Here's an interactive 3D tour of our hike down Hermit Trail that Tim put together in Google Earth. You can watch the entire movie from beginning to end, or you can use the controls to move around yourself. You can pause the movie and click on the small pink dots to see more about our experience at the different locations along the trail.


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Philosophers' Seminar 2021: The Legal Effect of Code-Driven 'Law'?
Photo by Elena Gordienko
Philosophers' Seminar 2021: The Legal Effect of Code-Driven 'Law'?
What is COHUBICOL?
Conceptual approach
Project bibliography
Computational law?
Data-driven law
Code-driven law
Three types of normativity
Project outputs
Key intermediate goals
Typology of legal tech
Philosophers' seminars
The new journal: CRCL
Outcome: a new legal hermeneutics
Outside COHUBICOL
In November 2021 COHUBICOL holds its third Philosophers' Seminar, bringing together lawyers, computer scientists and philosophers to engage in an in-depth study of rule formalisation and self-execution (e.g. using blockchain or 'rules as code' (RaC) approaches), in terms of whether and on what basis computer code may have the intended legal effect of binding a constituency as if it were legislation.
We hope to further the understanding of the roles of formalisation and 'effectiveness' in the domains of law and computer science in this third seminar, which follows the success of our first two seminars, discussing text-driven and data-driven law (2019 and 2020, respectively).
The event is meant to practice slow science, based on draft papers that have been shared in advance, read by all participants. No presentations, only in-depth discussion of each paper.
The event will not be streamed or recorded, and the draft papers will not be shared, but we hope they will be submitted to our new Journal of Cross-Disciplinary Research in Computational Law in the course of 2022. Those accepted will become available under the Creative Commons BY-NC license of the Journal. To give you a taste of what we are working on, please see some of the abstracts below.
Denis Merigoux
The specification problem of legal expert systems
Sibylle Schupp
Mechanically Verifying Purpose Limitation: Why, How, and How Often?
Jurgen J. Vinju
Panta rei: on the evolvability of formalized law
Jason G. Allen
Doing Things With Algorithms: Law, Language, and Agency in the Digital Real
Gabriele Margarete Buchholtz
Conceptual differences between 'law' and 'code'
Pompeu Casanovas
Legal isomorphism and the meta-rule of law
Andrea Leiter and Delphine Dogot
Tech-driven governance and law: of hyperformalism and hyperfactualism
James Grimmelmann
The Structure and Legal Interpretation of Computer Programs
Megan Ma
A pragmatics of code: contextualizing law in computation
Monica Palmirani
Law as Code
Mazviita Chirimuuta
Rules, Judgement, and Mechanisation
Markus Krajewski
Source Code Criticism, commented. About the cultural technique of programming
Automated legal decision-making relies on computer programs called legal expert systems, that are executed on machines not capable of legal reasoning by themselves. Rather, it is up to the programmer to ensure that the behavior of the computer program faithfully captures the letter and intent of the law. This situation is merely an instance of the more general "specification problem" of computer science. Indeed, the way programs are written and executed require the programmer to express its intention in a particular form of logic or statistical model imposed by the programming language or framework. On the other hand, the intended behavior of the program or "specification", here communicated through the law, is usually described using natural language or domain-specific insights. Hence, every software endeavor begins with a "requirement analysis", which consists in extracting from the specification corpus a set of requirements that the computer system must obey.
In the case of automated legal decision-making and legal expert systems, the members of this set of requirements are the possible legal reasoning bits that the computer program is expected to perform. Viewing the problem through this lens immediately allows for identifying the key questions for assessing the safety and correctness of legal expert systems. First, when and how is it possible to express legal reasoning as a set of requirements for a computer system? Second, how to check that these requirements are correctly translated to computer code? Third, can we ensure that the computer code does not introduced unwanted, unlawful behavior? In this article, we take a tour of the general computer science answers to these three questions and assess their efficiency in the particular situation of legal expert systems. To do so, we introduce the distinction between result-constrained and process-constrained legal specifications. From this distinction naturally stem different software solutions, ranging from machine-learning-based to algorithm-based. Finally, we conclude by a discussion about the "critical software" qualification for legal expert systems, and what this qualification could entail in terms of technical and organizational change.
Generally, awareness of privacy issues grows and more and more people are concerned about protecting their private data. On the other hand, especially end users often do not fully exercise the rights they have been granted. One regulation for the processing of private data presents Art. 5 of the European "General Data Protection Regulation" (GDPR), which addresses purpose limitation, along with its Art. 9, which permits pro- cessing of private data only with that "data subject's" consent. While such proviso might appear to be a good instrument in an individual's hand, soliciting consent in practice is often perceived as a nuisance rather, so that individuals commonly resort to default configurations—even if default values run against their general privacy needs ("privacy paradox"). Organizations or activities that are subject to privacy laws might be better prepared to integrate purpose limitation with their own interest but they, too, largely consider any required compliance check extra work, and not a benefit. Moreover, neither individual users nor organizations are fond of repeating tasks, especially those they are only half-heartedly convinced of: neither does an individual like checking consent boxes too often nor is an organization eager to prove its compliance with Art. 5 anew if the business logic or stakeholders changed only slightly.
Even though the GDPR allows consent to carry over as long as the new purpose is "not to be considered to be incompatible" (Art. 5), deciding on such compatibility kicks off a new business process and, as practice shows, can easily take a couple of days—at least if done by hand. Would, however, compatibility or compliance be decided by mechanical verification, the answer would be quick to obtain. Further, mechanical verification would save people's time and, like any algorithmic solution, allow for reproducible answers, which do not depend on contingencies, e.g., of staffing.
Yet in this essay, we advocate the use of mechanical verification less for the automa- tion it allows, but more for the artifacts it comes with: its models, inference chains, and counterexamples. Admittedly, models are constructed since the verification pro- cess requires them, yet once there, they also enable non-experts to assess the scope and constraints of a formal verifier's verdict. Similarly, inference rules may form the core of a formal verification system, but they also allow non-experts to understand which path the underlying logic engine took when it arrived at the final judgment. And lastly, counterexamples equip the verifier's binary decision with a justification in the failure case. Using an example from purpose limitation in the medical domain, we show that models and inference systems provide abstractions needed so that domain experts, legal scholars, and the working logician can communicate.
The very moment that law text is formalized into a (semi-)executable software language, it will become subject to maintenance. Namely, mistakes were made in the initial formalization, and they must be corrected. Or, the interpretation of the natural law text has evolved and the formalization must change accordingly. Sometimes, other formalized laws that the current formalization depends on, have changed and the current one needs to be updated accordingly. And finally, the underlying language in which the law was formalized has changed and the current version must be adapted accordingly. As a result, a single formalized law undergoes a process of evolution during its lifetime, from the initial prototype, all the way through a period of active maintenance and renovation until finally this software can be pronounced "dead". It is this nature of formalizations that they are "under maintenance" which distinguishes them from their original law texts. The changes generate impact. There are two sides to this medal. Firstly, the possibility of change means the possibility of maintaining or improving qualitative aspects. Secondly, the effect of change is downstream impact. Since formalized law texts have multiple target goals (simulation, verification, documentation, implementation, enforcement, cross- and back-linking into law texts), and formalizations have dependencies, and artifacts generated from the sources may be scattered in many locations, the impact of changes is plentiful, hard to predict and thus each change is in need of sceptical investigation.
In this position paper we investigate the requirements, design and implementation of a law formalization system which puts change first, supporting language evolution, law evolution and evolution of law interpretation and evolution of dependent formalizations from the ground up. The tool support we envision is multi-layered and human-centered: enabling authors of formalized law to interact with their formalizations on the language level, on the content-level, and on the (simulated) impact level. We allow them to explore possible alternatives and to analyse the positive, negative or neutral impact of hypothetical changes.
A change-first development environment for formalized law should have a positive impact on the relevance of formalized law, because it gives due consideration to an inevitable reality of law interpretation, implementation and enforcement: panta rei.
Science fiction writer and futurist Arthur C. Clarke's "third law" is that any sufficiently advanced technology will appear as magic. Indeed, many of the technologies we take for granted today would only have made sense to our grandparents by reference to powers that operate above nature, outside the normal rules that govern actions in the physical universe. Of course, we know that computers are not "magical", but it is both entertaining and informative to take a step back and ask what it is that "magic" does, how it does so, and what that might teach us about both law and digital technology. In this article, we examine "code-driven law" in both the private law and public law context through the lens of the anthropology of magic, namely the idea that a person can effect changes in the world through the proper incantation of words. This speaks to some of the central themes of the COHUBICOL project insofar as it examines the effect of "dynamic" documents that appear, at least, to perform acts in the world—and acts-in-the-law in particular. It points to the need for (i) an enhanced understanding of documents and "documentary acts" (as a category analogous to speech acts) and (ii) a better schematic for modelling the deontic and capacitative logic behind "automated acts-in-the-law".
Conceptual differences between 'law' and 'code'
In this article, operating principles of 'law' and 'code' will be juxtaposed, in order to detect problems and regulatory needs. Technical and dogmatic aspects must be considered equally. Attention will also be drawn to the sociological question as to what it really means to set and apply law.
Application of the law as a social act
First of all, attention shall be drawn to the seemingly trivial fact that (written) legal norms are 'human work' and 'social acts' – and so is the application and interpretation of law in every individual case. Applying a legal norm is a demanding process: First, a concretisation step is required, because legal norms are usually drafted in general terms. This process is usually more challenging the more abstract a provision is. Consider, for example, the principle of 'good faith' codified in § 242 in the German Civil Code. After concretisation the norm can be applied to a particular case.
It is fundamental to realise that law can only exist 'in language and through language' which brings with it an openness to interpretation. However, the act of statutory interpretation is not a straightforward mechanical operation of textual analysis. It is far more complex and requires complementary knowledge, especially where there is room for discretion. Take, for example, the field of legal risk prevention, which relies on technical expertise, or the legal sphere of immigration and asylum law, which cannot do without social-scientific knowledge. In particular in administrative law, the real-life implications of a legal provision must be given serious consideration: if the law shall serve as an instrument of behavioural control, the lawyer must pay attention not only to the immediate effects, but also to the long-term social consequences. In other words, legal practitioners and lawmakers must not turn a blind eye to the consequences of law. To conclude, the application of law is an independent act of 'legal production'. In each individual case, law is recreated as a 'social product'.
Code as a technical act
How do basic assumptions about the application of law change when computers replace lawyers? Of course, algorithms are made by humans; they are 'social acts' in the first place. This seemingly obvious fact has far-reaching consequences. Apart from that, 'law' and 'code' differ significantly in their application. Algorithms are not written in a natural, but in a technical language: a binary code maps information through the sequences of the two symbol-system '1' and '0'. Thus, coding a legal tech software consists of two key translation challenges. First, 'law' must be converted into binary code, and secondly, it must be translated back into natural language. Driven by this logic, algorithms translate social reality into binary code: drawn from random inferences, however, they can only identify correlations, not causalities. All AI-driven software is limited to this binary logic. However, advanced forms of AI- driven systems – so called learning-systems – are able to transform new data (input) into decisions (output) without significant human intervention. 'Responsive systems' can even dynamically modify the previous decision patterns. Thus, the decision-making process is conditioned by the learning experiences of an AI-driven system. That, in turn, can lead to structurally unpredictable decisions. However, the impossible remains impossible: algorithms lack 'common sense' and 'soft' decision factors such as intuition, value judgement or holistic thinking. Neither can machines think, nor can they answer deep philosophical questions, best expressed in prose by Goethe: 'Only mankind can do the impossible: he can distinguish, he chooses and judges […]'.
Misconceptions of 'code'
As already indicated, legal tech is based on the notion that legal norms can be formalised and fully translated into computer language. To verify this claim, one must reveal the different operating principles of 'law' and 'code'. Traditionally, the application of law is not perceived as a strictly formalized process, especially with increasing discretional power of lawyers and judges. A lawyer or a judge is not a 'Subsumtionsautomat' who applies law in a formal-mathematical sense, but rather in a dialectical sense. The process of applying and interpreting a legal norm requires value judgements, intuitive knowledge and holistic thinking. However, algorithms lack any of these human qualities – and there is little prospect that software programmers will ever be able to bridge this gap. While machines may indeed one day in the near future perform some of the tedious, repetitive legal tasks, we are far away from replacing nuanced value judgement and expertise and perhaps we never will.
Another critical question arises: Can natural language be transformed into the binary language of a computer system at all? Although natural language has a certain inherent logic due to its grammar, the meaning of a word may vary significantly depending on the context ('context variance'). Linguistic distinctions are not entirely predictable or programmable. Only in straightforward simple cases is formalisation imaginable (however, it is hard to determine ex ante whether a case is easy or complex), but in a difficult legal or factual situation, formalisation fails. In conclusion, it is quite obvious that the formalisation of the legal language is neither semantically possible nor is it desirable. Yet, the law needs to be flexible to cope with complex technical or social phenomena – in the best interests of society. The necessary degree of flexibility is provided by human language. At this point, a categorial difference between 'law' and 'code' becomes manifest – calling for new forms of regulation.
Need for regulation
Why is legal regulation necessary in the digital world? The answer is simple. The societal function of law is, above all, to serve the common good and minority protection. But neither category matters in digital 'code'. As long as this situation persists, public law remains an indispensable instrument of control and regulation. It is a pressing need of modern societies to bridge these gaps and first of all, the conceptual differences between 'law' and 'code'.
Rules as Code (RaC) has been broadly defined as 'the process of translating rules in legislation, regulation, policy into code so they can be consumed and interpreted by computers'.1 This actually entails a set of assumptions about the relationship between natural and formal languages in law that should be clarified. In my contribution, I will focus only on one of these assumptions, the link between the sources of law and their characterisation into representation languages. It is generally known as legal isomorphism, i.e. the supposition that 'there should be a one-to-one correspondence between the rules in the formal model and the units of natural language text which express the rules in the original legal sources'.
The notion of 'legal isomorphism' has been conceived in different ways in the literature on legal knowledge engineering. I will explain their different meanings with the aid of the framework set by the meta-rule of law, i.e. the embedding of the substantive protections of the rule of law into legal web services. The analysis will differentiate between two axes, three dimensions, and four clusters to classify the sources of law. Some examples will be provided
I will also contend that private or public legal web services require a hybrid, pragmatic approach to be effective. Systems of substantive rights cannot be completely coded, as rules cannot be extracted and implemented without an extended pre and post modelling work on norms and the context of norms. Knowledge acquisition, rule extraction and rule implementation pose specific problems and challenges.
Technology is changing the way we think about law. But law should be understood not only as a set of constraints on functional requirements but as a full-fledged regulatory toolkit. From this point of view, policies are not safely implementable in digital environments without setting tools of legal governance at the same time, to monitor, control and take care of the whole regulatory process.
1. Governatori, G., Casanovas, P., de Koker, L., 2020. "On the Formal Representation of the Australian Spent Conviction Scheme". In International Joint Conference on Rules and Reasoning, RuleML+RR 2020, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 12173 Cham: Springer, pp. 177-185; Governatori, Barnes, J., G., de Koker, L., Hashmi, M., Poblet, M., Zeleznikow, J., Casanovas, P. 2020 "'Rules as Code' will let computers apply laws and regulations. But over-rigid interpretations would undermine our freedoms". 25 November. The Conversation; Casanovas, P., Hashmi, M., de Koker, L., Barnes, J., Governatori, G., Lam, H.P., Zeleznikow, J. Comments on Cracking the Code: Rulemaking for Humans and Machines (August 2020 draft) Comments on the draft OECD White Paper on Rules as Code, submitted on 27 August 2020 to the authors.
That digital technologies are governing our lives in many ways has become a truism hardly worth mentioning. But precisely what kind of ordering capacity do digital technologies appeal to? In this paper, we examine the dynamics through which tech-driven law and governance are advancing and we unpack the rationalities valued to deploy code to govern the world. On the one hand, there is an appeal toward hyperformalism, committing to the strict formality of code as language. In response to the fogginess and inefficiencies of law, the assurance of an interoperable, effective, and predictable set of decisions and instructions re- enchants formal, objective, and efficient ordering, at last, purging normativity from interpretation. For instance, such an appeal is embodied by blockchain technology, where smart contracts, pieces of code that are automatically executed on a decentralized network of computers, are described as irreversible. On the other hand, the appeal of data-driven real-time complex decision-making rests on the promise of hyper-factualism, able to redress the bulkiness of law and its dated, slow, and over-encompassing categories and procedures. Machine learning and data science allure to a world in which decisions and qualifications are purely empirical and give refined insights into the functioning of the world and its anticipated future. Data-driven governance promises to know more and better and to finally see the world as it is, enabling optimal normative intervention. As lawyers and legal theorists, we can read through these promises and recognize them as familiar struggles grounding major disciplinary legal projects. The formalist project seeks harmony and consistency in a system of rules and forms, while the realist project advances an empirical account of the world informing normative intervention through facts. By using the proposition hyper-, however, we want to indicate a difference in scale and reach of contemporary claims of the rule of code. As rehearsing familiar reactions to formalist and realist projects might overlook the newness of the rule of code, we suggest taking seriously this difference in scale and consider the particular practices of normativity and its effects. This might allow us to begin to grasp what it would mean to engage with code-driven governance.
This is an essay about the relationship between legal interpretation and software and interpretation, and in particular about what we gain by thinking about computers and programmers as interpreters in the same way that lawyers and judges are interpreters. In some ways, programs written in programming languages are like legal texts written in natural language. In other ways, they are not.
I wish to propose that there is something to be gained by treating software as another type of law-like text, one that has its own interpretive rules, and that can be analyzed using the conceptual tools we typically apply to legal interpretation.
As law has language at its core, interpretation has centered on the linguistic exercise. This has led to a heavy reliance on translation when reconciling human with machine-readability. However, lessons from core linguistics suggest that natural language is composed of three underlying components: syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Curiously, the enduring focus on the syntax and semantics in computational models has led to a subsequent neglect of pragmatics, an arguably essential pillar in meaning-making. Consequently, this impedes the capacity to appropriately understand and contextualize legal concepts.
Pragmatics is the field of linguistics that reflects on intention, using tools of implicature and inference. Consider the phrase: "There is an elephant in the tree." Semantics is helpful, to the extent, that it could raise what may be a prototype example of an elephant. As elephants are not typically found in trees, this is immediately a sign that this sentence may have a different meaning. Could this be a metaphorical idiom (i.e. elephant in the room) or perhaps there is some implicit understanding that the elephant in question is a paper elephant? As well, pragmatics raises the issue of reference. Consider the following sentences: "Jane is speaking with Joanne. She is a renowned legal scholar." (Inspired by the example in Betty Birner, Language and Meaning (2017), 109). The referent of "she" is not clear. Without context, semantics alone cannot usefully provide information as to the meaning of these sentences.
There are parallels to the shortcomings of semantics revealed in propositional logic. Computational systems that use propositional logic reflect the limitations presented in semantics. This is because propositional logic can enable the validation of some statements but cannot in itself establish the truth of all statements. So, why must there be consideration for pragmatics in consideration of computational law?
Contrary to the rhetoric on clarity and precision, ambiguity is revered as an inherent property of legal drafting. While this is not necessarily novel, legal documents are not independent artifacts and instead belong to a broader ecosystem. The aforementioned issues of pragmatics in natural language are integrated into the fabric of law and legal text and powered by literary tools of metaphor and analogy that outline context.
Interestingly, code is not quite as transparent or reducible as assumed. Mark C. Marino argues that code, like other systems of signification, cannot be removed from context. Code is not the result of mathematical certainty but "of collected cultural knowledge and convention" (Critical Code Studies (2020), 8).
While code appears to be 'solving' the woes of imprecision and lack of clarity in legal drafting, the use of code is, in fact, capturing meaning from a different paradigm. Rather, code is "frequently recontextualized" and meaning is "contingent upon and subject to the rhetorical triad of the speaker, audience (both human and machine), and message." (id., 4) It follows that code is not a context-independent form of writing. The questions become whether there could be a pragmatics of code, and if so, how could code effectively communicate legal concepts?
Having understood the complexities and pitfalls of natural language, there is now a rising demand to understand the ways code acquires meaning and how shifting contexts shape and reshape this meaning. Currently, few scholars have addressed code beyond its operative capacity. This mirrors the focus on syntax and semantics as primary drivers of using code for legal drafting. Yet, learning how meaning is signified in code enables a deeper analysis of how the relationships, contexts, and requirements of law may be rightfully represented. From the science of (natural) language arises the science of code. The paper, therefore, intends to propose a combinatory method of semiotic analysis with pragmatics for a more fruitful engagement of legal knowledge representation. In this way, the author hopes to extend beyond the arithmetic lens of clarity and precision to account for temporal management and formal ontological reference.
In the last two decades the legal informatics community elaborated relevant outcomes in order to manage the Law and legislation in machine-readable format using Semantic Web (Casanovas 2016), Open Government Data (Casanovas 2017, Francesconi 2018), Free Access to Law Movements (Greenleaf 2011) or LegalXML community (Akoma Ntoso, AKN4UN, AKN4EU, LegalRuleML,ELI/ECLI). Additionally, the AI and Law community provided a widespread literature about legal reasoning, machine learning and Legal Analytics, tools for extracting legal knowledge from texts and predictive models (Genesereth 2015, Ashley 2017). Finally, the legal design (Hagan 2020) proposes new pattern for smart visualization of the legal content preserving the legal theory principles. Although these successes, New Zealand Government started in 2018 a project named "Rules as Code" (RaC) and in 2020 it proposed to OECD-OPSI (https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/governance/cracking-the-code_3afe6ba5-en) to codify a new approach: the idea is to use coding methodology to create a macro-schema of law, legally binding, that produces as output the legal text in natural language.
The idea to produce law algorithmically is fascinating and it can reduce trivial errors, unclear norms, wrong normative citations, inconsistency between definitions, simplify the legalese language in legislation, but there is also the risk to reduce the legal language to a pure syntactical serialization, crystallizing any interpretation and so to compress the legislation and the execution in one single step. But the main weakness of this approach is to not integrate in the whole picture legal theory, interpretation theory, legal linguistics theory, semiotic theory principles and last 30 years of results in AI&law academic community (Bench-Capon 2012; Verheij 2020; Hildebrandt 2018, 2020; Greenleaf 2020). The legal language, not limited to textual, is not only an instrument of communication or execution (enforceability) of norms, but it has a poietic role in the constitutive generation of normativity (Lorini 2020).
This paper proposes a theoretical and technical model based on Semantic Web technologies, LegalXML standards, and Legal reasoning for making the norms machine-consumable without to neglect legal and hermeneutics theory, and technical neutrality principle. Secondly the emerging applications in AI in legal domain are classified in the proposal of AI Act of the EU Commission as highly risky with a potential challenge respect transparency, neutrality, impartiality, and anti-discrimination issues.
Legal formalism and logic-positivism (reductionism and textualism), used for decades, are not totally satisfactory for coding law resilient to the passage of time and to incorporate the digital innovation. There is the necessity to maintain flexibility to be applicable to different jurisdictions, context, historical periods, change of the society. Neither the opposite radical legal hermeneutic nor subjectivism, used in the legal area, are good approaches for the Web of Data. The paper defines a methodology for developing computable informatics legal systems compliant by-design with theory of law and with the explicability principle. We propose an architecture that conciliates legal theory/philosophy of law disciplines with emerging technologies that are deeply modifying the current society.
Ashley K. (2017). Artificial Intelligence and Legal Analytics: New Tools for Law Practice in the Digital Age, CUP
Bench-Capon T., Ashley, K. et.al. (2012). A history of AI and Law in 50 papers: 25 years of the international conference on AI and Law. Artif Intell Law, 20(3):215-319
Casanovas P., et.al. (2017). A linked democracy approach for regulating public health data. Health and Technology, 7(4):519-537
Casanovas P., Palmirani M., Vitali F. et.al. (2016). Semantic Web for the Legal Domain: The next step. SEMANTIC WEB, 7(3):213-222
Francesconi E. (2018). On the Future of Legal Publishing Services in the Semantic Web. Future Internet, 10(6):48
Genesereth M. (2015). Computational Law: The Cop in the Backseat, CodeX- Stanford
Greenleaf G. (2011). Free access to legal information, LIIs, and the Free Access to Law Movement, IALL:201-228
Greenleaf G., et.al. (2020). Strengthening Development of Rules As Code. Submission to the OECD's OPSI on Cracking the Code
Hagan M. (2020). Legal Design as a Thing: A Theory of Change and a Set of Methods to Craft a Human-Centered Legal System, Design Issues 36(3):3-15
Hildebrandt M. (2018). Law as computation in the era of artificial legal intelligence. speaking law to the power of statistics. Univ. of Toronto Law Jour., 68:12–35
Hildebrandt M. (2020). Code-driven law: freezing the future and scaling the past, in Is the law computable? Is Law Computable?: Critical Perspectives on Law and Artificial Intelligence, eds. Christopher Markou, Simon Deakin, Hart Publishing.
Lorini G., Moroni S. (2020). How to Make Norms with Drawings. An Investigation of Normativity beyond the Realm of Words. Semiotica.
Verheij B. (2020). Artificial intelligence as law. Artif Intell Law, 28(2):181-206
This paper is an exploration of the capacity of judgment, which stands in contrast to the ability to employ rules. The starting point is a short passage from Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (A133/B172):
If the understanding in general is explained as the faculty of rules, then the power of judgment is the faculty of subsuming under rules, i.e., of determining whether something stands under a given rule… [T]he power of judgment is a special talent that cannot be taught but only practiced. Thus this is also what is specific to so-called mother-wit, the lack of which cannot be made good by any school; … [T]he faculty for making use of … [the rules] correctly must belong to the student himself, and in the absence of such a natural gift no rule that one might prescribe to him for this aim is safe from misuse.*
*The lack of the power of judgment is that which is properly called stupidity, and such a >failing is not to be helped.
In The Promise of Artificial Intelligence, Brian Cantwell Smith has argued that the current deep learning technologies are reckoning systems, but lack judgment. Which is to say, that they are adept at following rules (executing algorithmic procedures) but without understanding of the significance of these processes. I concur with Cantwell Smith that the lack of judgment poses a hard restriction on the kinds of situations in which current AI can responsibly be used. They can only make adequate decisions in situations that have been "registered in advance" (Cantwell Smith 2019:112) – conceptually mapped so thoroughly that questions about whether and how rules are to be applied have long been settled.
While Cantwell Smith is sanguine about the potential of future generations of AI technology to acquire the capacity for judgment, in this paper I present an argument for there being an inherent tension between judgment and the mechanised processes at the heart of digital computers. I here draw on writings by Simon Schaffer (1994) and Lorraine Daston (2018) on the early history of computation, and its relationship to ideas honed with the development of industrial manufacture. Mechanisation is possible within the controlled environment of the factory, such that the capacity to improvise in response to changing circumstances is not demanded of the machines. Judgment, it is argued, is the intellectual version of this capacity to improvise, and there may be no way to replicate it mechanically.
Code is not easy to read. Although comprised of clearly defined commands in a linear sequence, code tends to display a high level of abstraction due to its underlying data structures and the functions linked to them. After compilation into binary code that can be executed by the computer, it becomes further obfuscated and contained as if in a black box. Obfuscation and abstraction are obstacles to reading code. Given our increasing reliance on code and algorithmic structures, it is however crucial that scholars, jurists and other non-computer experts be able to provide critical readings not only of complex philosophical and literary texts but also of algorithms.
Despite the growing body of research into cultural techniques, questions regarding the digital, such as the operation of algorithms, have remained underexplored in this field of media studies. I will meet this desideratum by examining programming as a cultural technique. Similar to methods in Critical Code Studies (e.g., by Mark Marino) this includes to situate algorithms in a discursive and historical context by elucidating code through systematic commentary, making software transparent by critical analysis.
Source code criticism therefore brings together classic hermeneutic scholarship and historical source criticism, linking the examination of material, i.e. algorithms, with a theoretically informed, commenting reading of program structures. The latter in particular is the central media practice of "programming as a cultural technique". Since late Antiquity, in its classic application in theology and law, commentary has been used to hold up, determine, and vindicate text. Whether the law is religious or judicial, commentary keeps it from becoming inert or incomprehensible; it keeps arguments alive by underlining particular statements and bringing others into the discourse. Commentary has a similar function in philological text analysis, in the creation of critical editions, and in critique génétique: it points out where the text is unclear or ambiguous, and where there are variations or deletions in the original, to make transparent the genesis and construction of the text. And, finally, commentary is used in digital philology, which also applies the methods of philology to software. In the context of programming as a cultural technique, commentary has all of these functions. I will however go one step further to discuss commentary in its epistemic range as a tool of opening the black boxes of code in order to resolve obfuscation and abstraction.
Unlike most approaches in the DH source code criticism is a decidedly hermeneutic method whose object of investigation is the digital code itself. This means that algorithms are in turn made understandable and plausible by explanation, reflection, references, and if necessary, modification, in order to gain transparency and intelligibility. What is more, on the epistemic level – which goes far beyond the effects intended by Donald Knuth's principle of literate programming (1984) – my approach aims to narrativise, historicise, and discursivise code by means of extensive commentary, in order to provide a lever to open the black boxes of both AI processes and deterministic execution of code.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
Language isolate
Not to be confused with Isolating language.
Natural language with no demonstrable genealogical relationship with other languages
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A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical (or "genetic") relationship with other languages, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language. Language isolates are in effect language families consisting of a single language. Commonly cited examples include Basque, Sumerian, and Elamite, though in each case a minority of linguists claim to have demonstrated a relationship with other languages.[1]
Some sources use the term "language isolate" to indicate a branch of a larger family with only one surviving member. For instance, Albanian, Armenian and Greek are commonly called Indo-European isolates. While part of the Indo-European family, they do not belong to any established branch (such as the Romance, Indo-Iranian, Celtic, Slavic or Germanic branches), but instead form independent branches. Similarly, within the Romance languages, Sardinian is a relative isolate. However, without a qualifier, isolate is understood to mean having no demonstrable genetic relationship to any other language.
Some languages once seen as isolates may be reclassified as small families. This happened with Japanese (now included in the Japonic family along with Ryukyuan languages such as Okinawan), Ainu in Ainu languages and Korean in Koreanic languages with Jeju language. The Etruscan language of Italy has long been considered an isolate, but some have proposed that it is related to the so-called Tyrsenian languages, an extinct family of closely related ancient languages proposed by Helmut Rix in 1998, including the Rhaetian language, formerly spoken in the central Alps, and the Lemnian language, formerly spoken on the Greek island of Lemnos.
Language isolates may be seen as a special case of unclassified languages that remain unclassified even after extensive efforts. If such efforts eventually do prove fruitful, a language previously considered an isolate may no longer be considered one, as happened with the Yanyuwa language of northern Australia, which has been placed in the Pama–Nyungan family. Since linguists do not always agree on whether a genetic relationship has been demonstrated, it is often disputed whether a language is an isolate or not.
1 Genetic or genealogical relationships
2 Looking for relationships
3 Extinct isolates
4 Sign language isolates
5 List of language isolates by continent
5.1 Africa
5.2 Asia
5.3 Oceania
Genetic or genealogical relationships[edit]
The term "genetic relationship" is meant in the genealogical sense of historical linguistics, which groups most languages spoken in the world today into a relatively small number of families, according to reconstructed descent from common ancestral languages. A "genetic relationship" is a connection between languages, like similarities in vocabulary or grammar, that can be attributed to a common ancestral proto-language that diverged into multiple languages or branches. For example, English is related to other Indo-European languages and Mandarin Chinese is related to other Sino-Tibetan languages. By this criterion, each language isolate constitutes a family of its own, which explains the exceptional interest that these languages have received from linguists.[2]
Looking for relationships[edit]
In some situations, a language with no ancestor can arise. This frequently happens with sign languages—most famously in the case of Nicaraguan Sign Language, where deaf children with no language were placed together and developed a new language. Similarly, if deaf parents were to raise a group of hearing children who have no contact with others until adulthood, those children might develop an oral language among themselves and keep using it later, teaching it to their children, and so on. Eventually, it could develop into the full-fledged language of a population. With unsigned languages, this is not very likely to occur at any one time but, over the tens of thousands of years of human prehistory, the likelihood of this occurring at least a few times increases. There are also creole languages and constructed languages such as Esperanto, which do not descend directly from a single ancestor but have become the language of a population; however, they do take elements from existing languages.
Extinct isolates[edit]
Caution is required when speaking of extinct languages as isolates. Despite their great age, Sumerian and Elamite can be safely classified as isolates, as the languages are well enough known that, if modern relatives existed, they would be recognizably related.[citation needed]
However, many extinct languages are very poorly attested, and the fact that they cannot be linked to other languages may be a reflection of our poor knowledge of them. Hattic, Gutian,[3] and Kassite are also believed by mainstream majority to be isolates, but their status is disputed by a minority of linguists. Many extinct languages of the Americas such as Cayuse and Majena may likewise have been isolates. A language thought to be an isolate may turn out to be relatable to other languages once enough material is recovered, but material is unlikely to be recovered if a language was not documented in writing.
Sign language isolates[edit]
Further information: Deaf-community sign language and Village sign language
A number of sign languages have arisen independently, without any ancestral language, and thus are true language isolates. The most famous of these is the Nicaraguan Sign Language, a well documented case of what has happened in schools for the deaf in many countries. In Tanzania, for example, there are seven schools for the deaf, each with its own sign language with no known connection to any other language.[4] Sign languages have also developed outside schools, in communities with high incidences of deafness, such as Kata Kolok in Bali, the Adamorobe Sign Language in Ghana, the Urubu Sign Language in Brazil, several Mayan sign languages, and half a dozen sign languages of the hill tribes in Thailand including the Ban Khor Sign Language.
These and more are all presumed isolates or small local families, because many deaf communities are made up of people whose hearing parents do not use sign language, and have manifestly, as shown by the language itself, not borrowed their sign language from other deaf communities during the recorded history of these languages.[citation needed]
List of language isolates by continent[edit]
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Below is a list of known language isolates, arranged by continent, along with notes on possible relations to other languages or language families.
The status column indicates the degree of endangerment of the language, according to the definitions of the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger.[citation needed] "Vibrant" languages are those in full use by speakers of every generation, with consistent native acquisition by children. "Vulnerable" languages have a similarly wide base of native speakers, but a restricted use and the long-term risk of language shift. "Endangered" languages are either acquired irregularly or spoken only by older generations. "Moribund" languages have only a few remaining native speakers, with no new acquisition, highly restricted use, and near-universal multilingualism. "Extinct" languages have no native speakers, but are sufficiently documented to be classified as isolates.
Africa[edit]
Further information: Languages of Africa § Unclassified languages
With few exceptions, all of Africa's languages have been gathered into four major phyla: Afroasiatic, Niger–Congo, Nilo-Saharan and Khoisan.[5] However, the genetic unity of some language families, like Nilo-Saharan,[6][7] is questionable, and so there may be many more language families and isolates than currently accepted.[by whom?] Data for several African languages, like Kwadi and Kwisi, are not sufficient for classification. In addition, Jalaa, Shabo, Laal, Kujargé, and a few other languages within Nilo-Saharan and Afroasiatic-speaking areas may turn out to be isolates upon further investigation. Defaka and Ega are highly divergent languages located within Niger-Congo-speaking areas, and may also possibly be language isolates.[8]
Bangime 2,000 Vibrant Mali Spoken in the Bandiagara Escarpment. Used as an anti-language.[9]
Hadza 1,000 Vulnerable Tanzania Spoken on the southern shore of Lake Eyasi in the southwest of Arusha Region. Once listed as an outlier among the Khoisan languages. Language use is vigorous, though there are fewer than 1,000 speakers.[citation needed]
Jalaa Extinct Nigeria Strongly influenced by Dikaka, but most vocabulary is very unusual.
Laal 750 Moribund Chad Spoken in three villages along the Chari River in Moyen-Chari Region. Poorly known. Also known as Gori. Possibly a distinct branch of Niger–Congo, Chadic of the Afroasiatic languages, or mixed.
Sandawe 60,000 Vibrant Tanzania Spoken in the northwest of Dodoma Region. Tentatively linked to the Khoe languages.
Shabo 400 Endangered Ethiopia Spoken in Anderaccha, Gecha, and Kaabo of the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region. Linked to the Gumuz and Koman families in the proposed Komuz branch of the Nilo-Saharan languages
Asia[edit]
Ainu 10 Moribund Japan, Russia Formerly spoken on southern Sakhalin, and all of the Kuril Islands and Hokkaido, now reduced to a handful of speakers in Hokkaido. May actually constitute a small language family, if the extinct varieties are classed as languages rather than dialects. Possibly related to the unattested language of the Emishi.[citation needed]
Burushaski 96,800 Vulnerable Pakistan Spoken in the Hunza Valley of Gilgit-Baltistan. Linked to Caucasian languages, Indo-European, and Na-Dene languages in various proposals.
Elamite Extinct Iran Formerly spoken in Elam, along the northeast coast of the Persian Gulf. Attested from around 2800 BC to 300 BC. Some propose a relationship to the Dravidian languages (see Elamo-Dravidian), but this is not well-supported.
Korean 77,230,000 Vibrant North Korea, South Korea and Northeast China Connections to the Altaic languages had been proposed, but widely discredited.[10] Sometimes classified as a language family, forming the Koreanic family if the Jeju language is classified as a separate language rather than a Korean dialect.
Kusunda 87 (2014)[11] Moribund Nepal Spoken in the Gandaki Zone. The recent discovery of a few speakers shows that it is not demonstrably related to anything else.
Nihali 2,000 Endangered India Also known as Nahali. Spoken in northeastern Maharashtra and southwestern Madhya Pradesh, along the Tapti River. Strong lexical Munda influence from Korku. Used as anti-language by speakers.
Nivkh 200 Moribund Russia Also known as Gilyak. Spoken in the lower Amur River basin and in the northern part of Sakhalin. Dialects sometimes considered two languages. Has been linked to Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages.
Sumerian Extinct Iraq Spoken in Mesopotamia until around 1800 BC, but used as a classical language until 100 AD. Long-extinct but well-attested language of ancient Sumer. Included in various proposals involving everything from Basque to the Sino-Tibetan languages.
Oceania[edit]
Current research considers that the "Papuasphere" centered in New Guinea includes as many as 37 isolates.[12] (The more is known about these languages in the future, the more likely it is for these languages to be later assigned to a known language family.) To these, one must add several isolates found among non-Pama-Nyungan languages of Australia:[13]
Abinomn 300 Vibrant Indonesia Spoken in the far north of New Guinea. Also known as Bas or Foia. Language is considered safe by UNESCO but endangered by Ethnologue.[14]
Anêm 800 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken on the northwest coast of New Britain. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Ata.
Ata 2,000 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken in the central highlands of New Britain. Also known as Wasi. Perhaps related to Yélî Dnye and Anem.[15][16]
Giimbiyu Extinct Australia Spoken in the northern part of Arnhem Land until the early 1980s. Sometimes considered a small language family consisting of Mengerrdji, Urningangk and Erre.[17] Part of a proposal for the undemonstrated Arnhem Land language family.
Kol 4,000 Vibrant Papua New Guinea Spoken in the northeastern part of New Britain. Possibly related to the poorly-known Sulka, or the Baining languages.
Kuot 2,400 Vulnerable Papua New Guinea Spoken on New Ireland. Also known as Panaras.
Malak-Malak 10 Moribund Australia Spoken in northern Australia. Often considered part of one Northern Daly family together with Tyeraity. Used to be considered genetically related to the Wagaydyic languages, but nowadays they are considered genetically distinct.[18]
Murrinh-patha 1,973 Vibrant Australia Spoken on the eastern coast of Joseph Bonaparte Gulf in the Top End. The proposed linkage to Ngan'gityemerri in one Southern Daly family[19] is generally accepted to be valid.
Ngan'gityemerri 26 Moribund Australia Spoken in the Top End along the Daly River. The proposed linkage to Murrinh-patha in one Southern Daly family[19] is generally accepted to be valid.
Sulka 2,500–3,000 Vibrant New Britain, Papua New Guinea Possible language isolate spoken across the eastern end of New Britain. Poorly attested.
Tayap >50 Moribund Papua New Guinea Formerly spoken in the village of Gapun. Link to Lower Sepik languages and Torricelli languages have been explored, but the general consensus among Linguists is that it is an isolate unrelated to surrounding languages.[20]
Tiwi 2,040 Vulnerable Australia Spoken in the Tiwi Islands in the Timor Sea. Traditionally Tiwi is polysynthetic, but the Tiwi spoken by younger generations is not.
Wagiman 11 Moribund Australia Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. May be distantly related to the Yangmanic languages,[21] which might in turn be a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[13] but neither link has been demonstrated.
Wardaman 50 Moribund Australia Spoken in the southern part of the Top End. The extinct and poorly-attested Dagoman and Yangman dialects are sometimes treated as separate languages, forming a Yangmanic family, to which Wagiman may be distantly related.[21] Possibly a member of the Macro-Gunwinyguan family,[13] but this has yet to be demonstrated.
Europe[edit]
Basque 751,500 (2016),[22] 1,185,500 passive speakers Vulnerable Spain, France Natively known as Euskara, the Basque language, found in the historical region of the Basque Country between France and Spain, is the second most-widely spoken language isolate after Korean. It has no known living relatives, although Aquitanian is commonly regarded as related to or a direct ancestor of Basque. Some linguists have claimed similarities with various languages of the Caucasus[23][24] that are indicative of a relationship, while others have proposed a relation to Iberian[25] and to the hypothetical Dené–Caucasian languages.
North America[edit]
Alsea Extinct United States Poorly attested. Spoken along the central coast of Oregon until 1942. Sometimes regarded as two separate languages. Often included in the Penutian hypothesis in a Coast Oregon Penutian branch.
Atakapa Extinct United States Spoken on the Gulf coast of eastern Texas and southwestern Louisiana until the early 1900s. Often linked to Muskogean in a Gulf hypothesis.[26]
Chimariko Extinct United States Spoken in northern California until the 1950s. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Chitimacha Extinct United States Well-attested. Spoken along the Gulf coast of southeastern Louisiana until 1940. Possibly in the Totozoquean family of Mesoamerica.
Coahuilteco Extinct United States, Mexico Spoken in southern Texas and northeastern Mexico until the 1700s. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Cuitlatec Extinct Mexico Spoken in northern Guerrero until the 1960s. Formerly considered Macro-Chibchan.
Esselen Extinct United States Poorly known. Spoken in the Big Sur region of California until the early 1800s. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.[citation needed]
Haida 24 Moribund Canada, United States Spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the northwest coast of British Columbia, and the southern islands of the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska. Some proposals connect it to the Na-Dené languages, but these have fallen into disfavor.
Huave 18,000 Endangered Mexico Spoken in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the southeast of Oaxaca state. Part of the Penutian hypothesis when extended to Mexico, but this idea has generally been abandoned.
Karuk 12 Moribund United States Spoken along the Klamath River in northwestern California. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Keres 10,670 Endangered United States Spoken in several pueblos throughout New Mexico, including Cochiti and Acoma Pueblos. Has two main dialects: Eastern and Western. Sometimes those two dialects are separated into languages in a Keresan family.
Kutenai 245 Moribund Canada, United States Spoken in the Rockies of northeastern Idaho, northwestern Montana and southeastern British Columbia. Attempts have been made to place it in a Macro-Algic or Macro-Salishan family, but these have not gained significant support.
Natchez Extinct United States Spoken in southern Mississippi and eastern Louisiana until 1957. Often linked to Muskogean in a Gulf hypothesis. Attempts at revival have produced 6 people with some fluency.
Purépecha 124,494 Endangered Mexico Spoken in the north of Michoacán state. Language of the ancient Tarascan kingdom. Sometimes regarded as two languages.
Salinan Extinct United States Spoken along the south-central coast of California until 1958. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Seri 764 Vulnerable Mexico Spoken along the coast of the Gulf of California, in the southwest of Sonora state. Formerly spoken on Tiburón Island in the Gulf of California. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Siuslaw Extinct United States Spoken on the southwest coast of Oregon until the 1970s. Likely related to Alsea, Coosan languages, or possibly the Wintuan languages. Part of the Penutian hypothesis.
Takelma Extinct United States Spoken in western Oregon until 1934. Part of the Penutian hypothesis. A specific relationship with Kalapuyan is now rejected.
Timucua Extinct United States Well attested. Spoken in northern Florida and southern Georgia until the late 1700s. A connection with the poorly known Tawasa language has been suggested, but this may be a dialect.
Tonkawa Extinct United States Spoken in central and northern Texas until the early 1940s.
Tunica Extinct United States Spoken in western Mississippi, northeastern Louisiana, and southeastern Arkansas until 1948. Attempts at revitalization have produced 32 second-language speakers.
Washo 20 Moribund United States Spoken along the Truckee River in the Sierra Nevada of eastern California and northwestern Nevada. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Yana Extinct United States Well-attested. Spoken in northern California until 1916. Part of the Hokan hypothesis.
Yuchi 4 Moribund United States Spoken in Oklahoma, but formerly spoken in eastern Tennessee. A connection to the Siouan languages has been proposed.
Zuni 9,620 Vulnerable United States Spoken in Zuni Pueblo in northwestern New Mexico. Links to Penutian and Keres have been proposed.
South America[edit]
Aikanã 200 Endangered Brazil Spoken in the Amazon of eastern Rondônia. Arawakan has been suggested.
Andoque 370 Endangered Colombia, Peru Spoken on the upper reaches of the Japurá River. Extinct in Peru. Possibly Witotoan.[27]
Betoi Extinct Venezuela Spoken in the Apure River basin near the Colombian border until the 18th century. Paezan has been suggested.[27]
Camsá 4,000 Endangered Colombia Spoken in Sibundoy in the Putumayo Department. Also known as Kamsa, Coche, Sibundoy, Kamentxa, Kamse, or Camëntsëá.
Candoshi-Shapra 1,100 Endangered Peru Spoken along the Chapuli, Huitoyacu, Pastaza, and Morona river valleys in southwestern Loreto. Could be related to the extinct and poorly-attested Chirino language.
Canichana Extinct Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos region of Beni Department until around 2000. A connection with the extinct Tequiraca (Auishiri) has been proposed.
Cayuvava 4 Moribund Bolivia Spoken in the Amazon west of Mamore River, north of Santa Ana del Yacuma in the Beni Department.
Chimane 5,300 Vulnerable Bolivia Spoken along the Beni river in Beni Department. Also spelled Tsimané. Sometimes split into multiple languages in a Moséten family. Linked to the Chonan languages in a Moseten-Chonan hypothesis.
Chiquitano 5,900 Endangered Bolivia, Brazil Spoken in the eastern part of Santa Cruz department and the southwestern part of Mato Grosso state. Formerly regarded as a member of the Macro-Jê family, but this claim was unsubstantiated.
Cofán 2,400 Endangered Colombia, Ecuador Spoken in northern Sucumbíos Province and southern Putumayo Department. Also called A'ingae. Sometimes classified as Chibchan, but the similarities appear to be due to borrowings. Seriously endangered in Colombia.
Fulniô 1,000 Moribund Brazil Spoken in the states of Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and the northern part of Bahia. Divided into two dialects, Fulniô and Yatê. Sometimes classified as a Macro-Jê language, but not much evidence to support this.
Guató 6 Moribund Brazil Spoken in the far south of Mato Grosso near the Bolivian border. Previously classified as Macro-Jê, but no evidence was found to support this.
Itonama 5 Moribund Bolivia Spoken in the far-eastern part of Beni Department. Paezan has been suggested.
Kanoê 5 Moribund Brazil Spoken in southeastern Rondônia. Also known as Kapishana. Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.
Kunza Extinct Chile Spoken in areas near Salar de Atacama until the 1950s. Also known as Atacameño. Part of a Macro-Paesan proposal.
Kwaza 54 Moribund Brazil Spoken in eastern Rondônia. Connections have been proposed with Aikanã and Kanoê.
Leco 20 Moribund Bolivia Spoken in the Andes east of Lake Titicaca.
Mapuche 260,000 Vulnerable Chile, Argentina Spoken in areas of the far-southern Andes and in the Chiloé Archipelago. Also known as Mapudungun, Araucano or Araucanian. Considered a family of 2 languages by Ethnologue. Variously part of Andean, Macro-Panoan, or Mataco–Guaicuru proposals. Sometimes Huilliche is treated as a separate language, reclassifying Mapuche into an Araucanian family.
Munichi Extinct Peru Spoken in the southern part of Loreto Region until the late 1990s. Possibly related to Arawakan languages
Movima 1,400 Vulnerable Bolivia Spoken in the Llanos de Moxos, in the north of Beni Department.
Oti Extinct Brazil Spoken in São Paulo until the early 1900s. Macro-Jê has been suggested.
Páez 60,000 Vulnerable Colombia Spoken in the northern part of Cauca Department. Several proposed relationships in the Paezan hypothesis but nothing conclusive.
Puelche Extinct Argentina, Chile Spoken in the Pampas region until the 1930s. Sometimes linked to Het. Included in a proposed Macro-Jibaro family.
Tequiraca Extinct Peru Spoken in the central part of Loreto until the 1950s. Also known as Auishiri. A connection with Canichana has been proposed.
Trumai 51 Moribund Brazil Settled on the upper Xingu River. Currently reside in the Xingu National Park in the northern part of Mato Grosso.
Urarina 3,000 Vulnerable Peru Spoken in the central part of the Loreto Region. Part of the Macro-Jibaro proposal.
Waorani 2,000 Vulnerable Ecuador, Peru Also known as Sabela. Spoken between the Napo and Curaray rivers. Could be spoken by several uncontacted groups.
Warao 28,000 Endangered Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago Spoken in the Orinoco Delta. Sometimes linked to Paezan.
Yaghan 1 Moribund Chile Spoken in far-southern Tierra del Fuego. Also called Yámana. Last native speaker is Cristina Calderón, who is 90 years old.
Yaruro 7,900 Vibrant Venezuela Spoken along the Orinoco, Cinaruco, Meta, and Apure rivers. Linked to the extinct Esmeralda language.
Yuracaré 2,700 Endangered Bolivia Spoken in the foothills of the Andes, in Cochabamba and Beni Departments. Connections to Mosetenan, Pano–Tacanan, Arawakan, and Chonan have been suggested.
Unclassified languages
List of language families
^ Campbell, Lyle (2010-08-24). "Language Isolates and Their History, or, What's Weird, Anyway?". Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society. 36 (1): 16–31. doi:10.3765/bls.v36i1.3900. ISSN 2377-1666.
^ Grey., Thomason, Sarah (1991). Language contact, creolization, and genetic linguistics. Kaufman, Terrence, 1937–. Berkeley. ISBN 978-0520078932. OCLC 16525266.
^ Mallory, J.P.; Mair, Victor H. (2000). The Tarim Mummies. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 281–282. ISBN 978-0-500-05101-6.
^ Tanzanian Sign Language (TSL) Dictionary. H.R.T. Muzale, University of Dar es Salaam, 2003
^ Blench, Roger. 2017. African language isolates. In Language Isolates, edited by Lyle Campbell, pp. 176–206. Routledge.
^ Starostin, George. "The Nilo-Saharan hypothesis tested through lexicostatistics: current state of affairs". Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Harald Hammarström; Robert Forkel; Martin Haspelmath; Sebastian Bank (2020-04-16), "Linguistics", glottolog/glottolog: Glottolog database 4.2.1, doi:10.5281/zenodo.3754591, retrieved 2020-08-12
^ Blench, Roger. "Niger-Congo: an Alternative View" (PDF).
^ Hantgan, Abbie; List, Johann-Mattis (September 2018). Bangime: Secret Language, Language Isolate, or Language Island?.
^ Georg et al. 1999: 73–74
^ http://www.unesco.org/languages-atlas/index.php
^ Palmer, Bill (2017). "Language families of the New Guinea Area". In Bill Palmer (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. pp. 1–20. doi:10.1515/9783110295252-001. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2. Retrieved 2020-08-03.
^ a b c Evans, N. "Introduction" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region". Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
^ "Size and vitality of Abinomn". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2020-08-12.
^ Ross, Malcolm (2001), Is there an East Papuan phylum? Evidence from pronouns, Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-0-85883-445-3, retrieved 2020-08-12
^ Ross, Malcolm (2005), Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages, Pacific Linguistics, ISBN 978-0-85883-562-7, retrieved 2020-08-12
^ Campbell, R. "A Sketch Grammar of Urningangk, Erre and Mengerrdji: the Giimbiyu languages of Western Arnhem Land". Honours thesis. University of Melbourne, 2006.
^ Nordlinger, Rachel (2017). "Chapter 37: The languages of the Daly region (Northern Australia)". In Fortescue, Michael; Mithun, Marianne; Evans, Nicholas (eds.). Oxford Handbook of Polysynthesis. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 782–807.
^ a b Green, I. "The Genetic Status of Murrinh-patha" in Evans, N., ed. "The Non-Pama-Nyungan Languages of Northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region". Studies in Language Change, 552. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, 2003.
^ Kulick, Don; Terrill, Angela (2019). A Grammar and Dictionary of Tayap: The Life and Death of a Papuan Language. Pacific Linguistics 661. Boston/Berlin: Walter de Gruyter Inc. ISBN 9781501512209.
^ a b Merlan, F. "A Grammar of Wardaman: a language of the Northern Territory of Australia." Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1994.
^ (in French) VI° Enquête Sociolinguistique en Euskal herria (Communauté Autonome d'Euskadi, Navarre et Pays Basque Nord) (2016)
^ Hualde, José Ignacio; Lakarra, Joseba.; Trask, R. L. (Robert Lawrence) (1995). Towards a history of the Basque language. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. p. 81. ISBN 978-90-272-8567-6. OCLC 709596553.
^ Mallory, J. P. (1989). In search of the Indo-Europeans : language, archaeology, and myth. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05052-X. OCLC 20394139.
^ Orduña Aznar, Eduardo (2005). "Sobre algunos posibles numerales en textos ibéricos". Palaeohispanica. 5: 491–506.
^ Munro, Pamela (1994). "Gulf and Yuki-Gulf". Anthropological Linguistics. 36 (2): 125–222. ISSN 0003-5483. JSTOR 30028292.
^ a b "South America". Atlas of the World's Languages. London: Routledge. 2007.
Bibliography[edit]
Campbell, Lyle, ed. 2017. Language Isolates. Routledge.
Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native Languages and Language Families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
Grimes, Barbara F. (Ed.). (2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world, (14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9. (Online edition: Ethnologue: Languages of the World).
Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).
Ethnologue's list of language isolates
Primary language families
Afroasiatic
Khoe–Kwadi
Kx'a
Niger–Congo
Nilo-Saharan?
Mande?
Songhay?
Ijaw?
Ubangian?
Kadu?
Bangime
Hadza
Jalaa
Laal?
Shabo?
and Asia
Austroasiatic
Chukotko-Kamchatkan
Eskimo–Aleut
Great Andamanese
Hmong–Mien
Hurro-Urartian
Kartvelian
Koreanic
Kra–Dai
Mongolic
Nivkh
Northeast Caucasian
Northwest Caucasian
Ongan
Tungusic
Turkic
Tyrsenian
Uralic
Yeniseian
Yukaghir
Digaro?
Hrusish?
Kho-Bwa?
Miju?
Siangic?
Burushaski
Hattic
Kusunda
Nihali
and the Pacific
Arai–Samaia
Binanderean–Goilalan
Bulaka River
Central Solomons
Chimbu–Wahgi
Doso–Turumsa
East Geelvink Bay
East Strickland
Engan
Kaure–Kosare
Kiwaian
Kutubuan
Kwomtari
Lakes Plain
Lower Mamberamo
Lower Sepik
Mairasi
North Bougainville
Pauwasi
Senagi
Sepik
Skou
South Bougainville
Teberan
Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
Trans-Fly
Trans–New Guinea
Turama–Kikorian
Upper Yuat
West Papuan
Yuat
Northwest Papuan?
Papuan Gulf?
Abinomn
Abun
Anêm?
Ata?
Mpur
Pawaia
Porome
Sulka?
Taiap?
Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
Bunuban
Darwin Region?
Eastern Daly
Eastern Tasmanian
Garawan
Iwaidjan
Jarrakan
Marrku–Wurrugu?
Mirndi
Northern Tasmanian
Northeastern Tasmanian
Nyulnyulan
Pama–Nyungan
Southern Daly?
Tangkic
Wagaydyic
Western Daly
Western Tasmanian
Worrorran
Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?
Giimbiyu
Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
Algic
Caddoan
Chimakuan
Chinookan
Chumashan
Comecrudan
Coosan
Iroquoian
Kalapuyan
Keresan
Maiduan
Muskogean
Na-Dene
Palaihnihan
Plateau Penutian
Pomoan
Salishan
Shastan
Tanoan
Tsimshianic
Utian
Uto-Aztecan
Wintuan
Yukian
Yuman–Cochimí
Chimariko
Esselen
Karuk
Siuslaw
Takelma
Timucua
Waikuri
Yokuts
Yuchi
Chibchan
Jicaquean
Lencan
Misumalpan
Mixe–Zoque
Tequistlatecan
Totonacan
Xincan
Cuitlatec
Huave
Tarascan/Purépecha
Andoque–Urequena
Arauan
Araucanian
Arawakan
Arutani–Sape
Aymaran
Barbacoan
Cahuapanan
Cariban
Catacaoan
Chapacuran
Charruan
Guaicuruan
Guajiboan
Harákmbut–Katukinan
Jirajaran
Jivaroan
Katembri–Taruma
Mascoian
Matacoan
Nadahup
Nambikwaran
Otomákoan
Pano-Tacanan
Peba–Yaguan
Quechuan
Piaroa–Saliban
Ticuna–Yuri
Timotean
Tiniguan
Tucanoan
Tupian
Uru–Chipaya
Witotoan
Yanomaman
Zamucoan
Zaparoan
Bora–Witoto languages?
Chimuan?
Esmeralda–Yaruro?
Hibito–Cholón?
Lule–Vilela?
Macro-Jê?
Tequiraca–Canichana?
(extant in 2000)
Aikanã?
Candoshi
Chimane
Chiquitano
Cofán?
Fulniô
Guató
Hodï/Joti
Irantxe?
Itonama
Jukude (Maku-Auari)
Kunza
Movima
Mura-Pirahã
Nukak?
Huaorani/Waorani
Trumai
Warao
Yamana
Yuracaré
Sign languages
BANZSL
Francosign
Germanosign
Indo-Pakistani
Original Thai
Tanzanian?
See list of sign languages
Language isolates
Pidgins
Mixed languages
Artificial languages
Families in italics have no living members.
Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.
Retrieved from "http://en.turkcewiki.org/w/index.php?title=Language_isolate&oldid=1001254109"
CS1 errors: missing periodical
Articles with French-language sources (fr)
Articles needing additional references from January 2021
Articles with unsourced statements from April 2018
Articles with unsourced statements from September 2008
Articles needing additional references from February 2007
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019
Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from February 2020
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2020


Zeeland East was defeated by Unity Christian in the district quarterfinal by a score of 3-1. Zeeland East took an early lead with one run in the second inning, but the lead was erased on a two run home run by Unity in the 5th inning. The Chix left 5 runners stranded on 3rd base during the game and had the bases loaded with one out in the bottom of the seventh, but could not get the big hit to tie the game.
Ben Thomas pitched the complete game for Zeeland East, allowing 6 hits and only 2 earned runs, while striking out 5.
Trevor Terhaar had 2 of Zeeland East's 4 hits and an RBI. Cale Lewis and Zach DeGraaf added the two other hits.
Zeeland East ends 23-16 on the year.


This is a unique apartment in this 6-bedroom unit at 330 S. Dunn Street. This is part of the original house, and there have been recent renovations to the apartment. There is carpeting in the bedroom and the dining/living room. There are two entries, and the kitchen is equipped with a stove, refrigerator, and dishwasher.


text:
using System;

using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Linq;
using System.Text;
[assembly: CLSCompliant(true)]
namespace Monkeyspeak
{
	[Serializable]
	public class VariableIsConstantException : Exception
	{
		public VariableIsConstantException() { }

		public VariableIsConstantException(string message) : base(message) { }

		public VariableIsConstantException(string message, Exception inner) : base(message, inner) { }

		protected VariableIsConstantException(
		  System.Runtime.Serialization.SerializationInfo info,
		  System.Runtime.Serialization.StreamingContext context)
			: base(info, context) { }
	}

	[Serializable]
    [CLSCompliant(true)]
	public class Variable
	{
		public static readonly Variable NoValue = new Variable("%none", "", false);

		private bool isConstant;

		public bool IsConstant
		{
			get
			{
				return isConstant;
			}
			set
			{
				isConstant = value;
			}
		}

        private object value ;

		public object Value
		{
			get
			{
				return value;
			}
			  set
			{
                 // removed Value = as it interfered with page.setVariable - Gerolkae
                if (CheckType(value) == false) throw new TypeNotSupportedException(value.GetType().Name +
    " is not a supported type. Expecting string or double.");

                if (IsConstant == false)
                    this.value = value;
                else throw new VariableIsConstantException("Attempt to assign a _value to constant \"" + Name + "\"");
			}
		}

		private string name;

		public string Name
		{
			get
			{
				/*if(string.IsNullOrEmpty(name))
					this.name = "%none";*/
				return name;
			}
			internal set
			{
				name = value;
			}
		}

        // Variable var = new variable();
        // Preset reader.readvariable with default data
        // Needed for Conditions  checking Variables that haven't been defined yet.
        // -Gerolkae
        private Variable()
        {
            isConstant = false;
            name = "%none";
            value = null;
        }

		internal Variable(string Name, object value, bool constant = false)
		{
			isConstant = constant;
			name = Name;
			this.value = value;
		}

		public void ForceAssignValue(object _value)
		{
			if (CheckType(_value) == false) throw new TypeNotSupportedException(_value.GetType().Name +
" is not a supported type. Expecting string or double.");
			value = _value;
		}

		private bool CheckType(object _value)
		{
			if (_value == null) return true;

			return _value is string ||
			       _value is double;
		}

		/// <summary>
		/// Returns a const identifier if the variable is constant followed by name,
		/// <para>otherwise just the name is returned.</para>
		/// </summary>
		/// <returns></returns>
		public override string ToString()
		{
			return ((IsConstant) ? "const " : "") + Name + " = " + ((Value == null) ? "null" : Value.ToString());
		}

		/// <summary>
		///
		/// </summary>
		/// <param name="asConstant">Clone as Constant</param>
		/// <returns></returns>
		public Variable Clone(bool asConstant = false)
		{
			return new Variable(Name, Value, asConstant);
		}

		public static bool operator ==(Variable varA, Variable varB)
		{
			return varA.Value == varB.Value;
		}

		public static bool operator !=(Variable varA, Variable varB)
		{
            return varA.Value != varB.Value;
		}

		public override bool Equals(object obj)
		{
            return ((Variable)obj).Name.Equals(Name) && ((Variable)obj).Value.Equals(Value);
		}
		public override int GetHashCode()
		{
			if (value is int)
			{
				return (int)value ^ name.GetHashCode();
			}
			return name.GetHashCode();
		}
	}
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Dvsn's New Album Packed With Features Including Future, Summer Walker, PND & More
The Canadian R&B duo made up of singer Daniel Daley and producer Nineteen85 has recently announced the release date for what will be their third studio album, "A Muse In Her Feelings." We can expect this drop on April 17th, 2020 with a total of 16 tracks.
This album includes a collaboration with Ty Dolla $ign and is jam packed with a versatile group of features including PARTYNEXTDOOR, Jessie Reyez, Future, Summer Walker, Snoh Aalegra and more! There has been a Toronto takeover so far in 2020 with The Weeknd and PND dropping their long awaited albums in back-to-back weeks. We are also aware that the 6 God himself is currently in the works of a new album.
"The whole idea behind dvsn is, we're going to give you the unexpected," Daley tells Billboard. "We are going to go against the grain—be divided from the bunch and separated from the past. The moment you think we're going to go left, we're going to do a hard right." Canada has become such an iconic birthplace for superstars that continue to bless us with great music during these difficult times that the world is collectively experiencing. Check out dvsn's new trailer below and let us know your thoughts on this upcoming project.
*SPOILER ALERT*
A post shared by DVSN (@dvsn) on Apr 8, 2020 at 9:08am PDT


Casey has been started on sent memorization with four odor ( marijuana, meth, cocaine, and heroin).
Casey is a high spirited dog. She has a lot of drive and heart. I uploaded some video's of her on you tube. If you type in Casey 01/18/09 that will bring up all four videos. Casey has been tested under gun fire, slick floors, dark rooms and stairs.


Blackmart is a "Black Market APK" for the Android application. The Blackmart APK is getting trendy and popular amongst the Android users these days. "Blackmart APK" allows you to download the apps for free for which you had to pay otherwise. It means that the app makes the paid apps available to you for free. The download from the Blackmart App is free and safe. Almost all of the paid apps are available on the Blackmart application for the download.
There are many apps which offer the pro versions or premium versions of their apps which are more powerful and grants you full access to its features. The free version of the app does its work but only for a limited period of time and for using the application to its full extent and for an unlimited period of time the app forces you to buy the premium version. This problem is solved by the "Blackmart APK" as it provides you the way to download the paid for free for which you had to pay otherwise. Blackmart is a very powerful app and very useful for you if you want to buy any paid app without spending a penny out of your pocket.
Moreover, the app provided on the Blackmart are available in multilingual basis irrespective of the Geographical location of your device. It means that you can also download the apps which are designed for any specific location or area and are not available for your location. Access to those apps can be very difficult but you can easily get your hands on them using Blackmart. And hence Blackmart is a very efficient app store.
Blackmart APK can be useful in your daily life when you want to download paid apps but you don't have enough money to spend on buying apps. You always tend to search for the alternative apps on the Google's Play Store which can be downloaded for free. Therefore "Blackmart" can be very useful to you. You can find and download the premium apps you want in no time through the Blackmart APK.
Blackmart APK gives you a lot of features which helps you search and find the premium as you want very easily. It can provide you with the free and the paid version, both of an app for free. This is the app store you should visit when you want to download paid apps for free.
It has a very vast collection of Android apps which are all available for free.
You can download various premium apps using this app for free.
The Blackmart app is just as similar to any other app store app but it does not categorize the free and paid apps different because all of them are available for free here.
It does not take a lot of storage space on your mobile phone. It is just over 56 MB.
The app is made with a graphical user interface to give you a better user-friendly nature of the app.
The app is supported by almost all of the Android versions. The updates to the app for the new Android version are available in every app store.
It provides you with unlimited content and apps at no cost.
The search bar of the app lets you search for any specific app and lets you access it in no time.
All of the apps available on the Blackmart app are free to use, and none of them is based on subscription or trial. That means all the apps are really premium versions of those apps and are available for free.
Blackmart app is not available for download on the Google's Play Store for the obvious reasons. The app provides the premium apps for free, this is the pain in the asses of the developers and hence the app cannot be made available on the Google's play Store. The app clearly violates the terms and services of Google's Play Store by its very existence. Therefore you have to download the Blackmart app from the other several app stores. Once you find its safe and secure APK file download link, download, install and enjoy its use.
Following are the instructions, we recommend you to follow for downloading the Blackmart APK.
Download the.APK or .zip file from the given download link which is 100% safe and Trojan free.
If it is a .zip file, expand its content in a folder.
Copy the folder to your Android smartphone.
Check whether installation from third-party apps is allowed on your smartphone or not. If not, turn it on by enabling "Unknown Sources" in Settings > Security > Unknown Sources.
Tap on the.APK file on your phone to start the installation of the PPSSPP Gold Emulator app.
Get the premium apps by searching them and get them on your phone from the download links available.
BlackMart APK is one of the most downloaded app store apps on the market. Download and use it to download various paid apps on your Android device for free. This app store will provide you with all the premium features of various apps without spending anything out of your pocket. Blackmart is very intuitive and has a function for the custom search so that you can find the application you require with ease.
"Blackmart APK" does not require your device to be rooted in use and hence your non-rooted device can also run the application. Blackmart works with almost every device because it is developed to adjust to any kind of user interface and it is compatible with all the versions of Android, iOS and Window OS. Therefore you can download and use the Blackmart without any difficulty.


Yep, yet ANOTHER article on Yuri on ICE. But I swear I have a good reason this time, since Crunchyroll's first ever Anime Awards ended up being butchered by popular vote, especially when it came to categories that Yuri on ICE was nominated in. With its runaway success, I would like to take a moment to explain why I did not like the anime as much as others. In fact, I found it rather lacking in multiple departments. Hit the jump to find out just why I'm a soulless and homophobic monster.
I've had this idea for so long about a first-time player of Dark Souls discovering the terrors of Dark Souls 3. It's a little rough, but I think I may have a good idea on my hands.


text:
L'anatra alibianche (Asarcornis scutulata, Müller 1842) è un uccello facente parte della famiglia delle Anatidae, si tratta dell'unica specie del genere Asarcornis.

Sistematica
Tradizionalmente considerata come parente dell'anatra muschiata (Cairina moschata), alcuni autori la annoveravano anche nel genere Cairina. Tuttavia le analisi del DNA mitocondriale e l'analisi biogeografica della loro distribuzione contraddicano quest'ipotesi. Così, è più logico l'inserimento di questa specie in un genere monotipo piuttosto che avvicinarlo all'anatra muschiata. In compenso vi è una relazione più vicina con le anatre tuffatrici.

Descrizione

Distribuzione e popolazione
Storicamente, l'anatra alibianche era in gran parte presente nel nord-est dell'India ed in Bangladesh, e nel sud-est asiatico, di Giava e di Sumatra. Tuttavia, nel 2002, la popolazione totale di quest'uccelli non superava quota 800, con 200 esemplari distribuiti nel Laos, Thailandia, Vietnam e Cambogia, 150 a Sumatra, in particolare in Way Kambas National Park e 450 distribuiti tra l'India, il Bangladesh e la Birmania.

Habitat
Abita le foreste umide, paludi, stagnani e corsi d'acqua a flusso lento; solitamente vive in pianure (sotto i 200 m di altidutine) dove trova l'habitat ottimale, ma può spingersi in zone unide fino a 1.400 m di quota. Anche se essenzialmente stazionaria, alcuni esemplari possono compiere modesti spostamenti in caso vi siano periodi secchi che riducono i livelli di acqua e la disponibilità di cibo.

Minacce
Il declino di questa specie è da attribuire in gran parte al disboscamento diffuso delle pianure, unito al drenaggio delle zone acquitrinose. Le piccole, popolazioni spezzettate risultanti sono vulnerabili a causa della perdita di variabilità genetica, della dispersione, della caccia, della raccolta delle uova e degli anatroccoli per alimento.

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Anatidae

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Need a Dumpster Rental in Hoytville?
We have the commercial and residential dumpster service you need in Hoytville.
At Dumpster Centre, we strive to bring you the best service at the best price available. We have a wide selection of dumpster sizes in stock in Hoytville, OH, with flexible & timley pickup and delivery. Give us a call today for all your dumpster rental and roll off needs.
Your roll-off dumpster in Hoytville, OH is only a phone call away. Don't delay!
Dumpsters are available* in Hoytville.
Most Hoytville dumpster rental companies will take care of securing this permit for you if you rent from them. Make sure that if you're planning to put the dumpster on the street, the company has made the appropriate arrangements. You should also ensure that you get the permit in a timely manner and at the correct cost. If you thought the dumpster company was getting a permit and they did not, you will be the one who will have to pay the fine that is issued by the authorities.
These days people take a look at business on the web so it is straightforward for potential customers to pull up your business title and see what others get said relating to your service. Once your customers are done using your products or services you should stimulate those that are really happy with your merchandise to post an evaluation on your job site. It might be helpful to place your website address and you should leave an evaluation right on the bill information.
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The roll off bins available at these Portable Dumpster in Hoytville, OH companies are installed on wheels which enable it to handle huge tons of squander and are most closely fits for large initiatives like development, house redevelopment, yard tidy up. By employing a dumpster for your garbage disposal wants, you will be fixed free from harmful conditions which enable it to get your garbage disposed from affordable price.
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In addition, carpeting consumes a lot of place in the dumpster just like wood baseboards and gates. A large dumpster keeps four a ton of garbage or perhaps debris which is about the same since ten pickup truck loads. A medium dumpster keeps three a ton of garbage which is equal to in relation to five pickup truck loads. A little dumpster that you rent stands up to two a ton of garbage.
Most people are back utilizing their rights. Have you discover anybody who is catagorized back to fulfills their accountability? Aloud simply no will be the response. Though there know people who meet their accountability, we can scarcely find them say hardly you to definitely ten percent regarding total population of the united states. It is very unfortunate to know that very a lesser amount of number of people in the world is aware that right as well as responsibility take a trip on the same outlines and one has to accept the duty on the same outlines as they use the right.
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If you're a construction firm than you recognize you need to get my way through order so you're able to keep your careers rolling correct along. You need to be able to purchase specific resources for each job order. You might be very busy with a lot of customers and you also want to keep your good title and excellent enterprise reputation.
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Some sort of dumpster is a large steel throw away receptacle meant to empty trash into rubbish trucks. The term is a generalized trademark with the Dumpster brand.
Working with a small sizing dumpster for trash disposal requirements of a large undertaking will make one last bill heavy because there will certainly continues creation of trash in the large projects including construction in addition to commercial clean up ups and residential renovations. Working with a small sizing dumpster will make you to get rid the trash about daily basis, and you'll end up in taking on an extra price in terms of transfer from task location to land fill.
You will need to hire a contractor as well as do it yourself to find the old carpeting, baseboards as well as any other items time spent ripped out of our home. You will need to rent any dumpster to easily do away with it. Keep home seeking neat and arranged even while redesigning is going on.
Solution (a) is often a bust, for self-evident reasons. By the time pick-up rolls around per week those dumpsters tend to be overflowing anyhow. What are the chances they'll remain miraculously clear just for anyone? Having to end what you're doing every couple of hours to visit to the land fill is a pain, and it's about to dramatically improve the amount of time it will take to finish what you're doing-especially if the closest landfill is really a distance away. That just foliage option (h).
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The following is where doing one time spin off Portable Dumpster in Hoytville, OH can readily and fiscally solve your condition. You can phone and rent a unit from a organization that addresses roll off containers and make it easy to lose those old lawn mower components or of which pile associated with sheet rock and two simply by four waste left over out of your last making project. As a result your pick up project incredibly easy since you can get a dumpster that you could throw just about all type of supplies and odds and ends in to.
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Yo! Where's the full video at?
Hey mr dave i know this is ages ago but can you make your videos available to europe please? can anyone find this video otherwise?
Me 2. I cannot watch the video. I'm from europe.


The general objective of this initiative is to facilitate and bring together the driving forces in research, innovation, knowledge transfer and knowledge appropriation working in the various partner organizations (research, government, public, clinical, community-based and private enterprise) that are active in habilitation-rehabilitation and support social inclusion.
Inclusive Society is a research initiative that aims at maximising the impacts of innovation in Quebec. We believe that organizations representing people living with disabilities, public or private organizations and universities can put their expertise together to find solutions to the numerous obstacles encountered by people with disabilities.
Partners of the Inclusive Society initiative agree to contribute to the identification of priority barriers as well as supporting, by different means, the solutions put forward to eliminate or reduce them.
The partners are contributing to the projects supported by Inclusive Society by sharing their expertise as well as human, financial or material resources.