half). But what if your employer fails to compensate you appropriately? What if your employer withholds wages that are rightfully yours? This is the basic idea behind the FLSA. It is a federal law (enacted in 1938) that protects wage earners against the wrongdoing of an employer. Our team of lawyers will examine your job history (including all records of your income over the previous year), and make sure that your federal rights are upheld. There are no fees required from you. Any work that we might do on this type of case is free of charge. If in fact your employer violated your rights under the Fair Labor Standards Act, it is your employer who will have to pay our fees. In addition, the law states that you may recover wages that should have been paid to you. But as a form of punishment, the employer will have to double those lost earnings. If you believe that your federal wage rights have been violated, please do get in touch with us as soon as possible!!


text:
Here's a timeline view of the Earth's rotation rate with respect to biological development:
Note: some observers prefer to use the labels of Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasoid instead of Africans, Asians, and Caucasians, because they consider such labels more inclusive of a larger grouping and the other labels as being too exclusive. Hence, I must make mention that my labels are intended to be used for this larger purpose.
Are Humans rotation rate specific to the extent they will be adversely affected by the slowing of the Earth's rotation rate, or will they simply adapt to the change on a slow, almost imperceptible rate, because this is the assumed value that the Earth proceeds along and will continue to do so? Is the reason for the change in the human form, human thinking and human activities over the centuries due in part to environmental effects caused by the changing rate of the Earth's rotational spin? Are cellular/neuronal processes very sensitive and responsive to particular types of environmental changes over long periods of time which is reflected in social beliefs, religious beliefs, medical treatment, etc.? If we agree that there are alterations in the human species due to the change in rotation rate, can they be specifically identified, monitored, and controlled for altruistic purposes?
...The earth's rotational period and the accompanying variations in tides, temperature, and insulation, are among the most universal environmental periodicities to which living systems must adapt. Most theories of planetary evolution place the earth and moon in close proximity and give the earth a much shortened day length at some distant time. By extrapolation using present-day values for tidal friction, the earth and moon can be reckoned to have been in close proximity at some time less than three eons ago. Under those circumstances the solar day would have been less than 10 hr, possibly as short as 4-5 hr, and punctuated by boiling and condensing tides of great amplitude. The geological record of such a violent event in the earth's history should be clear and serves as a boundary condition for the time of occurrence. The rapid rotation of the primitive earth and the subsequent slowing of rotation rate due to tidal friction in the earth-moon system present a problem in the evolution of an oscillator generating the biological clock.
If a short period clock became fixed in the chemistry of early life forms prior to significant retardation of the rotation rate of the earth, then any subsequent rapid slowing of the earth's rotation would have made continuous adaptation of the clock difficult. If the clock evolved via saltatory increases in period, then this primitive oscillator must underlie the modern Circadian clock and vestiges of the primitive clock period may be expressed in ultradian rhythms and are mutants of the modern clock. Alternatively, if slowing in the earth's rotation commenced soon after accretion of the planets some 4-5 billion years before the present (BYBP), then somewhat less serious problems in tuning of the oscillator period to the variation in day length from 16-18 hr in the Precambrian to the present 24 hr period need to be explained. In either case the limits of entrainment as they are presently understood would have been exceeded.
--- Cellular Oscillators as Vestiges of a Primitive Circadian Clock ---
Robert R. Klevecz
In looking at the human ability to adapt to changes in rotation rate, I came across some information that is applicable to the current discussion:
Artificial gravity provided by rotating (spacecraft) environments is not the same as that felt on Earth. The introduction of a rotating environment poses special problems for sensory systems involved in spatial orientation and consequently also for sensory-motor performance because gravitational forces are not constant for an object or human being moving within it (Howard and Templeton, 1966).
Nevertheless, it has been shown in previous studies that even untrained humans are able to adapt to environments with rotation periods of less than 3-4 rpm (180-240 revolutions per hour/4,320-5,760 revolutions per 24 hours).
In contrast, the Earth spins at the rate of 1 revolution per 24 hours at the speed of about 1000 mph at the equator.)
What changes in the human species will take place when subjected to slow rotation periods over long periods of time during long space voyages, that is if we have to travel with the present level of spacecraft design?
--- Human Space Exploration ---
...However, can the dynamics of a spacecraft's slow revolution and small population of humans actually be equated with that of the Earth and a large population?
Any manned venture to Mars would involve a lengthy stay Researchers think the human body clock could hinder space exploration. Russell Foster's team at Imperial College London, UK, is looking at how astronauts would cope away from Earth. Foster says our "Circadian rhythm is crucial. It stops everything happening at once and co-ordinates the right things to happen at the right time". Whilst the human body is used to a 24-hour cycle, the day on Mars is an extra 39 minutes long, which could prove difficult for humans to adapt to... (09-2004 BBC Science news)
--- Body clocks 'hinder' space travel ---
11-30-04:
Perception of time and space travel.
First year psychology students are introduced to the concept of actual ("real") time versus psychological time. Psychological time is the perception that a period of time "seems" either shorter or longer than what one believes should be the actual case. For example, a person who is anxious to go home from work may find that a fifteen minute delay seems a lot longer. Another example can be reference with the adage "time flies when you're having fun," in reference to activities that seem to end too short. A third example can be encountered when one is either walking a well-worn path in the summer or winter. The path appears to be much longer (hence, take more time) when it is colder than when it is warmer (unless conditions are such that one gets "lost" in thought, a day dream, or in reflection, might say they walked in a conscious state of unconsciousness).
If we assume, for the sake of philosophical inquiry that time is somehow distorted by activity due to temperature, than this is a consideration to take into account when traversing the vastness of a "cold" space. Accelerated space travel make require a "distortion" of either (or both) the temperature of a spacecraft or surrounding medium. Whereas in the science fiction show "Startrek" we view the concept of "warping" space in order for a spacecraft to travel at speeds faster than the speed of light, "warping" may mean an artificially arranged temperature differential.
A lot of people disregard (or take for granted) the fact that humans are particularly sensitive to environmental changes, one of which is the changing rate of rotational spin. No less, it is also disregarded that some people are more sensitive to such changes, whereby the effects of rotational changes can be magnified. Effects of the changes can manifest themselves in various forms relative to one's state of health in a given environment. But one's language environment can and sometimes does play a role in the description and illustration of the person's attempts to portray the manifestations created by such effects of rotational rate change. Such fragments of perception may lead a person to see a devil, alien, god, loved one, monsters, or simply say they have visions. Thus, we must ask whether or not the purported increased sightings of UFO's, aliens, crop circles, Satan/evil, Jesus, Mary, "visions," are due to some form of group-manifested neurosis where "belonging" can surely influence the behavior of some people, or is due to an increased awareness and vocal response to rotational rate changes in the Earth.
We must also consider what further manifestations will arise as the chances of group- influenced neurosis/psychosis increases with population growth and the continued slowing of the Earth's rotation at different rates. In other words, will an increase in the decrease of the Earth's rotation become more manifest in neurotic, psychotic, or generally accepted forms? Will the increased decrease in rotation rate cause the "particulate sediments" of present day religions, governments, and sciences to sink to the bottom of human consciousness and called "archetypes," "basic cognitive structures," "fundamental body plan," etc..?
By imagining yourself as an alien scientist that carries out experiments in a larger context of spinning planets seen as test tubes in a centrifuge, we can also image individual solar systems and individual galaxies as larger models. Additionally, the different sizes of planets with different rates of spin can be viewed as test tubes from different manufactures or the same manufacturer. Different sizes and different rates of rotation spin afford the process of "experimentation" a multi-faceted approach procedure which covers many alternative considerations that must be dismissed or set aside for individualized testing procedures in which only a single type of test-tube and single rotation rate are applied. No less, the differences in "test-tube" planets arrayed in various orbits is a means of addressing multiple considerations at a single time.
From another perspective of using the test tube analogy of human development with respect to the rotation rate of the Earth, let us add the image of a color prism that is made possible by directing a beam of "white" light into a triangular-shaped glass prism, though alternative shapes could be used.
In this instance, the different colors are being used to represent the different "colors" of races, an idea that can be found in those advocating "rainbow coalitions" of social activists. However, my intent is to bring to mind that if we mix all the colors together in one bunch, like a child using different colors of crayons to mark a coloring book, what we find is that the blending of all the colors results in the color black. The act of mixing, blending, bunching, etc., all the colors together results in a color that is not often displayed in images of rainbows or prisms, but is a necessary idea to acknowledge in terms of the changing rotation rate of the Earth.
If we take all the colors and place them into a test tube that we spin at an increased rate of rotation, the bottom of the test tube would thus contain a black sediment. By comparative analogy, it is necessary to consider that the presumed birthplace of humanity, that is, Africa, was the bottom of the test tube, in terms of hominid development. As the Earth's rotation slowed, the black sediment was able to spread out, thus becoming more diverse as the Earth's rotation slowed further. However, as the Earth's rotation continues to slow down, the water/ carbon composition of the human species begins to act like carbonated water bubbles that fly away. This occurs in conjunction with a lightening of the species' away from its dark beginnings, not only in a spiritual and psychological sense, but also in a physical sense as well. In other words, the species is moving towards the "(white) light," just like plants and animals do, but so are all forms of spiritual views, with the exception of those who prefer the depths of darkness in evil.
The different colors represent the human notion of "diversity," that some would argue is valuable for humanity, and yet if we assume it is so valuable, then we must also wonder why such large representations of diversity comes to an end and results in fewer forms of diversity. Clearly, diversity is like different philosophies of religion that compete with one another and take steps to remove the competition in order to make one "species" the dominant form.
Hence, the so-called emphasis on "Human Diversity" is only a transition that we must look past and begin developing ideas for an inevitable future without diversity brought about by processes of elimination. We as a species are not becoming "One with the Creator" by a coalescence of diversity, since it appears, most of us are nothing more than a type of sediment in a series of sediment levels that make it possible for a few of our species to leave the test tube and fly away... (into space? Heaven? nirvana? Vahalla?) This does not mean no one isn't individually unique, it simply means their uniqueness has an underlying fundamental purpose for the human species overall, with respect to the Earth's own unique type of planetary, galactic and universe design.
If we look at a diagram showing a scale of hominid development that is illustrated with color, it doesn't take too much imagination to make the analogy with the above ideas related to sediment levels in a test tube that has been subjected to a spinning environment, even though in this instance, darker colors are being used to illustrate those hominids that came later and lighter colors are being used to illustrate those hominids which came earlier. However, it is necessary to appreciate that "color" is not necessarily related to skin color, but to the metaphorical notion of "color" related to hominid development in a genetic sense of scale.
In other words, the use of the word "color" is a means to distinguish differential variation as one does when looking at the different colors on street lights, uniforms, diamonds, etc... even though some would argue that the fact that chimps and gorillas are typically black gives us reason to believe that humanity may have in fact arose from a black form of hominid "sediment," if not a black form of primordial soup mixture. And amusingly enough, since we are talking about color and hominids, I have come across the idea that some people consider the reason some Asians have an interest in coloring their hair red is because this color is related to the red- haired Orangutans which are believed by some to have some ancestral link with some Asian groups.
--- BBC News ---
--- BBC ---
--- Psychology News ---
--- Wildlife Album ---
Laws, ideas, social/educational programs, etc., which strive for an increase in an acceptance of diversity, is an effort that insists upon keeping the human species in its present stage of evolutionary development, and do not assist the species in considering that true survival of the species may indeed require a specificity away from diversity. It also is necessary to re-evaluate our definition of 'diversity' since a wide-spread increase in the development of the size of the brain in terms of an evolutionary standard is a specificity, and not an act of diversity. "Diversity" would better be attributed to the notion of all biological species experiencing a similar increase. Indeed, though humans proliferate and are sometimes tagged with a racial identity, the human species itself is a specificity.
While the idea of "specificity" may appear to be a modern day label for old activities revolving around importance placed on lineages, heirs, specialized hierarchies which serve to denigrate the majority while assisting a select few in having access to the most, the best, the highest, etc., these ideas are actually born out of views based on "diversity" equated with an underlying dichotomy, and are not the purposeful intent of seeing through the many "colored" sediments (sentiments) of diversity to acknowledge that there is a specificity related to the overall human species. This specificity is a reflection of the environment influencing:
The basic fundamental primary substances used in development (carbon, hydrogen, iron, etc...)
The developmental process itself.
The structure of the process used in the development.
A simple application of this approach is to view the diversity of human skin coloring as a type of fingerprint that is specific to the planet Earth. In other words, the variety of racial colors is a form of profile that is analogous to the profile seen in DNA charts of individuals. Such a profile can be used as a measurement tool to distinguish characteristics of environments on organisms. It is a tool that may be of considerable value for those in the future who travel to different planets and encounter different species. The color profile will assist researchers in identifying particular environmental characteristics on species with certain types of physiology. It can also help us of the present to identify changes in the environment that may only affect skin pigmentation, and thus is a tell-tale sign of something me might want to concern ourselves with.
The spinning Earth with its many environmental "cultures" of different species can be compared to multiple test tubes filled with various "cultures" of organisms in a spinning centrifuge.
(For those of you who are unfamiliar with the term "centrifuge" in the present context, it is being used to describe a type of machine which spins one or more test tubes. The effect of spinning separates different sizes/forms of particles/matter to different levels of the test tube.)
Life, can thus be compared to "stuff" in the test tube that separates towards the bottom, middle, or top of the test tube in relation to the speed and duration of the spin that the test tube is subjected to. With all this said, it is necessary to acknowledge (for those of you who are not already familiar with this idea) that the rotation rate of the Earth is slowing down and that it was spinning much faster the further we go back in time.
The evolution/development of humanity continues today though the initial 23rd hour rate is now closer to the 24 hour rate. (The length of a day is approximately 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4.09 seconds.) However, let us not also overlook the fact that all languages, religions, etc., also arose during this same time period. In other words, this hour/rotation rate speed has permitted the human species to arise just as certain speeds in a centrifuge permit the "growth" of particular aggregations of "stuff" in a test tube to arise, while other speeds (and durations) would not do so. With this said, it is necessary to consider that the human species' existence may be dependent on a certain rate (and duration) of the Earth's rotation, or otherwise, the human species can not exist.
The emergence of consciousness is like the emergence of language, culture, religion in its many forms, government in its many forms, and science in its many forms. They arose as particulate aggregations relative to the duration and speed of the Earth's rotation. Yet, what needs to be further realized is that the spinning effect creates manifestations of awareness just as when someone is abruptly taken off of a school-yard merry-go-round. For those who have had this experience, or have had the experience of being spun around and then stopped, the usual comment is to say that what they perceive is the world spinning. However, it is infrequently acknowledged that this comment is a generalized remark usually acquired from others who had also heard the same definition from one or more others. Very few of us take the time to analyze the perceptions to the extent of acknowledging the recognition of fragmentation of perceptions.
These fragments are caricatures of attempts to find some "logical" reference point to the extent that anthropomorphic figures frequently become used as explanations of spinning effects that are taking place on various cellular, physiological, and mental levels by the sheer fact that the Earth's rotation rate changes at different rates, though some might want to argue that the rates are small and occur over long periods of time. What some people don't consider is that biological processes have been subjected to the (changing) spinning effect of the Earth's rotation for billions of years, if not longer.
(The consideration that biological processes may have been subjected to a rotation effect more than just a few billion years in terms of development in a primordial soup, is due to the notion that perhaps biological processes began long ago elsewhere, and were somehow implanted on Earth (like an egg being embedded in a uterus), when environmental conditions were ripe for maturation. Not necessarily done intentionally by some alien species, but maybe by pure serendipity.)
Newest Page Posting: Friday, 4th May 2018, 4:19 AM


Two thousand five hundred copies of "Revenue Revision, 1932"
Two trials before the judge of the High Court of Admiralty of Scotland : I. The trial, ... against James Long ... and Thomas MacAdam ... II. The trial, ... against Duncan Grant junior ... Evan MacKinnon ... John MacDonald ... and Murdoch MacRae ..


How to make your life beautiful is about ensuring that you are living a balanced life.
When we neglect any part of life, we suffer and the people around us suffer, but if we take care of all the areas of our lives, life become beautiful.
Please let me hear your thoughts on this episode in the comments section at www.unchainedwarrior.com/024.


I have a team of 7 telemarketers using ring central integrated with salesforce. After 50 calls the click to dial disables. The only way to get it to work again is to re-start the computer. My reps are now averaging 4 restarts a day each. Destroying productivity in a call center. I am looking into switching to another provider now. I am hoping I can get s solution from somebody else out there experiencing the same problem before I do so.
I am very interested to know the solution to this too as this happens to one of our clients. I've never narrowed it down to 50 calls, but it is a complaint they are dealing with daily from click to dial out of salesforce.
I have not heard this before. Can both of you open a support case please? In the case notes please include as many details as you can. Date and time it occurred, the last call taken when it disabled, etc.
You are welcome to reply back here with the case numbers if you wish.
Were you able to open up a support case successfully?
We have Reference #05720211 going about this issue now.


text:
package org.diirt.graphene.profile;

import java.awt.image.BufferedImage;
import java.io.File;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.settings.SaveSettings;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.utils.Statistics;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.utils.Resolution;
import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Arrays;
import java.util.HashMap;
import java.util.List;
import java.util.Map;
import org.diirt.graphene.Point2DDataset;
import org.diirt.graphene.Point2DDatasets;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.image.ShowResizableGraph;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.io.CSVWriter;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.io.DateUtils;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.io.ImageWriter;
import org.diirt.graphene.profile.utils.DatasetFactory;

/**
 * Handles the profiling for testing rendering (specifically the draw) of a
 * Graph2DRenderer through sets of testing settings.
 * Has a ProfileGraph2D with the type of the
 * Graph2DRenderer being profiled.
 *

 * Enables the profile object to be profile at various image resolutions
 * and dataset sizes.  These statistics may then be graphed or saved.
 *
 * @author asbarber
 */
public class MultiLevelProfiler{
    private ProfileGraph2D profiler;

    private List<Resolution> resolutions;
    private List<Integer> datasetSizes;

    private Map<Resolution, Map<Integer, Statistics>> results;
    private Map<Resolution, Map<Integer, BufferedImage>> images;

    /**
     * Creates a object to profile a Graph2DRenderer
     * using a ProfileGraph2D and analyzing performance
     * through various sets of renderings at specified intervals
     * of data sizes and image resolution sizes.
     *
     * @param profiler graph renderer with given profile settings to
     * do extensive testing on
     */
    public MultiLevelProfiler(ProfileGraph2D profiler){
        this.profiler = profiler;
        this.results = new HashMap<>();
        this.images = new HashMap<>();
    }

    //Profile Running

    /**
     * Runs through the list of dataset sizes paired with every element
     * from the list of image resolutions to profile a
     * ProfileGraph2D to analyze the performance of the graph
     * renderer and how the performance is effected by data size and
     * image size.
     *

     * Precondition: the set of dataset sizes and the set of resolutions to
     * test are both not null and not empty.
     *

     * A mapping of results is created to link dataset size, resolution,
     * and statistics.
     * This is done by creating a map, map_A, for a link between
     * the statistics and the dataset size, and mapping map_A
     * to a second map for every resolution.
     *
     * @see #getResults()
     */
    public void profile(){
        if (datasetSizes == null || datasetSizes.isEmpty()){
            throw new NullPointerException("Use the setter to list dataset sizes.");
        }
        if (resolutions == null || resolutions.isEmpty()){
            throw new NullPointerException("Use the setter to list resolutions.");
        }

        //Can give warning about how long this method will profile
        this.processTimeWarning(datasetSizes.size() * resolutions.size() * profiler.getProfileSettings().getTestTime());

        //Loop through combinations of settings
        for (int r = 0; r < resolutions.size() && !Thread.currentThread().isInterrupted(); r++){

            HashMap<Integer, Statistics> map = new HashMap<>();
            HashMap<Integer, BufferedImage> imageMap = new HashMap<>();

                for (int s = 0; s < datasetSizes.size() && !Thread.currentThread().isInterrupted(); s++){

                    //Use this to process before the result, such as to print to console
                    this.processPreResult(resolutions.get(r), datasetSizes.get(s));

                    //Apply settings
                    profiler.setNumDataPoints(datasetSizes.get(s));
                    profiler.getResolution().setWidth(resolutions.get(r).getWidth());
                    profiler.getResolution().setHeight(resolutions.get(r).getHeight());

                    //Profiler
                    profiler.profile();

                    //Track results (dataset size and statistics)
                    map.put(datasetSizes.get(s), profiler.getStatistics());
                    imageMap.put(datasetSizes.get(s), profiler.getSaveSettings().getSaveImage());

                    //Use to process the result, such as print to console
                    this.processResult(resolutions.get(r), datasetSizes.get(s), profiler.getStatistics());
                }

            //Put dataSize & statistics map into resolution set
            results.put(resolutions.get(r), map);
            images.put(resolutions.get(r), imageMap);
        }
    }

    //Post-Run Options

    /**
     * A mapping that gets the results of profiler that
     * maps a statistics result to every dataset size that is
     * mapped to every resolution.
     *

     * The keys to the outer map are the set of resolutions.
     * The keys to the inner map are the set of dataset sizes.
     * The value of the outer map is the inner map.
     * The value of the inner map is the statistics of the profiling.
     *
     * Precondition: #profile() has been called.
     *
     * @return a mapping that gets the results of running the profiler
     * associated resolution sizes to dataset sizes to statistical timing
     * results
     */
    public Map<Resolution, Map<Integer, Statistics>> getResults(){
        if (results == null){
            throw new NullPointerException("Profiling has not been run.");
        }

        return results;
    }

    /**
     * Forms a set of point 2D data for each resolution profiled
     * where the point is composed of the number of data points profiled
     * and the average profile time.
     *
     * Each point has the form (size, time).
     *
     * @return lines for each resolution composed of average profile time and
     * dataset size points, with the point have the form (size, time)
     */
    public List<Point2DDataset> getStatisticLineData(){
        List<Point2DDataset> allLines = new ArrayList<>();

        //Resolution[] keys for resolutions
        Object[] resolutionKeys = results.keySet().toArray();

        //Resolution Map
        for (int i = 0; i < results.size(); i++){
            Resolution resolution = (Resolution) resolutionKeys[i];
            Map<Integer, Statistics> map = results.get(resolution);

            //Integer[] keys for dataset sizes
            Object[] sizeKeys = map.keySet().toArray();
            double[] sizes = new double[map.size()];
            double[] times = new double[map.size()];

                //Dataset Size Map
                for (int j = 0; j < map.size(); j++){
                    Integer size = (Integer) sizeKeys[j];
                    Statistics stats = map.get(size);

                    sizes[j] = size;
                    times[j] = stats.getAverageTime();
                }

            Point2DDataset data = Point2DDatasets.lineData(sizes, times);
            allLines.add(data);
        }

        return allLines;
    }

    /**
     * Displays a separate frame for every profile operation
     * performed.
     *
     * Plots the sizes on the x-axis and the times on the y-axis.
     *
     * Precondition: #profile() has been called.
     */
    public void graphStatistics(){
        if (results == null){
            throw new NullPointerException("Profiling has not been run.");
        }

        List<Point2DDataset> lines = getStatisticLineData();

        for (Point2DDataset data: lines){
            ShowResizableGraph.showLineGraph(data);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Creates a table (.CSV format) to display the results,
     * with the dataset sizes as the row heading and the
     * resolution as the column heading.
     *

     * Saves the CSV file to the same directory as general profile results,
     * with the specific profile graph type as well as the date.
     *
     * Precondition: results is non-null and not empty, meaning profiling
     * has been completed.
     */
    public void saveStatistics(){
        if (Thread.currentThread().isInterrupted()){
            return;
        }

        if (results == null){
            throw new NullPointerException("Profiling has not been run.");
        }
        //Should not occur since resolutions must be non-empty
        if (results.isEmpty()){
            return;
        }

        //Assumption: the set of keys for dataset sizes are the same
        //for each line (the Map<Integer,Statistics> keys are equivalent for
        //each resolutioin)
        Resolution[] resKeys = results.keySet().toArray(new Resolution[0]);
        Integer[] sizeKeys = results.get(resKeys[0]).keySet().toArray(new Integer[0]);

        List<List> data = new ArrayList();

        //Sorts keys so table has sorted columns/rows
        Arrays.sort(resKeys);
        Arrays.sort(sizeKeys);

        //For all dataset sizes
        for (int i = 0; i < sizeKeys.length; i++){
            ArrayList row = new ArrayList();

            //Dataset column
            row.add(sizeKeys[i]);

            //Finds the timings for the dataset size for all resolutions
            for (int j = 0; j < resKeys.length; j++){
                row.add(
                    String.format("%.3f",
                    results.get(resKeys[j]).get(sizeKeys[i]).getAverageTime()
                ));
            }

            data.add(row);
        }

        String filename =
                        ProfileGraph2D.LOG_FILEPATH +
                        DateUtils.getDate(DateUtils.DateFormat.NONDELIMITED) +
                        "-" +
                        profiler.getGraphTitle() +
                        "-" +
                        "Table2D";

        File output = CSVWriter.createFile(filename);
        CSVWriter.writeRow(output, CSVWriter.arrayCombine("", resKeys));
        CSVWriter.writeData(output, data);

        saveAdditionalInfo(filename);
    }

    /**
     * Creates a table (.out.CSV format) to display the save settings,
     * such as author, dataset message, save message,
     * as well as information about the physical computer profiling.
     *

     * Saves the CSV file to the same directory as general profile results,
     * with the specific profile graph type as well as the date.
     */
    private void saveAdditionalInfo(String filename){
        File output = CSVWriter.createFile(filename + ".out");

        CSVWriter.writeRow(output, CSVWriter.arrayCombine(
            "Graph Type",
            "Date",
            profiler.getProfileSettings().getTitle(),
            profiler.getRenderSettings().getTitle(),
            profiler.getSaveSettings().getTitle()
        ));

        CSVWriter.writeRow(output, CSVWriter.arrayCombine(
            profiler.getGraphTitle(),
            DateUtils.getDate(DateUtils.DateFormat.DELIMITED),
            profiler.getProfileSettings().getOutput(),
            profiler.getRenderSettings().getOutput(),
            profiler.getSaveSettings().getOutput()
        ));
    }

    /**
     * Saves the images generated by the profiling.
     * Saves the image files to a directory with the specific profile graph
     * type as well as the date.
     *
     *
     * Precondition: images is non-null and not empty, meaning profiling
     * has been completed.
     */
    public void saveImages(){
        if (Thread.currentThread().isInterrupted()){
            return;
        }

        if (images == null){
            throw new NullPointerException("Profiling has not been run.");
        }
        //Should not occur since resolutions must be non-empty
        if (images.isEmpty()){
            return;
        }

        //Makes directory
        //--------------------------------------------------------------
        String path =
            ProfileGraph2D.LOG_FILEPATH +
            DateUtils.getDate(DateUtils.DateFormat.NONDELIMITED) +
            "-" +
            profiler.getGraphTitle() +
            "-" +
            "Table2D";

        boolean success = (new File(path)).mkdir();

        //Failed to make directory
        if (!success){
            return;
        }
        //--------------------------------------------------------------

        //Assumption: the set of keys for dataset sizes are the same
        //for each line (the Map<Integer,Statistics> keys are equivalent for
        //each resolutioin)
        Resolution[] resKeys = images.keySet().toArray(new Resolution[0]);
        Integer[] sizeKeys = images.get(resKeys[0]).keySet().toArray(new Integer[0]);

        //Sorts keys so table has sorted columns/rows
        Arrays.sort(resKeys);
        Arrays.sort(sizeKeys);

        //For all dataset sizes
        for (int i = 0; i < sizeKeys.length; i++){
            //For all resolutions
            for (int j = 0; j < resKeys.length; j++){
                BufferedImage img = images.get(resKeys[j]).get(sizeKeys[i]);
                String name = resKeys[j].toString() +
                              "." +
                              sizeKeys[i].toString();

                ImageWriter.saveImage(path + "/", name, img);
            }
        }
    }

    //During Profile

    /**
     * Performed after the call to profile but prior to actual
     * image rendering.
     *

     * Default behavior will display the estimated time based on the
     * number of resolutions, number of dataset sizes, and the test time.
     *
     * @param estimatedTime  estimated time to profile
     *
     * @see #profile()
     */
    public void processTimeWarning(int estimatedTime){
        System.out.println("The estimated run time is " + estimatedTime + " seconds.");
    }

    /**
     * Performed every iteration of profiling and is the action undertaken
     * before knowing the statistics about the profile.
     *

     * Default behavior is to print the resolution and dataset
     * size to the console.
     *

     * Override this to provide custom behaviors.
     *
     * @param resolution resolution about to be profiled (image width, height)
     * @param datasetSize size of data about to be profiled
     */
    public void processPreResult(Resolution resolution, int datasetSize){
        System.out.print(resolution + ": " + datasetSize + ": " );
    }

    /**
     * Performed every iteration of profiling and is the action undertaken
     * after knowing the statistics about the profile.
     *

     * Default behavior is to print the average time to the console.
     *

     * Override this to provide custom behaviors.
     *
     * @param resolution resolution just profiled (image width, height)
     * @param datasetSize size of data just profiled
     * @param stats results of the profiling
     */
    public void processResult(Resolution resolution, int datasetSize, Statistics stats){
        System.out.println(stats.getAverageTime() + "ms");
    }

    //Test Parameter Setters

    /**
     * Sets the resolution sizes to be profiled.
     * Precondition: resolution set is not null and not empty
     * @param resolutions set of resolutions to profile
     */
    public void setImageSizes(List<Resolution> resolutions){
        if (resolutions == null){
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The list of image resolutions must be non-null.");
        }
        if (resolutions.isEmpty()){
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The list of image resolutions must be non-empty.");
        }

        this.resolutions = resolutions;
    }

    /**
     * Sets the dataset sizes to be profiled.
     * The ProfileGraph2D field of this object will profile
     * repeatedly updating the number of data points in rendering.
     * @param nPoints
     */
    public void setDatasetSizes(List<Integer> nPoints){
        if (nPoints == null){
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The list of dataset sizes must be non-null.");
        }
        if (nPoints.isEmpty()){
            throw new IllegalArgumentException("The list of dataset sizes must be non-empty.");
        }

        this.datasetSizes = nPoints;
    }

    //Save Parameters

    /**
     * Gets the settings to be saved to the output file
     * for a profile.
     * Some settings include:
     *

     *
Author

     *
Dataset message

     *
Save message

     *

     * @return the messages about settings information to
     *         be saved to an output file
     */
    public SaveSettings getSaveSettings(){
        return this.profiler.getSaveSettings();
    }

    //Defaults

    /**
     * Sample multi-level profiling for a given renderer.
     * Uses the default resolutions and default datasets as data.
     *

     * Graphs and saves the data.
     *
     * @param profiler renderer to profile at multiple levels
     */
    public static void defaultProfile(ProfileGraph2D profiler){
        MultiLevelProfiler layer = new MultiLevelProfiler(profiler);
        layer.setImageSizes(Resolution.defaultResolutions());
        layer.setDatasetSizes(DatasetFactory.defaultDatasetSizes());

        layer.profile();

        layer.graphStatistics();
        layer.saveStatistics();
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


January 22, 1932. An unprecedented peasant uprising erupts in western El Salvador, as a group of Latino and indigenous peasants cut army supply lines, attack a military garrison, and take control over several towns. Retribution is swift. After three days, the army and militias move in and, in some villages, slaughter all males over age 12. Elsewhere, they summarily execute anyone suspected of having a link to the Communists. Over the next few weeks, 10,000 people are massacred.


text:
NBC scraps Cosby television project
NBC spokeswoman Rebecca Marks said Wednesday the project "is no longer under development," and had no further comment.
By DAVID BAUDERThe Associated Press
NEW YORK – NBC says it has scrapped a Bill Cosby comedy that was under development, the second outlet within a day to put off or abandon a Cosby project after another sexual assault allegation against the comic emerged.
NBC spokeswoman Rebecca Marks said Wednesday the project "is no longer under development," and had no further comment.
In this Nov. 18, 2013 file photo, actor-comedian Bill Cosby poses for a portrait in New York. NBC announced Wednesday that it has canceled plans for a family comedy starring Bill Cosby. The Associated Press
Netflix announced late Tuesday that it was postponing the Nov. 27 premiere of a new Cosby standup comedy special, giving no hint about whether it ever will be aired. Hours earlier in an interview with "Entertainment Tonight," actress Janice Dickinson became the third woman in recent weeks to allege she'd been assaulted by Cosby – charges strongly denied by the comedian's lawyer.
Dickinson told "Entertainment Tonight" that Cosby had given her red wine and a pill when they were together in a Lake Tahoe, California, hotel room in 1982. When she woke up the next morning, "I wasn't wearing my pajamas and I remembered before I passed out I had been sexually assaulted by this man."
Cosby's lawyer, Martin Singer, said in a letter to The Associated Press that Dickinson's charges were "false and outlandish" and were contradicted by Dickinson herself in a published autobiography. Cosby's spokesman, David Brokaw, has not returned calls for comment.
The spiraling scandal has threatened the 77-year-old comedian's reputation as America's TV dad at a time when he was launching a comeback. He has at least 35 performances scheduled throughout the U.S. and Canada through May of 2015. None of the performances has been cancelled.
NBC's project, announced in January, was in the very early stages, without a script or commitment to production. But it would have brought Cosby back to the network where he had reigned in the 1980s with the top-rated "The Cosby Show."
Mark Kennedy and Frazier Moore in New York and Lynn Elber in Los Angeles contributed to this story.
Browse more news and things to do


Andrea and John didn't seem to notice, focusing on the first of the bubbles to reach the surface. John reached down, the movement of his arm tracing a glowing arc through the air. Andrea was giggling and running her fingers through his hair. He seemed to look up at her and down at the lake at the same time as he scooped one of the bubbles from the lake. My heart was racing and my head was screaming as I tried to make sense of it all. The bubble rested in johns open hand like a Christmas decoration. A blurry shape moved and glowed inside, like a firefly. All around us yellow glowing shapes rose from the surface and hung in the air. They danced like sparks reminding me of the others sitting back at the cabin where we had left them around the fire. Were they experiencing this too?
A large man with a blank face burst through the fly screen that now dripped down the frame like honey. He pushed past me, running across the driveway towards the pine trees on the slopes. He was waving his arms in a frenzy of coloured lights, swirling around and spinning in all directions. As I watched, his body gradually lost its form, turning into pure light and dissipating into the tree line in all directions. I followed its changing colours beneath the canopy. Above in silhouette against the rapidly lightening sky, several trees seemed to break away and fly upwards like crows. Everything was moving, merging, even the ground beneath shifted and rolled up and down. Was this the end of it all, or simply the beginning of something new? I needed to find Jessica while I still had a foothold on stable reality.
I stepped into the doorway of the cabin. The lights were now green and gave an eery feel to the room. Sitting in a chair by the fire was a giant bear made entirely of ants. It was playing with the flames in the fire, teasing at them with its claws. A crowd of people were dancing in the kitchen there was music but it was difficult to make out. Sounds, smells, colours, even the floor were all becoming confused. The cabin was filling with bubbles. They pushed in at the windows like a faulty washing machine, spilling across the floor. I glanced upwards and ducked as a crystal chandelier danced downwards towards the floor. It broke at my feet, exploding in slow motion, shards becoming mist like, swirling in a draft that flowed from stairs.
There hands on hips on the landing was Jessica. She stood with a letter opener in her hand or was it part of her? I couldn't tell any more my eyes were watering. She whirled away in her red dress that malted rose petals as she walked towards the bedrooms. I made to follow her, stopping only just in time to realise I was still standing in the boat. Frustrated I took stock of what had happened. The stairs floating just in front of me rose and fell as the house continued its heavy breathing. At my feet, Andrea and John were now in a state of passionate arousal, rolling around and kissing in the boat. I watched as John's shirt appeared to break away, turning into a swarm of spiders that crawled overboard to pool like oil on the surface of the lake.
Watching them merge together, each no longer discernible from the other, arms and legs dissolving into one body, I felt the urgency to see Jessica return. Resting one foot on the side of the boat I lurched and aimed my body for the bottom of the stairs. They welcomed me, curling around like a blanket inviting me to sleep. I hadn't noticed how sleepy I felt before. Pushing away the folds of the stair carpet I slithered up the slope of the stairwell. Rose petals drifted around, as they met with bubbles, they ignited sending smoke rings into the air. There were lots of bubbles now, they were filling the space around me making it difficult to move and hard to breathe. Finally I made the landing and dragged my tired body upright. Swaying in what seemed to be a drunken state, I giggled at the old age that seemed to have overcome me. I looked down at my hands which had become clawed and useless.
There were letter openers growing in small clumps from the floor and the walls, standing tall like the asparagus we had tenderly cared for in the roof garden last summer. The rose petals led the way, carpeting the floor completely. I could smell expensive wine, summer barbeques and children singing. The door at the end of the corridor was made of sponge and coral. Blurred fish swam amongst the bubbles, nibbling at its surface. I pushed it aside and lunged into the room. She was laying on her back on the bed The red dress nearly dissolved into nothing. The light in the room was blinding. She looked without recognition, turning away with her eyes rolling in her head. Her hair was golden fire, burning into the pillow and dripping from the covers.
There was nothing left. I couldn't even remember why I was standing in the room. Everything was confusing, the light was so unbearably bright and all I wanted to do was rest. Shielding my eyes, I made a clumsy walk to the bed, laying down beside her. The light above us was so blinding. I closed my eyes and listened to the sound of her breathing, of the house breathing. It was a heavy sound, laboured and desperate. There didn't seem to be enough air for us to breathe and the room was filling up with bubbles. The stars had fallen to the earth and were burning the trees and there was nothing we could do about it. I would sleep and clean it up in the morning. The light was too painful and I needed to breathe.
Since the occurrence of numerous earthquakes on Mammoth Mountain in 1989, scientists have been monitoring large amounts of CO2 gas leaking from the Long Valley Caldera. They noticed first that large numbers of trees had died. The nearby town of Mammoth Lakes has not been affected, but half a mile north of Twin Lakes there are warnings that staying in the vicinity of horseshoe lake for more than half an hour can be fatal. This story is based on an imagined gas leak in Twin Lakes and the struggle of an individual to find the one person he loved before it is too late.


Thanksgiving Day in the United States has never been a day when exercise is a priority. Cupertino hopes to change this by dangling a special workout achievement in front of Apple Watch users.
On Thursday, Nov. 24 only, Apple Watch users in the U.S. can earn a special achievement that's shaped like a turkey. The Thanksgiving Day Challenge will be awarded to anyone who records at least 5K (3.1 miles) through a run, walk, or wheelchair workout. The distance may be recorded through Apple's Workout app or any third-party app that integrates with HealthKit.
Want more motivation? If you receive the special 3-D achievement badge, you'll also receive an iMessage sticker that you can share with others to celebrate your accomplishment.
This is the first time Apple has offered an achievement badge tied to a special day or event. Perhaps, we'll see other special badges in the coming weeks. Super Bowl LI is on Sunday, Feb. 5, Apple.


We support hospitals, emergency departments, and HEMS, by providing them with exceptional emergency preparedness and management software that helps healthcare organizations professionalize their response teams to the highest standard.
The largest hospital in the United States has deployed D4H software to prepare itself for responses to contaminated patients, hazardous materials, bio-terrorism, radiation, and the medical response to chemical attacks in New York City.
Yorkshire Air Ambulance selected and deployed the D4H Readiness & Response software suite to assist their operations.
Toll Helicopters have announced they are proud to have partnered with D4H Technologies, gearing up to provide helicopter rescue services for New South Wales in Australia from 2017 onward.alia from 2017 onward.


text:
GENERAL - India and Sri Lanka (1)
Asia|Antiquarian (1)
BOTANY - Australia (1)
BIRDS - Great Britain (1)
BIRDS - Middle East (1)
Asia|Secondhand (1)
Ecology and Conservation|Secondhand (1)
Any Price (5)	 $100-499 (5)
Keywords: Journal Australia|Secondhand
The South Australian Ornithological Association Newsletter [numbers 25-122].
[Adelaide]: The South Australian Ornithological Association, 1963-1987. Octavo, Originally roneoed foolscap sheets then changing to a multi-page A4 format. This Newsletter was originally published "so that country members can keep in closer touch with the activities of the Association and become informed of all matters affecting them"	More
Price: $100.00 AU
The Australian Bird Watcher, volumes 1-6.
Cooper, Roy P., editor.
Melbourne: Bird Observers Club, 1959-1970. Octavo, binder's cloth, a fine set.	More
Trees of Western Australia.
Gardner, C.A.
Perth: Department of Agriculture of Western Australia, 1952-1966, Octavo, text illustrations. 29 pamphlets [numbered from 1 to 109], a very good set, scarce. Bulletin reprints from The Journal of Agriculture of Western Australia.	More
The Australian bird bander, volumes 1-14.
Gwyn, A. M. et al., editors.
Canberra: The Bird Bander's Association of Australia, 1962-1976. Quarto, 14 volumes in wrappers, scarce. A complete set with the first two volumes roneoed. Subsequently renamed Corella.	More
The Lowan, parts one and two [all published].
Miller, R. S., editor.
Melbourne: Bird Observers' Club, 1935-1936. Octavo, two coloured plates by Neville W. Cayley. Publisher's printed wrappers, fine copy, scarce. An early attempt by the Bird Observers' Club to produce a serious journal. There are some quality contributors including Jack Hyett (his first efforts?), Dudley Dickison, A. G. Campbell and Alec..... More


Today I decided to change strategy in the Mega-Grid area & bunny-hop 40 (ish) runs over because our last outing had limited results. We were hoping for about 1 hammered an outing & although we have had 2 Roman Silvers instead (last 2 outings), we changed it up. First dig less than 3 minutes into the hunt the new strategy worked - Cut Qrter Hammered! Kiss of Death again! (I thought) & for over 3 hours it was until Cru'dad got the next hammered. We then moved to the ''Hunted Out'' area & got another 4 scrappies, onto of the 1 we already had.
Switchblade, xcopperstax, A2coins and 29 others like this.
That was a fantastic day!
oxbowbarefoot and A2coins like this.
I'm just glad to have anywhere to hunt this time of year, & this has plenty of potential to throw up a great find, so we will be gridding on.
Awesome recoveries and strategy. Congrats!
Great finds,I particularly like that spear tip. Congrats!
We have had quite a few tips but this one is about twice the size of our other ones. But I hope to get a complete example one day, they are about 4 times the length of this broken bit.
Inspector and Aureus like this.
The ''Hunted Out'' Roman Field - Day 4 - ROMAN SILVER Again!
By Westfront in forum Today's Finds!


text:
Q: Dual Boot (windows 8.1 and Ubuntu) I am using a dual boot system, while using Ubuntu I want to access windows folders, data, etc.
is it possible? how?

A: no need to do anything.
in dual boot systems Ubuntu(or any other Linux) has access to Windows directories but you can't access Linux directories from windows.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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text:
Rhytidoponera depilis — вид мелких тропических муравьёв рода Rhytidoponera из подсемейства Ectatomminae. Эндемик Новой Каледонии.

Описание
Длина тела около 5 мм. По относительным размерам, скульптуре и цвету похожи на Rhytidoponera arborea. Глаза немного больше. Затылочные доли широко закруглены, при виде сбоку не выступают. Переднеспинка в среднем немного тоньше, чем у R. arborea. Петиолярный узелок относительно узкий при виде сверху. Субпетиолярный отросток с широким зубцом. Шероховатая скульптура на голове становится продольно морщинистой на темени, около заднего края. Скульптура на петиоле и третьем тергите брюшка более заметна, чем у R. arborea (морщинистая на узелке; мелко-морщинистая до полосатой на III тергите брюшка). Прямая отстоящая волосистость редкая или отсутствует на большей части верхней поверхности тела и полностью отсутствует на ногах и петиоле, тергиты покрыты плотным покровом прижатого опушения, разветвленного на 4-м тергите брюшка. Усики рабочих 12-члениковые (13-члениковые у самцов). Жало развито. Гнездятся в почве. Рабочие фуражируют в наземном ярусе. Вид был впервые описан в 1984 году американским мирмекологом Филипом Уардом по материалам из Новой Каледонии. Относятся к комплексу видов Rhytidoponera pulchella.

Распространение
Новая Каледония. На высотах около 10 м в прибрежных тропических лесах.

См. также
 Зелёноголовый муравей
 Список видов муравьёв Австралии
 Список видов муравьёв Новой Зеландии

Примечания

Литература

Ссылки

Rhytidoponera
Насекомые Океании
Животные, описанные в 1984 году
Эндемики Новой Каледонии

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
\section{Introduction}

One of the greatest achievements of computational neuroscience has
been the development of cable theory (reviewed
in~\cite{Rall95,Johnston95}), and which can explain many of the
passive properties of neurons, including how dendritic events are
filtered by the cable structure of dendrites.  Cable theory describes
the space and time propagation of the membrane potential by partial
differential equations.  Such a formalism constitutes the basis of
nearly all of today's computational models of dendrites, and is
simulated by several publically-available and widely-used simulation
environments (reviewed in~\cite{Rev2006}).

Some experimental observations, however, may suggest that the
standard cable formalism may not be adequate to simulate the fine
details of dendritic filtering.  One of these observations is the
fact that the power spectral density (PSD) of synaptic background
activity or channel noise does not match that predicted from cable
theory~\cite{Dest2003,Diba2004,Jacobson2005,Rud2005}.  The PSD scales
approximately as 1/f$^{\alpha}$ with an exponent $\alpha = 2.5$, both
for channel noise and background activity (Fig.~\ref{spectra}A-B),
whereas cable theory would predict scaling with an exponent $\alpha =
4$ or $\alpha = 5$ for synaptic inputs distributed in
dendrites~\cite{Diba2004,Pow2003}; see also Appendix~1), or $\alpha$
= 3.2 to 3.4 when inputs are distributed in soma and dendrites (see
Fig.~\ref{spectra}C-D). In other words, these data suggest that
frequencies are filtered by dendritic structures in a way different
from that predicted by traditional cable equations.

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{spectra} here
------------------------}

One possible origin of such a mismatch could be due to the fact that
the permittivity of the membrane is frequency
dependent~\cite{Cole-Cole1941,White1970}.  However, capacitance
measurements in bilipid membranes shows negligible variations around
100~Hz (see Fig.~5 in~\cite{White1970}), suggesting that the
Cole-Cole model may not be the correct explanation for this range of
frequencies.  It could also be that distortions of the frequency
dependence arise from the complex three-dimensional morphology of the
neuronal membrane~\cite{Eisenberg1980}.  However, NEURON simulations
of the standard cable model using three-dimensional morphologies of
cortical pyramidal neurons give frequency scaling with an exponent
$\alpha$ $> 3$ (Fig.~\ref{spectra}C-D), suggesting that this is not a
satisfactory explanation either.

None of the previous models take into account the fact that the
surface of neuronal membranes is a complex arrangement, not only of
phospholipids, but also of a wide diversity of surface
molecules~\cite{Alberts2002}.  This complex surface may be
responsible for additional resistive phenomena not taken into account
in previous approaches.  In other words, the neuronal membrane may
not be an ``ideal'' capacitor, as commonly assumed in the standard
cable formalism.  In the present paper, we explore this hypothesis as
an alternative mechanism to explain the observed frequency scaling
and consider neuronal membranes as ``non-ideal'' capacitors.  We show
that cable equations can be extended by including a non-ideal
resistive component (Maxwell-Wagner time) in the capacitor
representing the membrane, and that the non-ideal cable model
reproduces the observed frequency scaling.  We also show consequences
of this extension to cable equations in voltage attenuation and
synaptic summation.  Our aim is to provide an extended cable
formalism which is more adapted to capture membrane potential
dynamics and dendritic filtering at high frequencies.  Some of these
results have appeared in a conference abstract~\cite{SFN2007}.

\section{Materials and Methods}

The standard and non-ideal cable equations were either solved
analytically (see Results) or simulated using custom-made programs
written in MATLAB.  A ``ball-and-stick'' model consisting of a
soma connected to a dendritic cylinder of length $l_d$ was simulated
(see Results for details).  Away from the current source, we have
the following equations (in Fourier space):
\begin{eqnarray}
   \lambda^2~\frac{\partial^2 V_m(x,\omega)}{\partial x^2}
      = \kappa_{ext}^2(\omega)V_m(x,\omega)
                                              \label{ext-cable1} \\
  \kappa_{ext}^2(\omega) = 1+i \frac{\omega\tau_m}{1 + i\omega\tau_M}    \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda = \sqrt{{r_m}/{r_i}}$ is the electrotonic constant
that characterizes the cable, $\tau_m$ is the membrane time constant,
and $\tau_M$ is the Maxwell-Wagner time constant ($\tau_M = 0$
corresponds to the standard cable equations; see Results).

The ``source'' synaptic current consisted in a random synaptic
bombardment of Poisson-distributed synaptic events.  Each synaptic
event consisted of an instantaneously rising current followed by
exponential decay, and were summated linearly:
\begin{equation}
  I_S \ = \ A \ \sum_i \ H(t-t_i) \ \exp[-(t-t_i)/\tau_S] ~ ,
\end{equation}
where $I_S$ stands for the source current, $H(t)$ is the Heaviside
function, and $t_i$ are the times of each synaptic event
(Poisson-distributed with mean rate of 100~Hz).  The decay time
constant was $\tau_S$ = 10~ms and the amplitude of the current was
$A$ = 1~nA.

The source current was inserted at different positions $l_s$ in the
dendrite (see Results).  The voltage at the soma was obtained by
solving either standard or non-ideal versions of cable equations (see
Results and Appendix~2). The power spectral density (PSD) was
calculated from the somatic membrane potential using the fast Fourier
transform algorithms present in MATLAB (Signal Analysis toolbox).
The same algorithm was also used to calculate the PSD from
experimental data.

The experimental PSD of V$_m$ activity shown here were obtained from
intracellular recordings of cat parietal cortex neurons {\it in vivo}
and were taken from previous publications~\cite{Dest2003,Rud2005},
where all methodological details were given.  No filter was used
during digitization of the data, except for a low-pass filter with
5~kHz cutoff frequency during acquisition (sampling frequency of
10~kHz).  Thus, the PSD is expected to reflect the real power
spectral content of recorded V$_m$ up to frequencies of 4-5~kHz.

Some simulations (Fig.~\ref{spectra}C-D) were realized using
morphologically reconstructed neurons from cat cortex obtained from
two previous studies~\cite{Contreras97,Douglas91}, where all
biological details were given.  The three-dimensional morphology of
the reconstructed neurons was incorporated into the NEURON simulation
environment, which enables the simulation of the traditional cable
equations using a three-dimensional structure with a controlled level
of spatial accuracy~\cite{Hines97}.  Simulations of up to 3500
compartments were used.  {\it In vivo}--like activity was simulated
using a previously published model of synaptic bombardment at
excitatory and inhibitory synapses~\cite{Destexhe99} (see this paper
fo details about the numerical simulations).

\section{Results}

We start by deriving the non-ideal cable model, then investigate its
general properties by evaluating the PSD of somatic voltage, as well
as voltage attenuation.

\subsection{Derivation of non-ideal cable equations}

\subsubsection{The membrane as a non-ideal capacitor}

In electrostatics, if an electric field is applied to a closed
conductive surface, electric charges migrate until they reach
equilibrium (when the field tangential to the surface is zero). In
particular, the electric resistivity of the membrane imposes a given
velocity to charge movement, which dissipates calorific energy
similar to a friction phenomenon.  This calorific dissipation is
usually neglected, which amounts to consider an instantaneous charge
re-arrangement following changes in electric field.

However, in reality this calorific dissipation may have significant
consequences, and this phenomenon is well known for
capacitors~\cite{Bowick82}.  A ``non-ideal'' capacitor dissipates
calorific energy when the electric potential varies, and capacitors
are usually conceived such as to minimize this phenomenon and realize
the well-known ideal relation $i = C\frac{dV}{dt}$. A ``non-ideal"
linear capacitor can be represented as an arrangement of resistances,
inductance and capacitance (see Fig.~\ref{capacitor}A).  A linear
approximation, which is usually sufficient for most purposes.  In
particular, this approximation is valid when the effects of
electrostriction are negligible~\cite{White1970,Alvarez1978}.  This
is the case when the propagated signals are of small amplitude
(millivolts), because $C(V)=C(0) \ (1+a V^2)$, with typically $a$ =
0.02~$V^{-2}$~\cite{Alvarez1978}. In such cases, the membrane
capacitance can be represented by a resistance and a capacitance in
series~\cite{Raghuram1990} (see Fig.~\ref{capacitor}B).  The
resistance represents here the loss of calorific energy associated
with charge movement.  In standard cable equations, such a resistance
is not present (see Fig.~\ref{capacitor}C).

Thus, we use a more realistic capacitor modeled by taking into
account an additional resistance ($R_{sc}$), which accounts for the
calorific loss and the consequent finite-velocity of charge
rearrangement.  This R-C circuit will be characterized by a
relaxation time $\tau_M = R_{sc} C$, called ``Maxwell time" or
``Maxwell-Wagner time"~\cite{Raju2003,Bed2006}.  The Maxwell time
corresponds to the characteristic displacement time of the charges in
the capacitor.  Thus, such a non-ideal capacitor cannot be charged
instantaneously; the resistance $R_{sc}$ imposes a minimal charging
time due to finite charge velocities.

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{capacitor} here
------------------------}

This phenomenon of finite charge velocity is particularly relevant to
biological membranes, which are capacitors in which charges are also
subject to rearrangements.  In the following, we attempt to include
this contribution to membrane capacitors by including Maxwell-Wagner
time to cable equations and determine its consequences.

\subsubsection{Non-ideal cable equations}

We extend cable equations by including a finite charge velocity
(or equivalently, a minimal charging time) to membrane capacitors.
We start by Ohm's law, according to which the axial current $i_i$
in a cylindric cable can be written as:
\begin{equation}
    i_i = \sigma\vec{E}= -\frac{1}{r_i}\frac{\partial V_m}{\partial x}~.
\end{equation}

We also have, for the membrane current $i_m$:
\begin{equation}
    i_m = -\frac{(i_i(x +\Delta x)-i_i(x))}{\Delta x}\approx -\frac{\partial i_i}{\partial x}
    ~ ,
\end{equation}
and we can write
\begin{equation}\label{im}
    i_m=\frac{V_m}{r_m}+
    \int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{\partial c_m(t-t')}{\partial t}V_c(t')dt'
\end{equation}
where $c_m(t)$ is the inverse complex Fourier transform of the
capacitance $c_m(\omega )$.  $c_m(t ) = c_m \delta (t)$ if the
capacitance does not depend on the frequency.

Integrating Maxwell-Wagner phenomena, we have:
\begin{eqnarray*}
    V_m & = & V_c + r_{sc}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{\partial c_m(t-t')}{\partial
t}V_c(t')dt'
\end{eqnarray*}
Thus, we obtain the following {\it non-ideal cable equations}:
\begin{eqnarray}
   \lambda^2~\frac{\partial^2 V_m}{\partial x^2}
      = V_m + r_{m} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{\partial c_m(t-t')}{\partial t}V_c(t')dt'
                                              \label{ext-cable} \\
   V_m =r_{sc}~\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\frac{\partial c_m(t-t')}{\partial t}V_c(t')dt' + V_c
                                         ~ ,     \nonumber
\end{eqnarray}
where $\lambda = \sqrt{{r_m}/{r_i}}$ is the electrotonic constant
that characterizes the cable.

\subsubsection{General solution of non-ideal cable equations}

The non-ideal cable equations (Eqs.~\ref{ext-cable}) are a linear
system with constant coefficients which can be solved by using
Complex Fourier Transforms:
\begin{eqnarray*}
    v_m(x,\omega) & = & \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} V_m(x,t)~e^{i\omega t}~dt \\
    v_c(x,\omega) & = & \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} V_c(x,t)~e^{i\omega
    t}~dt \\
    c_m(\omega) & = & \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} c_m(t)~e^{i\omega t}~dt
\end{eqnarray*}

We obtain the following expression:
\begin{equation}\label{eqaA}
   \lambda^2~\frac{d^2 v_m(x,\omega)}{d x^2} = \kappa_{ext}^{2} v_m(x,\omega)
\end{equation}
with
\begin{equation}\label{kappa}
 \kappa_{ext}^2 = {1 + i\frac{\omega\tau_m}{1 +i\omega\tau_M}} ~ ,
\end{equation}
where $\tau_m(\omega) = r_m c_m(\omega)$ and $\tau_M(\omega) =
r_{sc} c_m(\omega)$ are the parameters that characterize the
cable.

The general solution of Eq.~\ref{eqaA} is given by
\begin{equation}
  v_m(x,\omega)= A(\omega)exp(\frac{\kappa_{ext} (l_s -x)}{\lambda})
  + B(\omega) exp(-\frac{\kappa_{ext} (l_s -x)}{\lambda})
  \label{gen}
\end{equation}
where $l_s$ is the position of the current source in the dendrite.

This solution is similar to that of traditional cable equation,
with the only difference in the value of $\kappa$.  In cable
equations, this value is given by
\begin{equation}
 \kappa_{s}^2 = {1 + i\omega\tau_m} ~ .
 \label{std}
\end{equation}
In particular, for null frequency, the two cable formalisms are
equivalent
\begin{equation}
    \kappa_{ext}(0)=\kappa_{s}(0)=1~~,
\end{equation}
whereas they will predict different behavior for $\omega>0$.

In the following, we will consider that the capacitance is
independent of frequency, $c_m (\omega) = cst$, as also assumed in
the standard cable model~\cite{Rall95,Johnston95}.

Figure~\ref{kappafig} compares the values of $\kappa$ between the
two cable formalisms (with $c_m (\omega)$ = cst).  The difference
depends on the relative values of $\tau_M$ and $\tau_m$: for
$\tau_M << \tau_m$, the two formalisms are very similar, but
differ when $\tau_M$ is larger, in particular for high
frequencies.  Thus, the critical parameter is $\tau_M$, which
determines the saturation of the value of $\kappa$.

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{kappafig} here
------------------------}

\subsection{Voltage attenuation vs.\ distance and frequency}
\label{attensec}

To compare the properties of the non-ideal cable model compared to
the standard cable model, we evaluated the properties of voltage
attenuation in a large dendritic branch.  We have chosen a cable of
$l_d =500~\mu m$ and diameter of 2~$\mu$m, with a current source
situated at one end of the cable ($x=l_s=0$) and connected to an
infinite impedance at the other end ($x=l_d$; ``sealed end'').  In
these conditions, we can determine the law of voltage attenuation
with distance, using complex Fourier analysis.

As we have seen above, the main difference between the standard and
non-ideal cable models lies in the expression for $\kappa$ (see
Eqs.~\ref{kappa} and \ref{std}).  In a finite cable of constant
diameter, the steady-state voltage attenuation profile is given by
the relation:
\begin{equation}\label{eqD}
   V_{m}(x,\omega) = A(\omega)~exp(-\frac{\kappa}{\lambda}x)
   +B(\omega)~exp(\frac{\kappa}{\lambda} x).
\end{equation}
for $x > 0$.  To evaluate the functions $A(\omega)$ and
$B(\omega)$, we apply the limit conditions of the dendrite.  At $x
=0$, we have a current source $i_s =1=i_d$, and at $x =l_d$ we
have $i_d =0$ (``sealed end'').  The expressions for $A$ and $B$
are then given by Eqs.~\ref{B5.8} and \ref{B5.9}, respectively
(see Appendix~2).

This relation is plotted in Fig.~\ref{atten} for two values of the
membrane time constant $\tau_m$ of 5~ms and 20~ms, which correspond
to two different conductance states of the membrane (the
corresponding electrotonic constant is $\lambda$ = 353.5~$\mu$m and
707.1~$\mu$m, respectively).  The voltage attenuation is in general
steeper for the non-ideal cable model, which effect is particularly
apparent for frequencies of the order of 0-50~Hz. However, this
effect reverses between 50 and 100~Hz, in which case the non-ideal
cable model shows a less steep voltage attenuation profile compared
to the standard cable model (see 50 and 100~Hz in Fig.~\ref{atten}).

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{atten} here
------------------------}

\subsection{Power spectra of voltage noise predicted by non-ideal
cable equations} \label{vmPSD}

We now calculate the PSD of the voltage noise predicted by non-ideal
cable equations.  We consider a ``ball-and-stick'' model consisting
of a soma and a dendritic segment of variable length
(Fig.~\ref{ball-stick}A).  The source consists of a sum of
exponentially-decaying currents (see Materials and Methods), which
represent the synaptic current resulting from many synapses releasing
randomly, as shown in Fig.~\ref{ball-stick}B.  The source has a PSD
which scales as $1/f^\alpha$ with an exponent $\alpha=2$ at high
frequencies (Fig.~\ref{ball-stick}C).

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{ball-stick} here
------------------------}

To investigate the PSD of the somatic voltage in the ball-and-stick
model, we first examine the PSD following a single source consisting
of summated exponential synaptic currents.  The standard cable model
predicts that such a source localized on a dendritic branch
(ball-and-stick model with $l_d$ = 500~$\mu$m and $\lambda \simeq
400~\mu$m) gives a V$_m$ PSD scaling approximately as $1/f^\alpha$
with an exponent $\alpha\simeq 4$, which corresponds to a somatic
impedance much larger than that of the dendrite (soma radius of
7.5~$\mu$m; see Appendix~1), which would correspond to most central
neurons for which the soma represents a minor proportion of the
membrane.  The V$_m$ PSD for the standard cable model with uniformly
distributed exponential synaptic currents is illustrated in
Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling} (continuous curve), and shows a frequency
scaling with an exponent $\alpha \simeq 4$.

In contrast, the non-ideal cable model gives different scaling
properties of the PSD, according to the value of $\tau_M$
(Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling}, dotted and dashed lines).  The power for high
frequencies ($>$50~Hz) is much larger in the non-ideal cable model
compared to the standard model, which shows that non-ideal cables
have enhanced signal propagation for high frequencies.  The V$_m$ PSD
for the non-ideal cable model with uniformly distributed exponential
synaptic currents is illustrated in Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling} (dashed
curve), and shows a frequency scaling with an exponent $2 < \alpha
\leq 4$ for $\tau_m \geq \tau_M \geq 0$, respectively ($\alpha \simeq
2$ when $\tau_m = \tau_M$, but it can be shown that $\alpha = 2$ only
if $\tau_M \rightarrow \infty$).

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{PSDscaling} here
------------------------}

We next investigated the influence of the localization of the current
source in the dendrite.  Figure~\ref{sum}A shows the PSD obtained at
the soma of the ball-and-stick model when the current source was
placed at different positions in the dendrite.  The position affects
the amplitude of the PSD, and the frequency-scaling of the PSD is
affected by the position.  The scaling exponents obtained are of
$\alpha$ = 4.1416 for 250~$\mu$m and 5.3653 for 450~$\mu$m for the
standard model, and $\alpha$ = 2.5311 for 250~$\mu$m and 2.8354 for
450~$\mu$m for the non-ideal cable model.  The PSD obtained when
simulating a ``distributed'' synaptic bombardment in the dendrite
(Figure~\ref{sum}B) also displays the same frequency-scaling.
Similar results were also obtained by varying the parameters $\tau_m$
and $\tau_M$ (not shown), suggesting that the properties of frequency
scaling, as shown in Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling}, are generic.

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{sum} here
------------------------}

To evaluate the optimal value of $\tau_M$ (for this particular model
with $\tau_m = 5~ms$), we fitted the PSD of the model to that of
experiments.  To perform this fit, we used a frequency range of 100
to 400~Hz, which was chosen such that it is not affected by
instrumental noise ($<$700~Hz) and such that the frequency band
considered belongs to the power-law scaling region of the spectra
($>$80~Hz).  The result of this fitting is shown in
Fig.~\ref{comparaison}.  The scaling exponent obtained are of
$\alpha$ = 3.6533 for the standard cable model, and of $\alpha$ =
2.3306 for the non-ideal cable model, for an optimal value of $\tau_M
= 0.3~\tau_m$.  This suggests that the calorific dissipation caused
by the resistivity of the membrane to charge movement is of the order
of 30\% of that caused by the flow of ions through ion channels.
This estimate is of course specific to the model used, but variations
of this model ($l_d$, diameter, number of dendrites, for a uniform
$\tau_m$ over the whole neuronal surface) showed little variation
around this value (not shown).

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{comparaison} here
------------------------}

This value gives a cutoff frequency ($1/\tau_M$) around 105~Hz.  Above
this cutoff frequency, the membrane becomes more resistive than
capacitive because the energy loss due to calorific dissipation
becomes larger than the energy necessary for charge displacement.
This is very different than an ideal capacitor, in which the energy
from the current source would exclusively serve to charge
displacement. In Fig.~\ref{kappafig}, one can see that the value of
$\kappa$ for the non-ideal model departs from that of the standard
cable model around this cutoff frequency.

Thus, from the above figures, and especially Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling},
it is apparent that the non-ideal cable model has more transmitted
power compared to the standard cable model at high frequencies
($>>$100~Hz).  This increased transmission of high frequencies is
also visible by superimposing the V$_m$ activities of the standard
and non-ideal model (Fig.~\ref{Superpos}).  Such an increased
transmission at high frequencies can be explained by the fact that in
the standard cable model, the term $1/i \omega c_m$ tends to zero
when $\omega$ tends to infinity, such that for high frequencies $r_m$
is short-circuited by the capacitance of the membrane.  In the
non-ideal cable model, such a short-circuit does not occur, even at
frequencies much larger than the cut-off frequency.  This results in
a very different behavior at high frequencies, and a less pronounced
frequency fall-off in the non-ideal cable PSD.  Displacing charges by
capacitive effect takes energy, and this energy diminishes with
increasing frequencies in the non-ideal cable, which enables more
energy transfer between remote ion channels in dendrites (synapses
for example) and the soma at high frequencies.  This is also
consistent with the fact that the non-ideal cable equations display
less voltage attenuation (see Section~\ref{attensec}).

\ \\ \centerline{------------------------ Figure~\ref{Superpos}
here ------------------------}

\section{Discussion}

In the present paper, we have proposed an extension to the classic
cable theory to account for the behavior of neuronal membranes at
high frequencies.  Experimental observations indicate that the PSD of
the V$_m$ does not match that predicted from cable theory, in
particular for the frequency-scaling at high
frequencies~\cite{Dest2003,Diba2004,Jacobson2005,Rud2005}.  The
modification to cable equations consists in incorporating a
``non-ideal'' membrane capacitance by taking into account the
calorific dissipation due to charge displacement, which is usually
neglected.  We have shown that this ``non-ideal'' cable formalism can
account for the frequency scaling of the PSD observed experimentally
for high frequencies (Fig.~\ref{comparaison}).

In experiments with channel noise or synaptic noise, the $V_m$ PSD
scales as $1/f^\alpha$ with an exponent $\alpha$ around
2.5~\cite{Dest2003,Diba2004,Jacobson2005,Rud2005}.  The standard
cable model predicts that the somatic V$_m$ should scale with an
exponent $\alpha$ comprised between 3 and 4~\cite{Diba2004}, when the
source is located in the soma.  However, we have shown here that the
frequency scaling of the V$_m$ PSD depends on the location of the
source, and that the exponent $\alpha$ is equal or larger when
current sources are located in dendrites (see Fig.~\ref{sum} and
Appendix~1).  Thus, the standard cable model cannot account for
exponents lower than $\alpha$ = 3.  On the other hand, taking into
account non-ideal capacitances may lead to scaling exponents down to
$\alpha=2$, depending on the magnitude of the dissipation in the
non-ideal capacitance (as quantified by the value of the
Maxwell-Wagner time $\tau_M$; see Fig.~\ref{PSDscaling}).  In the
case $\tau_M$ is non-uniform, then one may have larger differences of
frequency scaling between somatic and dendritic current sources (not
shown).

In the non-ideal model, the calorific dissipation originates mostly
from the resistance of the membrane to lateral ion displacement.
This ``tangential'' resistance is not yet characterized
experimentally and is equivalent to the resistance involved in the
non-instantaneous character of membrane polarization~\cite{Bed2006}.
Several arguments indicate that this resistance may be substantial.
First, the membrane surface contains various molecules such as sugars
and various macromolecules, in addition to
phospholipids~\cite{Alberts2002}.  Thus, lateral ion movement is
likely to be affected by collisions or tortuosity imposed by these
molecules.  Second, the phospholipids themselves contain local
dipoles at their polar end, which is likely to cause local
electrostatic interactions which may influence the lateral movement
of ions.  Indeed, the fitting to experimental data using the
non-ideal cable model predicts a value for $\tau_M$ which is a
significant fraction ($\sim$30\%) of the membrane time constant.

The complex three-dimensional membrane morphology could have
consequences on frequency-de\-pendent properties even with
traditional cable theory~\cite{Eisenberg1980}.  We tested this
possibility by simulating detailed three-dimensional morphological
models of cortical pyramidal neurons and failed to reproduce the
frequency scaling of the V$_m$ activity {\it in vivo} (see
Fig.~\ref{spectra}).  Thus, although the morphology does affect
frequency scaling, it does not account for the values observed
experimentally.

Another source of distortion in the frequency dependence of the V$_m$
is the fact that membrane permittivity (and capacitance) may also
depend on frequency~\cite{Cole-Cole1941,Hanai1965}.  Such a frequency
dependence is caused by a calorific dissipation during the
polarization of the membrane~\cite{Cole-Cole1941}, while the
Maxwell-Wagner phenomenon that we discuss here is a calorific
dissipation during the movement of charges on the membrane surface.
However, direct capacitance measurements of bilipid membranes do not
evidence any significant variation of permittivity for frequencies
around 100~Hz~\cite{White1970}, and thus cannot explain the observed
deviations between cable theory and experiments shown in
Fig.~\ref{spectra}. Moreover, these
measurements~\cite{White1970,Alvarez1978} were realized on
artificially reconstructed membranes, which have a much simpler
structure compared to neuronal membranes (no saccharides, no
proteins, etc).  This is compatible with the possibility that in
biological membranes, the Maxwell-Wagner effect may be particularly
prominent.  The dependence of the membrane capacitance $c_m$ on
frequency may explain the flattening of the PSD above 1000~Hz, which
is visible in the experimental PSDs (see Fig.~\ref{comparaison}).
However, the most likely explanation for this flattening is that the
recording is dominated by instrumental noise at such frequencies
(note that the bending of the experimental PSD above 4000~Hz in
Fig.~\ref{comparaison} is likely due to the low-pass 5~kHz filter
used during data acquisition).

Other factors may also affect the frequency scaling.  Taking into
account the finite rise time of synaptic events by using double
exponential templates amounts to add a factor 2 to the exponent
$\alpha$~\cite{Pow2003}. Similarly, introducing correlations in the
presynaptic activity may also affect the frequency scaling of V$_m$
power spectra~\cite{Marre2007}.  In all these cases, however, the
change in the scaling always consists in increasing the exponent
$\alpha$, while a decrease is needed to account for $\alpha$=2.5
scaling.

Thus, the frequency scaling of the V$_m$ activity can be affected by
several factors as discussed above.  Our results show that the
non-ideal character of the neuronal membrane can account for the
observed frequency scaling.  We believe that in reality, a
combination of factors is responsible for the observed frequency
scaling, and future experiments should be designed to test which are
the most determinant on frequency scaling, and what are the
consequences on the integrative properties of neuronal cable
structures.

Finally, our results show that the frequency-dependence of the
steady-state voltage profile (Fig.~\ref{atten}) is also affected by
the non-ideal character of the membrane capacitance.  Simulations
show that high-frequency signals ($>$ 100 Hz) propagate over larger
distances in the non-ideal cable model compared to the standard cable
model.  This theoretical result may be important to understand the
propagation of high-frequency events such as the ``ripples''
oscillations~\cite{Ylinen95,Grenier2001} across dendritic structures.

\

In conclusion, we provided here an extension to cable equations which
incorporates the non-ideal character of the membrane capacitance.  We
showed that this extension yields several detectable consequences on
neurons.  First, it affects basic cable properties such as the
voltage attenuation profile, especially at high frequencies.  Second,
it radically changes the frequency-scaling properties of voltage
power spectra.  The observed frequency scaling is within the range
predicted by the non-ideal cable model.  Fitting the model to
experiments provides an estimate of how ``non-ideal'' is the membrane
capacitance, and the significant values of $\tau_M$ found here
suggest that indeed, neuronal membranes may be far from being ideal
capacitors.

\clearpage

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv