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The Doctrine of Odious Debt: from Alexander Sack to the CADTM
by Eric Toussaint
Alexander Nahum Sack (Moscow 1890 – New York 1955), a Russian lawyer who taught in Saint Petersburg then in Paris, is considered to be one of the founders of the doctrine of odious debt. The doctrine, based on a series of precedents in jurisprudence, has come in for a lot of debate. So, what is Alexandre Sack's concept of odious debt?
The excerpt from Sack's book on the subject that is the most referred to can be confusing. "If a despotic power contracts debt, not for the needs and interest of the State, but to strengthen its despotic regime, to oppress the population that combats it, that debt is odious for the whole State. The debt need not be recognised by the Nation: it is a debt of the regime, a personal debt of the power that contracted it and consequently falls along with the power that contracted it." (p. 157). [1] "These 'odious' debts cannot be considered to be a liability of the State's territory because one of the necessary conditions that determine the regularity of State debt is missing; a State's debts must be incurred and the funds thus made available used for the needs and in the interests of the State (see above, § 6). 'Odious' debts incurred and used, with creditors' foreknowledge, for purposes that are not in the interests of the Nation do not engage the Nation, should the Nation rid itself of the government that incurred them (…). The creditors have committed a hostile act towards the people; they cannot therefore hold the people responsible for the debts that a despotic power incurred against the people's interest and are the personal debts of the despotic regime." (p. 158).
Alexandre Nahum Sack (1890 - 1955)
Many of the remarks on this excerpt conclude that Sack claims that for a debt to be "odious" it has to be contracted by a despotic regime. This is not Sack's position. In fact, as a lawyer he considered that several circumstances could give rise to debt of an odious character. The above quote mentions only one possible circumstance.
The CADTM and myself have committed the error of thinking that Sack considered a despotic regime to be a sine qua non condition of odious debt. We disagreed with Sack on this point and have often expressed our disagreement. It is a possible and aggravating condition. This misunderstanding came about because of the most widespread of the interpretations of Sack's doctrine. Authors, such as Sarah Ludington, G. Mitu Gulati and Alfred L. Brophy noticed this error even if they themselves do seem to think that Sack included the despotic nature of a regime as a necessary condition of odious debt in error. [2] They are convinced that the despotic nature of a regime must not be included in the conditions that define an odious debt. They go on to say, as we have already said, that ex-president Taft when judging on the Tinoco affair did not put the despotic nature of the Tinoco regime into the considerations. [3] In her article "The Doctrine of Odious Debts in International Law", the jurist Sabine Michalowski correctly summarises Sack's criteria. She does not include among them the despotic nature of the regime. [4]
Five pages further on Sack gives more general criteria for defining an odious debt. In this wider definition, he does not mention despotic regimes: "Consequently, for a debt, regularly incurred by a regular government (see above, §§ 1 and 5) to be considered incontestably odious with all the consequences that follow, the following conditions must be fulfilled (see also above, § 6 in fine):
1. — The new government must prove and an international tribunal recognise that the following is established:
a) that the purpose which the former government wanted to cover by the debt in question was odious and clearly against the interests of the population of the whole or part of the territory, and
b) that the creditors, at the moment of the issuance of the loan, were aware of its odious purpose.
2. — once these two points are established, the burden of proof that the funds were used for the general or special needs of the State and were not of an odious character, would be upon the creditors (see also p. 170)."
Here, Sack very clearly says that a regular government's debts may also be odious: "for a debt, regularly incurred by a regular government to be considered incontestably odious with all the consequences that follow,…"
Sack defines a regular government as follows: "By a regular government is to be understood the supreme power that effectively exists within the limits of a given territory. Whether that government be monarchical (absolute or limited) or republican; whether it functions by "the grace of God" or "the will of the people"; whether it express "the will of the people" or not, of all the people or only of some; whether it be legally established or not, etc., none of that is relevant to the problem we are concerned with." (p. 6)
So, in fact, there is no doubt about Sack's position: that a regime be despotic is not a sine qua non condition that makes debts odious and susceptible to repudiation. [5] According to Sack, all regular governments, whether despotic or democratic of some kind, may be accused of having agreed to odious debts. [6]
What does Sack mean by "a non-regular government"? Answer: A government that does not exercise control over the whole territory, such as a rebel coalition that attempts to overthrow the existing regular government. The emblematic example are the Southern US States (the Confederate States) that rebelled against the United States, which was a regular government. It therefore follows that the debts incurred by the Southern States were personal debts of the Southern insurgents, not debts that the United States should assume. If the Confederates had won the 1861-1865 Civil War they would have become the new regular government in place of the United States. [7]
What are the two criteria that establish a debt as odious? Looking again at Sack's remarks we see: — The new government must prove and an international tribunal recognise that the following is established:
We can summarise as: a debt is odious if it has been incurred against the interests of the population and the creditors were aware of this at the time.
In an opinion published in 2002 by the IMF review Finance & Development Michael Kremer and Seema Jayachandran define the odious debt doctrine as: "The legal doctrine of odious debt makes an analogous argument that sovereign debt incurred without the consent of the people and not benefiting the people is odious and should not be transferable to a successor government, especially if creditors are aware of these facts in advance." [8]
This summary is at first sight convincing and does not mention, as an obligatory condition, the despotic nature of a regime. However, closer scrutiny shows that one of the conditions mentioned by the authors is not mentioned by Sack. [9] Namely: "it is incurred without the consent of the people." The fact that Sack does not mention this condition is quite coherent with his position that the nature of the government is of no importance in this matter.
If some readers still have doubts about Sack's position concerning despotic regimes, here is another quote: "Even when a despotic power is overthrown by another despotic power that is no less despotic and no more reflective of the will of the people, the odious debts of the fallen power remain the personal debts of the regime and the new power is not liable for them" (p. 158). For Sack only the purpose of the funds and the creditors' knowledge of that purpose are the important elements.
Sack's comments on several debt repudiations and abolitions
As examples of odious debts, Sack cites debts that have personally enriched government representatives, and creditors' dishonest machinations: "We can also put into this category of debt, loans clearly incurred in the personal interest of government members or persons and groups related to government for purposes that are not related to the government."(p. 159) Sack says immediately after this that debts of this kind were repudiated in the US in the 1830s, as we have seen. "Cf. the case of the repudiation of certain debts by several North American States. One of the main reasons justifying these repudiations was the squandering of the sums borrowed: they were usually borrowed to establish banks or build railways; but the banks failed and the railway lines were never built. These questionable operations were often the result of agreements between crooked members of the government and dishonest creditors." (p. 159). Note that in this particular case that involved four different States, these debts were not incurred by despotic governments. [10]
Sack gives another example "When a government incurs debt for the purpose of subjugating the population of a part of its territory or to colonise the same by its own colonists. These debts are odious for the indigenous population of that part of the territory." (p. 159)
Sack mentions and comments on several cases. He starts by highlighting the fact that among the reasons the US repudiated the debts that Spain claimed on Cuba was that they had been used to maintain their colonial domination over the Cuban people. [11]
Then Sack looks at two debt abolitions that were decided in application of the Versailles treaty signed on 28 June 1919. The first concerned German and Prussian debts incurred in order to colonise Poland and to install Germans on land purchased from Poles. Following the defeat of Germany an independent Poland was restored. The Versailles treaty decreed that newly freed and independent Poland should not be held liable for debt that had been used to impose its own colonisation and subjugation. Sack had reservations about this proviso; he considered that a part of the debt should not have been abolished because it was not odious: "The borrowing of the Prussian government over the thirty years of its colonial occupation was for the purpose of the general budget or, at least, was not for odious purposes. These debts cannot be considered as 'odious'." (p. 164)
Sack then comments on a second debt abolition in the Versailles treaty. The German empire was relieved of its African colonies and their debts were abolished. However, the colonies were not emancipated – they came under the control of the victorious powers. About this, Sack cites an extract of the reply that the Allies made to Germany, which was not inclined to accept forgiveness of the debt of its ex-colonies, because Germany would have to continue the repayments itself. The Allies replied: "The colonies should not bear any portion of the German debt, nor remain under any obligation to refund to Germany the expenses incurred by the Imperial administration of the protectorate. In fact, it would be unjust to burden the natives with expenditure which appears to have been incurred in Germany's own interest, and that it would be no less unjust to make this responsibility rest upon the Mandatory Powers which, in so far as they may be appointed trustees by the League of Nations, will derive no benefit from such trusteeship." [12]
Here are two more comments by Sack: "These considerations do not seem to be totally founded. Even if the spending was done in German interests it does not necessarily follow that it was odious for the colonies (...)" (p. 162). He adds: "We can question whether it is just, (...) that the colonial debt not be put to the charge of the respective colonies, seeing that much of the funds were used on productive spending in the colonies." (p. 161).
What really highlights Sack's conservative, Eurocentric and colonialist attitude is that he makes no reaction to the Allies' affirmation that they gain nothing from exercising their new protectorates over Germany's ex-colonies. What's more, Sack considers that expenditures for the colonies were productive. Whereas, in fact, they were used to rule over the peoples and to draw maximum profits towards the colonial powers.
Can we really talk of "Sack's odious debt doctrine"?
If we consider that a "doctrine" designates the totality of the opinions expressed by legal experts as the result of their reflection on a given rule or situation; if elaborating a doctrine means "A legal framework, defining it, placing it within the context of the law, defining its limits, its practical application, the social effects and at the same time making a systematic, analytical, critical and comparative examination", [13] it is justified to consider that Sack has elaborated an odious debt doctrine.
To elaborate his doctrine he referred to an ample quantity of international treaties pertaining to arbitrations on questions of debt repayments concluded between the end of the 18th century and the 1920s; he analysed the way disputes over debt had been treated and the legal, administrative and judicial measures taken; he collected and classified the opinions of numerous authors (in fact, only Europeans and Americans) who had studied the question. He presented his vision of the nature of debts, the obligations of the debtors and the rights of the creditors, the relations between successor States, the way debts and the effects of regime changes were shared, and defined the criteria for odious debts.
The doctrine is open to criticism, has weaknesses, gives priority to creditors and does not consider human rights, but it does have a certain coherence. It must also be said that, although disparaged by influential detractors (the mainstream media, the World Bank and numerous governments), it inspires numerous movements who look to Sack's work for solutions to debt problems. Sack's two criteria for determining that a debt is odious and a nation may decide not to pay, are applicable and justified.
Henceforth, we must now go beyond Sack's doctrine using that which is applicable and rejecting that which is unacceptable and adding elements related to the social and democratic advances that have been made in international law since the Second World War.
What must also be added straight to the odious debt doctrine is the liability of the creditors; they regularly violate the established treaties and other international instruments for the protection of rights. The IMF and the World Bank have continually and deliberately imposed policies on debtor counties that violate many fundamental human rights. The Troika that was established in 2010 to impose brutal austerity policies on Greece dictated laws that contravene several National and International conventions on rights. The creditors are more than just accomplices to illegal and sometimes frankly criminal acts committed by governments. They are in some cases the instigators of the acts.
The experience that has been accumulated since Sack made his studies indicates that several of Sack's positions may now be updated. A fundamental point that must now be rejected is the continuity of a State's liabilities, even in the case of a change in the regime. [14] Of course Sack is in favour of recognising an exception – odious debt. But that is insufficient. Another point to reject is Sack's support for the current international financial system.
Finally, Sack considers that a sovereign State may not unilaterally repudiate debts it has identified as odious without a ruling by a competent international court (See above passage: "The new government must prove and an international tribunal recognise that the following is established:
b) that the creditors, at the moment of the issuance of the loan, were aware of its odious purpose."). Since Sack made this proposal, no international court of the sort has been created. Numerous proposals have been made, but none have been brought to fruition. Experience shows that another way must be chosen: a sovereign State that discovers that it has an odious debt can and should repudiate it unilaterally. The first steps towards this goal would be to suspend payments and to conduct an audit with the participation of the citizens.
A new doctrine of illegitimate, illegal, odious and unsustainable debt needs to be elaborated. Movements such as the CADTM have taken on the task in collaboration with many other associations, and in bringing together a wide variety of competences. The following is a large extract of the position adopted by CADTM in 2008 [15] and which still remains pertinent:
"Several authors have further sought to develop the works of Sack and to adapt this doctrine to the present context. For example, the Centre for International Sustainable Development Law (CISDL) of McGill University in Canada, has proposed this general definition: "Odious debts are those that have been incurred against the interests of the population of a State, without its consent and with full awareness of the creditors." [16] Jeff King [17] based his analysis on these three criteria (absence of consent, absence of benefit, awareness of creditors), and cumulative calculation, to propose a method to categorise these odious debts.
While King's analysis is interesting in many respects, [18] we argue that it is deficient, since it does not allow for the inclusion of all debts that should be qualified as odious. In fact, according to King, the mere establishment of a government by free elections is enough to disqualify its debts from being categorised as odious. However, history shows, through Hitler in Germany, Marcos in the Philippines or Fujimori in Peru, that "democratically" elected governments can be violent dictatorships and commit crimes against humanity.
It is thus necessary to analyse the democratic character of a debtor State beyond its appellation: any loan must be considered odious, if a regime, democratically elected or not, does not respect the fundamental principles of international law such as fundamental human rights, the sovereignty of States, or the absence of the use of force. The creditors, in the case of notorious dictators, cannot plead their innocence and demand to be repaid. In this case, the purpose of the loans is not fundamental for the categorisation of the debt. In fact, financially supporting a criminal regime, even for hospitals and schools, is tantamount to helping the regime's consolidation and self-preservation. Firstly, some useful investments (roads, hospitals…) can later be used to odious ends, for example, to sustain war efforts. Secondly, the fungibility of funds makes it possible for a government that borrows to serve the population or the State – which, officially, is always the case – to generate other funds for less noble goals.
The nature of regimes aside, the purpose of funds should suffice to qualify debts as odious, that is, whenever these funds are used against the populations' major interests or when they directly enrich the regime's cohorts. In this case, the debts become personal debts, and not those of the State which is represented by its people and its representatives. Let's recall one of the conditions of debt regulation, according to Sack: "the debts of State have to be incurred and the funds that are derived must be used for the needs and in the interests of the State." Thus, multilateral debts incurred within the framework of structural adjustments fall into the category of odious debts, since the destructive character of these debts has been clearly shown, namely by UN agencies [19].
In fact, considering the development of international law since the first theorisation of odious debt in 1927, odious debts can be defined as those incurred by governments which violate the major principles of international law such as those included in the Charter of the United Nations, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the two complementing covenants on civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights of 1966, as well the peremptory norms of international law (jus cogens). This affirmation is confirmed by the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Laws of Treaties, whose article 53 allows for the cancellation of acts which conflict with jus cogens [20] and which also accounts for the following norms: prohibition of wars of aggression, prohibition of torture, prohibition to commit crimes against humanity and the right of peoples to self-determination.
This spirit infuses the definition proposed by the Special Rapporteur Mohammed Bedjaoui in the report on the succession of State debts to the 1983 Vienna Convention: "From the point of view of the international community, odious debt is understood as any debt incurred for purposes that contradict contemporary international law, particularly the principles of international law incorporated in the UN Charter." [21]
Thus, the debts incurred by the apartheid regime in South Africa are odious, since this regime violated the UN Charter, which defines the legal framework of international relations. In a resolution adopted in 1964, the UN had asked its specialised agencies, including the World Bank, to cease financial support of South Africa. In contempt of international law, the World Bank ignored this resolution and continued to lend to the Apartheid regime. [22]
International law also stipulates that debts resulting from colonisation are not transferable to newly independent states, in conformity with Article 16 of the 1978 Vienna Convention that says "A newly independent State is not bound to maintain in force, or to become a party to, any treaty by reason only of the fact that at the date of the succession of States the treaty was in force in respect of the territory to which the succession of States relates". Article 38 of the 1983 Vienna Convention on the succession of states in respect of States Property, Archives and Debts (not yet applicable) is quite explicit in this respect:
1. "When the successor State is a newly independent State, no State debt of the predecessor State shall pass to the newly independent State, unless an agreement between them provides otherwise in view of the link between the State debt of the predecessor State connected with its activity in the territory to which the succession of States relates and the property, rights and interests which pass to the newly independent State".
2. "The agreement referred to in paragraph 1 shall not infringe the principle of the permanent sovereignty of every people over its wealth and natural resources, nor shall its implementation endanger the fundamental economic equilibrium of the newly independent State".
It should be kept in mind that the World Bank is directly involved in some colonial debts since in the 1950s and 1960s it generously loaned money to colonial countries for them to maximise the profits they derived from colonial exploitation. It must also be noted that the debts granted by the World Bank to the Belgian, French and English authorities within their colonial policies were later transferred to the newly independent states without their consent. [23]
Moreover it did not comply with a 1965 UN resolution demanding that it stop its support to Portugal as long as this country maintains its colonial policy.
We must also define as odious all debts incurred in order to pay back odious debts. The New Economic Foundation [24] rightly considers that loans contracted in order to pay back odious loans are similar to a laundering operation. Auditing debts will determine which loans are legitimate.
While there are dissensions on the definition of odious debts, the legal debate takes nothing away from its relevance and cogency. On the contrary, such debate reflects just what is at stake for both the creditors and the debtors and is simply the transfer of conflicting interests onto a legal level. Several cases have shown that the notion of odious debt is a legally valid argument not to pay debts."
The list of debt abolitions or repudiations that evoke, in one way or another, the argument of their illegal, illegitimate or odious character is long. Without claiming to be exhaustive we may nevertheless mention [25]: the three waves of debt repudiations by the United States in the 1830s, 1860s and 1870s; the Mexican debt repudiations in 1861,1867,1883 and in the 1910s; the repudiation by Peru of the debt reclaimed by the Parisian bankers 'Dreyfus'; the 1898 repudiation by Cuba of the debt reclaimed by Spain; the repudiation by the British of the debt reclaimed on the Boers after the conquest of the Boer Republics in 1899-1900; the repudiation by the Bolsheviks in 1918 of the debt left by the Tsars; the repudiation of Germany's debts on Poland and its African colonies in 1919; the abolition of the debt of the part of Poland that was colonised by the Tsarist Empire; the abolition, by the Bolsheviks in 1920, of the debt of the three Baltic States and of Persia; the repudiation by Costa Rica in 1922-23 of the debt reclaimed by The Royal Bank of Canada; the large debt repudiations made by Brazil and Mexico in 1942-43; the Chinese debt repudiations in 1949-52; the repudiation by Indonesia of the debt reclaimed by the Netherlands in 1956; the repudiations by Cuba in 1959-60; the repudiation of the colonial debt by Algeria in 1962; the three Baltic Republics' repudiation of the debts reclaimed, this time by the other former members of the USSR, in 1991; the abolition of Namibia's debt, by Nelson Mandela's South African government in 1994; the abolition of Timor-Leste's colonial debt in 1999-2000; the abolition of 80% of Iraq's debt in 2004; Paraguay's repudiation of debts reclaimed by Swiss banks in 2005 [26]; Norway relaxing its claims on five countries (Ecuador, Peru, Sierra Leone, Egypt and Jamaica) calling for repayment of debts concerning the production and delivery of fishing boats in 2006; [27] the abolition, in 2009, of the part of the Ecuadorian debt that had been identified as non-legitimate by the 2007-2008 debt audit Commission.
Bibliography of other important works of Alexander Nahum Sack as published by himself in 1927:
Agricultural Credit Bank, 1883-1910, economic, statistical et financial research, Moscow, 1911, (in Russian).
Notions on Financial Law and the Science of Finance, Yaroslavl, 1913, 42 p. (in Russian).
The Role of Legislative Bodies in the Control of Russian and Foreign State Banks, Yaroslavl, 1913, 36 p. (in Russian).
The Germans and German Capital in Russian Industry, St Petersburg, 1913, 67 p. (in Russian).
The Central Lending Banks and Banking Associations, St Petersburg, 1914, 171 p. (in Russian).
Financing Agricultural Reform, Petrograd, 1917, 57 p. (in Russian).
Russian and Foreign Railway Bond Issue Rights Petrograd, 1917, 47 p. (in Russian).
The Circulation of Money in Russia, Petrograd, 1918, 123 p. (in Russian).
The Bankrupt State, Petrograd, 1918, 128 p. (in Russian).
The Issue of Public Debt in the Case of State Dislocation, Berlin, 1923 (The works of Russian researchers abroad, t. III), 158 p. (in Russian).
The Problem of Money Reform in the Baltic States Kiel, 1924,13 p.(In German)
Fixing the Value of Money, Riga, 1925, 50 p.
The Debt Engagement of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, Kiel, 1926, 22 p."(In German)
All Russian titles translated from French form by CADTM
Acknowledgements: The author thanks: Ilias Bantekas, Nathan Legrand, Benjamin Lemoine, Damien Millet, Brigitte Ponet, Claude Quémar and Patrick Saurin for their help and suggestions.
Translated by Snake Arbusto, Vicki Briault Manus and Mike Krolikowski.
Footnotes :
[1] Les effets des transformations des États sur leurs dettes publiques et autres obligations financières : traité juridique et financier, Recueil Sirey, Paris, 1927. See : http://cadtm.org/IMG/pdf/Alexander_Sack_DETTE_ODIEUSE.pdf
[2] Sarah Ludington, G. Mitu Gulati, Alfred L. Brophy, 'Applied Legal History: Demystifying the Doctrine of Odious Debts', 2009, http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5511&context=faculty_scholarship
[3] Eric Toussaint, 'What other countries can learn from Costa Rica's debt repudiation', published on 1 November 2016, http://www.cadtm.org/What-other-countries-can-learn
[4] Her text is a part of an interesting collective work entitled How to Challenge Illegitimate Debt Theory and Legal Case Studies edited by Max Mader and André Rothenbühler for Aktion Finanzplatz Schweiz (AFP). It is available here: https://asso-sherpa.org/sherpa-content/docs/programmes/FFID/GT/Debt.pdf
[5] Another quote from Sack clearly confirms that he was opposed to the despotic nature of a regime being a condition sine qua non to identify an odious debt: "Applying other conditions than those we have established (p. 6-7) would, through arbitrary, differing and contradictory judgements, bring about the paralysis of the whole international public credit system and so (if such judgements were to have real weight on questions of recognising or of not recognising debts as State debts) would deprive the World of the advantages of public credits." (p. 11).
[6] What does Sack mean by "a non-regular government"? Answer: A government that does not exercise control over the whole territory, such as a rebel coalition that attempts to overthrow the existing regular government. The emblematic example are the Southern US States (the Confederate States) that rebelled against the United States, which was a regular government. It therefore follows that the debts incurred by the Southern States were personal debts of the Southern insurgents, not debts that the United States should assume. If the Confederates had won the 1861-1865 Civil War they would have become the new regular government in place of the United States.
[7] On the repudiation of the Southern States' debts, see: Eric Toussaint, 'Three Waves of Public-Debt Repudiations in the USA during the 19th Century', published on 7 November 2016, http://www.cadtm.org/Three-Waves-of-Public-Debt
[8] IMF, Michael Kremer and Seema Jayachandran, "Odious Debt" Finance & Development, June 2002, Washington DC, www.imf.org/external/np/res/seminars/2002/poverty/mksj.pdf
[9] Of course, it is perfectly legitimate that Michael Kremer and Seema Jayachandran add any new conditions that they may consider necessary. We regularly see consent obtained by the manipulation of public opinion or by the fanaticism of a majority of the population.
[10] See Eric Toussaint, 'Three Waves of Public-Debt Repudiations in the USA during the 19th Century', published on 7 November 2016, http://www.cadtm.org/Three-Waves-of-Public-Debt
[11] Eric Toussaint, 'The USA's repudiation of the debt demanded by Spain from Cuba in 1898: What about Greece, Cyprus, Portugal, etc.?', published on 8 September 2016, http://www.cadtm.org/The-USA-s-repudiation-of-the-debt
[12] Source: Treaty Series, no. 4, 1919, p. 26. quoted by Sack, p. 162.
[13] Serge Braudo, Dictionnaire du droit privé, http://www.dictionnaire-juridique.com/definition/doctrine.php (in French)
[14] See Odette Lienau, Rethinking Sovereign Debt: Politics, Reputation, and Legitimacy in Modern Finance, Harvard, 2014
[15] This CADTM statement has been translated by Judith Abdel Gadir, Elisabeth Anne, Christine Pagnoulle and Diren Valayden.
[16] Khalfan et al. "Advancing the Odious Debt Doctrine", 2002, quoted in Global Economic Justice Report, Toronto, July 2003
[17] Jeff King, "Odious Debt: The Terms of Debate"
[18] Namely, King proposes the undertaking of audits to determine the absence or not of benefits.
[19] See Eric Toussaint, Your Money or Your Life. The Tyranny of Global Finance, Haymarket in Chicago (2005), VAK in Mumbai (2006).
[20] Article 53 states: "A treaty is void if, at the time of its conclusion, it conflicts with a peremptory norm of general international law. For the purposes of the present Convention, a peremptory norm of general international law is a norm accepted and recognized by the international community of States as a whole as a norm from which no derogation is permitted and which can be modified only by a subsequent norm of general international law having the same character."
[21] Mohammed Bedjaoui, "Ninth report on succession on States on matters other than treaties" A/CN.4/301et Add.l, p. 73.
[22] See Eric Toussaint, The World Bank: A Critical Primer. London: Pluto Press 2007.
[23] See Eric Toussaint, op. cit.
[24] See the report by the New Economics Foundation, "Odious Lending: Debt Relief as if Moral Mattered", p. 2: "The result is a vicious circle of debt in which new loans have to be incurred by successive governments to service the odious ones, effectively 'laundering' the original loans. This defensive lending can give a legitimate cloak to debts that were originally the result of odious lending". Available at www.jubileeresearch.org/news/Odiouslendingfinal.pdf
[25] Some of these examples are listed by Jeff King in The Doctrine of Odious Debt in International Law. A Restatement, Cambridge University Press, 2016.
[26] Hugo Ruiz Diaz Balbuena, 'La décision souveraine de déclarer la nullité de la dette ou la décision de non paiement de la dette : un droit de l'État (The decision to declare a debt null and void or default on its payment is a State's sovereign right)', 7 July 2008, http://www.cadtm.org/La-decision-souveraine-de-declarer (in French)
[27] CADTM - 'CADTM applauds Norway's initiative concerning the cancellation of odious debt and calls on all creditor countries to go even further', published on 10 October 2006 , http://www.cadtm.org/CADTM-applauds-Norway-s-initiative
is a historian and political scientist who completed his Ph.D. at the universities of Paris VIII and Liège, is the spokesperson of the CADTM International, and sits on the Scientific Council of ATTAC France.
He is the author of Debt System (Haymarket books, Chicago, 2019), Bankocracy (2015); The Life and Crimes of an Exemplary Man (2014); Glance in the Rear View Mirror. Neoliberal Ideology From its Origins to the Present, Haymarket books, Chicago, 2012 (see here), etc.
See his bibliography: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89ric_Toussaint
He co-authored World debt figures 2015 with Pierre Gottiniaux, Daniel Munevar and Antonio Sanabria (2015); and with Damien Millet Debt, the IMF, and the World Bank: Sixty Questions, Sixty Answers, Monthly Review Books, New York, 2010. He was the scientific coordinator of the Greek Truth Commission on Public Debt from April 2015 to November 2015.


May 07, 2013 by Filip	in Revenge for Jolly!
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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Thalay Valley is in Ghanche, Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan, on the bank of Shyok River, The Shyok River meets Indus River at Keris about 30 kilometers west of Thalay. Thalay has 16 large and small mohallah: Daltir, Baltoro , Brooqpa Baltoro, Gongma Baltoro, Harangus, Chundu, Taso, Parangus, Haltagari, Yarkhor, Daltir, Gagurik , Burdas, Khasumik, etc. House Valley is to the east, Karis Valley to the west, Shiger Valley to the north and Daghini/Balghar are located to the south.

Thalay Valley is 40km long while its widh is approximately 20km.about 35km  away on the northwest from the district headquarters Ghanche (Gilgit Baltistan), and 110km from Skardu city and situated at 2,647m above sea level and falls in the single cropping zone. The main occupation is agriculture.

Socioeconomic

S/No Description about Thalay Union Council	Number

Education
The awareness of getting education in Thalay started hundreds of years ago. From that era most of them became Islamic school. After 1945 the few parents sent their children to school. They were 8–12 in number from village Harangus, yarkhor and baltoro. One of them became successful to get his goal. Behind his success was his mother. His mother was not educated but encouraged and helped him to get education. And he was Haji Ali Shah from Harangus Thalay. Then he struggled to spread education in Thalay. Initially there was no school. And because of his struggle new educational institutions are founded rapidly. Nowadays there are following institutions;

 one higher secondary school
 Two High school
 2 midel schools
 4 primary schools
 Non-formal school
 6 BECS schools ( working now)
Total= 15

Infrastructure
 BHU
(at Harangus)

 Fruit nursery (agriculture department)
 Post office
 Ration depot
 Hydle (power) station (Daltir)
 Hydle station phase I (Parangus)
 Hydle station phase II (Baltoro)

Health care
 Four first aid posts
 A class dispensary
 Veterinary dispensaryReferences (harangus)
 C class dispensary (Tagari)

Nature resources
 38 valleys for pasture
 Abundant water from glaciers
 Three Lakes

References

Populated places in Ghanche District
Valleys of Gilgit-Baltistan

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Author | Writer | Photographer
by: simonwhaleyPosted on: 27 March, 2013 24 April, 2016
An opening double-page spread in Country & Border Life magazine
Country & Border Life
In the year Wales' national parks celebrate their 50th birthday, Simon Whaley walks through history and discovers that the idea behind these gems is much older …
"Where's McDonalds?" cries a young boy clambering out of a car near St Justinian on the Pembrokeshire Coast.
"There isn't one," says Mum, retrieving a picnic hamper from the boot.
I can't help but smile as I sit amongst the pink thrift flowering beside the coastal path, and overlook the lifeboat station with its slipway jutting out into Ramsey Sound. With a gentle sea breeze ruffling my hair, skylarks whistling overhead and a warm sun reflecting off the tranquil sea, any development here would be completely inappropriate.
How lucky then, that where I'm sitting is within the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park, one of three national parks to be found in Wales.
With a combined area of over 411,000 hectares, the Brecon Beacons, Pembrokeshire Coast and Snowdonia National Parks cover 20% of Wales. Whilst they've all survived more than 50 years, the story behind National Parks dates back to the end of the 19th Century.
The very first national park to be designated anywhere in the world, was Yellowstone, USA, in 1872. The idea was seen as groundbreaking and pressure for similar protection of our most naturally beautiful landscapes began to grow at this time too. The expansion of the railways for example, meant that people from the towns and cities could travel to these areas, and experience the great outdoors for themselves. Many enjoyed walking out amongst the hills and getting the fresh air that they were often denied in their ordinary, working day lives. During the 1920's and 1930's, organisations such as the Rambler's Association, the Youth Hostel Association and the Campaign for the Protection of Rural Wales were formed because of this upsurge in enjoyment of outdoor activities. There were high hopes in 1931 when a government committee chaired by Lord Addison recommended that a National Park Authority should be established to identify which areas of England and Wales needed protecting with National Park status. Yet nothing happened.
So in 1935, several voluntary organisations formed the Standing Committee for National Parks, which later became known as the Council for National Parks, to pressurise the Government. They lobbied hard for several years, but unfortunately, the Second World War diverted most people's attention to more pressing matters elsewhere.
Labour's Legacy
Despite this, there was still some work going on behind the scenes in the early 1940's whilst the country was at war. Lord Justice Scott said in a 1942 committee report that "the establishment of national parks in Britain is long overdue." When the Ministry of Town and Country Planning was set up in 1943, one of the first actions it took was to ask architect, John Dower, to investigate what problems might occur in establishing national parks. It was Dower who defined that a national park should be "an extensive area of beautiful and relatively wild country in which, for the nation's benefit and by appropriate national decision and action, (a) the characteristic beauty is strictly preserved, (b) access and facilities for public open air enjoyment are amply provided, (c) wildlife and buildings and places of architectural and historic interest are suitably protected."
In 1945, whilst planning the post war reconstruction of Britain, the Labour Party published a white paper on the creation of National Parks. Four years later, with all party support, the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act led the way to the creation of National Parks across England and Wales. Snowdonia was the first National Park to be designated in Wales in 1951, the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park was created in 1952 and the Brecon Beacons were designated in 1957. Each National Park has its own Authority, and they are charged with two aims:
• To conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage of the National Parks and,
• To promote opportunities for the public understanding and enjoyment of the special qualities of the Parks.
If ever there is a conflict between the two aims, then it's the first aim that takes precedence. Although each National Park Authority is independent, it is part of the local government framework and the Parks work closely with the appropriate local authorities. The National Park Authorities are also the local planning authorities, which mean that they have the final say on any development within the park. They are not against all development, but any development that occurs has to be appropriate and in the right place.
Park Promotion
But that's not all that they do. The second aim of the 1949 Act is to promote opportunities for exploring the special qualities of the parks. It's a finely balanced job because increased visitor numbers puts more pressure on the very landscape they are charged with protecting. As Richard Barnett from the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park Authority says, "the best and most environmentally friendly way for visitors to travel is on buses run by Pembrokeshire Greenways, a partnership that includes the National Park Authority. The services, named Poppit Rocket, Strumble Shuttle, Celtic Coaster, Puffin Shuttle, and Coastal Cruiser have been running for 8 years, and last year carried 60,000 passengers around the coast within the National Park. Thirty thousand fewer car trips were made in the National Park last year thanks to the buses."
A common misconception is that the National Parks are nationally owned. This is not the case. In fact within both Snowdonia and the Brecon Beacons, 70% of the land is in private hands. In Pembrokeshire this figure rises to nearly 90%. You cannot just go wandering off on National Park land anywhere you like. As well as being outstandingly beautiful, these places are also working communities where people are striving to work hard and earn a living. Ironically, it was the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 that increased access within our National Parks, by creating Open Access Land, something that many outdoor groups had called for long before the 1949 National Park Act, which gave us these protected parks in the first place.
National Parks have a difficult job to do. It's a fine balancing act trying to preserve the peace, tranquillity and beauty of a landscape, whilst encouraging more people to explore and learn about the wildlife and history of the area, and also fostering the social and economic well-being of the communities within it.
Picking up my rucksack, the coast path beckons once more and it's time to get moving again. I often wonder what this coastline would be like, if the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park didn't exist. Would the oil terminals at Milford Haven have expanded and obliterated the sights I see before me now? Who knows?
Heading back to the car, I can't help but think about what the late broadcaster and journalist, Brian Redhead said when he was President of the Council for National Parks. He noted that these places were "not ours, but ours to look after." I whole-heartedly agree.
This month, there are three walks to tempt you into each one of our national parks. The Snowdonia and Pembrokeshire routes are relatively gentle, whilst the Brecon Beacons route is a bit more challenging. For more information about events taking place in your nearest National Park, and other walking ideas, visit the relevant National Park website or contact one of the National Park visitor centres (see box).
Snowdonia National Park – Torrent Walk near Brithdir and Dolgellau
2 ½ miles – Gentle
OS Map – OL23 – Cadair Idris & Bala Lake
Park in the small lay-by on the B4416 opposite the school, between the village of Brithdir and the main A470 road. Follow the B road towards Brithdir until you reach St Mark's Church on your right, and a narrow lane on your left. Turn left, down the lane and follow this for over a kilometre, passing a couple of farms on both sides. You may be able to hear the Clywedog stream in the gorge on your left as you pass through some gates and enter a Forestry Commission area. Fork gently to the left and at a lane, turn left, so that you cross over the stream, and then turn left again, through an iron gate.
Proceed along this path, with the stream on your left, through the trees, and look out for three large boulders across the path. Continue, ignoring any paths off to your right, passing a bench. Eventually, the path crosses the stream once more over an iron bridge to rejoin the B4416. Turn left, passing a lane on your right to Caerynwch, to return to the lay-by.
St Mark's Church is one of the few Art Nouveau churches in existence in Wales. Step inside and marvel at the brightly painted walls and ceiling, and the copper pulpit and altar.
Pembrokeshire Coast National Park – St Justinian's near St David's
2 miles – Gentle
OS Map – OL35 – North Pembrokeshire
Either park in the small lay-by at the end of the St David's to St Justinian's road, or take the Celtic Coaster (seasonal) minibus from St David's, and follow the lane heading back inland, passing several buildings at Rhosson. Just after passing a campsite on your right, take the signed footpath on your left, along a track, passing two properties on the left. Where the track bears right, continue ahead on signed path towards Porthselau Sands, with a caravan park on your left. Ignore the footpath joining from the right.
At a junction with the coast path, turn left and follow this around the headland, with great views to your right of Carreg-gafeiliog rocks, and as the path bears left again, Ramsey Island. Look out on the rocks and islands for any signs of seals, or dolphins swimming off the coast.
The path eventually turns sharp left again, with excellent views of the lifeboat station, before bearing right to come up behind it. Once past the wooden shed, turn left to rejoin the lane and return to the car, or await the Celtic Coaster to return you to St David's.
Brecon Beacons National Park – Pen Y Fan near Brecon
4 miles – Strenuous
OS Map – OL12 – Brecon Beacons National Park Western Area
This energetic and steep walk takes you to the summit of the highest peak in the Brecon Beacons, and offers fantastic views across the national park. Walking boots are recommended for this route. From the Storey Arms car park on the A470 (Brecon to Merthyr Tydfil Road), take the path signed to Pen Y Fan (near to the toilets), pass through a kissing gate, drop down to cross a stream and then begin to climb. Follow the main path as it bears gently left and then begins a long sweep right, up to the top of the ridge, where you meet a junction of paths. Take the second path on your right, which skirts around the right hand side of Corn Du, before being joined by a path on the left. Climb up the final section to the summit of Pen Y Fan and its big cairn. Admire the spectacular views and get your breath back!
Return back along the path you came, but this time, at the fork, bear right to continue a long the ridge and climb up to the summit of Corn Du. From here, bear left to pick up a path which drops back down to the junction of many paths you reached earlier. Return to the car park using the same path used to ascend to this point, and discover that going down hill uses different muscles as going up!
Facts about the Snowdonia National Park.
• Snowdonia was the third National park to be created in England and Wales in 1951, and is the second largest, covering 823 square miles.
• There are over 10.5 million day visits to the area every year.
• Snowdonia stretches from the Dyfi Estuary in the south to Conwy in the north, and the Conwy valley in the east to Cardigan Bay in the west.
• Snowdon, (Yr Wyddfa) is the highest mountain in the park at 3,560 feet.
• There are 9 mountain ranges within the park, covering 52% of its entire area.
Facts about the Brecon Beacons National Park
• The Brecon Beacons is 50 years old this year, being the 10th park to be created in England & Wales in 1957.
• It covers an area of 520 square miles between Hay on Wye and Abergavenny in the east to Llandovery and Llandeilo in the west.
• 7 million day visits take place within the park every year.
• In October 2005, the Brecon Beacons became the first Geopark in Wales, and the only National Park in the UK to be awarded Geopark status. Geoparks recognise the exceptional geological qualities of the area, as well as its scientific, educational, historic and cultural qualities. There are only 31 Geoparks in Europe.
Facts about the Pembrokeshire Coast National Park
• Pembrokeshire is the only coastal National Park in England and Wales.
• Created in 1952, the fifth in the National Park family, it celebrates its 55th birthday this year, with approximately 5 million day visits annually.
• It covers 240 square miles, stretching from Amroth near Saundersfoot and Tenby, westwards round to Poppit Sands, near Cardigan.
• It's not just cliffs and beaches. The National Park includes the Preseli Hills, between Cardigan and Fishguard, where the stones were taken to construct Stonehenge in Wiltshire.
National Park Authority Contacts
Snowdonia National Park Information Centre
Royal Oak Stables, Betws-y-Coed, Conwy, LL24 0AH
Tel: 01690 710426
www.snowdonia-npa.gov.uk
Pembrokeshire National Park Visitor Centre,
The Grove, St David's, Pembrokeshire, SA62 6NW
Tel: 01437 720392
www.pcnpa.org.uk
Brecon Beacons National Park Visitor Centre
The Mountain Centre, Libanus, Brecon, Powys, LD3 7DP
Tel: 01874 623366
www.breconbeacons.org/
All three National Parks have 'friendly' societies, comprising people who want to learn more and support the work the parks do. This ranges from volunteering for practical conservation work to offering guided walks and talks. To find out more contact:
Snowdonia Society: Ty Hyll, Capel Curig, Conwy, LL24 0DS
www.snowdonia-society.org.uk
Friend of Pembrokeshire National Park: PO Box 218, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire, SA61 1WR
http://home.freeuk.com/fpnp/
Brecon Beacons Park Society:
www.breconbeaconsparksociety.org
Council for National Parks: 6-7 Barnard Mews, London, SW11 1QU
www.cnp.org.uk
© Simon Whaley
Landscape/British Travel
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text:
Home » Will Ronaldo help Manchester United advance in the Champions League?
Will Ronaldo help Manchester United advance in the Champions League?
News, Top storiesxfcediNovember 27, 2018
With two matches left to play, United is in danger of losing out to Valencia on a place in the next stage of the Champions League. Having already scored against Manchester United, his former team, a similar performance from Ronaldo could help the Red Devils advance to the next stage of the competition.
When Ronaldo returned to Old Trafford this season, Red Devil fans fully displayed their excitement for their former winger. Some of them chanted. Other even entered the field in a bid to capture a picture with the football superstar. It didn't even matter that Ronaldo ended up scoring against United, or that the team received a €8,000 fine for the pitch invasion. CR7 is beloved in Manchester. And he may end up playing a vital role in United's advancement in the Champions League competition.
Ready for tomorrow???? pic.twitter.com/Bv13P1dZ8Z
— Cristiano Ronaldo (@Cristiano) November 26, 2018
1What are United's chances at the moment?
2Can Ronaldo win for both Juventus and United's sake?
2.1Eduard Bănulescu
What are United's chances at the moment?
While things aren't dire just yet (a mantra for United's season thus far), Jose Mourinho has no reason to relax. With two matches on the cards, United is in second place, two points behind Juventus, a team they defeated, albeit, many felt, with luck playing the biggest part.
However, Valencia, a team barely sneaking into La Liga's upper part of the table this season, is merely two points behind United. The two teams will be playing each other in the final match of the group. But a loss from United tonight against BSC Young Boys and a victory for Valencia against Juventus, could all but seal the fate of Mourinho's team.
Can Ronaldo win for both Juventus and United's sake?
Cristiano Ronaldo has become a player wise enough to carefully manage the amount of effort he puts into performances. In his first season for Serie A champions Juventus, he has scored 9 goals in 13 appearances. According to the FootballCoin stats, he is his team's best player with 524.83 points throughout the campaign.
The 33-year-old is also a player known to take full advantage of an easy opportunity to score goals. Valencia, despite a poor year, is a team characterized by good defensive strength. However, if Juventus will escape as clear winner against the Spaniards, expect Ronaldo to be right there attempting to put in as many goals as he can.
This time the goals, should they arrive, will serve not only himself and Juventus, but his former employers as well. It would be another reason for the Manchester United fans to rejoice in their hero worship of Ronaldo.
The Champions League encounters will be hosted through FootballCoin contests tonight. Join the free contest, choose your draft, score highly, and you will be rewarded with XFC, the official cryptocurrency of FootballCoin!
Champions LeagueCristiano RonaldoJuventusManchester United
Wenger says Mertesacker is setting great example
Who was the best Brazilian player in the FootballCoin contests?
Sneijder to set record for Netherlands
What Ronaldo brought to Real Madrid and what they'll need to do to replace him
Tuesday Top Three: Champions League's best free midfielders in FootballCoin
Veterans Robben and Casillas to carry on in 2018. Will Buffon do the same ?


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During an emergency, the CSUDH home page is used to communicate critical messages and instructions for the campus and external community.


In a country that many believe proves how fiat currencies can destroy an entire country's infrastructure and economy, the first Bitcoin ATM in Venezuela will finally be installed, about two weeks from January 20, 2019.
Venezuela actually tops the misery index thanks to the ongoing economic crisis in the country since 2013. There are all sorts of factors that have contributed to the situation, and the country's currency is hyperinflating at an alarming rate.
The economic issues affecting the country have officially turned into a humanitarian crisis, and seven percent of the Venezuelan population has fled the country. As a result, it has also turned into a children starvation issue.
Since the fiat currency has decreased in value by such a tremendous amount, many have wondered about which cryptocurrency might gain popularity in Venezuela, as it may provide a more secure and stable form of payments between individuals and businesses.
One cryptocurrency, DASH, has apparently become quite popular with Venezuelans, with over 500 merchants allowing for the cryptocurrency to be used as a form of payment.
Many cryptocurrency enthusiasts were conflicted about the fact that Venezuela's president, Nicolas Maduro had unveiled the "petro" cryptocurrency in February 2018, backed by oil reserves. Many believed that there was evidence that the entire concept was a complete scam.
Maduro has attempted to hype up the cryptocurrency, claiming that it could singlehandedly reverse the country's economic downturn.
In about two weeks, the country will welcome its first Bitcoin ATM thanks to Cryptobuyer, a Panama-based company. This comes just as LocalBitcoins is reportedly no longer accessible within Venezuela. The ATM will be located in Caracas, the capital of the country.


Even in England, he was very well respected.
He commanded SMS Emden, during its most successful raiding tour in the Golf of Bengal and the Indian Ocean.
After the destruction of the Emden by the Australian "Sidney" he survived the war with most of his crew members, albeit, in British captivity.
According to what we know, was Direction Island, where this ship was confiscated by the Emden's landing squad, a flat island.
It might, however, have been taken when the Ayesha visited the harbour of Padang (Sumatra, former Dutch Indies). In that case, most likely, it was taken from one of the there 'interned' German merchant ships. (notice the chapter on Padang) I have been there three times and from my memory (1978, 1980 and 1992) this shows the typical 'Menankabau' landscape (West Sumatra).
This subject is most intriguing and have been told many times.
However, Mr Lockhart's comments are adding to the understanding of this peculiar event during the 'Great War'.
This book reads like a thrilling 'school boy's' book!
When we, however, compare this photo of the Emden's landing squad with the previous photo of the Ayesha, we can clearly see that both are showing the same ship. But, the first photo shows a much more well kept ship. The two boats on the left-hand side belonged to the Emden's outfit. The text of this book is giving the explanations.
Showing much of the Ottoman Empire, which after World War One changed eventually its name in Turkey.


text:
Rightwing denies sex slaves In US ad
in the Washington Post. They must assume if they persist in this fiction enough that the rest of the world will agree with them. Their point seems to be that all of the victims of the Imperial Japanese Army's sex slavery are a bunch of liars, and that all the evidence--documentary and otherwise---is fake since so far nobody has found a specific type of document that they say is required to prove it happened. Is this type of evidence required to prove other historic events? Would it be required in a civil or criminal trial? Is this bunch the elite that Fujiwara Masahiko suggests should run Japan in a dictatorship?
AN Australian woman forced into sex slavery in World War II says she is trembling with anger at a Japanese Government advertisement denying the war-time atrocities.
The ad, signed by 44 members of Japan's parliament, seeks to share "the truth with the American people" about the 200,000 "comfort women" who were driven into brothels during World War II. Article HERE
"The ianfu [comfort women] who were embedded with the Japanese army were not, as is commonly reported, sex slaves," it says. "They were working under a system of licensed prostitution that was commonplace around the world at the time."
The advertisement also says that many of the women earned more money than senior officers.
Article HERE
And more HERE
Since George Bush has accepted Abe's "apology" (What was Abe sorry for if it never happened?) and since he is an apparent ex-sex slave of the Japanese Imperial Army, (why else would he accept the apology?) perhaps the world will kowtow to these liars. Has Japan's elite--one can assume the elite that Fujiwara worships---changed since WW2? We are assured they have.
The important thing is that denying the sex slave issue is not the only goal of this bunch. The elite right-wing in Japan also wants to deny other thigs, such as the Bataan Death March and the Nanjing Massacre and any WW2 atrocities in general. In fact, they want to deny that Japan was wrong in WW2.
It's good that these folks placed that ad. Perhaps more people will take notice of exactly what kind of allies we are getting in the LDP elitists of Japan. If their influence continues to rise and their beliefs become more and more accepted and mainstream in Japan, perhaps then we will see just how much Japan has become more democratic and westernized as per Reischauer's old now discredited claims.
Labels: Abe, comfort women, Edwin Reischauer, Fujiwara, Japanese revisionism, LDP, nutjobs, revisionists, right-wing, sex slaves
The Dignity of the Nation
Is this woman lying?
Japan threatens US over sex slave issue
Wrong again
Wouldn't this be sweet
Not unexpected
Japanese angered by government's WW2 denials
Tojo running
More on Whaling
Why were Class A war criminals enshrined in Yasukuni?
Abe's "beautiful country": Nationalism from above
TV 4 and gaijin
Double Standard?
Fujiwara, Masahiko
Foreign Workers in Japan
Speaking of Whaling
Japan's special relationship with nature: ivory an...
Japan needs clean diapers
Japan may quit IWC
It's pouring rain in Tokyo, but the weather report...


text:
H.E. Judge Sanji Monageng
Judge, International Criminal Court (ICC)
Judge Monageng served as a Judge of the Pre Trial Division from 2009 until March 2012, when she was appointed a Judge of the Appeals Division. She also served as the 1st Vice President of the Court from March 2012 to March 2015.
Previously Judge Monageng served as an expert High Court Judge in the Kingdom of Swaziland, under the auspices of the Commonwealth Secretariat. Prior to this, she served as a Judge of the High Court of the Republic of the Gambia in the same capacity. She started her legal career as a Magistrate in Botswana. Judge Monageng was also a member of the African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights appointed by the African Union, between 2003 and 2009, and was appointed as the Commission's Chairperson in November 2007. She also served as Deputy Chief Litigation Officer in the United Nations Observer Mission to South Africa in 1994. Judge Monageng served as the founding Chief Executive Officer of the Law Society of Botswana for many years. She possesses expertise in women's human rights issues, indigenous peoples and communities and children among others. She is a member of the International Association of Women Judges and the International Commission of Jurists, among others.


text:
Q: Cannot modify site.tags from Jekyll plugin I'm developing a plugin to facilitate multilingual Jekyll sites, and as part of this I have to categorise posts according to their language.
I'm trying to tag the post according to its language, so I have overwritten the aggregate_post_info method, but when I print the site.tags variable, it is empty.
module Jekyll
    class Site

        alias_method :_aggregate_post_info, :aggregate_post_info
        def aggregate_post_info(post)
            _aggregate_post_info(post)
            @tags[post.data['lang']] << post
        end

    end
end

A: I have achieved something similar by defining my own language specific variables, like in this simplified example:
for post in site.posts.docs do
    lang = post.data['lang']
    for tag in post.data['tags'] do
        slug = jekyll_tagging_slug(tag)
        site.config['t'][lang]['tagnames'] = slug
    end
end

I also automatically generate tag pages (and category pages using a different approach without plug-ins), avoid name collisions for multiple languages, and precompute aggregate counts for better performance.  The whole thing is described in two blog posts http://www.guido-flohr.net/multilang-with-jekyll/ and http://www.guido-flohr.net/jekyll-multilang-tags/.

A: You can simply add the post language as a tag, i.e. tags: [english, ruby, etc], avoiding altogether the monkey patching. So, when you want to show only lang-tagged posts, you simply filter them:

{% for post in site.tags.english %}

    {{ post.title }}

{% endfor %}

This way, most of the work is done by Jekyll, saving you some time and effort. :)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Optical Express - they called as I had made an inquiry online about laser eye surgery but they rang 10 times over the space of a few days, didn't leave a message or text/email to say who they were. It really has put me off using them as I can imagine they will harass me if I do go for a consultation.
I filled out a form on line regarding laser eye surgery, since then they call but not long enough to answer or dont leave a msg. puts me off them.


text:
https://www.wsj.com/articles/cord-cutters-savings-shrink-as-online-tv-services-raise-prices-11555001280
Cord-Cutters' Savings Shrink as Online TV Services Raise Prices
YouTube TV lifts rates and expands bundle of channels; T-Mobile readies $100 monthly package
The cable industry is undergoing a major transformation, as more Americans cut the cord on their cable subscriptions and flock to streaming services like Hulu and Netflix. So how did we get here? Illustration: Shaumbe Wright/WSJ
By Drew FitzGerald
Updated April 11, 2019 8:29 pm ET
Online television bundles are getting bigger and prices keep rising, edging closer to the cable bundles they were designed to replace and muddling the economic equation that has prompted millions of Americans to cut the cord.
YouTube TV, started two years ago as a lower-cost alternative to cable, said this week it was raising its monthly rate by $10 to $50 and adding channels such as HGTV and Food Network. T-Mobile US Inc., a wireless carrier that has been looking to jump into the video business, said it would start selling a $100 monthly home-TV service with more than 275 available channels.
The Bosses Are Back in Charge
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Photos: Renault Frendzy - the concept car for both work and PlayBook
Renault Frendzy front three-quarters
Renault concept car uses tech to combine the world of work and family life...
The barriers between home and work have been breaking down for some time. Now car maker Renault is aiming to blend the two even further with a concept car known as the Frendzy.
With the increased intertwining of family and office life in mind, Renault intends for the electric-powered Frendzy to be suitable as both a family and commerical vehicle - and the car is packed with technology for both uses.
Published: July 18, 2011 -- 10:43 GMT (03:43 PDT)
Photo by: Renault
Caption by: Tim Ferguson
Renault Frandzy front interior
The integration of the BlackBerry PlayBook into the dashboard - to the right of the steering wheel - means the car can be used as a movable office.
With the PlayBook on board, salespeople can take the tablet with them to give impromptu presentations to clients or courier drivers can use the slate to locate delivery locations and keep track of their progress throughout the day.
The car changes its interior and external lighting depending on what it's being used for - green for work and orange for family mode.
Renault Frendzy passenger side view
The passenger side of the car has a sliding door with a 37-inch digital display - showing the Frendzy logo - which can be used for advertising, information about the car's remaining battery charge or messages such as "making deliveries" or "back in five minutes". The PlayBook is used to control what the exterior screen of the car is displaying.
Renault Frendzy driver side view
The passenger side has two doors that open outwards on hinges at opposite ends of the car, unlike conventional car doors, signalling the family aspect of the car by allowing passengers to get in and out more easily.
"The concept of an asymmetric body design was the most logical way to express this vehicle's two roles. I took inspiration from a wide variety of sources, including unconventionally shaped aircraft such as the Airbus Beluga and the Antonov 224," exterior designer Deyan Denkov said in a statement.
Renault Frendzy rear interior seats down
The Frendzy can be used for transporting goods and work tools when the rear and passenger seats are folded down into the floor.
The doors contain sensors which can log the loading and unloading of items that contain RFID tags, meaning a real-time inventory can be kept of items on board. The RFID tags can also provide information such as destination address, dimensions and weight, which can help delivery drivers work out their itineraries.
Renault Frendzy rear interior seats up
The passenger and rear seats can be folded up when the car is being used to transport people for work or when it is in family mode.
When there are passengers in the rear of the car they can watch films or play games on a touchscreen, which slides out from the back of the driver's seat. There's also a digital slate on the sliding door which younger passengers can use for drawing.
Renault Frendzy rear three-quarters
Most electric cars are almost silent but Renault has worked with Institut de Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique to create engine sounds in order to warn pedestrians of the car's approach at slow speeds. The sounds change depending on whether the vehicle is in family or work mode.


text:
Q: Which statement in my main method is calling all my other methods in my other classes and my main class? Question: Ok, so this is going to sound slightly confusing due to my lack of total understanding on the subject. Currently, I am creating a game following a youtube tutorial (to understand the basics of game development in java).
After following some of the tutorials, I am confused as to what is the real purpose of the main method and the class that contains it. I thought that the main method's job was to call all the methods of its own class and the desired methods in other classes. However in my main method in my main "Game" class, here is all I have:
public static void main (String[] args) {
    JFrame frame = new JFrame(title);
    frame.add(game);
    frame.setSize(WIDTH,HEIGHT);
    frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
    frame.setFocusable(true);
    frame.setLocationRelativeTo(null);
    frame.setResizable(false);
    frame.setVisible(true);
    frame.pack();
    game.start();
}

Does frame.add(game) (game is an instance of Game) "call" all the other methods in other classes? Whatl the exactly does frame.add() do? Also, I am still trying to understand threads despite reading a lot of explanations. When I write game.start(); to "start" the thread, what exactly does this imply? Does it call all the methods in the game class only?
Here is my thread code if its needed:
private synchronized void start() {
    if(running) {
        return;
    } else {
        running = true;
    }
    thread = new Thread(this);
    thread.start();
}
public synchronized void stop(){
    if(!running) {
        return;
    } else {
        running = false;
    }
    try {
        thread.join();
    } catch (InterruptedException e) {
        e.printStackTrace();
    }
    System.exit((0));
}

Here are the variables I initialized:
private static final long serialVersionUID = -8921419424614180143L;
public static final int WIDTH = 640;
public static final int HEIGHT = WIDTH / 4*3;
public static String title = "Game";
public static Game game = new Game();
public static GameState state = GameState.MENU;
private boolean running = false;
private Thread thread;
private Renderer gfx;
public static Game getInstance(){

I am just unsure of how all other methods in the game class and my other classes are being called if this is all I have in my main method. Any help would be GREATLY appreciated. I am really struggling here as you can probably tell.

A: The purpose of the main() method is to give an entry point for stand alone execution.
In your case (you did not show how game is initialized but I guess it was a static Game game = new Game(); initialized field) what happens is that first the static fields are initialized (which will call the Game() constructor).
Then the main method is started. It will set the initialized game as the content of the frame (which means the Frame will call various UI related methods like paint() from that moment on. Threading in Gui is a quite complicated topic, but for the sake of your question you can ignore it).
The rest of the methods in main are used to set up the containing frame. That's unusual for bigger applications but quite common for such small examples. (It does cause methods on game being called, for example for layout or drawing).
So finally main calls game.start() (which is the start() method on Game you have shown). It does create a new thread, which executes (by definition) the run() method on the Runable given to the new Thread(this) constructor (this, which is at this point the same instance as game).

A: The main() method is like any other method with respect to what it executes. Only what you explicitly execute (call) will be executed.
There is no method to automatically call all the other methods, because there is no purpose for such method. If, for some weird reason, you want such a method, just write it and from within it, do call the other methods.
A thread is a separate execution path in your program. When you call start() it begins and practically it goes to its special run() method, which is executed in parallel.
Any good introductory Java book should have detailed explanations to your questions.

A: The shortest answers that get at your bolded questions are:

*

*frame.add(...) adds a component (like a button or label) to a frame or panel.

*game.start() creates a new thread and calls the run() method of the game class in that thread.

*So other methods you've written are called from game.run(). If they aren't in there (and they aren't in main(...)), they aren't being called.

I have to agree with the comment from PM77 though. It sounds like you're beginning in java, and Threading and GUIs are both pretty complex topics. There are basic games you can design (ie tic-tac-toe) that don't require either of them. Try those out before you tackle something as challenging as this.


I'm a Rhode Island native with a BFA in Photography from NSCAD University in Halifax, NS. I'm interested in a variety of mediums such as Photography, Music, Film, 3d and 2d Design, and Frame building. I've been a featured artist in New Yorker Magazine, and on websites such as Wired.com, Geekologie.com, Thisiscollosal.com, and Kotaku.com. My paper cutout series based on Limbo by Playdead won a 2012 Applied Arts Student Award. Feel free to email me any questions. Thank you for all the support!


We believe God has given each of us unique abilities and talents. Shine Ministry provides a variety of programs, classes, and support services to allow every person a chance to fully integrate into Southeast Christian Church.
Each Campus provides buddies for those needing extra support to attend SE!Kids programming. The Blankenbaker Campus also offers a classroom for children who benefit from a smaller class with additional space for movement.
Join us for our weekly Weekend Group, Parents Ability Group, as well as occasional special classes focused on enrichment or the practical needs of our families. The Parents Ability Group meets on Sundays at 10:45 a.m. in Room WC239.
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text:
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Much has been written recently about the current Chair of the Federal Reserve, Janet Yellen, who after a highly successful career at the helm of the Central Bank, will be replaced in February by president Trump's new pick, Jerome Powell, a current Fed governor.
Why Some Stay Silent
In a Letter to the Editor published in the Washington Post on October 15, I argue that the analysis of the Harvey Weinstein scandal would be incomplete without an analysis of the social class that shrugged off the sexual harassment allegations against Donald Trump and voted for him in the 2016 US presidential elections.The same article appeared online on October 13 under the title "There Is a Culture That Accepts Men's Abuse of Power".
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The Last Temptation
In an article entitled "The Last Temptation", I try to explain why the IMF has rejected calls to re-enter the Greek bailout program, until two conditions have been met.
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Officials and private citizens around the world have condemned the attack of May 25th against Lucas Papademos, former Prime Minister of Greece, as an offense against democratic principles, an act of cowardice, and an intolerable act of terrorism.
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On August 5, 2016 I sent to the NYT the following Letter to the Editor for possible publication: "The analysis of your August 5 editorial titled 'The Perils of Writing-Off Mr. Trump' was spot-on, but your conclusion missed an essential element: Mrs. Clinton should refocus her campaign from jobs, inclusiveness, equality and other lofty policies to a few monikers that best describe her opponent. Some appropriate examples might be "Charlatan Trump", "Bungler Don", and "Swindler T."


dosto aaj ke is video mai aapko bataya hai ki Foreign Settlement Yog in Kundali ke baare ma.
Hi I am Shikhar Vats and this channel is for astrology lovers who wants to learn astrology in a quick and easy way.
A state-by-state look at the history of U.S. immigration by country of origin as President Trump blocks immigrants and refugees from Iraq, Syria, Iran, etc. and vows to build a wall on the US-Mexico border. Try Lynda.com for free: https://www.lynda.com/tdc Subscribe to TDC! https://www.youtube.com/TheDailyConversation/ Twitter for curated news http://www.twitter.com/thedailyconvo Facebook for daily posts http://www.facebook.com/thedailyconversation Written, Narrated, and Produced by Bryce Plank Video Editing and Animation by Robin West Information source: http://pewrsr.ch/1YKcNEY Music: "Sunday" by Otis McDonald - YT Audio Library Script: This is a state by state look at how immigration to America has changed over time. In 1850, the vast majority of newcomers were from Ireland and Germany. In the 1860's the labor shortages during the Civil War created strong demand for immigrant labor, nearly doubling the foreign born population in a decade. 1870 saw Mexico become the top country of origin in much of the Southwest, while British immigrants preferred the rocky mountain territories. The 1880 census showed that the Chinese were coming in large numbers. Many took dangerous jobs in the mines or on railroad building crews. For the next century immigrants from Canada crossing the southern border would be the largest group settling in many of the northernmost American states. In 1882 the Chinese Exclusion Act blocked the arrival of large numbers of Asian immigrants for much of the next century. Unfortunately the overall microdata for the 1890 census were destroyed in a 1921 fire at the Department of Commerce. So fast-forward to 1900, the turn of the century, when the territorial boundaries of the continental United States were settled. For the first time Norwegians, Swedes, and Italians were the largest groups coming to South Dakota, Minnesota and Louisiana, respectively. 1910 shows us how quickly things can change, with large numbers of Russians and Italians arriving, the only state where Ireland was the top country of origin was tiny Delaware. With the American population exceeded 100 million in the 1920 census, there were equal numbers of German, Italian, and Russian born immigrants. Many had fled Europe to escape the horrors of World War I. By 1930 the industrial revolution was in full swing, and the country was growing rapidly from within, so the percent of foreign born fell. And, for the first time since 1850, Mexico was the dominant country of origin for new arrivals to California. By 1940, the quotas and other congressional measures passed in the previous decade to restrict immigration sharply cut the foreign born population to below 9%. 1950 saw the effects of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, as Chinese immigrants were finally welcomed back. Greeks were the largest group arriving in South Carolina. When Alaska and Hawaii became states in 1959, the year before the 1960 census, Canadians simply crossed the border to immigrate to The Last Frontier, but Filipinos crossed an entire ocean to become The Aloha State's largest group. By 1970, the percentage of foreign born reached an all-time low. And with immigrants arriving from a wider range of countries, Italy was the only nation that had sent more than a million people. In 1980, after Congress began granting more visas to people from the Western Hemisphere, the number of states where Mexico was the top country of origin doubled in a decade, becoming the dominant foreign born population in the entire country. And in 1990 America began to look like the diverse country we live in today. Mexico was tops in 18 states, Dominicans were the largest group coming to New York, and South Korea and Southeast Asian nations were the leading countries of origin in seven states. In the year 2000 census the number of Mexican-born immigrants surpassed nine million. It's also notable that India was the top country of origin in three states. And the 2010 census reveals exactly why America is quickly becoming so diverse: only five states - all of them bordering Canada - received the most immigrants from a majority white country. Thanks for watching, I hope you enjoyed that visualization of America's immigration history. And a special thanks to Lynda.com for sponsoring this video. A lynda.com membership will give you unlimited access to training on hundreds of topics--all for one flat fee. For a free 10-day trial, go to lynda.com/tdc, that's L-Y-N-D-A Dot Com Slash TDC. Be sure to use that URL so they know I sent you. Until next time, for The Daily Conversation, I'm Bryce Plank.
FOREIGN TRAVELLING & SATTLEMENT YOGA.LEC-405.
How do banks process international payments?


text:
West From Neck Deep's Guide To Gaming On Tour
Andy Biddulph 11 March 2016 at 17.04
Meet our new video games columnist.
Alright. I'm West and I play guitar in the band Neck Deep. When I'm not banging my head and spinning up an F5 tornado on stage, I'm usually sat on me arse playing video games.
I've been sat in front on a TV getting square eyes way longer than I've been attempting to play any form of music, and gaming is one of my biggest passions. From this point forward you'll see my hairy mug on a regular basis, where I'll be giving you the lowdown on my various adventures in the wide world of gaming.
Seeing as I'm away from home a lot it can be difficult to game a lot of the time, here are my top six tips for gaming on the road...
JUST BRING YOUR CONSOLE
We have the luxury nowadays of being able to tour in what is basically a house on wheels, (which usually has a telly in it), so a lot of the time I'll just bubble wrap me PS4 and cradle it among a ton of clothes in my suitcase, hoping that an airline doesn't do a David Seaman and boot it down the runway.
HANDHELD IS THE WAY FORWARD
The obvious choice for gaming on tour would be to bring a handheld console with you, I rarely leave my house without my 3DS or Ps Vita.
USE YOUR PHONE
Nowadays, your phone is basically a computer in your pocket, so it makes sense to use it to play games with! Loads of console exclusive indie games have been ported over to the App Store and Google Play, a long with a lot of classics including the Final Fantasy series.
REGION FREE CONSOLES
With the latest generation of consoles (Xbox One and PS4), you're pretty much set to buy and import games from any country as they're region free. This is great when touring the US as you'll be able to buy games on the cheap whilst overseas.
I'm always checking Kotaku to keep up to date on the latest gaming news and release dates, but it's also good to do a bit of research yourself. For example Yokai Watch on 3DS still hasn't been released in the UK or Europe, but it's out in Australia and they have the same region code as us in terms of handhelds.
Sharing a bus with 11 other people often means fighting for TV time. The best way to counteract this is to bring some games everyone can have a crack at. A recent favourite of ours has been Rocket League, it's basically FIFA but in rocket-powered supercars. Matches only last 5 minutes so everybody gets a go pretty quickly, it's also hilarious to place bets on.
Andy Biddulph
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