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Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones
Rev. psicol. trab. organ. vol.35 no.3 Madrid dic. 2019 Epub 02-Dic-2019
http://dx.doi.org/10.5093/jwop2019a19
Leader and team-member exchanges and their relationships with organizational and interpersonal counterproductive work behaviors: moderation by envy and group size in Israel and USA
Los intercambios entre líder y subordinado y entre el equipo y sus miembros y sus relaciones con los comportamientos laborales organizativos e interpersonales contraproductivos: el efecto moderador de la envidia y del tamaño del grupo en Israel y en EE.UU.
Or Shkolera , Edna Rabenub , Filiz Tabakc , Mariana J. Lebronc
aIndependent Researcher, Israel
bNetanya Academic College, Israel
cTowson University, Maryland, USA
The present research investigated the effects of social exchanges of employees with their immediate manager (i.e., Leader-Member eXchange; LMX) and with their direct working unit/team (i.e., Team-Member eXchange; TMX) on counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), both – towards the organization or towards colleagues. The research also explored the moderating effects of dispositional envy and the size of the working team on said associations. Data from 221 Israeli employees (Study 1) and 186 American workers (Study 2) were collected. The majority of our hypotheses were supported, with findings indicating interesting cultural differences. Implications and future research suggestions are discussed.
Keywords Leader-member exchange; Team-member exchange; Counterproductive work behaviors; Envy; Group size; Cultural differences
Este estudio investiga los efectos de los intercambios sociales de los empleados con su supervisor directo (es decir, el intercambio entre líder y subordinado, LMX) y con su unidad/equipo de trabajo directo (es decir, intercambio entre el equipo y un miembro de este, TMX) en los comportamientos laborales contraproductivos, tanto en relación con la organización como con sus compañeros. La investigación también ha explorado el efecto moderador de la envidia disposicional y del tamaño del equipo en dichas asociaciones. Se recogieron datos de 221 empleados israelíes (estudio 1) y de 186 trabajadores estadounidenses (estudio 2). La mayor parte de nuestras hipótesis fueron confirmadas, descubriéndose diferencias culturales interesantes. Se discuten sus implicaciones y las propuestas de investigación futuras
Palabras clave Intercambio líder-miembro; Intercambio equipo-miembro; Comportamientos laborales contraproductivos; Envidia; Tamaño del grupo; Diferencias culturales
"A key paradigm in examining workplace relations is social exchange theory (SET). Its basic premise is that human relations are formed based on subjective cost-benefit analysis... SET claims that social relationships are based on the trust that gestures of goodwill will be reciprocated (Blau, 1964)" (Chernyak-Hai & Rabenu, 2018, p. 458). On the contrary, gestures of ill-will might be reciprocated accordingly as well (e.g., Martin, Guillaume, Thomas, Lee, & Epitropaki, 2016; Shkoler & Tziner, 2017). Moreover, the negative components of performance (e.g., Counterproductive Work Behaviors; CWBs) may have an even greater importance on employees' performance appraisal than the positive components (e.g., Organizational Citizenship Behaviors; OCBs) (e.g., Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). In addition, CWB has also shown to have important economical, sociological, and psychological implications (e.g., Aubé, Rousseau, Mama, & Morin, 2009; Bodankin & Tziner, 2009). The current paper contributes to the accumulated SET literature as it focuses on the proximal exchanges between: (1) employees and their managers (i.e., Leader-Member Exchange, LMX), (2) employees and their team members (i.e., Team-Member Exchange, TMX), and their effect on workplace misbehavior (or CWBs).
We chose to investigate the association between LMX and CWB because further contribution and elaboration are needed about this link, as Jawahar, Schreurs, and Mohammed (2018) stated: "... we have very little insight about the theoretical mechanism explaining the leader-member exchange-counterproductive work behavior (LMX–CWB) relationship" (p. 557). Additionally, the literature produced inconsistent results regarding the relationship between LMX and CWB; some found significant negative associations (e.g., El Akremi, Vandenberghe, & Camerman, 2010; González-Navarro, Zurriaga-Llorens, Tosin Olateju, & Llinares-Insa, 2018) and some found no significant correlations between them (e.g., Jawahar et al., 2018). This has led us to think about the existence of indirect effects in said relationships, such as potential moderators. Hence, based on the long discussion regarding the effects of contextual vs. individual differences in the work context (see Judge & Zapata, 2015; Staw & Cohen-Charash, 2005), we will test the effects of team size (i.e., contextual) and dispositional envy (i.e., individual differences) as the possible moderators (see Figure 1). This is because envy (as a disposition) may affect an individuals' perception of a social exchange, while the size of the team is an influential contextual parameter that also may impact the social exchanges, irrespective of the person themselves (see Dispositional Envy and Team Size sections below).
In the same vein, negative exchanges at the workplace may occur not just in a person-supervisor/manager manner, but also the person-team environment. However, to the best of our knowledge, studies on the link between TMX and CWB are scarce (an example for a research scrutinizing them is Jian & Ting, 2014). Thus, as the contemporary workplace is often comprised of teams (Daft, 2015), in different sizes, it is highly relevant and important to study the relationship between TMX and CWB in this context.
We have conducted the research in two follow-up studies (in different national cultures).
Leader-Member eXchange (LMX)
The dyadic-focused LMX theory, as one of the fundamental components in the social network at the workplace (Cole, Schaninger, & Harris, 2002), illustrates that managers tend to develop different relationship/management styles with each of their subordinates (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995; see also Waismel-Manor, Tziner, Berger, & Dikstein, 2010). This may drive the employees to behave differently (e.g., Gerstner & Day, 1997; Ilies, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 2007).
Based on social exchange and reciprocity rationales (Blau, 1964; Gouldner, 1960), employees in good relationships with their manager (i.e., high LMX) would feel obliged to mutually reciprocate these relations (see also Adams, 1965). As such, high quality LMX results in high levels of trust, respect, and commitment. Employees with good relations with the manager are likely to receive more rewards (formal and informal), resources, support (emotional as well), feedback, and even career opportunities (Clarke & Mahadi, 2017; Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). This leads them to engage in more positive behaviors (Breevaart, Bakker, Demerouti, & van den Heuvel, 2015; Waismel-Manor et al., 2010; for a meta-analysis, see Rockstuhl, Dulebohn, Ang, & Shore, 2012). It is important to note that poor relations (i.e., low LMX) with a manager will also result in reciprocal 'poor or bad' behavior, such as counterproductive work behaviors (e.g., Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014).
This highlights the important role of managers in influencing employees' attitudes, cognitions, and behaviors.
Team-Member eXchange (TMX)
While the LMX approach focuses on the dyadic relationship between a manager and the employee (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, 1975), it is also important to gauge the quality of proximal relations with team-members, as many organizations in the modern working world operate in groups and teams and not (just) as individuals (Daft, 2015). Examples are the army, high-tech or startup companies. The similar, yet less-known (Murphy, Wayne, Liden, & Erdogan, 2003), Team-Member eXchange Theory (TMX; Seers, 1989) revolves around the quality of relationships between a worker and his or her work group/team/unit, not the manager. TMX argues that high quality relations manifest also in the willingness of an employee (as a group-member) to help other group-members, share ideas and information freely, and provide them with feedback (Hu, Ou, Chiou, & Lin, 2012; Seers, 1989). This social exchange is also based on mutual reciprocity and, to the extent the group is willing to do the same for the worker (Seers, 1989), ultimately influencing the effectiveness and cohesion of the group (Abu Bakar & Sheer, 2013). For further reading on TMX, see Chen (2018).
So, LMX and TMX are social exchange-based variables which capitalize on the transactional mindset and reciprocity (Blau, 1964; Gouldner 1960) as previously mentioned. Good exchanges may lead to good results, just as ill exchanges might end in accordingly ill manners (which are a part of a bigger construct called counterproductive work behaviors).
Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs)
CWB is defined as "any intentional behavior on the part of an organizational member viewed by the organization as contrary to its legitimate interests" (Sackett & DeVore, 2001, p. 145; see also Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007; Ho, 2012).
CWBs (e.g., Chernyak-Hai & Rabenu, 2018; Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014; Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007; Ho, 2012) or sometimes addressed as 'workplace misbehaviors' (e.g., Berry, Ones, & Sackett, 2007; Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007; Dilchert, Ones, Davis, & Rostow, 2007; Shkoler & Tziner, 2017), "deviant behaviors" (e.g., Levy & Tziner, 2011; Zhang, Mayer, & Hwang, 2018) or counterproductive performance (e.g., Jawahar et al., 2018; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002) have received increasing attention from both the academic and the organizational fronts. This is due to their important economical, sociological, and psychological implications (Aubé et al., 2009; Levy & Tziner, 2011). CWBs usually violate important organizational norms and harm organizations in many ways, for example, the goals, employees, procedures, productivity, and profitability (Aubé et al., 2009; Dalal, 2005; Lanyon & Goodstein, 2004; Pearson, Andersson, & Porath, 2005; Robinson, 2008; Spector et al., 2006; Vardi & Weitz, 2016).
Typically, such volitional behaviors are categorized into two main groups: (1) CWB-O (organizational CWB), such as theft, sabotage, withdrawal, pretending to be sick, and (2) CWB-I (interpersonal-CWB; Bennett & Robinson, 2000, 2003; Berry et al., 2007), such as speaking ill of other workers, harassment, insulting and/or ignoring others at work (see Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Gruys & Sackett, 2003; Robinson & Bennett, 1995; Spector, Bauer, & Fox, 2010; Spector et al., 2006). As can be seen, these behaviors are directed towards the organization itself or its members (employees and management alike), and thus, are generally costly to both individuals and organizations (Bennett & Robinson, 2003).
There are many antecedents to CWBs, like (a) individual differences (e.g., Berry et al., 2007; Dalal, 2005; Dilchert et al., 2007; Salgado, 2002), such as cognitive abilities, emotional stability, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, (b) job experiences (e.g., Hollinger & Clark, 1982; Kulas, McInnerney, DeMuth, & Jadwinski, 2007; Shkoler & Tziner, 2017), such as organizational justice perceptions, and job satisfaction, and (c) work stressors (e.g., Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006; Chen & Spector, 1992; Diefendorff & Mehta, 2007; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007; Zhang, et al, 2018), such as abusive/bullying supervision, restrictive rules and procedures, and lack of resources. For example, dissatisfied employees are more likely to engage in theft (Kulas et al., 2007), and abusive supervision might increase employees' propensity to engage in negative behavior intended not only to harm the abuser directly, but also to damage the organization itself (Chen & Spector, 1992; Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007).
Leader- and Team-Member eXchanges and Counterproductive Work Behaviors
LMX and TMX are both under the same theoretical framework of the Social Exchange Theory (e.g., Chernyak-Hai & Rabenu, 2018; Colquitt et al., 2013). Social exchanges tend to be reciprocal (e.g., Gouldner, 1960), such that good-quality exchange of an employee with his/her direct manager or the immediate work team may promote knowledge sharing, mutual trust, help, and other organizational citizenship behaviors (e.g., Ilies et al., 2007; Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff, & Blume, 2009). On the contrary, low-quality exchange may lead to negative outcomes, such as counterproductive work behaviors (e.g., Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014; Jian & Ting, 2014; Shu & Lazatkhan, 2017; Zhenglong, Dong, & Hongdan, 2011). Specifically, there were very few papers dealing with the relationship between LMX and TMX with CWB-O and CWB-I (respectively), and they were also exclusively conducted in China. Zhenglong et al. (2011) have found that LMX was negatively associated with both CWB-O and CWB-I, but had a stronger association with the former. In addition to that, Jian and Ting (2014) have found that LMX is negatively correlated with CWB-O, while TMX is negatively linked to CWB-I. In light of the scarce literature regarding the linkages between said variables, and external validity issues (e.g., a focus on the Chinese culture), we hypothesize negative associations between the exchange variables (i.e., LMX/TMX) and CWB. In order to broaden our understanding of the phenomena under investigation, we will test this assumption against both CWB groups (i.e., CWB-O/CWB-I). Thus, we hypothesize that:
H1.1: LMX negatively associates with CWB-O.
H1.2: LMX negatively associates with CWB-I.
H2.1: TMX negatively associates with CWB-O.
H2.2: TMX negatively associates with CWB-I.
Faced with inconsistent literature about the relationship between LMX and CWB (see Introduction section), it is plausible that other indirect forces regulate it (e.g., Shkoler, Rabenu, & Tziner, 2017). In the same vein, we would assume this is relevant for TMX as well, as they are both exchange-based variables, only with a different referent. For the purpose of the study, we have investigated the moderating effects of dispositional envy and team size.
Individual Difference Buffering Effect - Dispositional Envy
Envy is a complex emotion compiled of the subjective feelings aroused when one person desires something that someone else has/possesses (Smith, Parrott, Diener, Hoyle, & Kim, 1999), which has to be central to the envious part's self-concept (Lazarus, 1991). These feelings may revolve around ill will, anger, self-criticism, dissatisfaction, hatred, or even felt inferiority (e.g., Johnson-Laird & Oatley, 1989; Luglio, 2002; Smith, Kim, & Parrott, 1988; Smith, Parrott, Ozer, & Moniz, 1994). Envy is considered to occur when two individuals are mutually comparable (see Schoeck, 1969) in a unit relationship (Heider, 1958). Since "the literature has traditionally focused on dispositional envy..." (González-Navarro et al., 2018, p. 1459) we focus on this aspect of envy, as well.
Envy-prone (i.e., dispositional envy) people are more likely to be susceptible to frustration, subjective sense of injustice (Smith et al., 1999; Smith et al., 1994), and experience less happiness, life satisfaction (Milfont & Gouveia, 2009), self-esteem (Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2007), but more grief (Barr & Cacciatore, 2007) and shame (Zeelenberg & Pieters, 2007). They also are more likely to engage in CWB-I behaviors (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007), become more hostile, anxious, and tend to create a negative workplace environment (Cohen-Charash, 2009). Still, "the assessment of the social nature of envy has been underestimated, and little is known about its relationships with other social variables (e.g., LMX and ownership)" (González-Navarro et al., 2018, p. 1459).
As stated before, low-quality exchanges (i.e., LMX and TMX) might lead to negative outcomes, such as CWBs (e.g., Chernyak-Hai & Tziner, 2014; Jian & Ting, 2014; Shu & Lazatkhan, 2017; Zhenglong et al., 2011). Moreover, we may assume that individuals with different levels of dispositional envy would react differently to perceived unfair/unequal exchanges in the work context. We hypothesize this dispositional tendency would enhance the negative effects that LMX and TMX may have on CWB-O and CWB-I, respectively. To elaborate, we have mentioned before that deteriorating relationships with the immediate manager and/or unit members would result in increased workplace misbehavior (i.e., H1.1-H2.2). When employees have higher envy tendencies, this might lead them to feel increased subjective injustice and inferiority in their social exchanges. As such, they are, by definition, more judgmental than individuals with lower envy tendencies to these exchanges. For example, employees with higher envy dispositions might perceive lower-quality exchanges between team members (i.e., TMX, such as less information sharing, less backing up for other members) even more profoundly and negatively than what these exchanges would have been perceived by workers with lower envy dispositions. Since an envious person is driven to act for assuaging these unpleasant feelings of subjectively felt injustice and inferiority (Heider, 1958), he/she would feel compelled to "equalize positions" (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007, p. 666) by harming others (i.e., CWB-I) and/or the organization itself (i.e., CWB-O), as a representative of its members. Thus, we hypothesize that:
H3.1: Dispositional envy moderates the negative association between LMX and CWB-O.
H3.2: Dispositional envy moderates the negative association between LMX and CWB-I.
H4.1: Dispositional envy moderates the negative association between TMX and CWB-O.
H4.2: Dispositional envy moderates the negative association between TMX and CWB-I.
Environmental Buffering Effect – Work Group/Team Size
"... team size can be viewed not only as a catalyst of team dynamics but also as a context that moderates behavioral or social phenomena (Kozlowski & Bell, 2003)", but at the same time "the role of team size as a contextual moderator has received only limited attention in the literature" (Cha, Kim, Lee, & Bchrach, 2015).
The size of the team or group (i.e., work unit) has been modeled as a predictor (e.g., Curral, Forrester, Dawson, & West, 2001; Haleblian & Finkelstein, 1993; Thompson et al., 2015), and only very recently as a moderator (e.g., Cha, Kim, Lee, & Bachrach, 2015). However, it was mostly modeled as a control variable (e.g., Ferguson & Barry, 2011; Jackson et al., 1991; Wiersema & Bantel, 1992). In addition, group size has been related to task interdependence (Ferguson & Barry, 2011), team climate, and support for innovation (Curral et al., 2001), and even team diversity (Cha et al., 2011).
It is important to demonstrate the impact the size of the work group may have on its effectiveness, interpersonal relations, and members' behaviors. In teams, the size is a built-in requirement for the group's effectivity and interpersonal relationships between its members (Katzenbach, & Smith, 2015). Such small working groups may facilitate frequent and fluent communication between members and may enable them to better understand each other's roles and skills (Katzenbach & Smith, 2015). This is emulated by the definition of a work team: "A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable" (Katzenbach & Smith, 2015, p. 41). In contrast, larger groups have coordination and communication problems (e.g., Blau, 1970; Shaw & Harkey, 1976) and might be a hindrance at the feet of organizational performance and effectivity.
In addition, we draw upon the psycho-social theories of "herding mentality" (Braha, 2012; Toch, 1988) and "diffusion of responsibility" (Kassin, Fein, Markus, & Burke, 2013). As the group size increases, there is a reduction in the sense of responsibility of the individual and the impression of universality of groups' behavior (Greenberg, 2010; Toch, 1988). By acting/moving "with the group" a group member reduces the danger to oneself (Hamilton, 1971). In human behavior, this goes from demonstrations to riots and general strikes (Braha, 2012). Thus, we can see that a larger unit may have a negative impact on the work context. The larger work group size would mitigate, or even overwhelm, the effects good relationships with the immediate manager and/or unit members may have on workplace misbehavior. Thus, we hypothesize that:
H5.1: Group size moderates the negative association between LMX and CWB-O.
H5.2: Group size moderates the negative association between LMX and CWB-I.
H6.1: Group size moderates the negative association between TMX and CWB-O.
H6.2: Group size moderates the negative association between TMX and CWB-I.
Figure 1 below summarizes the study's hypotheses in a path diagram.
Figure 1 Overall Research Model
Participants. Participants were 221 Israeli employees of various organizations and industries (e.g., services, high-tech, manufacturing), of which 47% were male and 53% female between the ages of 19-62 years (M = 29.86, SD = 9.25). In terms of education, 48% were B.A. students, 2% had some college education, 43% held a B.A/B.S. degree, and 7% held a M.A. degree or above. Regarding their work, 62% were in non-managerial roles, while 38% worked as managers. Tenure ranged between 0.1 and 32 years (M = 5.94, SD = 7.52).
LMX was gauged by the Multi-Dimensional Measure of Leader-Member eXchange (LMX-MDM; Liden & Maslyn, 1998) consisting of 12 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Original reliability was a = .79, on average.
TMX was gauged by a scale based on Seers (1989; see also Liden, Wayne, & Sparrowe, 2000) consisting of 9 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Original reliability was a = .88.
Dispositional envy was gauged by the Dispositional Envy Scale (DES; Smith et al., 1999) consisting of 7 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Original reliability was a = .89.
CWBs were gauged by the Counterproductive Work Behavior Checklist (CWB-C; Spector et al., 2006; see also Spector et al., 2010) consisting of 10 Likert-type items ranging from 1 (never) to 7 (everyday). The scale was divided into 5 items for measuring CWB-O (a = .84), and 5 for CWB-I (a = .85).
Group size was gauged by a single demographical item: "The working group in which you work/belong has _______ employees."
Reliability coefficients (Cronbach's a), means and standard deviations of the variables are presented in Table 1 (Results section).
Table 1 Pearson Correlation Matrix, Means and Standard Deviations for the Israeli Sample (N = 221), with Reliability Coefficients on the Diagonal
Note. LMX = Leader-Member Exchange; TMX = Team-Member Exchange; Envy = Dispositional Envy; CWB-O = Organizational Counterproductive Work Behaviors; CWB-I = Interpersonal Counterproductive Work Behaviors.
1Range of team size between 1 and 150 employees.
Procedure. The electronic version of the research questionnaire was emailed as a link to employees in various organizations in Israel. Those wishing to participate replied that they filled the questionnaire and were included in the total sample. Data analyses were done utilizing SPSS software (v. 23).
Common-method bias (CMB). In order to assess the extent to which inter-correlations among the variables might be an artifact of common method variance (CMV) we employed the Harman's single-factor model (in which all items loaded on one factor) and a latent common method factor model (in which all items loaded on both their expected factors and one latent common method factor) as suggested by Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, and Podsakoff (2003). The Harman's single-factor method accounted only for 23.60% of the explained variance: c2(342) = 1,117.69, p = .000, c2/df = 3.27, CFI = .71, NFI = .87, GFI = .90, SRMR = .11, RMSEA (90% CI) = .17 (.09-.21), p-close = .003. In addition, the latent common method factor analysis produced for 21.94% of the explained variance: c2(337) = 975.45, p = .000, c2/df = 2.89, CFI = .82, NFI = .89, GFI = .92, SRMR = .09, RMSEA (90% CI) = .10 (.02-.16), p-close = .017. While these result does not rule out completely the possibility of same-source bias (i.e., CMV), according to Podsakoff et al. (2003) less than 50% (R2 < .50) of the explained variance accounted for by the first emerging factor indicates that CMB is an unlikely explanation of our investigation's findings, in conjunction with the bad model fit for each analysis.
Bivariate zero-order correlation matrix among the variables of the research is displayed in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that (1) LMX negatively correlates with CWB-O, but (2) positively with CWB-I, (3) TMX has no significant association with CWB-O, nor (4) with CWB-I. This shows little support for our basic hypotheses.
Further, in order to test the moderation hypotheses (H3.1-H6.2) we employed hierarchical regression analyses. The findings are presented in Table 2, for envy and group size as moderators, respectively. It is important to note that while our basic bivariate hypotheses were not supported, for the most part, it is safe and statistically sound to test for moderation even in the absence of a statistically significant correlation between the predictor and the criterion (see Appendix A in Shkoler et al., 2017).
Table 2 Hierarchical Regression Coefficients in Predicting CWB-O and CWB-I, Israeli Sample (N = 221)
Note. DV = dependent variable; LMX = Leader-Member Exchange; TMX = Team-Member Exchange; Envy = Dispositional Envy; CWB-O = Organizational Counterproductive Work Behaviors; CWB-I = Interpersonal Counterproductive Work Behaviors.
*p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.
As can be seen in Table 2, none of the interaction effects were significant, and thus, envy does not moderate the relationships between LMX or TMX and CWB-O or CWB-I. Hence, H3.1-H4.2 were not supported. In addition, as can be seen in Table 2, half of the interaction effects were significant, and thus group size does not moderate the relationships between LMX or TMX and CWB-I (H5.2 and H6.2, respectively). However, group size enhances the effect LMX or TMX have on CWB-O (H5.1 and H6.1, respectively). Figures 2 and 3 display the interaction effects graphically.
Figure 2 Interaction Effect (LMX × Team Size) on CWB-O, Israeli Sample.
Figure 3 Interaction Effect (TMX × Team Size) on CWB-O, Israeli Sample.
Figure 2 shows that as the group size increases, the negative effect that LMX has on CWB-O diminishes (i.e., positively enhanced).
Figure 3 shows that as the group size increases, the non-significant effect between TMX and CWB-O is negative in small sized groups (i.e., -1 SD from the mean) but becomes positive in larger teams (i.e., +1 SD from the mean).
In this study, we investigated the relationships between LMX and TMX to CWB-O and CWB-I, moderated by team size and envy. While TMX had no effect on either CWB-O or CWB-I, LMX had a negative effect on CWB-O, as hypothesized, but positive one on CWB-I, meaning that good relations with the direct manager decreased the probability of engaging in CWB-O but increased it for CWB-I. Perhaps, when one has a good relationship with the immediate manager, the CWB-O decreases since the manager is perceived as representing the organization. However, there can still be "volitional" interpersonal behaviors to other team members or colleagues (e.g., malicious gossip, swearing, verbally attacking, and making fun of someone). This counterintuitive association between LMX and CWB-I may be explained by the perceived advantage an employee with good LMX relations might have over other workers (e.g., "the manager has my back"). This sense of support might endorse more unfiltered behavior towards others (for example, an individual may feel "safer" to speak ill of someone when he/she has good relations with the direct manager, as opposed to a situation whereas these relations are bad).
In light of this postulated explanation, and the modest results derived from our study, we assume that our social-exchange-focused model may be affected by the culture in which the study was conducted (i.e., Israel). For example, as for the cultural dimension of power distance (the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally; Hofstede, 2017) "Israel is at the very low end of this dimension compared to other countries... Workplaces have an informal atmosphere with direct and involving communication and on a first name basis. Employees expect to be consulted" (Hofstede, 2017). Moreover, regarding the cultural dimension of individualism-collectivism (the degree of interdependence a society maintains among its members; Hofstede, 2017), in Israel the "communication is direct and expressive". Therefore, it is plausible that in the Israeli culture the effects of exchanges between leader- and team-members on interpersonal-CWB are not moderated by group size. This is due to the communication being vastly informal to begin with, encouraging less formal exchanges (this is, of course, may be true to a certain extent of the size of the group). These cultural differences may also be relevant for the findings showing that envy had no significant moderation effects in the Israeli case (will be discussed in the General Discussion section).
As such, we searched for cultures that greatly differ from Israel on said dimensions, in which we would conduct a subsequent study. To that end, collaboration was found in the USA, which, as opposed to Israel, is characterized by considerably higher individualism and power distance (see: Hofstede, 2017). We believed that such vast differences may result in different findings we already derived from Study 1.
We chose a cross-cultural (i.e., inter-country), and not regional (i.e., intra-country), comparing approach because we advocate the notion Smith (2002) has portrayed:
Focusing on the culture-level enables researchers to characterize the broader environmental and social context within which individuals are socialized. A map of the world that is constructed not on the basis of geography, but on the basis of aggregated psychological data affords an opportunity to predict the types of socialization practices to be expected at particular locations. This should help to better understand why particular psychological phenomena prevail in some regions and not in others (p. 4).
This also supports the contention of eminent scholars that the ultimate test for validity of findings is their recurrence in numerous replications (James, Mulaik, & Brett, 1982).
In light of the partial support our model has received in Study 1, we thought it is possible that the modest results were influenced by the culture in which the study was conducted. Moreover, social exchanges may vary from one culture to another, and since LMX and TMX are exchange-based variables, their perception and outcomes may be culturally-dependent.
As such, we searched for cultures that greatly differ from Israel on said dimensions, in which we could conduct a consequent study. To that end, collaboration was found in the USA, which, as opposed to Israel, is characterized by considerably higher individualism and low power distance (see Hofstede, 2017). We believed that such vast differences may result in different findings we already found in Study 1.
We chose a cross-cultural (i.e., inter-country), and not regional (i.e., intra-country), comparative approach because we advocate the notion Smith (2002) has portrayed:
This also supports the contention of eminent scholars that the ultimate test for validity of findings is their recurrence in numerous replications (James et al., 1982).
Participants. Participants were 186 employees participating in Study 1 from various U.S. organizations and industries (e.g., services, high-tech, manufacturing), of which 43% were male and 57% were females between the ages of 20 and72 years (M = 29.03, SD = 10.49). In terms of education, 2% had full high-school education, 35% were B.S/B.A. students, 12% had some college education, 13% held a B.S/B.A. degree, and 38% held a M.A. degree or above. Regarding their work, 52% were in non-managerial roles, while 48% worked as managers. Tenure ranged between 0-33 years (M = 4.22, SD = 5.16).
Measures. The exact same measures used in Study 1 were also used in Study 2. Reliability coefficients (Cronbach's a), means and standard deviations of the variables are presented in Table 3 (Results section).
Table 3 Pearson Correlation Matrix, Means and Standard Deviations for the USA Sample (N = 186), with Reliability Coefficients on the Diagonal
Note. LMX = Leader-Member Exchange; TMX = Team-Member Exchange; Envy = Dispositional Envy; CWB-O = Organizational Counterproductive Work Behaviors; CWB-I = Interpersonal Counterproductive Work Behaviors; 1Range of team size between 1 and 115 employees.
Procedure. The electronic version of the research questionnaire was emailed as a link to employees in various organizations in Israel. Those wishing to participate replied that they did and were included in the total sample. Data analyses were done utilizing SPSS software (v. 23).
Common-method bias (CMB). In order to assess the extent to which inter-correlations among the variables might be an artifact of common method variance (CMV), we employed the Harman's single-factor model (in which all items loaded on one factor), and a latent common method factor model (in which all items loaded on both their expected factors and one latent common method factor) as suggested by Podsakoff et al., 2003. The Harman's single-factor method accounted only for 30.78% of the explained variance: c2(342) = 1,573.22, p = .000, c2/df = 4.60, CFI = .75, NFI = .82, GFI = .88, SRMR = .14, RMSEA (90% CI) = .22 (.11-.30), p-close = .000. In addition, the latent common method factor analysis produced for 28.11% of the explained variance: c2(337) = 1,294.73, p = .000, c2/df = 3.84, CFI = .80, NFI = .85, GFI = .91, SRMR = .10, RMSEA (90% CI) = .13 (.04-.17), p-close = .009. While these result does not rule out completely the possibility of same-source bias (i.e., CMV), according to Podsakoff et al. (2003) less than 50% (R2 < .50) of the explained variance accounted for by the first emerging factor indicates that CMB is an unlikely explanation of our investigation's findings, in conjunction with the bad model fit for each analysis.
Bivariate zero-order correlation matrix is among the variables of the research is displayed in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that (1) LMX negatively correlates with CWB-O and (2) negatively with CWB-I, (3) TMX also negatively associates with CWB-O and (4) with CWB-I. This shows full support for our basic hypotheses.
Further, in order to test the moderation hypotheses (H3.1-H6.2), we employed hierarchical regression analyses. The findings are presented in Table 4, for envy and group size as moderators, respectively.
Table 4 Hierarchical Regression Coefficients in Predicting CWB-O and CWB-I, USA Sample (N = 186)
Figure 4 Interaction Effect (LMX × Envy) on CWB-O, USA Sample.
Figure 5 Interaction Effect (LMX × Envy) on CWB-I, USA Sample.
As can be seen in Table 4, all of the interaction effects were significant, and thus, envy moderates the relationships between LMX or TMX and CWB-O or CWB-I. However, H3.1-H4.2 were not supported, because the outcome is a direct opposite of the effect we hypothesized. In other words, we assumed envy would mitigate the effects of LMX/TMX on CWB-O/CWB-I, but instead it enhanced them; the more envy-prone the individual, the stronger the (negative) effect of LMX or TMX on CWB-O or CWB-I. We discuss these findings in the Discussion section. These findings are illustrated in Figures 4-7.
Figure 6 Interaction Effect (TMX × Envy) on CWB-O, USA Sample.
Figure 7 Interaction Effect (TMX × Envy) on CWB-I, USA Sample.
Figure 4 shows that as the Envy level increases, the negative effect that LMX has on CWB-O enhances (i.e., negatively enhanced).
Figure 5 shows that as the Envy level increases, the negative effect that LMX has on CWB-I enhances (i.e., negatively enhanced). Of note, when Envy is at its lowest, the relationship between LMX and CWB-I is positive, yet weak.
Figure 6 shows that as the Envy level increases, the negative effect that TMX has on CWB-O enhances (i.e., negatively enhanced).
Figure 7 shows that as the Envy level increases, the negative effect that TMX has on CWB-I enhances (i.e., negatively enhanced).
Additionally, as can be seen in Table 4, all of the interaction effects were significant, and thus, group size moderates the relationships between LMX or TMX and CWB-O or CWB-I. Hence, H5.1-H6.2 were supported. In other words, the bigger the size of the unit/team the employee works in, the weaker the (negative) effect of LMX or TMX on CWB-O or CWB-I. These findings are illustrated in Figures 8-11.
Figure 8 Interaction Effect (LMX × Team Size) on CWB-O, USA Sample.
Figure 9 Interaction effect (LMX × Team Size) on CWB-I, USA Sample.
Figure 10 Interaction Effect (TMX × Team Size) on CWB-O, USA Sample.
Figure 11 Interaction Effect (TMX × Team Size) on CWB-I, USA Sample.
Figure 9 shows that as the group size increases, the negative effect that LMX has on CWB-I diminishes (i.e., positively enhanced). Of note, when group size is at its highest, the relationship between LMX and CWB-I is positive, and moderately-strong.
Figure 10 shows that as the group size increases, the negative effect that TMX has on CWB-O diminishes (i.e., positively enhanced).
Figure 11 shows that as the group size increases, the negative effect that TMX has on CWB-I diminishes (i.e., positively enhanced). Of note, when group size is at its highest, the relationship between TMX and CWB-I is positive, yet very weak.
In the second (USA) sample, most of our hypotheses were corroborated. Both, good relations with the manager (i.e., LMX) and the team (i.e., TMX) led to decreased engagements in CWB-O and CWB-I. Furthermore, we found, as hypothesized, that the size of the team moderates said associations such that the larger the unit, the weaker the effects of LMX or TMX on CWB-O or CWB-I. This supports the notion that the effect and the prominence of both "herding mentality" (Braha, 2012; Toch, 1988) and "diffusion of responsibility" (Kassin, Fein, Markus, & Burke, 2013) we reviewed are more dominant in larger teams, as opposed to smaller ones.
In addition, although not supported due to non-significance in Study 1, the moderation effects of envy on the negative effects of LMX or TMX on CWB-O or CWB-I were statistically significant, in this study. Envious individual(s) tends to feel inferior to the envied person(s) and would be more likely to actively try to assuage their feelings and change their subjective imposition (Heider, 1958). "Behaviorally, this means equalizing the envious person's position with that of the envied person" (Cohen-Charash & Mueller, 2007, p. 666). One way of achieving this goal is to harm others (Heider, 1958; i.e., CWB-O and CWB-I) as firstly hypothesized.
Table 5 depicts a summary of the hypotheses, from both Study 1 and Study 2.
Table 5 Hypotheses Summary for Both Studies
Note. 1Study 1; 2Study 2
The present research aimed to show the effects of good relationships with the immediate manager (i.e., LMX) and/or the working group/team (i.e., TMX) on workplace misbehavior (i.e., CWB; both, towards the peers/colleagues [CWB-I] or towards the organization [CWB-O] themselves). In addition, we tested the conditional effects dispositional envy and group size had on said associations. To this end, we engendered two consequent studies (i.e., Study 1 and Study 2, in Israel and the USA, respectively) to test and retest our hypotheses (see also Figure 1).
Our findings point that envy moderates the relationships between LMX or TMX and CWB-O or CBW-I, but only in the USA sample (Study 2), and no such effects were found in the Israeli one (Study 1). This supports the culturally-nested rationale we have given in the discussion section for Study 1; Israel is more collectivistic and has a lower power distance compared to the USA (see Hofstede, 2017), which may have led to different communication norms and characteristics. The direct, informal, and highly expressive communication (Hofstede, 2017) is so prominent and engrossed in the Israeli culture that the quality of the exchanges becomes of secondary importance. The lower power distance in Israel permits individuals to express themselves with minimal filters, regardless of the quality of the exchanges they have with other people. For example, the contents of a conversation at work may often include making fun of someone or joking about their personal life, which in many places would have been considered as a CWB-I, but in Israel it may be regarded as a "friendly gesture". This rationale receives additional support from the differences between Israel and the USA in the link between LMX and CWB-I. While in Israel said association is positive (i.e., good relations with the direct manager increased the probability of engaging in CWB-I), in the USA these variables are negatively associated. This logic can also be applicated to the correlational differences of TMX and CWB (both dimensions), between Israel and the USA. In Israel, the social exchanges between team members are non-exclusive. For example, although an employee knows to which team he/she is formally positioned, he/she usually develops a wide range of social exchanges with other members of other teams. Therefore, his/her sense of belonging is not limited to the formal team positioning, to be expected by the informal communication culture in Israel. However, in the USA, the formalization is considerably higher and therefore a working team may be defined both, formally and socially. This eye-level, collective, direct, and informal communication, in Israel "steals the show" (see Shkoler et al., 2017) for the predictors (LMX and TMX) and the moderators (envy and group size) in regard to the interpersonal dimension of CWB. On the other hand, in the USA, power distance is considerably higher, and therefore the communication is more formal and reserved. In this sense, CWB-I behaviors are, mostly, a product of social exchanges, and are less affected by the style of communication.
Another plausible explanation for the inconsistent moderation effects of dispositional envy (Israel vs. USA) is the role of organizational cultures encouraging envy as a motivational antecedent to work behaviors and performance (see Duffy, Shaw, & Schaubroeck, 2008). That is to say, such cultures make the conditions for envy (as a dispositional trait) to be manifested to a greater degree. Support for this logic can be derived from the Trait Activation Theory (Tett & Burnett, 2003), in which "trait activation is the process by which individuals express their traits when presented with trait-relevant situational cues" (p. 502). For example, greater time investment in work is encouraged by displaying employees who do so as "hero" role models (Shimazu, Kubota, & Bakker, 2015), and hence some organizations would praise these "heroes" in order to provoke and activate the envy disposition (see Duffy et al., 2008). As such, envy may manifest differently in various countries and cultures since their cues can activate it differently – depending on varying job tasks and organizational expectations (Tett & Burnett, 2003). Therefore, we may assume that the difference between cultures of Israeli and American organizations vary to a certain extent that the latter endorses envy as a motivational antecedent to work behaviors and performance (see Duffy et al., 2008). This notion is also supported by Study 2's findings regarding envy as an enhancing moderator as hypothesized. It is important to note that, as mentioned, this is a possible explanation and should be further investigated in future research.
Furthermore, group size in the USA case moderated all of the links suggested in the model (Figure 1), as hypothesized (see Study 2). However, in the Israeli case (Study 1) it emerged as a moderator only on the relationships between LMX- and TMX-organizational CWB, but not for interpersonal-CWB (see also, Table 5). In light of these findings, we propose that the cultural differences rationale plays, yet again, an important role in this web of associations. The informal communication in the Israeli culture (Hofstede, 2017) might mitigate or even cancel the impact the size of the group, such that Israeli workers may feel the same level of communication whether the work group is smaller or larger altogether (to a certain extent). In contrast, in the USA, the considerably higher formal and reserved communication may give the size of the group the power to influence it and the group's intimacy. Respectively, small working groups may facilitate frequent and fluent communication between members and may enable them to better understand each other's roles and skills (Katzenbach & Smith, 2015).
Theoretical Implications
Our paper shows the importance of conducting cross-cultural research. Specifically, it demonstrates that conceptual models may work differently in different cultures (see also Smith, 2002). This is backed up by exclusive journals which were founded on the fundamentals of cross-cultural differences (e.g., Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, Cross-Cultural Research, International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, etc.).
We also demonstrated the importance of testing both individual differences and contextual variables (for further reading, see Judge & Zapata, 2015; Staw & Cohen-Charash, 2005) as each may give birth to interesting results, with special regard in cross-cultural cases.
The conjunction of the two implications mentioned points at the cultural differences in attitudes and behaviors, which are of paramount importance when conducting researches, with special regard to drawing conclusions off them (see, for example Buzea, 2014; Smith, 2002).
Practical Implications
As our findings show, organizations should advocate maintaining good relationships between employees and their managers (as managers can provide employees with support and other work-relevant resources; Hobfoll, 1989; see also Zagenczyk, Purvis, Shoss, Scott, & Cruz, 2015), and also try to cultivate good relations between working groups' members. All of which at the sole aim of reducing the probability that workers would engage in counterproductive work behaviors at the workplace.
Organizations that encourage envy in order to motivate employees should carefully consider the repercussions of such a manipulation. In the USA, envy enables a stronger negative effect between LMX or TMX and CWB-O or CWB-I. Nevertheless, these findings were clearly not the same for Israeli sample. Ergo, engendering envy-based motivation may result in desirable/no/opposite outcomes of what the organization had wished to achieve in the first place.
While envy-prone employees are more difficult to manipulate, the group size is easier to set. Organizations should encourage creating small, and therefore more intimate and communicative teams, in order to enjoy the positive effects of good relationships with managers and other team members. However as mentioned before, this is culture-dependent.
Our research data was based on single-source scores, and as such may limit our understanding of the phenomena under investigation. Moreover, the items of the Dispositional Envy Scale (Smith et al., 1999) and the CWBs (Spector et al., 2006) are of a judgmental nature about the employee's conduct at work. The questionnaire acts "as a critic", thus making it hard for the examinee to report negative behaviors (including towards others). People usually find it hard to admit behaviors such as envy, theft, or disparagement of others, even to themselves or under promise of anonymity (see, for example, Shkoler & Tziner, 2017).
We, thus, recommend (1) conducting more cross-cultural differences types of research in order to shed more light unto the construct validity of models tested in single countries, (2) testing our model in other countries to revalidate it (e.g., eastern societies), (3) using other-rater scores, not only self-report in data collection, and (4) making modifications to our model or test it with different moderators to portray a larger picture of the findings. For example, instead of envy and group size, perceived justice/fairness and industry type, etc.
We would like to express our profound gratitude to the reviewers for their insightful and helpful comments which considerably contributed to improving the quality of this paper.
Cite this article as: Shkoler, O., Rabenu, E., Tabak, F., & Lebron, M. J. (2019). Leader- and team-member exchanges and their relationships with organizational and interpersonal counterproductive work behaviors: Moderation by envy and group size in Israel and USA. Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 35, 145-156.https://doi.org/10.5093/jwop2019a19
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Recibido: 08 de Febrero de 2019; Aprobado: 29 de Marzo de 2019; : 04 de Octubre de 2019
Correspondence: or.shkoler@gmail.com (O. Shkoler).
The authors of this article declare no conflict of interest.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial No Derivative License, which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited and the work is not changed in any way.
C/ Cuesta de San Vicente, nº 4, 4ª planta, Madrid, Madrid, ES, 28008, 91 541 99 99, Fax: 91 559 03 03
publicacionescopm@cop.es


Inspired by true events, Radio 930 is the story of Bernhard Heidt, a bright young engineer in the East German Secret Police (the Stasi) who is given the task of tracking down and jamming a pirate rock & roll station broadcasting from inside East Berlin on AM frequency 930kHz. This illegal station is run by a rebel group – The Bricks.
Bern has been indoctrinated by the East German government since childhood and is a loyal Party member. But as he works to shut down radio station 930, he begins to question the Stasi's brutal tactics and the officer in charge of the operation, his uncle Otto, a surrogate father since his parents' death.
In an unexpected turn of events, Bern becomes enthralled with the forbidden music and the freedom it represents and is soon seduced by one of the Brick's ringleaders, the beautiful Maja. His world slowly shatters as he begins to lead a double life – Stasi agent by day and rebel by night.
Caught between love, rock & roll, and the Communist Party, Bern must grapple to understand what it means to be family, what it means to be free, and in the end – to do the right thing.
Radio 930 is the first musical with a score comprised of '70's rock & roll hits – Jimi Hendrix's All Along The Watchtower, The Moody Blues Question, Cheap Trick's I Want You To Want Me ….
…. plus the deeper tracks known as Album Oriented Rock (AOR) – The Tubes' What Do You Want From Life?, Chicago's Where Do We Go From Here, and T.Rex's Children Of The Revolution.
… so evocative you are instantly transported back in time.
The 1970's were the era of pet rocks, waterbeds, and "Have a nice day!" But they were also a decade of East/West tensions and tumultuous change, much like the political climate we face today.
It is Radio 930's belief that the art form of rock & roll music will have continuing impact on the 21st Century's global movement towards freedom and human rights.
David is Broadway's Resident Director of School of Rock (Winter Garden Theatre).
Is an Emmy winning composer who has been making some kind of noise for years, conducting, composing, orchestrating, arranging.
Josh is an internationally produced playwright and screenwriter. His plays have been included as finalists for The O'Neill Playwrights Conference.
Klara has been designing extensively for theatre both in the United States and in Europe.  Her work has been seen on Broadway.
Selected Broadway: School of Rock, A Bronx Tail, Dr. Zhivago, It Shoulda Been You, Gigi, Bullets Over Broadway.
Janet is a music industry veteran whose past projects include Broadway's Rock of Ages and Disaster, Camp Lisa with Lisa Loeb.
DTE MANAGEMENT (General Management) Founded by Ken Davenport and currently under the supervision of Ryan Conway.
Plans are now underway for Radio 930 to open as a developmental production in 2020.
To join our mailing list and learn more about Radio 930, please provide your name and email address in the space below.
DAVID RUTTURA (Director) is Broadway's Resident Director of School of Rock (Winter Garden Theatre). Other Resident or Associate Director credits include Spiderman: Turn Off The Dark (Broadway), A Man For All Seasons (Roundabout Theatre Company), Phantom of the Opera (National US Tour); Old Jews Telling Jokes (Chicago Co.); Fanny (City Center Encores); Ben Hur Live (International Arena Tour); The Wiz (Centre Centre Encores); Boom A Ring (Ringling Bros/National Tour); White Christmas (Detroit, Boston, Toronto); The Wiz (La Jolla Playhouse); Zhivago (La Jolla Playhouse); Follies (The Kennedy Center), Lombardi (NFL); Million Dollar Quartet (Broadway Across America). David's directorial credits include: Priscilla Queen of the Desert (Ogunquit Playhouse); White Christmas (Gateway Playhouse); Hot Mess in Manhattan (Araca Project); Electra in a One-Piece (Good Company/The Wild Project); He Who Laughs: Live by Isaac Oliver (TAI Group/Ars Nova); Moustache Guys by Mike Lew (Second Generation) (Joe's Pub); Eddie Goshen is Dead (Fordham Playwriting Program); Red, White and Purple (Ensemble Studio Theater).
Josh Billig – (Book) is an internationally produced playwright and screenwriter. His plays have been included as finalists for The O'Neill Playwrights Conference, WordBridge Playwrights Lab, The Princess Grace Fellowship, The Smith Playwriting Prize, and his play Outside Sitka was the recipient of the Tennessee Williams Festival Playwriting Award. He is also the creator of the upcoming series DramaWorld that will be airing on Netflix and Viki.com. Josh received his MFA from NYU Tisch.
KLARA ZIEGLEROVA – (Scenic Design) has been designing extensively for theatre both in the United States and in Europe. Her work has been seen on Broadway, where Ms Zieglerova designed Sister Act at the Broadway Theatre, directed by Jerry Zaks, The Farnsworth Invention by Aaron Sorkin at the Music Box, directed by Des McAnuff; Jersey Boys at the August Wilson Theatre, directed by Des McAnuff and The Search for Signs of Intelligent Life in the Universe at the Booth Theatre, directed by Jane Wagner. In London's West End she has designed Sister Act at the London Palladium and Jersey Boys at the Prince Edward's Theatre. Ms Zieglerova has received a Tony Award nomination for her design of Jersey Boys. Klara has designed numerous productions all over the United States at theaters such as the New York Public Theater, Manhattan Theatre Club, New York Theatre Workshop, Irish Repertory Theatre, La Jolla Playhouse, Cincinnati Playhouse, Dallas Theater Center, Portland Center Stage, Seattle Rep, Florida Stage, Wiliamstown, and others. Klara has also designed the interior of the New World Stages in New York – the home of five Off Broadway Theatres (www.newworldstages.com).  She won The Green Room Award 2010 (Australia) for Best Design of a Musical, The Best Set Design of the 2009 Theatregoers' Choice Award London (both for Jersey Boys), 2005 Lumen Award (New World Stages), 2003 Drammy Award for Best Set Design; 2000 Carbonell Award for Best Set Design; sets for the Best Touring Production, 2003 L.A. Ovation Award. Ms Zieglerova is currently based both in London and New York City.
TARA RUBIN CASTING – Kaitlin Shaw (CSA) Selected Broadway: School of Rock, A Bronx Tail, Dr. Zhivago, It Shoulda Been You, Gigi, Bullets Over Broadway, Aladdin, Les Miserables, Big Fish, How To Succeed…, Billy Elliot, Shrek, Guys and Dolls, Young Frankenstein, Mary Poppins, Spamalot, Jersey Boys, ….Spelling Bee, The Producers, Mamma Mia!, The Phantom of the Opera. Regional: Yale Repertory, Paper Mill Playhouse, La Jolla Playhouse, The Old Globe.
NANCY PARIS & CHARLES YURICK – were co-creators of the stage productions Ballroom Rocks (2011) and They Called It Rock (2014), touring dance shows which were the precursors to Radio 930: Children of the Revolution. Nancy's career highlights include choreographer for special productions at Harrah's Atlantic City, The Mirage Las Vegas, MGM Grand Las Vegas, and industrials for Clinique, Maybelline, Pepsi International, GE and Ray Ban. Charles is an award winning filmmaker and editor. Recent credits include: Still On The Line – Jimmy Webb – A Tribute to Glen Campbell (Creative Director & Projection Design, live concert tour 2016) Never Stand Still – Dancing at Jacob's Pillow (Theatrical feature release – 2012, PBS Great Performances – 2013). Charles is also a director/editor whose work encompasses numerous promos, TV ads and marketing campaigns for such iconic brands as Cadillac, Chevrolet, Deloitte, Coca Cola, IBM and AT&T. Nancy was a two-time recipient of dance grants from the Canada Council of the Arts, and is an alumna of The Juilliard School.
RYAN CONWAY – DTE MANAGEMENT (General Management) Founded by Ken Davenport and currently under the supervision of Ryan Conway, DTE Management is an industry leader in general management services for Broadway and Off-Broadway productions. DTE Management is most recently recognized on Broadway by the Tony Award-Nominated revival of Spring Awakening. Other selected credits include Avenue Q, Clinton the Musical, Daddy Long Legs, Once on This Island, Claudio Quest, The Awesome 80s Prom, and My First Time.
Copyright 2018 Radio 930 Entertainment, LLC - All rights reserved.


I'm a designer from Yorkshire, England focused on designing apps & websites that delight users. I'm a top developer on the Play Store and was given a Material Design award by Google. View some of my work below or download a copy of my portfolio.
Bouncer changes Android's permission model to increase privacy without adding complicated behaviours and tools for the user. Without need to root, the user can benefit from a more secure experience that increases battery life.
Knockify's goal was to build an experience that had almost no visual element but was extremely productive for users. It communicates to users through sequences of vibrations and allows the user to respond by knocking on their phone.
Luci is a lucid dreaming companion based around a dream journal. The aim was to provide a welcoming experience to lucid dreaming that provided functionality for experts whilst remaining inviting to beginners.
Hurry is a complete re-imagining of a countdown app. It has a dark theme with striking gradients, gif backgrounds and animations that will keep you pumped for your favourite upcoming events. And if you just need to pass away the time it's got a mini-game inside.
This design uses a dark muted map with a striking (get it?) yellow theme to provide strong contrast. The custom detail box resembles the app's notification on an Apple Watch to provide synergy between the 2 interfaces.
Yet another take on a weather app. It removed the traditional approach of having separate screens for now, soon and later and condensed the info into a single timeline. It was picked for editor's choice and is one of the top weather apps on the Play Store, along with earning me a Material Design award.
This app was designed to be minimal and to echo a lot of the design principles from iOS and Apple's health suite. It condenses a lot of complex information into a user friendly manner so the user doesn't feel like checking pollen is another chore.
A beautiful iOS app to help users observe the northern lights with maps, charts and everything else you need.
This is an interaction design for a flight tracker for iOS. The aim was to give the user information regarding their flight as quickly as possible so they can read it in a rush. This is provided using clean and bold typography and consistent theming (red meaning the flight is late). Plus there's an easter egg to rewind/fast forward the plane along its flight path.
CoinCalc was one of the first converters to embrace material design. It's a lean mean currency-converting machine with beautiful animations to boot. The arrows of the switch button even change with the colour of the currency.
Here are some prototypes that haven't hit production yet. Firstly, a crowdfunding app that visualises donations as balls. Second, using parallax to give the user a sense of depth over more conventional shadows.
This was an app that notified you when tickets became available instantly, so you could jump on them before others/bots. Unfortunately it was never released due to new restrictions from ticket sellers websites.
Tippy was an anonymous social network to share lifehacks and tricks with other users to save money, time or just have fun.
Magic Ruler is a simple app that uses sensor data from your phone to measure distances. It was a fun project that gave surprisingly accurate answers.
One of my first Android apps was this app to watch episodes of the hugely popular web show Jake & Amir. It was unofficial but endorsed by them. It had a strong user base until the show ended in early 2015.


text:
OnePlus 6 makes a cameo in two variants ahead of official launch next week
Ben Schoon
- May. 7th 2018 2:44 pm PT
@NexusBen
While Google I/O is the name of the game this week, there are some big smartphone launches happening later this month. One of those is the OnePlus 6, and today, we're getting another peek at the phone ahead of its official reveal…
The best gifts for Android users
Earlier today on Twitter, Amitabh Bachchan, an actor in India, posted a couple of pictures from a meetup with OnePlus' Pete Lau. In the tweet, we get another look at the OnePlus 6 in two color variants, black and white/gold. While there's nothing particularly new revealed about the hardware in these shots, this is the first time we're seeing the white/gold color variant.
Of course, we've known for quite a while that the OnePlus 6 is going to arrive with a glass and metal build, a departure from the all-aluminum design of the OnePlus 5 and OnePlus 5T. Under the hood, the phone is packing the Snapdragon 845, up to 8GB of RAM, and up to 256GB of storage.
If you're excited about the OnePlus 6, it won't be long before the phone is officially revealed. OnePlus is hosting an event on May 16th to fully reveal its latest flagship, with orders rumored to go live shortly after.
Check out 9to5Google on YouTube for more news:
Known for its tagline "Never Settle," OnePlus makes smartphones that rival other flagship handsets with more budget-friendly price tags.
Ben is a writer and video producer for 9to5Google. Find him on Twitter @NexusBen. Email schoon@9to5mac.com
Ben Schoon's favorite gear
Nomad case for Pixel 3
Best Android Smartwatches

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Type Script don't find local CSS module I'm refactoring my React app to Type Script. In each component Type Script gives me this error

Cannot find module './.module.css' or its corresponding type declarations

How I can resolve this error without webpack(if this possible)?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
A 2003-as magyar atlétikai bajnokságon, amely a 108. bajnokság volt. Elmaradtak a maratoni váltók szabadtéren, fedett pályán a hosszútávú gyaloglószámokat 3 és 5000 m-esre változtatták.

Szabadtéri bajnokság

Férfiak

Nők

Fedett pályás bajnokság

Férfiak

Nők

Téli dobóbajnokság

Férfiak

Nők

Magyar atlétikai csúcsok
 n. 300 m 37.43 ocs. Petráhn Barbara Győri Dózsa Mexikóváros 5. 3.
 n. 800 m 1:59.46 ocs. Varga Judit Haladás VSE Ostrava 6. 12.
 n. 10 000 m 31:40.31 ocs. Kálovics Anikó Haladás VSE Watford 7. 5.
 kalapácsvetés 84.19 m ocs. Annus Adrián HVSE Szombathely 8. 10.
 gerelyvetés 81.55 m ocs. Horváth Gergely RS-ZAC Nyíregyháza 8. 2.
 fp. n. 100 m gát 13.27 ocs. Vári Edit BEAC Budapest 3. 7.
 fp. nehézkalapács 19.78 m ocs. Máté Gábor Csepeli ASE Gainesville 3. 2.

Források
Magyar atlétika honlap

Magyaratletikaibajnoksag
Magyar atlétikai bajnokságok

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Memprot is a program that aims to fit Small Angle X-ray Scattering curves of detergent solubilized membrane proteins. Given an experimental scattering curve and an all-atom model of the membrane protein, the algorithm tries to find a coarse-grained detergent corona structure that leads to the minimal discrepancy between calculated scattering curves and experiment.
The geometrical and electron density parameters of the detergent corona are defined in the associated publication (Pérez, J. & Koutsioubas, A. (2014). Acta Cryst.(2015). D71, 86¿93). These parameters are varied through the execution of the program in order to find the optimum set. For the theoretical scattering curve calculations the program Crysol (ATSAS suite) is used and should be installed on the machine.


text:
#import <Foundation/Foundation.h>

@class FIRCollectionReference;
@class FIRDocumentReference;
@class FIRDocumentSnapshot;
@class FIRFirestore;
@class FIRQuerySnapshot;

/** Allow tests to just use an int literal for versions. */
typedef int64_t FSTTestSnapshotVersion;

NS_ASSUME_NONNULL_BEGIN

#if __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif

/** A convenience method for creating dummy singleton FIRFirestore for tests. */
FIRFirestore *FSTTestFirestore();

/** A convenience method for creating a doc snapshot for tests. */
FIRDocumentSnapshot *FSTTestDocSnapshot(const char *path,
                                        FSTTestSnapshotVersion version,
                                        NSDictionary<NSString *, id> *_Nullable data,
                                        BOOL hasMutations,
                                        BOOL fromCache);

/** A convenience method for creating a collection reference from a path string. */
FIRCollectionReference *FSTTestCollectionRef(const char *path);

/** A convenience method for creating a document reference from a path string. */
FIRDocumentReference *FSTTestDocRef(const char *path);

/**
 * A convenience method for creating a particular query snapshot for tests.
 *
 * @param path To be used in constructing the query.
 * @param oldDocs Provides the prior set of documents in the QuerySnapshot. Each dictionary entry
 * maps to a document, with the key being the document id, and the value being the document
 * contents.
 * @param docsToAdd Specifies data to be added into the query snapshot as of now. Each dictionary
 * entry maps to a document, with the key being the document id, and the value being the document
 * contents.
 * @param hasPendingWrites Whether the query snapshot has pending writes to the server.
 * @param fromCache Whether the query snapshot is cache result.
 * @param hasCachedResults Whether the query snapshot has results in the cache.
 * @return A query snapshot that consists of both sets of documents.
 */
FIRQuerySnapshot *FSTTestQuerySnapshot(
    const char *path,
    NSDictionary<NSString *, NSDictionary<NSString *, id> *> *oldDocs,
    NSDictionary<NSString *, NSDictionary<NSString *, id> *> *docsToAdd,
    BOOL hasPendingWrites,
    BOOL fromCache,
    BOOL hasCachedResults);

#if __cplusplus
}  // extern "C"
#endif

NS_ASSUME_NONNULL_END

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


While on the subject of lighting I thought I would share some chandeliers that have been inspiring me lately. I've been interested in lighting because I am dying to replace the fixture that is above our dining room.
It's tragic, it's awful, I'm embarassed to show it to you. But I will since I know you won't laugh; too hard.
Seriously, who puts a ceiling fan above the dining room table? If you had it on all your food would get cold. It's not even a nice ceiling fan. Our vintage house who has had a lot of owners so who knows who installed it. I think about changing it a lot.
So as usual I've been perusing websites looking for lighting inspiration.
Love this classic Possini White Flower Pendant light. It can work in so many spaces.
Oooohh, look at this! Its the Coral Pendant from David Trubridge Co. I wonder how difficult it would be to try and make this from wood veneer. You could cut it out with an Exacto then fasten the pieces together. Might take forever, but might be worth it!
Speaking of wood veneer, check out this little beauty from lzf-lamps. It's the Agatha pendant. it seems like you can buy some wood veneer, cut strips and drape them around a bulb.
I also like this Cloud Pendant from Fire Farm lighting. It's made of acrylic so I'm not sure how I would try to make it myself- it's nice to look at though.
These lights are from the Charm collection from Gallery. You can find it at Leucos USA or try making one of your own. The designer ones are etched glass, but you can get a similar look with vinyl or frosted glass spray.
I threw this little guy in for fun. I've loved seeing all the mason jar lights I've seen around like this one at Kara Paslay or this one at 3 Sunkissed Boys. I'd love to make one of these myself one day.
Ps: I'm in love with the Agatha light and the cloud and Ball jar lights aren't bad either.
Oh, Rachelle! I feel your pain. I have those all around my house. EVERY bedroom, the living, and family room. South florida is very hot so we do need the fans but good lord they ones we have are UGLY! One day I'll replace them.
I love the Cloud Pendant. I wonder if the Agatha pendent can be recreated with another type of material perhaps? Hmmm!
BTW, Kara Paslay also sells the mason jar chandellier. I bought one from her (that I've yet to install) because I was too chicken to tackle that project.
The Ball jar is my favorite, for sure! So cute!!!!!!


Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi and President of Uzbekistan H.E. Mr. Shavkat Mirziyoyev held a bilateral meeting on the sidelines of the "Vibrant Gujarat Global Summit-2019" on 18 January 2019.
Among other things, both leaders witnessed the exchange of the contract between the Department of Atomic Energy of India and the Novoi Minerals and Metallurgical Company of the Republic of Uzbekistan on long-term supply of Uranium Ore Concentrate for India's energy requirements.
Shri K N Vyas, Secretary DAE & Chairman AEC from the Indian side and H.E. Mr. Sohib Saifzazarov, Deputy Minister of Economy and Industry of the Republic of Uzbekistan exchanged the contract.


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Home » News » Two new trailers for Shadows of the Damned
Two new trailers for Shadows of the Damned
EA released two new trailers for their upcoming hit/scary/action/third person shooter called Shadows of the Damned. One of the trailers presents our hero trying to take down a boss that looks like a birdy thing and the second introduces us to a character that Garcia Hotspur will encounter during his adventure.
Take a look bellow…
Shadows of the Damned will be in stores on June 21 for PS3 and Xbox 360.
Shadows of the Damned GDC 11 trailer & screens
Shadows of the Damned Box Art
Alice: Madness Returns gameplay trailers
Battlefield 3: Gameplay/Commentary with Executive Producer Patrick Bach
Dungeon Siege 3 Lucas gameplay video


Sammi Cheng is exactly what you call a commercial actress and her track record as Box-office queen for the past decade only enhance my statement. However, 2005 HK cinema is a year of change, for better or for worst – casting against type with Aaron Kwok in mismatched clothes, Ekin Cheng with glasses, Karena Lam as ugly monster, Leon Lai as handicapped and finally Sammi Cheng as an actress. Based on a real life story, Kwan attempts to recreate not one love story, but he ones that come and go in the live of one woman. While, watching Sammi Cheng is always interesting and the movie at times entertains, but ultimately the effect is far too distant and separated from its audience for its own good. Sure, Everlasting Regret isn't unwatchable, but Kwan isn't Wong Kar Wai who somehow can make a scene of the sky into art and it is exactly where Kwan fails – a beautiful painting without a fitting frame.
The movie goes like this: Based on Wang Anyi's Changhen Ge, the multi-award winning novel that was voted the most influential work of the 90s in China, Everlasting Regret follows a legendary Shanghai beauty (Sammi Cheng) from her glamorous days to her simpler life, as she struggles to preserve the dignity of her past while surviving the constant betrayal of her men. She stands tall and proud as she bears witness to the waves of changes to her city from 1947 to 1981, until one wave finally overwhelms her.
Perhaps the best thing about this movie is its well thought out title – Everlasting Regret as it not only sums up the movie in two provoking words, but also defines Sammi's character and the everlasting pain of regrets living within her eyes. While the pacing of the movie is a heck too slow and even at times boring, nothing can be taken away from the beautiful recreated sets of 1900s Shanghai, nor the coming of age performances from Sammi or the paper thin role that Tony Leung Ka Fai made so memorable.
Neo have never been fond of rumours nor did he believe in Sammi's troubled conditions while filming. With all said put aside, Neo can broadly claim that while Sammi is clearly miscast, but her performance here showed great commitment, strength and the regrets living within her eyes are radiant along with the hint of natural beauty within her character. It is a flawed, yet beautiful performance, that while couldn't quite save the movie, but it made Sammi into an "actress". Sure, many viewers will be criticising Sammi for constantly starring into the distant, in an attempt to show her depression and in return disconnecting the audience from understanding her character and deep thoughts, but that's to the fault of the director than her own abilities.
In a way, Everlasting Regret seems like a female version of WKW's 2046 as it share similar themes of chance meeting, romance and regrets, but that is where all the similarities end. While the latter is heart felt, Regret is seamlessly distant and the result is a huge missed opportunity on the director's behalf. However, Kwan's work is at times engaging, though rarely, the first 45 minutes is a seamlessly enthralling ride with a clear intention – "it's no good meeting the right person, when history doesn't allows it." Sammi's romance with the Police chief is fascinating to uncover the feelings of regrets and wrong timing is all the more evident. However, the meeting time is far too short as Kwan seems to be rushing through her life like someone who is late to work during rush hour and stopping at every traffic light along the way. The effect is like a car spending off and cruising on a highway, and then all of a sudden, it turned into a "no through road". If only more time is spend on each relationship, perhaps it would be a very different movie, but then again – who knows?
As noted before, Tony Leung Ka Fai is suitably wasted in a tole that is as thin as a sheet of A4 paper, but somehow he made the role more realistic than intended, more believable and more insanely human. Leung fits in to the exact mode as to what a friend of mine once told me – "it is alright to wait, but if you end up waiting for the wrong person, then you will be wasting your time." However, the problem exist within the fact that nobody will ever know the future, so what makes someone a "wrong person" to wait for?