Western Eurasia yielded a rich Middle (MP) and Late Pleistocene (LP) fossil record documenting the evolution of the Neandertals that can be analyzed in light of recently acquired paleogenetical data, an abundance of archeological evidence, and a well-known environmental context. Their origin likely relates to an episode of recolonization of Western Eurasia by hominins of African origin carrying the Acheulean technology into Europe around 600 ka. An enhancement of both glacial and interglacial phases may have played a crucial role in this event, as well as in the subsequent evolutionary history of the Western Eurasian populations. In addition to climatic adaptations and an increase in encephalization, genetic drift seems to have played a major role in their evolution. To date, a clear speciation event is not documented, and the most likely scenario for the fixation of Neandertal characteristics seems to be an accretion of features along the second half of the MP. Although a separation time for the African and Eurasian populations is difficult to determine, it certainly predates OIS 11 as phenotypic Neandertal features are documented as far back as and possibly before this time. It is proposed to use the term "Homo rhodesiensis" to designate the large-brained hominins ancestral to H. sapiens in Africa and at the root of the Neandertals in Europe, and to use the term "Homo neanderthalensis" to designate all of the specimens carrying derived metrical or non-metrical features used in the definition of the LP Neandertals.
Continuous research since the middle of the 19th century on the Neandertals has resulted in an unmatched accumulation of data, combining biological and cultural characteristics in their environmental context. This has allowed for the analysis of their morphological variability and geographical distribution with a level of detail unparalleled in other hominins. The close phylogenetic relationship between Neandertals and Homo sapiens also makes this group particularly interesting as understanding its status undoubtedly sheds light on the definition of our own species. As a matter of fact, anatomical descriptions of Neandertal remains have most often focused on comparisons with extant or recent humans. Occasionally, this has led to some misleading assessments of the differences between the two groups by confusing genuine derived Neandertal features with primitive retentions lost only recently in H. sapiens. Historically, this confusion provided the grounds for the notion of a generalized "Neandertaloid phase," allegedly present throughout the Old World (1), and for debates surrounding the identification of supposed "Neandertal features" in early modern humans. Until the 1970s, Neandertals were considered to date exclusively from the Late Pleistocene (LP) and were assigned to a time period ranging from OIS 5 to OIS 3—between 100 and 40 ka. "Early Neanderthals" were also recognized in the early OIS 5 between 130 and 100 ka. For the earlier time periods, the Middle Pleistocene (MP) fossils discovered in Europe were then attributed to diverse groups such as the "ante-Neandertals," the "pre-Neandertals," or the "pre-sapiens," each possibly connected to the origins of the modern Europeans to some degree. A better definition of the Neandertals, and the reinterpretation of a range of European MP specimens, resulted in the conclusion that none of these fossils were actually connected to modern humans and that some of the non-metrical and metrical characteristics used to determine the Neandertal phenotype were already observed in Europe during the MP (2). The discovery of the extensive MP series of Sima de los Huesos (SH) (Atapuerca, Spain) (3) confirmed the long evolutionary history of this Western Eurasian lineage. However, debate continues over its exact date of differentiation as well as over various phylogenetic and taxonomic implications.
Neandertals lived in Western Eurasia below 55° N. latitude. Significantly, although they were present South of Haifa (Israel), none have been documented in North Africa. In the East, paleogenetic data demonstrate their presence as far as Southern Siberia (4). On its northern edge, this distribution represents what was the limit of the eco-geographical domain of humans in the Late MP and Early LP. This had important implications regarding the biological adaptations, landscape occupation pattern, and demography of the Neandertals. They were large-bodied hominins who required a higher energetic intake than most recent hunter gatherers (5, 6). All of the available isotopic studies suggest that their primary protein source was animal (7), and the archeological record provides us with an image of efficient hunters who focused on medium to large mammals for meat and fat. The range of environments in which they lived covered a variety of climates, most often cool or cold, but occasionally temperate. Although Neandertal body proportions are primarily explained as adaptations to climatic stress caused by cold temperatures (8), they might also be seen as resulting from technical limitations in responding to this stress. In fact, Neandertals seem limited in their ability to live on peri-arctic landscapes. During cold episodes such as OIS 6 and OIS 4, large portions of the European territory were abandoned and later recolonized (9, 10). Different estimates suggest that the Neandertal populations had very low densities and limited resilience (11). Archaeological, paleontological, and paleogenetic evidence also suggest that these changes in geographical distribution primarily resulted from local extinctions rather than from migration and habitat tracking (10).
Although virtually all of the classic osteometric measurements show some degree of overlap between Neandertals and modern humans, the global assessment of shape by geometric-morphometrics demonstrates a clear separation between the cranio-facial anatomy of the two groups (12). Morphologically, Neandertals postdating OIS 7 display a unique combination of non-metrical features and morphometric architecture that makes them easily distinguishable. Although the estimated time of separation between closely related species of apes, for example, Pan troglodytes and P. paniscus, is much longer than that of Neandertals and extant H. sapiens, the latter species display a greater shape distance. In addition to this large morphological distance, Neandertals seem to display less morphological variation than extant humans. Gunz et al. (13) have shown that these differences in overall variability are unrelated to the small size of the samples and suggest that modern humans displayed high levels of variability as far back as the Pleistocene. Similarly, Neandertal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variability is lower than that of extant humans and has a magnitude similar to the level observed in a large modern human population (14), both being significantly lower than those of great apes (14, 15). This suggests that different evolutionary processes were at work in Pleistocene humans and in their closest relatives. Drift, with the possible influence of cultural differentiation, might have been prevalent in humans (16, 17), while stabilizing selection would have played a major role in apes. Other differences between Neandertals and modern humans include brain shape (18), developmental patterns (19), obstetric features (20), and possibly life history (21). This has led many scholars to accept the species H. neanderthalensis as an operative paleontological species, distinct from H. sapiens. However, subspecific divisions have been also proposed (22).
Information about the separation of the lineages leading to H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis comes from the fields of human paleontology and and paleogenetics. However, it is important to stress that the genetic coalescence, population separation, and phenotypic differentiation of the two taxa represent chronologically distinct events. MtDNA from more than 15 Neandertals has been successfully sequenced, sometimes in totality, and provides estimates for the divergence date between H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis mtDNA lineages. The most recent estimate is at 660 ka ± 140 ka, based on a divergence time between 6 and 7 ma for humans and chimpanzees (23). Computations based on the autosomal genome have provided a coalescence time ca. 700 ka and a separation time for the population ca. 370 ka (24).
Crucial to the question of the separation process of the two lineages is the interpretation of the MP European fossil record. Most authors agree that the general cranio-facial architecture of the African and Western Eurasian MP hominins is quite similar, and includes a series of derived conditions relative to H. erectus sensu lato (s.l.). These features are mostly related to a higher degree of encephalization with various consequences, including a relatively higher cranial vault, a broader frontal and rounder posterior vault, and possibly a more flexed basicranium (25). Authors who emphasize quantitative approaches of the general cranial architecture assign all of the early and middle MP specimens from Africa and Europe to the paleospecies H. heidelbergensis (26–28). However, diverse assessments are made of additional endemic features reported in European specimens. It is important to underline that most of these endemic features are non-metrical. They encompass details of the infra-orbital and nasal area on the face (3), aspects of the mandibular morphology (29, 30), the occurrence of a well-defined suprainiac fossa above a bi-laterally protruding occipital torus (9, 31), and the frequent occurrence (F >60%) of non-metrical dental features such as the mid-trigonid crest on the lower molars, and asymmetrical lower Pm4 with a transverse crest (32, 33)(S. Bailey, personal communication) These features, which characterize later H. neanderthalensis, are unknown or very rare in contemporary MP African specimens. Among the metrical Neandertal apomorphies, the sagittally oriented face and the more inferiorly placed juxtamastoid eminence seem to also appear early in the European MP record (34).
Diverse dates have been proposed for population separation, development of phenotypic differences between the two lineages, and finally, species recognition. An early divergence hypothesis is mostly based on the interpretation and dating of the abundant collection of human remains from SH. This collection represents one of the most convincing pieces of evidence for the recognition of Neandertal apomorphies in the early MP of Europe. High resolution U-Series dates obtained on a speleothem said to postdate the specimens have provided an age of 600 + ∞ - 66 ka (35). If confirmed, this early date raises several issues. It is very close in time to most of the estimated times of coalescence provided by paleogenetics and would predate most of the estimates for the separation time of the populations, including estimates derived from neutrally evolving morphological measurements (36). For supporters of this hypothesis, the SH material and European specimens from as late as 300 ka are assigned to H. heidelbergensis, defined as an exclusively Eurasian chronospecies preceding H. neanderthalensis and excluding African MP hominins (Fig. 1A). One problem concerns the relationships between the SH material and older European hominins. A series of fragmentary specimens from the layer TD-6 (≈800 ka) of the Gran Dolina site at Atapuerca have been assigned to a new species, H. antecessor (37). Whether the denomination of this taxon, initially designated as a common ancestor of H. sapiens and H. neanderthalensis, is valid and to what extent this material represents a group distinct from contemporary African hominins is still debated (38, 39). Martinon-Torres et al. (33) have proposed that H. antecessor and the SH material displayed some continuity in their non-metrical dental features. This would push the differentiation of a Western Eurasian clade even further back in time. However, in recent publications, proponents of H. antecessor have suggested that it might display more affinities with the Asian H. erectus than with the later SH material (40). Another issue is related to the archaeological context. Although Acheulean industries appeared in Africa before 1.6 ma, they occurred for the first time in Europe between 600 and 500 ka. The simultaneity between the emergence of bifaces in Europe and the occurrence of similar forms of hominins on both sides of the Mediterranean can be seen as the likely result of an Out-of-Africa event, the Acheulean being imported into Europe by a new species of large-brained hominins. A date for the SH hominins displaying shared derived features with later Neandertals ca. 600 ka would imply that the phenotypic differentiation of the African and Western Eurasian population would immediately follow this migration.
Three evolutionary scenarios for the origin of the Neandertals: (A) depicts an early, (C) depicts a late, and (B) depicts an intermediate divergence time [modified from Rightmire (25)]. The marine 18O isotope record is indicated on the right of tree C (64). A biface on the chronological scales indicates the time of emergence of the Acheulean in Europe and a flake indicates the occurrence of fully developed Levallois debitage in Europe. Horizontal dashes indicate the limits of the Middle and Late Pleistocene.
An opposing hypothesis promotes a late divergence of the two lineages (Fig. 1B). In this view, H. heidelbergensis is seen as a homogeneous taxon represented in both Europe and Africa (26–28). If Chinese specimens are assigned to it (25), its spread may not be directly related to the diffusion of the Acheulean in Eurasia, as this assemblage did not expand into the Far East. In addition to anatomical evidence, archaeological arguments have been proposed in favor of the late divergence hypothesis. They mostly relate to the supposed synchronous emergence of the Levallois technique in Western Eurasia and Africa, ca. 300–250 ka. Exchanges between the two areas until this date would have allowed cultural diffusion and therefore gene flow. In this view, a European clade distinct from African contemporaries could have developed only later. An extreme version of the late separation hypothesis has been proposed involving the movement out of Africa of a new species of hominin (H. helmei) that would have carried the Levallois technology into Europe (41). The late divergence hypothesis is in agreement with the latest range of estimates for coalescence and deducted population separation times. One of its weaknesses is that it hardly deals with the occurrence of Neandertal apomorphies in European hominins predating 300 ka.
An intermediate hypothesis proposes that the population separation time occurred between 500 and 400 ka (Fig. 1C). The existence of endemic phenotypic features in Europe connecting many of the known MP hominins to the later H. neanderthalensis would simply result from this geographical and genetic segregation. The age of 400 ka is deduced from the occurrence of clear Neandertal synapomorphies on the Swanscombe (U.K.) skull, which was found in a terrace deposit assigned to OIS 11 (31). The specimen displays a clear suprainiac fossa with a bilateral protrusion of the occipital torus. In posterior view, its braincase shape is intermediate between the pentagonal outline observed in earlier hominins and the circular outline observed in the late Neandertals. This age matches most of the estimates for the coalescence and population separation times, as well as the archaeological evidence, with the exception of the Levallois technique development. However, proto-Levallois productions existed in Europe before OIS 8. The best known and oldest example is represented at Cagny La Garenne (France), in the late OIS 12 (42), and consists of thin flakes extracted from broken handaxes. A later example is provided by the prepared cores from Purfleet (U.K.), dating to OIS stage 9/8 (43). These observations strongly suggest that the Levallois technique is embedded into the development of the Acheulean package. It is significant that the Levallois debitage primarily developed within the geographical domain of the Acheulean. Therefore, the development of Levallois techniques with specific regional features could be seen as independent and parallel processes in a vast geographical area (43). In any case, the existence of proto-Levallois assemblages in Europe is inconsistent with the hypothesis of a late introduction by a hypothetical migrant (41). Such a scheme would inevitably result in the rapid appearance of this technique, comparable to that of an advanced Acheulean earlier during the MP.
According to the accretion model (9, 45), changes along the sequence of the Western Eurasian clade mostly resulted from a shift in the frequency of non-metrical features already occasionally observed in early MP large-brained European hominins.* Eventually, these features were fixed in late H. neanderthalensis, primarily through a process of drift and random fixation. In parallel, changes in the cranial architecture occurred in relation to a growing degree of encephalization. This increase in the degree of encephalization, like the reduction of the posterior dentition, likely resulted from selective pressures similar to those at work in the lineage leading to H. sapiens. However they followed a different pathway and did not result in a more globular brain overhanging a retracted face but, instead, maintained a more primitive pattern of cranio-facial architecture (49). In this model, there would be no clear divide between H. heidelbergensis (however it is defined) and H. neanderthalensis.
The main difficulty in comparing and testing these two models relates to the incomplete and discontinuous nature of the fossil record. In the middle of the MP, a group of specimens currently assigned to H. heidelbergensis (s.l. or s.s.) is dominated by the overwhelming series from SH, to which most authors would add the Mauer (Germany) mandible, the Tautavel (France) series, and the Petralona (Greece) skull. The Swanscombe skull, dated around 400 ka, has often been assigned to the same taxon, although it displays rather derived conditions. At the other end of the chronological span of the Eurasian clade, an abundant series of Neandertal remains has been described from OIS 5. Between OIS 10 and 6, fewer specimens have been discovered, sometimes creating the illusion of a morphological gap. The very fragmentary nature of the specimens from Vertésszöllös (Hungary), and Bilzingsleben (Germany), make them difficult to assess. The gracile and distorted skull from Steinheim (Germany), likely from OIS 9, is reminiscent of Swanscombe. The possibly subcontemporary (?) specimen from Reilingen (Germany) displays even clearer Neandertal synapomorphies. The specimens assigned to OIS 7 from Ehringsdorf-Weimar (Germany) and Biache (France) are clearly identifiable as Neandertals.
Different processes of relative or total isolation of the Eurasian and African lineages underlie these two models. Reliable evidence of European hominins predating 1 ma is found in the Mediterranean regions (50, 51). The lithic assemblage of the Cromer Forest Formation at Pakefield (U.K.) is attributed to an interglacial from around 700 ka (52) but there were hardly any continuous populations north of the Alps before the middle of the MP (53). Until then, exchanges between Europe and Africa were very limited, as demonstrated by the absence of the Acheulean in Europe until 600 ka. A second main colonization episode hypothesized around this date coincided with and may be explained by major environmental changes. The "Middle Pleistocene Revolution" is centered around 600 ka and is characterized by an increase in the amplitude and length of alternating warmer and colder climatic stages (Fig. 1) as well as major changes in the sedimentation regime in the North Atlantic (54). OIS 16 represented the first major glaciation in Europe, with an ice sheet extension reaching south of 50° latitude in Eastern Europe (55). It was followed by a long and marked interglacial (OIS 15), during which full-interglacial conditions prevailed longer than during any preceding interglaciation. OIS 15 may have played an important role in the (re-)colonization of the middle latitudes of Europe. Interestingly, the earliest hominin fossil found in Europe north of the Alps (the type specimen of H. heidelbergensis itself, i.e., the Mauer mandible), could be assigned to this stage (G. Wagner, personal communication). Between 470 ka and 360 ka, the succession of OIS 12 and 11 represented one of the largest glacial/interglacial fluctuations in the Pleistocene (55, 56). In particular, as one of the most pronounced and longest interglacials of the MP, OIS 11 provides the best future analogy for the Holocene (57).
During long, severe, and climatically unstable glacial periods, the geography of Europe was markedly modified. In relation to the extension of the icecap and permafrost areas, the continental plates were largely emerged. In Eastern and Central Europe, the climate became a great deal more continental and human population sizes severely decreased (58). In the East, an influx of a large fluvio-glacial system caused the Caspian Sea to double in size and reach up to 50° north, while large glaciers developed on the Caucasus. Population movements between Europe, Central Asia, and the Near East were reduced, and the inhabitable areas in the West were also depleted (9, 10). During the MP, these episodes of periodic isolation and demographic crashes likely resulted in genetic bottlenecks and drift effects explaining the divergence of the Western Eurasian clade, as well as the lower morphological and mtDNA variability observed in late Neandertals (14). In this view, fluctuations of the geographical domains of the Neandertals and specifically, extensions into the Levant or toward Central Asia or Southern Siberia would have been primarily driven by environmental constraints. The lack of deep mtDNA divergence between Central Asian and Western European Neandertals (4) is consistent with a short separation time, and a late colonization or recolonization of the easternmost parts of the Neandertal range.
There is no clear indication that one climatic change alone played a primary role in the emergence of H. neanderthalensis, as expected in the "two-phases" model. It has been proposed that OIS 6 could have been catalytic in the evolution of full blown Neandertal features (59). However, this is contradicted by specimens such as Biache 1, which demonstrate that most of the braincase morphology of H. neanderthalensis was already established at the end of OIS 7 (60). The fossil record suggests that the cold episode(s) that triggered the process of divergence of the Neandertal clade most likely predates OIS 11.
In assessing the different hypotheses and models discussed above, it is important to provide an evolutionary scenario that is as consistent as possible with the paleontological evidence, the paleogenetic data, and the archaeological record. As already discussed, a hypothesis of very early divergence of the Western Eurasian and African clades could be difficult to accommodate to some genetic data. However, it is important to recall that estimates of genetic coalescence time and deduced population separation times are based on a number of assumptions and are associated with very large confidence intervals. Furthermore, although they have raised new questions and problems (39), recent reinterpretations of H. antecessor that posit a phase of population recolonization of Europe between H. antecessor and H. heidelbergensis (61) have reconciled the paleontological and archaeological evidence. The main problem with Scenarios A and B, presented in Fig. 1, lies in the difficulty of proposing operational diagnoses that would clearly assign all of the European MP specimens (and not only the earliest and latest range of the fossil record) to either H. heidelbergensis (s.l. or s.s.) or H. neanderthalensis. To date, the species paradigms proposed with the various definitions of H. heidelbergensis are not able to properly deal with the European specimens met between OIS 11 and 6.
The European fossil and climatic records provide more support for the accretion model than for the "two-phases" model. From a cladistic point of view, the accretion model implies that H. neanderthalensis should be pushed as far back in time as derived features used in the diagnosis of later Neandertals are observed (Fig. 1C). In this scenario, the main difference between Africa and Europe lies in the fact that morphological evolution has been more spectacular in the African clade, with a likely speciation event at the origin of H. sapiens. However, similar discussions occurred regarding the taxonomy of the MP African record (62). Although the scenarios previously discussed here relate to different taxonomic choices, it should also be underlined that they are not so distant in terms of evolutionary history. Scenario B emphasizes the symplesiomorphic heritage of the MP hominins from Africa and Western Eurasia and regards the differences observed between the two areas as an effect of geographical ("racial") variations with little taxonomic value. In this regard, H. heidelbergensis s.l. could be seen as a "stem group," difficult to distinguish from its direct descendents in Europe. Scenarios A and C emphasize the role of these variations in the taxonomic assignment of the available fossil material, but one cannot overlook the similarities between the initial stages of the Western Eurasian clade and its African counterpart (34).
From a nomenclature point of view, a main difficulty results from the very nature of the type specimen of H. heidelbergensis. The Mauer mandible is essentially primitive and not directly associated with any cranial material. This situation has allowed for the development of the two current concepts of H. heidelbergensis (Fig. 1 A and B). However, both are based on anatomical definitions mostly or exclusively derived from cranial but not mandibular features and are therefore hardly applicable to their proposed type specimen, which, from this point of view, might well be an incertae sedis. Because of the fragmentary nature of the Mauer specimen and the ambiguity of most mandibular remains (30), on a strict anatomical ground, it is (and may always be) difficult to establish whether this specimen predated or postdated the beginning of the accretion of Neandertal features. An alternative model, which also resolves the nomenclatural issue, recognizes African large-brained hominins preceding the emergence of H. sapiens as "Homo rhodesiensis." Such a taxonomy, which has also been proposed by supporters of Scenario A, has the advantage of relying on a very complete type specimen, the Kabwe (Zambia) skull (63), on which most of the definitions of "H. heidelbergensis" as a Afro-European taxon are, in fact, based. This terminology also underlines the geographical origin and main distribution of the taxon. However, in this view H. rhodesiensis must have occurred at least briefly in Western Eurasia at the root of the oldest forms of H. neanderthalensis and in relation to the expansion of the Acheulean domain.
I thank R. G. Klein, who invited me to contribute this article to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences' special feature; C. Rowney, S. Tüpke, and S. Neubauer who helped me in the preparation of this paper; and E. Delson, S. Bailey, T. Weaver, and an anonymous reviewer provided helpful comments.
Author contributions: J.-J.H. wrote the paper.
↵* Hawks and Wolpoff (46) have criticized this model on the basis of a statistical test. Among other problems, this test does not address the non-metrical features on which the accretion model was primarily established. It also combines two incompatible mathematical models: one (47) that addresses variance in the phenotypic means of groups connected by gene flow and in a state of equilibrium, and a second (48) that assesses a "scaled" square of generalized genetic distance, based on a model for splitting populations not connected by gene flow and not in equilibrium.
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Type Language Publication Year Top Authors Research Units Collaborators Open access
228,700 - 228,750 out of 244,291 results
Assessing the value of a marketing internship program from a business, student and educational perspective
Powell, I. & Lyons, T., 1997, p. 604 - 605. 2 p.
Research output: Contribution to conference › Abstract › Other
Assessment of a number of new alinidine analogues for Katp channel polyoxometalates
Watkins, O. F. & McPherson, G. A., 1997, p. 68 - 68. 1 p.
Assessment of childhood phobias
King, N. J., Ollendick, T. H. & Murphy, G. C., 1997, In : Clinical Psychology Review. p. 667 - 687 21 p.
Assessment of systemic lupus erythematosus disease activity by medical record review compared with direct standardized evaluation
Wluka, A. E., Liang, M. H., Partridge, A. J., Fossel, A. H., Wright, E. A., Lew, R. A. & Karlson, E. W., 1 Jan 1997, In : Arthritis and Rheumatism. 40, 1, p. 57-61 5 p.
Assessment of the agreement between cardiac output measured by bolus thermodilution and continuous methods, with particular reference to the effect of heart rhythm
Boyle, M., Jacobs, S., Torda, T. A. & Shehabi, Y., 1 Mar 1997, In : Australian Critical Care. 10, 1, p. 5-11 7 p.
Assisted fertilisation and subsequent embryo development to form embryos for captive and endangered field species
Pushett, D., Gunn, I. & Trounson, A. O., 1997, p. 21 - 31. 11 p.
Research output: Contribution to conference › Other › Other
Assisting non-English speaking background postgraduate engineering students write literature reviews: Issues for supervisors
Moodie, J., 1997, Proceedings of the 9th Annual Convention: Putting Students Back into Engineering Education. University of Ballarat Ballarat Australia: Australasian Association for Engineering Education (AAEE), p. 62 - 65 4 p.
Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference Paper › Research › peer-review
Association between HIV distal symmetric polyneuropathy and Mycobacterium avium complex infection.
Woolley, I., Faragher, M. & Spelman, D., Oct 1997, In : Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry. 63, 4, p. 557 1 p.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Comment / Debate › Other › peer-review
Association between task performance and tender point pain threshold to pressure in normal subjects
Farrell, J. & Littlejohn, G. O., 7 Jan 1997, In : Journal of Musculoskeletal Pain. 5, 1, p. 19-47 29 p.
Association of adult glioma with medical conditions, family and reproductive history
Cicuttini, F. M., Hurley, S. F., Forbes, A. B., Donnan, G. A., Salzberg, M., Giles, G. G. & McNeil, J. J., 1997, In : International Journal of Cancer. p. 203 - 207 5 p.
Association of the T-cell protein tyrosine phosphatase with nuclear import factor p97
Tiganis, T., Flint, A. J., Adam, S. A. & Tonks, N. K., 22 Aug 1997, In : Journal of Biological Chemistry. 272, 34, p. 21548-21557 10 p.
Assurance Services and the Profession
Gay, G. E. & Schelluch, P., 1997, In : CPA Communique. p. 1 - 4 4 p.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Other
ASTA Components
Truter, J., 1997, The Best Practice Experience, Vol 3. Melbourne Vic Australia: Pitman, p. 1 - 29 29 p.
Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Chapter (Book) › Research › peer-review
A statement on higher education policy in Australia
Korb, K. B., Kopp, C. & Allison, L., 1997, Melbourne Vic Australia: Monash University. 20 p.
Research output: Book/Report › Book › Other
A statistical overview of standard (IUPAC and ACS) and new procedures for determining the limits of detection and quantification: Application to voltammetric and stripping techniques
Mocak, J., Bond, A. M., Mitchell, S. & Scollary, G., 1997, In : Pure and Applied Chemistry. p. 297 - 328 32 p.
Asthetik, Pragmatik und Geschichte der Bildschirmmedien
Heinze, H., 1997, Siegen Germany: Universitat-GH. 79 p.
Research output: Book/Report › Edited Book › Other
A stochastic method to assess life cycle performance
Li, C. Q., 1997, Mechanics of Structures and Materials. Rotterdam Netherland: A A Balkema, p. 193 - 198 6 p.
A stormwater gross pollutant trap using a deflective system
Wong, T. H., Wootton, R. M. & Fabian, D., 1997, In : Australian Journal of Water Resources. p. 23 - 27 5 p.
A strategy for the detection and management of hepatitis C in Australia
Reed, W., Batey, R., Mead, C., Penman, A., Watson, K., Steven, I., Catton, M., Gowans, E., Roben, A., Wylie, B., Crofts, N., Doherty, R. R., Harvey, B. & Brady, C., 1997, Canberra ACT Australia: Australian Government Publishing Service. 83 p.
A structural model for GroEL-polypeptide recognition
Buckle, A. M., Zahn, R. & Fersht, A. R., 15 Apr 1997, In : Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 94, 8, p. 3571-3575 5 p.
A Study in Competitive Strategy, Organisational Innovation and Organisational Performance among Australian Manufacturing Companies
Yamin, S., Mavondo, F. T., Gunasekaran, A. & Sarros, J., 1997, In : International Journal of Production Economics. p. 161 - 172 12 p.
A study in Experimental Evaluation of Neural Network and Genetic Algorithm Techniques for Knowledge Acquisiton in Fuzzy Classification Systems
Jagielska, I., Matthews, C. & Whitford, T., 1997, Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Conference on Neural Networks. USA: IEEE, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 2364 - 2368 5 p.
A study into the influence of inflow characteristics on the detention period of stormwater pollutants in ponds
Fabian, D. & Wong, T. H., 1997, 24th Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium Proceedings. Auckland NZ: New Zealand Hydrological Society, p. 25 - 30 6 p.
A study of antimitochondrial antibodies in a random population in Estonia
Turchany, J. M., Uibo, R. D., Kivik, T., Van de Water, J., Prindiville, T., Coppel, R. L. & Gershwin, M. E., 1997, In : American Journal of Gastroenterology. p. 124 - 126 3 p.
A study of casual discovery with weak links and small samples
Dai, H., Korb, K. B., Wallace, C. S. & Wu, X., 1997, Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence. San Francisco USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, p. 1304 - 1309 6 p.
A study of causal discovery with weak links and small samples
Dai, H., Korb, K. B., Wallace, C. S. & Wu, X., 1997, Melbourne Vic Australia: Monash University. 6 p.
A Study of Competitive Strategy, Organisational Innovation and Organisational Performance among Australian manufacturing companies
A study of drying characteristics of foods using a thermogravimetric analyser
May, B. K., Shanks, R. A., Sinclair, A. J., Halmos, A. L. & Tran, V. N., 1 Dec 1997, In : Food Australia. 49, 5, p. 218-220 3 p.
A Study of Pore Closure and Welding Using Lead as a Model Material
Wang, A., Thomson, P. F. & Hodgson, P. D., 1997, p. 1241 - 1247. 7 p.
A study of potential risk factors for sexual abuse in childhood
Fleming, J., Mullen, P. & Bammer, G., 1997, In : Child Abuse and Neglect. p. 49 - 58 10 p.
A study of resident's perceptions of road based traffic noise on the South Eastern Freeway, Malvern
Daly, P. & Callaghan, S., 1997, p. 1 - 17. 17 p.
A study of ruptured tubal ectopic pregnancy (multiple letters)
Mol, B. W., Van der Veen, F., Tulandi, T., Falcone, T. & Mascha, E. J., 29 Oct 1997, In : Obstetrics and Gynecology. 90, 5, p. 866-867 2 p.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Letter › Other › peer-review
A study of the active sites of the mesoporous molecular sieve MCM-41 and related zeolitic materials by using Fourier-Transform I.R., continuous-wave E.S.R. and pulsed E.S.R. spectroscopic probes
Lim, Y-Y., Maclachlan, D. J., Smith, T. D., Jamis, J., Pilbrow, J. R. & Song, R., 1997, In : Australian Journal of Chemistry. 50, 1, p. 53 - 60 8 p.
A study of the properties of -Fe2O3-based gas sensitive material
Yu, A., 1997, In : Journal of the Australasian Ceramic Society.
A Study of the Southern Ocean Marine Aerosol Using a Multi-Stage Impactor
Hooper, M. A., Cainey, J. M. & Ayers, G. P., 1997, p. 87 - 99. 13 p.
A study on the importance of dependent radiative effects in determining the spectral and total emittance of particulate ash deposits in pulverised fuel fired furnaces
Bhattacharya, S. P., Wall, T. F. & Arduini-Schuster, M., 1 Jan 1997, In : Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification. 36, 6, p. 423-432 10 p.
A supramolecular approach to the crystallization of polynuclear aqausions: Structure and megnetism of an 18 - crown -6 adduct of [(H20)4Cr(m-OH)2Cr(H20)4]-mesitylene sulfonate hydrate
Drljaca, A., Hockless, D. C. R., Moubaraki, B., Murray, K. S. & Spiccia, L., 1997, In : Inorganic Chemistry. p. 1988 - 1989 2 p.
A supramolecular approach to the crystallization of polynuclear aquaions: Structure and magnestism of an 18 - crown -6 adduct of bis(m - hydroxo)octaaquadichromium(III) mesitylene - 2 - sulfonate trihydrate
A Survey of Internet Strategies for EDI
Mak, H. C. & Johnston, R. B., 1997, Proceedings of the 1st Annual CollECTeR Workshop on Electronic Commerce. Hawthorn Vic Australia: The Centre for Information Systems Research, p. 126 - 141 16 p.
A survey of machine learning
Dai, H., 1997, Melbourne Vic Australia: Monash University. 47 p.
A survey of visual language specification and recognition
Marriott, K., Meyer, B. & Wittenburg, K., 1997, Melbourne Vic Australia: Monash University. 62 p.
A survey on the diagnosis and management of asthma in young children
Kourdoulis, D. & Schattner, P., 1997, In : Australian Family Physician. p. S71 - S75 5 p.
A survey to evaluate patient satisfaction after hormone tracking with inhibin-A compared to HCG after tubal preservation procedures for women with ectopi pregnancies
Mamers, P., D'Antona, D., Lowe, P. J., Balazs, N. D., Miach, P. & Wallace, E. M., 1997, p. 14 - 14. 1 p.
A switch in the cellular localization of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in rat testis after ethane dimethane sulfonate treatment
Meinhardt, A., Bacher, M., McFarlane, J. R., Mallidis, C., Lehmann, C., Metz, C. N., de Kretser, D. M., Bucala, R. & Hedger, M., 1997, p. 35 - 36. 2 p.
A Switch to Reduce SPH Viscosity
Morris, J. P. & Monaghan, J. J., 1997, In : Journal of Computational Physics. p. 41 - 50 10 p.
Asymmetric Extension During the Mount Isa Rift Event
Betts, P. G. & Lister, G. S., 1997, p. 102 - 104. 3 p.
Michalik, G. & Mielczarski, W., 1997, Quality of electricity supply & management of network losses. Melbourne Vic Australia: Energy Optimal Solutions, p. 189 - 216 28 p.
Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Chapter (Book) › Other
Asymptotic bias and variance of a kernel-based estimator for the location of a discontinuity
Koch, I. & Pope, A., 1 Jan 1997, In : Journal of Nonparametric Statistics. 8, 1, p. 45-64 20 p.
Asymptotic Enumeration of Convex Polygons
Stark, D. & Wormald, N. C., Nov 1997, In : Journal of Combinatorial Theory. Series A. 80, 2, p. 196-217 22 p.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Free movement of labour - Holness urges greater cooperation within CARICOM
Published:Thursday | November 16, 2017 | 12:00 AMEdmond Campbell
Rudolph Brown
Prime Minister Andrew Holness addressing the IMF High Level Caribbean Forum yesterday.
Prime Minister Andrew Holness has said that the threat that climate change poses to Caribbean countries should spur regional leaders to work towards greater cooperation among states across the region.
Speaking yesterday at the sixth High Level Caribbean Forum, held at The Jamaica Pegasus hotel in New Kingston, Holness said that there was a tendency for regional states to focus on the free movement of goods without making a connection with the free movement of labour.
"It becomes a particular concern when viewed against the backdrop of natural disasters. Can you imagine a sustained fallout in our sister islands? How will those economies recover if there is not a mechanism to allow the free movement of labour, even temporarily, to help in the recovery and relief efforts?" Holness questioned.
He said that after the recent impacts of Hurricanes Irma and Maria, many students from some countries in the Eastern Caribbean had to complete their studies in sister Caribbean territories that had not been affected.
"It is this capacity for our respective economies and countries to open our societies, open our schools, that will give us, collectively, the ability to respond to disasters and crises," he added.
Turning to significant threats posed to the region in the form of organised crime, the international narcotics trade, and the smuggling of arms, the prime minister said that the time had come for Caribbean countries to change their approach to how they protected their borders.
"We have to police the Caribbean Sea border as if it were one country and not several countries trying to police their own borders." He suggested that this approach would require increased collaboration on security matters for the region.
edmond.campbell@gleanerjm.com
«'Exceptionally outstanding' - Jelani Munroe named 2018 Rhodes Scholar
No Tax Haven - Caribbean leaders toughen stance on sweetheart deals, concessions»
Small steps, right direction - IMF applauds Jamaica's efforts to boost SMEs
Wage warning - IMF reiterates concerns about the Government's delay in settling public sector issues
IMF boss insists public sector trimming necessary in Jamaica
Crime strangling growth - Youth unemployment in Caribbean highest in world, fuelling criminality


RICHMOND, Va. — Every day is a day down memory lane for Barbara Given.
Bryce Given (right) helped Barbara start Spotlight Gelato Cafe. He died at age 52 in March 2015 of cancer.
Click here to contiue reading on RichmondBizSense.


Dr. Jeffrey Junig, MD, PhD is a psychiatrist practicing in northeast Wisconsin, in recovery from opioid dependence. He is Board Certified in both Psychiatry and Anesthesiology and holds a PhD in Neuroscience. He writes about buprenorphine at Suboxone Talk Zone, and manages a forum for patients taking buprenorphine called SuboxForum.
How does Suboxone work in the brain?
How does buprenorphine block opiates?
How does Suboxone make you feel?
Does Suboxone cause weight gain or loss?
Does Suboxone (buprenorphine) treat pain?


The Coast to Coast is one of the most magnificent walks you could find anywhere. It covers 192 miles from St. Bees on the Cumbrian coast to Robin Hood's Bay in Yorkshire. Fully two thirds of the route is inside the National Parks of the Lake District, Yorkshire Dales, and North York Moors. This 13-night itinerary is an ideal span for this trip; it allows comfortable walking distances and leaves you to really enjoy this truly memorable long distance footpath.
Day 4 - Rosthwaite to Patterdale: Another amazing mountain day awaits you as you pass through some of the most dramatic mountain scenery Britain has to offer. There are two serious ascents today. The first heads up Greenup Gill to the watershed between High Raise and Ullscarf, 608m above sea level, before descending back down to the valley near Grasmere. The second ascends Tongue Gill where you can admire the wonderful views of Lake Grasmere and the Langdale Pikes behind you before heading over the top and down to Grisedale Tarn. This little lake, nestled in a glaciated corrie, is the perfect place to pause and appreciate the splendour of the mountains. From here, the route descends beneath Nethermost Pike to the village of Patterdale. 24km (14.9ft) and 1030m (3378ft) of ascent.
Day 5 – Patterdale to Shap: The last of the Lake District days. The route ascends steeply towards Angle Tarn with outstanding retrospective views of yesterday's walk. Ullswater lies to the north and green fields lie peacefully in the valley below. From the top of Kidsty Pike, the lowlands come into view as the scenery changes from craggy mountains to limestone dales. Enjoy quiet solitude walking along the shores of Haweswater (a reservoir serving Manchester) before crossing through fields via Shap Abbey, the last abbey to be founded in 1199 and the last to be destroyed in 1540, to the village of Shap. 25km (15.5ft) and 762m (2499ft) of ascent.
Day 6 – Shap to Kirkby Stephen: There is an invigorating sense of freedom as you experience the wide open moorland upon leaving Shap and embark on the next leg of the journey. Spot prehistoric ruins, limestone pavement and moorland birds and take one last look back to enjoy the final sweeping views of the Lakeland Fells. The highlights are Sunbiggin Tarn, an important site for birds and Smardale Fell, where you get a great views down into Scandale Beck and towards the imposing Smardale Viaduct. The day ends in the attractive market town of Kirkby Stephen, where you can see the 8th Century Loki Stone relating to Norse mythology which is located in the church yard. 33.1km (20.6 miles) and 270m (886ft) of ascent.
Day 7 – Kirkby Stephen to Keld: Leaving the hustle of Kirkby Stephen you head into the Yorkshire Dales National Park. Arriving at the top of Nine Standards Rigg is a cause for celebration as you have now crossed the watershed of Britain, the point at which water either flows west to the Irish Sea or east to the North Sea. The top is strewn with an array of huge imposing stone cairns and commands far-reaching views over the Pennines. No-one is sure of the origin or purpose of these structures, leaving you to come up with your own theories. The route becomes increasingly gentle as you descend past spectacular waterfalls to the village of Keld, roughly the mid-way point of the Coast to Coast. 23km (14.3 miles) and 520m (1706ft) of ascent.
Day 8 – Keld to Reeth: Waterfalls and wild flowers make this a particularly special walk. Following the course of the River Swale, there are waterfalls around every corner as the river cuts its way through the creamy limestone cliffs. Dotted along the way are flower-filled meadows and traditional barns. Keep an eye out for evidence of the valley's industrial heritage. Your destination is Reeth, a delightful village with a variety of tea shops surrounding a village green. The village grew into a thriving settlement in the 18th Century built upon its reputation for hand-knitted woollens and the lead-mining industry. (11.8 miles) and 130m (426ft) of ascent.
Day 9 – Reeth to Richmond: The River Swale is never far away on this pleasant walk from Reeth to Richmond. Enjoy wooded glades, a 12th Century Benedictine priory at Marrick and two quiet villages as the route makes its way into the historic town of Richmond. Worth a visit is the impressive Norman keep which would have been a formidable fortress standing on a hill surrounded by the river. The name Richmond means 'strong hill' and comes from the French riche mont. 17.5km (10.9 miles) and 340m (1115ft) of ascent.
Day 10 – Richmond to Osmotherley: Today's walk is predominantly through farmland as you leave the Yorkshire Dales National Park and enter the North York Moors. Walking on quiet lanes and across fields, there are charming villages and intriguing buildings to stop and admire. Kilpin Hall is an excellent example of Jacobian architecture and Mount Grace Priory, located just before Osmotherley is the most important and best preserved example of a Carthusian Monastery in England. 38.8km (24.1 miles) and 295m (968ft) of ascent.
Day 11 – Osmotherley to Great Broughton: From Osmotherley, the route is joined by two other long distance footpaths, the Cleveland Way and the Lyke Wake Walk. Enjoy wonderful walking along a sandstone escarpment via Carleton Bank, the site of a Bronze Age burial mound at Cringle Moor, the Wainstones and Clay Bank finally descending down to our accommodation at the foot of the escarpment. The heather-clad moors and views back across the patchwork of fields make a great contrast to the previous day's walking. 21km (13.0 miles) and 600m (1968ft) of ascent.
Day 12 – Great Broughton to Glaisdale: The walk today crosses bleak wind-swept moors and follows the route of an old dismantled railway as it winds across the moor following the contours to the Lion Inn on the top of Blakey Ridge, a welcome pub located miles from anywhere. The wild expanses are uplifting and atmospheric with the curlews and sheep for company and further ahead is your first glimpse of the sea. From here the route descends following the ridge into Glaisdale. 31km (19.3 miles) and 400m (1312ft) of ascent.
Day 13 – Glaisdale to Robin Hood's Bay: What a walk to finish the Coast to Coast. You walk through wooded valleys beside the River Esk and past the famous North York Moors Railway in Grosmont before arriving at the sea. You're not quite there yet as there is still a short walk along the cliffs to the finishing point in the village of Robin Hood's Bay. As you arrive in the village and dip your boots in the surf, you're filled with a strange mix of emotions. On one hand you feel incredible triumph and sense of achievement at what you have accomplished and on the other a sense of sadness that the walk has come to an end. 32km (19.9 miles) and 510m (1673ft) of ascent.


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Feature-belt
Viral video captures four William Allen High School students helping elderly man
While adults deal with budget woes in the Allentown School District, some William Allen High School students are hoping a good deed changes opinions about them and their classmates.
A gesture of goodwill was caught on video and now it's going viral.
Four William Allen high school students were helping an elderly man down Hamilton Street in Allentown last Friday.
The students say that's after a stranger asked them to help.
"A lady comes to us and she is like 'can you watch that man over there,' and we see the man in a distance," Makayla Ward of Allentown said.
"We saw him walking at a steady pace for a second and then he looked like he was staggering a little bit. He was holding on to things," Jose Cerda said.
"We went up to him, asked him did he need help. He said yeah," Lashante Smith said.
A passerby started recording video.
The students say they eventually had to sit the man down and wait for an ambulance to come.
They also didn't expect the video of them helping another person to be viewed hundreds of times on Facebook.
"I don't think this was going to be such a big deal, we just did what anyone should do," Cerda said.
It is a big deal because school administrators say it shows the change in the Allen community.
"It makes me proud, it makes the community proud. That's the way to lift people up, that's what we are all about," said William Allen High School Principal Shannon Mayfield.
The students hope this will start to change the way people look at their classmates.
"There's actually good kids at Allen that you actually can depend on," Ward said.
They still don't know who the man is, even though he called them. They hope it's the same anyone would do for another person in need.
Coca-Cola Park to stay cashless for 2022 season
Local retailer finalizes sale of Saucon Valley entertainment venue
Berks ARL brings in nearly $20,000 with 'Betty White Challenge'
Fred Beans Automotive Group donates $27,500 to hunger-fighting organizations
Skiers hit the slopes at Bear Creek Mountain Resort after weekend storm
Rajah Shrine Circus canceled for spring, maybe permanently


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Symphony #4 in c-sharp, Op 21 | Magnard, Alberic
Home | Programs | Dame Myra Hess Memorial Concerts | Brian Lam [Rebroadcast]
Brian Lam [Rebroadcast]
This is a rebroadcast from June 19, 2019.
Pianist Brian Lam performs works by Chopin, Schubert, and Liszt live from the Chicago Cultural Center in this week's Dame Myra Hess Memorial Concert broadcast.
Hailed by pianist Claude Frank as "a superbly talented young pianist," Brian Lam has performed at numerous concert venues around the globe. He has recently claimed the First Prize at the Hong Kong International Concerto Festival Competition, where he performed Rachmaninoff's Second Concerto with the Hong Kong Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra. In 2017, he was named a finalist at the First VIVO-S International Music Competition, a Second-Prize winner at the New York International Artist Association Piano Competition and a Gold Medalist at the Philadelphia Young Classical Virtuoso International Piano Competition. Other notable achievements include winning First Prizes at the 2016 American Protégé International Concerto Competition (Professional Category) and at the 2014 Brooklyn College Concerto Competition, performing Chopin's E minor concerto under the baton of George Rothman.
In 2011, Lam was granted a full scholarship to the International Keyboard Institute and Festival at the Mannes College of Music. He also appeared at the Hudson PianoFest at Nyack College of Music in 2015. He has played at Steinway Halls in London & New York, Weill Recital Hall at Carnegie Hall, Merkin Concert Hall at the Kaufmann Music Center, the DiMenna Center for Classical Music in New York, Kimmel Center in Philadelphia, Hong Kong City Hall, etc. His current concert season highlight includes a guest artist piano recital and masterclass sponsored by the Nyack College School of Music, a recital on the Dame Myra Hess Memorial Concert Series and a solo debut recital at Carnegie Hall.
Lam holds Bachelor and Master of Music degrees in Piano Performance (summa cum laude) from Brooklyn College, City University of New York. His principal mentors are William Wolfram and Dr. Adam Kent. He has also worked with world-renowned musicians: Sergei Babayan, Claude Frank, Gabriel Kwok, Jerome Lowenthal, Alexander Moutouzkine, Ursula Oppens, HaeSun Park and Nelita True.
Besides actively performing, Lam is also a revered educator in the piano community. Lam has been invited to give piano masterclasses in Hong Kong and in New York. He has been an official Steinway Educational Partner since August 2018 and currently holds a private piano studio in Brooklyn, New York. In addition to teaching, Lam serves as the Music Director and Organist of the Homecrest Presbyterian Church in Brooklyn, where he provides music for weekly worship services.
Nocturne in C Minor, Op. 48, No. 1, by Frédéric Chopin
Three Klavierstücke, D. 946, by Franz Schubert
Allegro assai
Mephisto Waltz No. 1, S. 514, by Franz Liszt
Dave Schwan hosts a number of programs for WFMT including live broadcasts from Dame Myra Hess Memorial Concerts and the Grant Park Music Festival. Dave is also the Sunday morning news anchor at WGN radio, and can be heard around town singing in different choruses and giving pre-concert lectures. He plays classical and jazz trombone. A native of Highland, Indiana, Dave grew up listening to WFMT and attending concerts around the Chicago area.


The selection on the Epic Store is tiny compared with Steam, but the company is offering compelling freebies (it currently promises one free title every two weeks). Axiom Verge is a retro-inspired side-scroller that takes inspiration from the likes of Metroid and Castlevania. The game launched in 2015 on Steam and has "very positive" reviews. It usually costs around $20, but it's free on Epic's store until later this month.


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Ukrainian government vows more military action against separatists
Fredrick Kunkle, Michael Birnbaum and Abigail Hauslohner
DONETSK, Ukraine — The Ukrainian government vowed to push ahead Wednesday with military operations against pro-Russian separatists in the embattled east of the country after a big show of strength routing rebels from this city's international airport.
Petro Poroshenko, Ukraine's president-elect, said the "anti-terrorist operation" against the rebels, whom he has likened to Somali pirates, "has finally really begun." In an interview with Germany's Bild newspaper, Poroshenko, 48, said he was in close contact with the Ukrainian interim government in Kiev.
Ukraine's military on Tuesday used Soviet-era fighter jets and attack helicopters to pound rebels and retake Donetsk's Sergei Prokofiev International Airport. The rebels, who said they suffered a heavy loss of life in the two-day operation, had seized the airport, the nation's second-largest, in this eastern city on Monday, a day after Ukraine's presidential and mayoral elections.
Poroshenko, one of Ukraine's richest tycoons, convincingly won the May 25 presidential election in the first round. He said after his victory that he wants to pursue talks with Russian President Vladimir Putin, although he accused Russia of instigating the violence in the east.


Listen to this wonderful podcast of Rev. Frank L. Hoffman's session on Veganpalooza 2012 with hosts Will Tuttle and Steve Prusack.
Rev. Hoffman talks about the importance of why churches, who say they are based on God's love, don't stop hardening people's heart so they have little or no empathy for animals, and continue to promote animal suffering through church-sponsored hunting, fish killing, and church events where the meals are the tortured remains of animals, who are all served and promoted to the detriment of the animals and their parishioners' health.