text:
In 1983, the American cryptographer David Chaum conceived an anonymous cryptographic electronic money called ecash.[7][8] Later, in 1995, he implemented it through Digicash,[9] an early form of cryptographic electronic payments which required user software in order to withdraw notes from a bank and designate specific encrypted keys before it can be sent to a recipient. This allowed the digital currency to be untraceable by the issuing bank, the government, or any third party.
Coinbase requires you to link a bank account, or credit or debit card to your Coinbase account to purchase cryptocurrencies. Using a bank account allows for higher limits ($100/transaction, $2,500/week), but it also takes longer to verify transactions, so you will not see money in your Coinbase wallet for two to four days (depending on your bank). And when selling Bitcoin, once the sale is confirmed, it takes two to four days for the proceeds of that sale to show up in your bank account. With a credit or debit card, limits are lower ($200/week), but you can purchase digital currencies by simply transferring funds from that bank account to the site. For these transactions, Bitcoin shows up in your Coinbase wallet instantaneously. You can also sell Bitcoin to your PayPal account, effectively cashing out, as your Bitcoin will be exchanged for local currency. This transaction, too, is instantaneous.
Warum Bitcoin kaufen und Verkaufspreis ist anders
Coinbase has two core products: a Global Digital Asset Exchange (GDAX) for trading a variety of digital assets on its professional asset trading platform, and a user-facing retail broker of Bitcoin, Bitcoin Cash, Ether, Ethereum Classic, and Litecoin for fiat currency.[24] It also offers an API for developers and merchants to build applications and accept payments in both digital currencies. As of 2018, the company offered buy/sell trading functionality in 32 countries,[42] while the cryptocurrency wallet was available in 190 countries worldwide.[43] On March 26, 2018, Coinbase announced their intention to add support for ERC-20 tokens.[44]
In May 2018, Bitcoin Gold (and two other cryptocurrencies) were hit by a successful 51% hashing attack by an unknown actor, in which exchanges lost estimated $18m.[citation needed] In June 2018, Korean exchange Coinrail was hacked, losing US$37 million worth of altcoin. Fear surrounding the hack was blamed for a $42 billion cryptocurrency market selloff.[72] On 9 July 2018 the exchange Bancor had $23.5 million in cryptocurrency stolen.[73]
Wie lange dauert es, eine Bitcoin Transaktion bestatigen
In March 2018, Binance announced its intentions to open an office in Malta after stricter regulations in Japan and China.[5] In April 2018, Binance signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the Government of Bermuda[6]. Months later, a similar memorandum was signed with the Malta Stock Exchange to develop a platform for trading security tokens[7]. In 2019, company announced Binance Jersey, an independent entity from its parent Binance.com exchange, with the aim to expand its European influence. Jersey based exchange offers fiat-to-cryptocurrency pairs, including the Euro and the British pound.[8]
Kryptowahrung Regelung pdf
Essentially, if you are interested in trading in digital currencies but don't want to get bogged down in the underlying technology, products like Coinbase are a way to begin a foray into a new form of currency speculation and investing. You do, however, lose some of the advantages of trading in a cryptocurrency and through the blockchain. On Coinbase, you have no pseudo anonymity—your name is attached to your Coinbase account and so is your bank account, so transaction history is relatively easy to track down. And if you're not working on the blockchain, there's not much you can do to ensure that the verification of your transaction history or your account is taking place on the blockchain. You are, instead, placing trust in the intermediary, in this case, Coinbase.
Ist Bergbau ZCash profitabel
Kann Bitcoins Sie reich machen
Litecoin is a peer-to-peer Internet currency that enables instant, near-zero cost payments to anyone in the world. Litecoin is an open source, global payment network that is fully decentralized without any central authorities. Mathematics secures the network and empowers individuals to control their own finances. Litecoin features faster transaction confirmation times and improved storage efficiency than the leading math-based currency. With substantial industry support, trade volume and liquidity, Litecoin is a proven medium of commerce complementary to Bitcoin.
Ist Bergbau Bitcoin legal in Katar
Coinbase is a terrible and unprofessional company. They've ignored my requests for escalation after providing no feed back on the issues I am having. These issues are costing this customer not only monetarily, but due to the lack of transparency with new policies in which coinbase will hold your funds hostage for 10 days while advising that it can be transferred "instantly" is not only false, but malicious contempt.
Wie viele verschiedene Arten von Kryptowahrung gibt es
The novel hybrid consensus-based TrueChain tends to rely on POW consensus for random node selection, instead of using the slow chain mechanism to ensure security like Thunder.Although TrueChain has released dozens of Dapps, the number of its addresses (including active ones)and transactions is small. After the mainnet is launched, the project has run out of short-term bullish factors, which, plus the underdevelopment of its ecosystem, leads to a price slump within a short period of time. It will take some time for investors to regain confidence.
LTCUSD down trend in full effect and Clubber Lang predicts more pain ahead. Death cross and now 100 EMA has crossed the 200 EMA on the 1D chart. Likely sideways movement at mid to lower $50s for a short period then breaching the upper $40s to do the same thing over again in the mid then the lower $40s thereafter. Can't see going much higher than low $60s in the...
The term altcoin has various similar definitions. Stephanie Yang of The Wall Street Journal defined altcoins as "alternative digital currencies,"[20] while Paul Vigna, also of The Wall Street Journal, described altcoins as alternative versions of bitcoin.[21] Aaron Hankins of the MarketWatch refers to any cryptocurrencies other than bitcoin as altcoins.[22]
Top 3 Kryptowahrung im Jahr 2018 zu investieren
In cryptocurrency networks, mining is a validation of transactions. For this effort, successful miners obtain new cryptocurrency as a reward. The reward decreases transaction fees by creating a complementary incentive to contribute to the processing power of the network. The rate of generating hashes, which validate any transaction, has been increased by the use of specialized machines such as FPGAs and ASICs running complex hashing algorithms like SHA-256 and Scrypt.[30] This arms race for cheaper-yet-efficient machines has been on since the day the first cryptocurrency, bitcoin, was introduced in 2009.[30] With more people venturing into the world of virtual currency, generating hashes for this validation has become far more complex over the years, with miners having to invest large sums of money on employing multiple high performance ASICs. Thus the value of the currency obtained for finding a hash often does not justify the amount of money spent on setting up the machines, the cooling facilities to overcome the enormous amount of heat they produce, and the electricity required to run them.[30][31]
Litecoin was released via an open-source client on GitHub on October 7, 2011 by Charlie Lee, a Google employee and former Engineering Director at Coinbase.[2][3] The Litecoin network went live on October 13, 2011. It was a fork of the Bitcoin Core client, differing primarily by having a decreased block generation time (2.5 minutes), increased maximum number of coins, different hashing algorithm (scrypt, instead of SHA-256), and a slightly modified GUI.
Was ist ein Kryptowahrung Whitepaper
The legal status of cryptocurrencies varies substantially from country to country and is still undefined or changing in many of them. While some countries have explicitly allowed their use and trade,[51] others have banned or restricted it. According to the Library of Congress, an "absolute ban" on trading or using cryptocurrencies applies in eight countries: Algeria, Bolivia, Egypt, Iraq, Morocco, Nepal, Pakistan, and the United Arab Emirates. An "implicit ban" applies in another 15 countries, which include Bahrain, Bangladesh, China, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Lesotho, Lithuania, Macau, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Taiwan.[52] In the United States and Canada, state and provincial securities regulators, coordinated through the North American Securities Administrators Association, are investigating "bitcoin scams" and ICOs in 40 jurisdictions.[53]
In the case of Bitcoin, miners run computer programs to verify the data that creates a complete transaction history of all Bitcoin. A technology known as the blockchain, which is used to create irreversible and traceable transactions, makes the process of verification possible. Once a miner has verified the data (which comes in a block, hence, blockchain), they are rewarded with some amount of digital currency, the same currency for which they were verifying the transaction history. So mining Bitcoin, for example, would earn you Bitcoin.
Bitcoin is pseudonymous rather than anonymous in that the cryptocurrency within a wallet is not tied to people, but rather to one or more specific keys (or "addresses").[41] Thereby, bitcoin owners are not identifiable, but all transactions are publicly available in the blockchain. Still, cryptocurrency exchanges are often required by law to collect the personal information of their users.[citation needed]
Kann ein Quantencomputer Mine Bitcoin
In May of 2017, the world's first 'Lightning Network' transaction took place using Litecoin, where 0.00000001 LTC was transferred from Zurich to San Francisco in less than one second. The open-source Litecoin software can be downloaded, used, modified and distributed by individuals without fear of corruption, as the independent verification of source code and binaries makes for a completely transparent process.
Kryptowahrung 5 Jahre Prognose
Ist Bitcoin wirklich unauffindbar
^ Iansiti, Marco; Lakhani, Karim R. (January 2017). "The Truth About Blockchain". Harvard Business Review. Harvard University. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017. The technology at the heart of bitcoin and other virtual currencies, blockchain is an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way.
Was ist eine Große 0x
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text:
Why Southwestern Energy, Paratek Pharmaceuticals, and AmTrust Financial Services Jumped Today
By Dan Caplinger – Apr 4, 2017 at 4:17PM
NASDAQ: PRTK
Paratek Pharmaceuticals
These stocks rose on a quiet day for the stock market. Find out why.
Tuesday was another sluggish day on Wall Street, and major market benchmarks finished the day with modest gains, showing little movement from where they closed the previous day's session. Various crosscurrents continue to work their way through the market, and a drop in bond-market yields has some investors concerned that expectations for future economic growth might be slowing just as the new earnings season is slated to begin over the next couple of weeks.
Still, some companies had strong advances, and Southwestern Energy (SWN), Paratek Pharmaceuticals (PRTK -0.95%), and AmTrust Financial Services (AFSI) were among the best performers on the day. Below, we'll look more closely at these stocks to tell you why they did so well.
Southwestern gasses up
Shares of Southwestern Energy gained 9% on a good day for the natural gas market. Natural gas futures climbed more than $0.15 to $3.28 per million British thermal units, continuing a month-long bounce from a February plunge that sent prices as low as $2.75. Southwestern investors have had to deal with the indignity of having the energy company evicted from the S&P 500 index, and the switch that was announced late last month became effective prior to the market open today. However, with artificial stock-price movements from index-sensitive investors now a thing of the past, Southwestern can concentrate on making the most of its opportunities in the energy sector. If natural gas can keep climbing, then it should bode well for Southwestern and its gas-rich asset mix.
Image source: Southwestern Energy.
Paratek gets favorable results
Paratek Pharmaceuticals stock soared 23% after announcing favorable trial results for one of its key experimental drugs. The biotech said late Monday that its phase 3 clinical study of antibiotic omadacycline compared favorably to existing treatments, meeting the primary endpoint of showing statistical non-inferiority compared to moxifloxacin. In addition, omadacycline also achieved several secondary endpoints. As Chief Medical Officer Evan Loh said, "We now have experience with omadacycline in more than 1,500 patients in our clinical program, and we are very pleased with the safety, tolerability, and efficacy profile that we have seen to date." Investors are optimistic that relatively strong safety levels and good overall study results could lead to approval of the drug in time, helping to alleviate the growing problem of antibiotic-resistant disease.
AmTrust gets current
Finally, shares of AmTrust Financial Services jumped 20%. The company completed the restatement of its financial statements from the past few years, filing its annual report and regaining compliance with the Nasdaq listing requirements. The insurance specialist had said previously that investors shouldn't rely on its past financial statements from 2014 onwards, due to errors in accounting treatment for bonus payments and certain revenue items. Yet when the actual restatements were made, they didn't amount to nearly as big a hit as some had feared. Moreover, just having the uncertainty of a potential delisting resolved was music to investors' ears, and that helped the stock regain some of the ground it has lost in recent months.
Dan Caplinger has no position in any stocks mentioned. The Motley Fool owns shares of AmTrust Financial Services. The Motley Fool has a disclosure policy.
PRTK
$2.09 (-0.95%) $0.02
Southwestern Energy
$5.56 (%)
AmTrust Financial Services

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
An old farmer went to town to see a movie. The ticket girl said, "Sir, what is that on your shoulder?" The old farmer said, "That is my pet rooster, Bud. Wherever I go, Bud goes." "I'm sorry, Sir," said the ticket girl, "We can't allow animals in the theater. Not even a pet chicken. "The old farmer went around the corner and stuffed the chicken down his pants. He returned to the booth, bought a ticket and entered the theater. He sat down next to two old emergency room nurses named Mildred and Marge. The movie started and the chicken began to squirm. The old farmer un-zipped his pants so Bud could stick his head out and watch the movie. "Marge," whispered Mildred. "What?" said Marge. "I think the guy next to me is a pervert." "What makes you think so?" asked Marge. "He unzipped his pants and he has his thing out," whispered Mildred. "Well, don't worry about it," said Marge, "At our age it isn't anything we haven't seen before." "Yes," said Mildred, "But this one's eating my popcorn!!!"
Attending a wedding for the first time, a little girl whispered to her mother, "Why is the bride dressed in white?""Because white is the color of happiness, and today is the happiest day of her life," her mother tried to explain, keeping it simple. The child thought about this for a moment, then said, "So why's the groom wearing black?"
An elderly woman went into the doctor's office. When the doctor asked why she was there, she replied, "I'd like to have some birth-control pills."Taken aback, the doctor thought for a minute and then said, "Excuse me, Mrs. Smith, but you're 72 years old! What possible use could you have for birth control pills?" The woman responded, "They help me sleep better." The doctor thought some more and continued, "How in the world do birth control pills help you to sleep?" The woman said, "Simple. I put them in my granddaughter's orange juice every morning and I sleep better at night."
Bonus Silly Joke
A married man goes into a confessional and says to his priest, "I had an affair with a woman… almost." The priest says, "What do you mean, almost? "The man says, "Well, we got undressed and rubbed together, but then I stopped." The priest says, "Rubbing together is the same as putting it in. You're not to see that woman again. For your penance, say 5 Hail Mary's and put $50 in the poor box." The man leaves the confessional, says his prayers, then walks over to the poor box. He pauses for a moment and then starts to leave. The priest, who was watching, quickly runs over to him saying, "I saw that, you didn't put any money in the poor box!" The man replies, "Yeah, but I rubbed the $50 on the box, and apparently that's the same as putting it in."
Author Andrew Arthur DawsonPosted on July 19, 2019 July 19, 2019 Categories Silly Joke Friday
Next Next post: The Funeral That Was Actually A Celebration Of My Dear Friend Keith Genest's Life…


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A master class in post-split style.
When John Singer Sargent painted Louisiana native turned Parisian socialite Virginie Gautreau in a little black dress his artwork highlighted her notorious nature and reputation.
Wouldn't it be nice to add some must-have pieces to your wardrobe that are perfect to wear to any holiday soiree AND most of the year?
If you choose to wear a little black dress when your seasonal color palette does not include black, you could be making yourself appear older, unbalanced, dull and highlight skin imperfections quite simply because you are not wearing a color that aligns with you.
New York based writer and activist.
lack is a subconscious means for me to put people off, in a way, to stay somewhat hidden, to hold on to secrets, to preserve the unknown.
We are so wrapped up in our consumerist and narcissistic society that we forgot the beauty of simplicity.
Little Black Dresses For Bridesmaids? Yes, Please!


text:
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
"Frederick of Sicily" redirects here. For other uses, see Frederick of Sicily (disambiguation).
Frederick II (26 December 1194 – 13 December 1250; Latin: Fridericus, Federicus, Italian: Federico, German: Frîderich, Friedrich) was King of Sicily from 1198, King of Germany from 1212, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 and King of Jerusalem from 1225. He was the son of emperor Henry VI of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and of Constance, heiress to the Norman kings of Sicily.
A gold augustalis bearing Frederick's effigy
Holy Roman Emperor
22 November 1220 – 17 July 1245
22 November 1220 (Rome)
Otto IV
vacant[note 1]
King of Sicily
3 September 1198 (Palermo)
Conrad I
King of Germany
formally King of the Romans
9 December 1212 (Mainz)
25 July 1215 (Aachen)
Henry (VII)
King of Italy
22 November 1220 – 13 December 1250
Conrad IV
King of Jerusalem
18 March 1229, Jerusalem
Isabella II
Conrad II
Iesi, Italy
Castel Fiorentino, Sicily
Cathedral of Palermo
Constance of Aragon
Isabella II of Jerusalem
Isabella of England
Bianca Lancia (?)
Henry VII, King of Germany
Conrad IV, King of Germany
Anna, Empress of Nicaea
Manfred, King of Sicily
Enzo of Sardinia
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Constance, Queen of Sicily
Roman Catholicism[1]
Arms of the House of Hohenstaufen.
Arms of the House of Hohenstaufen as Holy Roman Emperor.
The dominions of Frederick II.
Frederick's reign saw the Holy Roman Empire achieve its greatest territorial extent. His political and cultural ambitions were enormous as he ruled a vast area beginning with Sicily and stretching through Italy all the way north to Germany. As the Crusades progressed, he acquired control of Jerusalem and styled himself its king. However, the Papacy became his enemy, and it eventually prevailed. Viewing himself as a direct successor to the Roman emperors of antiquity,[2] he was Emperor of the Romans from his papal coronation in 1220 until his death; he was also a claimant to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. As such, he was King of Germany, of Italy, and of Burgundy. At the age of three, he was crowned King of Sicily as a co-ruler with his mother, Constance of Hauteville, the daughter of Roger II of Sicily. His other royal title was King of Jerusalem by virtue of marriage and his connection with the Sixth Crusade. Frequently at war with the papacy, which was hemmed in between Frederick's lands in northern Italy and his Kingdom of Sicily (the Regno) to the south, he was excommunicated four times and often vilified in pro-papal chronicles of the time and after. Pope Gregory IX went so far as to call him an Antichrist.
Speaking six languages (Latin, Sicilian, Middle High German, Langues d'oïl, Greek and Arabic[3]), Frederick was an avid patron of science and the arts. He played a major role in promoting literature through the Sicilian School of poetry. His Sicilian royal court in Palermo, beginning around 1220, saw the first use of a literary form of an Italo-Romance language, Sicilian. The poetry that emanated from the school had a significant influence on literature and on what was to become the modern Italian language.[4] He was also the first king to formally outlaw trial by ordeal, which had come to be viewed as superstitious.[5]
After his death his line did not survive, and the House of Hohenstaufen came to an end. Furthermore, the Holy Roman Empire entered a long period of decline from which it did not completely recover until the reign of Charles V, 250 years later.[6]
Historians have searched for superlatives to describe him, as in the case of Donald Detwiler, who wrote:
A man of extraordinary culture, energy, and ability – called by a contemporary chronicler stupor mundi (the wonder of the world), by Nietzsche the first European, and by many historians the first modern ruler – Frederick established in Sicily and southern Italy something very much like a modern, centrally governed kingdom with an efficient bureaucracy.[7]
Frederick's birth in Iesi (illustration in Giovanni Villani's Nuova Cronica, ca. 1348)
Born in Iesi, near Ancona, Italy, in December, 1194, Frederick was the son of the emperor Henry VI. He was known as the puer Apuliae (son of Apulia).[note 2] His mother Constance gave birth to him at the age of 40, and Boccaccio related in his De mulieribus claris about the empress: she was paternal aunt of William II of Sicily, while a prediction that "her marriage would destroy Sicily" led to her confinement in a convent as a nun from childhood to remain celibate, which led to her late engagement to Henry at the age of 30. Some chronicles say that Constance gave birth to him in a public square in order to forestall any doubt about his origin such as son of a butcher. Frederick was baptised in Assisi.[note 3][8]
In 1196 at Frankfurt am Main the infant Frederick was elected King of the Germans. His rights in Germany were disputed by Henry's brother Philip of Swabia and Otto of Brunswick. At the death of his father in 1197, Frederick was in Italy, traveling towards Germany, when the bad news reached his guardian, Conrad of Spoleto. Frederick was hastily brought back to his mother Constance in Palermo, Sicily, where he was crowned king on 17 May 1198, at just three years of age.[8]
Constance of Sicily was in her own right queen of Sicily, and she established herself as regent. In Frederick's name she dissolved Sicily's ties to Germany and the Empire that had been created by her marriage, sending home his German counsellors and renouncing his claims to the German throne and empire.
Upon Constance's death in 1198, Pope Innocent III succeeded as Frederick's guardian. Frederick's tutor during this period was Cencio, who would become Pope Honorius III.[9] Markward of Annweiler, with the support of Henry's brother, Philip of Swabia, reclaimed the regency for himself and soon after invaded the Kingdom of Sicily. In 1200, with the help of Genoese ships, he landed in Sicily and one year later seized the young Frederick.[8] He thus ruled Sicily until 1202, when he was succeeded by another German captain, William of Capparone, who kept Frederick under his control in the royal palace of Palermo until 1206. Frederick was subsequently under tutor Walter of Palearia, until, in 1208, he was declared of age. His first task was to reassert his power over Sicily and southern Italy, where local barons and adventurers had usurped most of the authority.[8]
EmperorEdit
Seals used by Frederick as Emperor (ed. Otto Posse 1909): 1: first imperial seal (1221—1225), 2: second imperial seal (1226), 3: third imperial seal, addition of the title of King of Jerusalem (1226—1250) 4: seal used in 1221 and 1225, 5: first seal as King of Jerusalem (1233).
Otto of Brunswick had been crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Innocent III in 1209. In southern Italy, Otto became the champion of those noblemen and barons who feared Frederick's increasingly strong measures to check their power, such as the dismissal of the pro-noble Walter of Palearia. The new emperor invaded Italy, where he reached Calabria without meeting much resistance.[8]
In response, Innocent sided against Otto, and in September 1211 at the Diet of Nuremberg Frederick was elected in absentia as German King by a rebellious faction backed by the pope. Innocent also excommunicated Otto, who was forced to return to Germany.[8] Frederick sailed to Gaeta with a small following. He agreed with the pope on a future separation between the Sicilian and Imperial titles, and named his wife Constance as regent. Passing through Lombardy and Engadin, he reached Konstanz in September 1212, preceding Otto by a few hours.[8]
Frederick was crowned as king on 9 December 1212 in Mainz. Frederick's authority in Germany remained tenuous, and he was recognized only in southern Germany. In the region of northern Germany, the center of Guelph power, Otto continued to hold the reins of royal and imperial power despite his excommunication. Otto's decisive military defeat at the Bouvines forced him to withdraw to the Guelph hereditary lands where, virtually without supporters, he died in 1218.[10]
The German princes, supported by Innocent III, again elected Frederick king of Germany in 1215, and he was crowned king in Aachen on 23 July 1215 by one of the three German archbishops. It was not until another five years had passed, and only after further negotiations between Frederick, Innocent III, and Honorius III – who succeeded to the papacy after Innocent's death in 1216 – that Frederick was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in Rome by Honorius III, on 22 November 1220.[10] At the same time, Frederick's oldest son Henry took the title of King of the Romans.[10]
Gold augustale of Emperor Frederik II, as King of Sicily 1198–1250.
Unlike most Holy Roman emperors, Frederick spent few years in Germany. In 1218, he helped King Philip II of France and Odo III, Duke of Burgundy, to bring an end to the War of Succession in Champagne (France) by invading Lorraine, capturing and burning Nancy, capturing Theobald I, Duke of Lorraine and forcing him to withdraw his support from Erard of Brienne-Ramerupt. After his coronation in 1220, Frederick remained either in the Kingdom of Sicily or on Crusade until 1236, when he made his last journey to Germany. He returned to Italy in 1237 and stayed there for the remaining thirteen years of his life, represented in Germany by his son Conrad.
In the Kingdom of Sicily, he built on the reform of the laws begun at the Assizes of Ariano in 1140 by his grandfather Roger II. His initiative in this direction was visible as early as the Assizes of Capua (1220, issued soon after his coronation in Rome) but came to fruition in his promulgation of the Constitutions of Melfi (1231, also known as Liber Augustalis), a collection of laws for his realm that was remarkable for its time and was a source of inspiration for a long time after. It made the Kingdom of Sicily an absolutist monarchy; it also set a precedent for the primacy of written law. With relatively small modifications, the Liber Augustalis remained the basis of Sicilian law until 1819.
The Fifth Crusade and early policies in northern ItalyEdit
An augustale coin of Frederick II, from the Messina mint of Sicily, struck some time after 1231
At the time he was elected King of the Romans, Frederick promised to go on crusade. He continually delayed, however, and, in spite of his renewal of this vow at his coronation as the King of Germany, he did not travel to Egypt with the armies of the Fifth Crusade in 1217. He sent forces to Egypt under the command of Louis I, Duke of Bavaria, but constant expectation of his arrival caused papal legate Pelagius to reject Ayyubid sultan Al-Kamil's offer to restore the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem to the crusaders in exchange for their withdrawal from Egypt and caused the Crusade to continually stall in anticipation of his ever-delayed arrival. The crusade ended in failure with the loss of Damietta in 1221.[11] Frederick was blamed by both Pope Honorius III and the general Christian populace for this calamitous defeat.[12]
In 1225, after agreeing with Pope Honorius to launch a Crusade before 1228, Frederick summoned an imperial Diet at Cremona, the main pro-imperial city in Lombardy: the main arguments for holding the Diet would be to continue the struggle against heresy, to organize the crusade and, above all, to restore the imperial power in northern Italy, which had long been usurped by the numerous communes located there. Those assembled responded with the reformation of the Lombard League, which had already defeated his grandfather Frederick Barbarossa in the 12th century, and again Milan was chosen as the league's leader. The Diet was cancelled, however, and the situation was stabilized only through a compromise reached by Honorius between Frederick and the league.[8] During his sojourn in northern Italy, Frederick also invested the Teutonic Order with the territories in what would become East Prussia, starting what was later called the Northern Crusade.[8]
The Sixth CrusadeEdit
Main article: Sixth Crusade
Frederick II (left) meets Al-Kamil (right). Nuova Cronica, ca. 1348.
Problems of stability within the empire delayed Frederick's departure on crusade. It was not until 1225, when, by proxy, Frederick had married Isabella II of Jerusalem, heiress to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, that his departure seemed assured. Frederick immediately saw to it that his new father-in-law John of Brienne, the current king of Jerusalem, was dispossessed and his rights transferred to the emperor. In August 1227, Frederick set out for the Holy Land from Brindisi but was forced to return when he was struck down by an epidemic that had broken out. Even the master of the Teutonic Knights, Hermann of Salza, recommended that he return to the mainland to recuperate. On 29 September 1227, Frederick was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX for failing to honor his crusading pledge.[8]
Many contemporary chroniclers doubted the sincerity of Frederick's illness, and their attitude may be explained by their pro-papal leanings. Roger of Wendover, a chronicler of the time, wrote:
... he went to the Mediterranean sea, and embarked with a small retinue; but after pretending to make for the holy land for three days, he said that he was seized with a sudden illness... this conduct of the emperor redounded much to his disgrace, and to the injury of the whole business of the crusade.[13]
Frederick eventually sailed again from Brindisi in June 1228. The pope, still Gregory IX, regarded that action as a provocation, since, as an excommunicate, Frederick was technically not capable of conducting a Crusade, and he excommunicated the emperor a second time. Frederick reached Acre in September. Since all the local authorities and most of the military orders denied him any help, and because the crusading army was a meagre force, Frederick negotiated along the lines of a previous agreement he had intended to broker with the Ayyubid sultan, Al-Kamil. The treaty, signed in February 1229, resulted in the restitution of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and a small coastal strip to the Kingdom of Jerusalem, though there are disagreements as to the extent of the territory returned.[8]
A statue of Frederick II from the Black Tower of Regensburg, circa 1280–1290.
The treaty also stipulated that the Dome of the Rock and al-Aqsa Mosque were to remain under Muslim control and that the city of Jerusalem would remain without fortifications.[8] Virtually all other crusaders, including the Templars and Hospitallers, condemned this deal as a political ploy on the part of Frederick to regain his kingdom while betraying the cause of the Crusaders. Al-Kamil, who was nervous about possible war with his relatives who ruled Syria and Mesopotamia, wished to avoid further trouble from the Christians, at least until his domestic rivals were subdued.
The crusade ended in a truce and in Frederick's coronation as King of Jerusalem on 18 March 1229, although this was technically improper. Frederick's wife Isabella, the heiress, had died, leaving their infant son Conrad as rightful king. There is also disagreement as to whether the "coronation" was a coronation at all, as a letter written by Frederick to Henry III of England suggests that the crown he placed on his own head was in fact the imperial crown of the Romans.
At his coronation, he may have worn the red silk mantle that had been crafted during the reign of Roger II.[citation needed] It bore an Arabic inscription indicating that the robe dated from the year 528 in the Muslim calendar, and incorporated a generic benediction, wishing its wearer "vast prosperity, great generosity and high splendor, fame and magnificent endowments, and the fulfillment of his wishes and hopes. May his days and nights go in pleasure without end or change." This coronation robe can be found today in the Schatzkammer of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna.
In any case, Gerald of Lausanne, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, did not attend the ceremony; indeed, the next day the Bishop of Caesarea arrived to place the city under interdict on the patriarch's orders. Frederick's further attempts to rule over the Kingdom of Jerusalem were met by resistance on the part of the barons, led by John of Ibelin, Lord of Beirut. In the mid-1230s, Frederick's viceroy was forced to leave Acre, and in 1244, following a siege, Jerusalem itself was lost again to a new Muslim offensive.
Whilst Frederick's seeming bloodless recovery of Jerusalem for the cross brought him great prestige in some European circles, his decision to complete the crusade while excommunicated provoked Church hostility. Although in 1230 the Pope lifted Frederick's excommunication at the Treaty of Ceprano, this decision was taken for a variety of reasons related to the political situation in Europe. Of Frederick's crusade, Philip of Novara, a chronicler of the period, said, "The emperor left Acre [after the conclusion of the truce]; hated, cursed, and vilified."[14] Overall this crusade, arguably the first successful one since the First Crusade, was adversely affected by the manner in which Frederick carried out negotiations without the support of the church. He left behind a kingdom in the Levant torn between his agents and the local nobility, a civil war known as the War of the Lombards.
The itinerant Joachimite preachers and many radical Franciscans, the Spirituals, supported Frederick. Against the interdict pronounced on his lands, the preachers condemned the Pope and continued to minister the sacraments and grant absolutions. Brother Arnold in Swabia proclaimed the Second Coming for 1260, at which time Frederick would then confiscate the riches of Rome and distribute them among the poor, the "only true Christians."[15]
The war against the Pope and Henry's revoltEdit
Battle of Giglio, against Gregory IX (1241), miniature in Chronica Maiora (1259).
During Frederick's stay in the Holy Land, his regent, Rainald of Spoleto, had attacked the Marche and the Duchy of Spoleto. Gregory IX recruited an army under John of Brienne and, in 1229, invaded southern Italy. His troops overcame an initial resistance at Montecassino and reached Apulia. Frederick arrived at Brindisi in June 1229. He quickly recovered the lost territories and trialled the rebel barons, but avoided crossing the boundaries with the Papal States.[8]
The war came to an end with the Treaty of Ceprano in the summer of 1230; the emperor personally met Gregory IX at Anagni, making some concessions to the church in Sicily.[8] He also issued the Constitutions of Melfi (August 1231), as an attempt to solve the political and administrative problems of the country, which had dramatically been shown by the recent war.[8]
While he may have temporarily made his peace with the pope, Frederick found the German princes another matter. Frederick's son Henry VII (who was born 1211 in Sicily, son of Frederick's first wife Constance of Aragon) had caused their discontent with an aggressive policy against their privileges. This forced Henry to a complete capitulation, and the Statutum in favorem principum ("Statutes in favor of the princes"), issued at Worms, deprived the emperor of much of his sovereignty in Germany.[8] Frederick summoned Henry to a meeting, which was held at Aquileia in 1232. Henry confirmed his submission, but Frederick was nevertheless compelled to confirm the Statutum at Cividale soon afterwards.[8]
The situation for Frederick was also problematic in Lombardy, after all the emperor's attempts to restore the imperial authority in Lombardy with the help of Gregory IX (at the time, ousted from Rome by a revolt) turned to nothing in 1233. In the meantime Henry in Germany had returned to an anti-princes policy, against his father's will: Frederick thus obtained his excommunication from Gregory IX (July 1234). Henry tried to muster an opposition in Germany and asked the Lombard cities to block the Alpine passes. In May 1235, Frederick went to Germany, taking no army with him: as soon as July, however, he was able to force his son to renounce to the crown all his lands, at Worms, and then imprisoned him.[8]
In Germany the Hohenstaufen and the Guelphs reconciled in 1235. Otto the Child, the grandson of Henry the Lion, had been deposed as Duke of Bavaria and Saxony in 1180, conveying the allodial Guelphic possessions to Frederick, who in return enfeoffed Otto with the same lands and additional former imperial possessions as the newly established Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, ending the unclear status of the German Guelphs, who had been left without title and rank after 1180.
War in LombardyEdit
The victorious Battle of Cortenuova against the 2nd Lombard League (1237), Nuova Cronica (ca. 1348).
Frederick II's troops paid with leather coins during the sieges of Brescia and Faenza,[16] Nuova Cronica (ca. 1348).
With peace north of the Alps, Frederick raised an army from the German princes to suppress the rebel cities in Lombardy. Gregory tried to stop the invasion with diplomatic moves, but in vain. During his descent to Italy, Frederick had to divert his troops to quell a rebellion of Frederick II, Duke of Austria. At Vienna, in February 1237, he obtained the title of King of the Romans for his 9-year-old son Conrad.[8]
After the failure of the negotiations between the Lombard cities, the pope and the imperial diplomats, Frederick invaded Lombardy from Verona. In November 1237 he won the decisive battle in Cortenuova over the Lombard League. Frederick celebrated it with a triumph in Cremona in the manner of an ancient Roman emperor, with the captured carroccio (later sent to the commune of Rome) and an elephant. He rejected any suit for peace, even from Milan, which had sent a great sum of money. This demand of total surrender spurred further resistance from Milan, Brescia, Bologna, and Piacenza, and in October 1238 he was forced to raise the siege of Brescia, in the course of which his enemies had tried unsuccessfully to capture him.[8]
Frederick received the news of his excommunication by Gregory IX in the first months of 1239[17]:149 while his court was in Padua[citation needed]. The emperor responded by expelling the Franciscans and the Dominicans from Lombardy and electing his son Enzo as Imperial vicar for Northern Italy.[18] Enzo soon annexed the Romagna, Marche, and the Duchy of Spoleto, nominally part of the Papal States. The father announced he was to destroy the Republic of Venice, which had sent some ships against Sicily. In December of that year Frederick marched over Tuscany, entered triumphantly into Foligno, and then in Viterbo, whence he aimed to finally conquer Rome to restore the ancient splendours of the Empire. The siege, however, was ineffective, and Frederick returned to Southern Italy, sacking Benevento (a papal possession). Peace negotiations came to nothing.
In the meantime the Ghibelline city of Ferrara had fallen, and Frederick swept his way northwards capturing Ravenna and, after another long siege, Faenza. The people of Forlì, which had kept its Ghibelline stance even after the collapse of Hohenstaufen power, offered their loyal support during the capture of the rival city: as a sign of gratitude, they were granted an augmentation of the communal coat-of-arms with the Hohenstaufen eagle, together with other privileges. This episode shows how the independent cities used the rivalry between Empire and Pope as a means to obtain maximum advantage for themselves.
The Pope called a council, but Ghibelline Pisa thwarted it, capturing cardinals and prelates on a ship sailing from Genoa to Rome. Frederick thought that this time the way into Rome was opened, and he again directed his forces against the Pope, leaving behind him a ruined and burning Umbria. Frederick destroyed Grottaferrata preparing to invade Rome. Then, on 22 August 1241, Gregory died. Frederick, showing that his war was not directed against the Church of Rome but against the Pope, drew back his troops and freed two cardinals from the jail of Capua. Nothing changed in the relationship between Papacy and Empire, however, as Roman troops assaulted the Imperial garrison in Tivoli and the Emperor soon reached Rome. This back-and-forth situation was repeated in 1242 and 1243.
Mongol raidsEdit
Main article: First Mongol invasion of Hungary
Contemporary bust of Frederick II in Barletta
In 1241–1242, the forces of the Golden Horde decisively defeated the armies of Hungary and Poland and devastated their countryside and all their unfortified settlements. King Béla IV of Hungary appealed to Frederick for aid, but Frederick, being in dispute with the Hungarian king for some time (as Bela had sided with the Papacy against him) and not wanting to commit to a major military expedition so readily, refused.[19] He was unwilling to cross into Hungary, and although he went about unifying his magnates and other monarchs to potentially face a Mongol invasion, he specifically took his vow for the defense of the empire on "this side of the Alps."[20]
Frederick was aware of the danger the Mongols posed, and grimly assessed the situation, but also tried to use it as leverage over the Papacy to frame himself as the protector of Christendom.[21] While he called them traitorous pagans, Frederick expressed an admiration for Mongol military prowess after hearing of their deeds, in particular their able commanders and fierce discipline and obedience, judging the latter to be the greatest source of their success.[22] He called a levy throughout Germany while the Mongols were busy raiding Hungary. In mid 1241 Federick dispersed his army back to their holdfasts as the Mongols preoccupied themselves with the lands east of the Danube, attempting to smash all Hungarian resistance. He subsequently ordered his vassals to strengthen their defenses, adopt a defensive posture, and gather large numbers of crossbowmen.[23]
A chronicler reports that Frederick received a demand of submission from Batu Khan at some time, which he ignored.[24] He apparently kept up to date on the Mongols' activities, as a letter from Frederick II dated June 1241 comments that the Mongols were now using looted Hungarian armor.[25] A letter written by Emperor Frederick II, found in the Regesta Imperii, dated to June 20, 1241, and intended for all his vassals in Swabia, Austria, and Bohemia, included a number of specific military instructions. His forces were to avoid engaging the Mongols in field battles, hoard all food stocks in every fortress and stronghold, and arm all possible levies as well as the general populace.[26]
Thomas of Split comments that there was a frenzy of fortifying castles and cities throughout the Holy Roman Empire, including Italy.[27] Either following the Emperor's instructions or on their own initiative, Frederick II, Duke of Austria paid to have his border castles strengthened at his own expense.[28] King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia had every castle strengthened and provisioned, as well as providing soldiers and armaments to monasteries in order to turn them into refuges for the civilian population.[29]
Mongol probing attacks materialised on the Holy Roman Empire's border states: a Mongol attack on Olomouc failed (the leader being captured in a sortie), a force was repulsed in a skirmish near Kłodzko, 300–700 Mongol troops were killed in a battle near Vienna to 100 Austrian losses (according to the Duke of Austria), and a Mongol raiding party was destroyed by Austrian knights in the district of Theben after being backed to the border of the River March. A full-scale invasion never occurred, as the Mongols spent the next year pillaging Hungary before withdrawing.[30] After the Mongols withdrew from Hungary back to Russia, Frederick turned his attention back towards Italian matters.
Innocent IVEdit
Main article: Ad Apostolicae Dignitatis Apicem
Castel del Monte, in Andria, Apulia, Italy.
A new pope, Innocent IV, was elected on 25 June 1243. He was a member of a noble Imperial family and had some relatives in Frederick's camp, so the Emperor was initially happy with his election. Innocent, however, was to become his fiercest enemy. Negotiations began in the summer of 1243, but the situation changed as Viterbo rebelled, instigated by the intriguing local cardinal Ranieri Capocci. Frederick could not afford to lose his main stronghold near Rome, so he besieged the city.[31]
Innocent convinced the rebels to sign a peace but, after Frederick withdrew his garrison, Ranieri had them slaughtered on 13 November. Frederick was enraged. The new Pope was a master diplomat, and Frederick signed a peace treaty, which was soon broken. Innocent showed his true Guelph face, and, together with most of the Cardinals, fled via Genoese galleys to Liguria, arriving on 7 July. His aim was to reach Lyon, where a new council was being held since 24 June 1245.[31]
Despite initially appearing that the council could end with a compromise, the intervention of Ranieri, who had a series of insulting pamphlets published against Frederick (in which, among other things, he defined the emperor as a heretic and an Antichrist), led the prelates towards a less accommodating solution.[31] One month later, Innocent IV declared Frederick to be deposed as emperor, characterising him as a "friend of Babylon's sultan," "of Saracen customs," "provided with a harem guarded by eunuchs," like the schismatic emperor of Byzantium, and in sum a "heretic."[32]
Frederick II being excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV
The Pope backed Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, as rival for the imperial crown and set in motion a plot to kill Frederick and Enzo, with the support of the pope's brother-in-law Orlando de Rossi, another friend of Frederick. The plotters were unmasked by the count of Caserta, however, and the city of Altavilla, where they had found shelter, was razed. The guilty were blinded, mutilated, and burnt alive or hanged. An attempt to invade the Kingdom of Sicily, under the command of Ranieri, was halted at Spello by Marino of Eboli, Imperial vicar of Spoleto.
Innocent also sent a flow of money to Germany to cut off Frederick's power at its source. The archbishops of Cologne and Mainz also declared Frederick deposed, and in May 1246 Heinrich Raspe was chosen as the new king. On 5 August 1246 Heinrich, thanks to the Pope's money, managed to defeat an army of Conrad, son of Frederick, near Frankfurt. Frederick strengthened his position in Southern Germany, however, acquiring the Duchy of Austria, whose duke had died without heirs. A year later Heinrich died, and the new anti-king was William II of Holland.
Between February and March 1247 Frederick settled the situation in Italy by means of the diet of Terni, naming his relatives or friends as vicars of the various lands. He married his son Manfred to the daughter of Amedeo di Savoia and secured the submission of the marquis of Monferrato. On his part, Innocent asked protection from the King of France, Louis IX, but the king was a friend of the Emperor and believed in his desire for peace. A papal army under the command of Ottaviano degli Ubaldini never reached Lombardy, and the Emperor, accompanied by a massive army, held the next diet in Turin.
Battle of ParmaEdit
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The unexpected sally of the Guelph cavalry from Parma against Vittoria[citation needed]
Battle of Fossalta against the 2nd Lombard League (1249), Nuova Cronica (ca. 1348).
An unexpected event was to change the situation dramatically. In June 1247 the important Lombard city of Parma expelled the Imperial functionaries and sided with the Guelphs. Enzo was not in the city and could do nothing more than ask for help from his father, who came back to lay siege to the rebels, together with his friend Ezzelino III da Romano, tyrant of Verona. The besieged languished as the Emperor waited for them to surrender from starvation. He had a wooden city, which he called "Vittoria", built around the walls.
On 18 February 1248, during one of these absences, the camp was suddenly assaulted and taken, and in the ensuing Battle of Parma the Imperial side was routed. Frederick lost the Imperial treasure and with it any hope of maintaining the impetus of his struggle against the rebellious communes and against the pope, who began plans for a crusade against Sicily. Frederick soon recovered and rebuilt an army, but this defeat encouraged resistance in many cities that could no longer bear the fiscal burden of his regime: Romagna, Marche and Spoleto were lost.
In February 1249 Frederick fired his advisor and prime minister, the famous jurist and poet Pier delle Vigne, on charges of peculation and embezzlement. Some historians suggest that Pier was planning to betray the Emperor, who, according to Matthew of Paris, cried when he discovered the plot. Pier, blinded and in chains, died in Pisa, possibly by his own hand. Even more shocking for Frederick was the capture of his natural son Enzo of Sardinia by the Bolognese at the Battle of Fossalta, in May, 1249. Enzo was held in a palace in Bologna, where he remained captive until his death in 1272.
Frederick lost another son, Richard of Chieti. The struggle continued: the Empire lost Como and Modena, but regained Ravenna. An army sent to invade the Kingdom of Sicily under the command of Cardinal Pietro Capocci was crushed in the Marche at the Battle of Cingoli in 1250. In the first month of that year the indomitable Ranieri of Viterbo died and the Imperial condottieri again reconquered Romagna, the Marche and Spoleto; and Conrad, King of the Romans, scored several victories in Germany against William of Holland.
The sarcophagus of Frederick II in the Cathedral of Palermo
Frederick did not take part in of any of these campaigns. He had been ill and likely felt tired. Despite the betrayals and the setbacks he had faced in his last years, Frederick died peacefully, wearing the habit of a Cistercian monk, on 13 December 1250 in Castel Fiorentino (territory of Torremaggiore), in Apulia, after an attack of dysentery.
At the time of his death, his preeminent position in Europe was challenged but not lost: his testament left his legitimate son Conrad the Imperial and Sicilian crowns. Manfred received the principality of Taranto and the government of the Kingdom, Henry the Kingdom of Arles or that of Jerusalem, while the son of Henry VII was entrusted with the Duchy of Austria and the March of Styria. Frederick's will stipulated that all the lands he had taken from the Church were to be returned to it, all the prisoners freed, and the taxes reduced, provided this did not damage the Empire's prestige.
However, upon Conrad's death a mere four years later, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell from power and the Great Interregnum began, lasting until 1273, one year after the last Hohenstaufen, Enzo, had died in his prison. During this time, a legend developed that Frederick was not truly dead but merely sleeping in the Kyffhäuser Mountains and would one day awaken to reestablish his empire. Over time, this legend largely transferred itself to his grandfather, Frederick I, also known as Barbarossa ("Redbeard").[33][failed verification]
His sarcophagus (made of red porphyry) lies in the cathedral of Palermo beside those of his parents (Henry VI and Constance) as well as his grandfather, the Norman king Roger II of Sicily. He is wearing a funerary alb with a Thuluth style inscribed cuff.[34] A bust of Frederick sits in the Walhalla temple built by Ludwig I of Bavaria.
PersonalityEdit
Portrait from the "Manfred manuscript" (Biblioteca Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071) of De arte venandi cum avibus.
Detail of the Castel del Monte
Frederick's contemporaries called him stupor mundi, the "astonishment of the world";[8] the majority of his contemporaries were indeed astonished—and sometimes repelled—by the pronounced unorthodoxy of the Hohenstaufen emperor and his temperamental stubbornness.[35]
Frederick inherited German, Norman, and Sicilian blood, but by training, lifestyle, and temperament he was "most of all Sicilian."[36] Maehl concludes that "To the end of his life he remained above all a Sicilian grand signore, and his whole imperial policy aimed at expanding the Sicilian kingdom into Italy rather than the German kingdom southward."[36] Cantor concludes that "Frederick had no intention of giving up Naples and Sicily, which were the real strongholds of its power. He was, in fact, uninterested in Germany."[37]
Frederick was a religious sceptic to an extent unusual for his era. His papal enemies used it against him at every turn; he was subsequently referred to as preambulus Antichristi (predecessor of the Antichrist) by Pope Gregory IX, and, as Frederick allegedly did not respect the privilegium potestatis of the Church, he was excommunicated. Despite accusations of blasphemy and paganism, and the presence of pagan and oriental elements in his imperial conceptions, Frederick remained substantially linked to traditional Christianity, as shown by his early contacts with both the Franciscans and the Cistercians (in 1215 he was admitted to that order's praying community), as well as with St Elizabeth.[8] For his supposed "Epicureanism" (paganism), Frederick II is listed as a representative member of the sixth region of Dante's Inferno, that of the heretics, who are burned in tombs.[38] He deported the Muslim population of Western Sicily to Lucera and he enlisted them in his Christian army and even into his personal bodyguards because, as Muslim soldiers, they had the advantage of immunity from papal excommunication.[citation needed]
In Palermo, where the three-year-old boy was brought after his mother's death, he was said to have grown up like a street youth.[citation needed] He was highly precocious, but the only benefit from Innocent III's guardianship was that at fourteen years of age he married a twenty-five-year-old widow named Constance, the daughter of the king of Aragon. Both seem to have been happy with the arrangement, and Constance soon bore a son, Henry.
A further example of how much Frederick differed from his contemporaries was the conduct of his Crusade in the Holy Land. Outside Jerusalem, with the power to take it,[citation needed] he parleyed five months with the Ayyubid Sultan of Egypt al-Kamil about the surrender of the city. The Sultan summoned him into Jerusalem and entertained him in the most lavish fashion. When the muezzin, out of consideration for Frederick, failed to make the morning call to prayer, the emperor declared: "I stayed overnight in Jerusalem, in order to overhear the prayer call of the Muslims and their worthy God."[citation needed] When the city of Jerusalem was handed over to him, the fact that this was regarded in the Arab as in the Christian world as high treason did not matter to him.[citation needed] When certain members of the Knights Templar wrote al-Kamil a letter and offered to destroy Frederick if he lent them aid, al-Kamil handed the letter over to Frederick.[citation needed] Because the Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to crown him king, he set the crown on his own head.[citation needed]
Literature and scienceEdit
An image from an old copy of De arte venandi cum avibus
The Cremona elephant as depicted in the Chronica maiora, Part II, Parker Library, MS 16, fol. 151v - On parade during the visit of Frederick's brother-in-law Richard of Cornwall to Cremona in 1241
Besides his great tolerance (which, however, did not apply to Christians), Frederick had a great thirst for knowledge and learning. Frederick employed Jews from Sicily, who had immigrated there from the holy land, at his court to translate Greek and Arabic works.[39]
He played a major role in promoting literature through the Sicilian School of poetry. His Sicilian royal court in Palermo, saw the first use of a literary form of an Italo-Romance language, Sicilian. The poetry that emanated from the school had a significant influence on literature and on what was to become the modern Italian language.[citation needed] The school and its poetry were saluted by Dante and his peers and predate by at least a century the use of the Tuscan idiom as the elite literary language of Italy.[40]
Frederick II is the author of the first treatise on the subject of falconry, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus ("The Art of Hunting with Birds"). In the words of the historian Charles Homer Haskins:
It is a scientific book, approaching the subject from Aristotle but based closely on observation and experiment throughout, Divisivus et Inquisitivus, in the words of the preface; it is at the same time a scholastic book, minute and almost mechanical in its divisions and subdivisions. It is also a rigidly practical book, written by a falconer for falconers and condensing a long experience into systematic form for the use of others.[41]
Frederick's pride in his mastery of the art is illustrated by the story that, when he was ordered to become a subject of the Great Khan (Batu) and receive an office at the Khan's court, he remarked that he would make a good falconer, for he understood birds very well.[42] He maintained up to fifty falconers at a time in his court, and in his letters he requested Arctic gyrfalcons from Lübeck and even from Greenland. One of the two existing versions was modified by his son Manfred, also a keen falconer.
Frederick loved exotic animals in general: his menagerie, with which he impressed the cold cities of Northern Italy and Europe, included hounds, giraffes, cheetahs, lynxes, leopards, exotic birds and an elephant.[35]
He was also alleged to have carried out a number of experiments on people. These experiments were recorded by the monk Salimbene di Adam in his Chronicles. Among the experiments were shutting a prisoner up in a cask to see if the soul could be observed escaping though a hole in the cask when the prisoner died; feeding two prisoners, having sent one out to hunt and the other to bed and then having them disemboweled to see which had digested his meal better; imprisoning children and then denying them any human contact to see if they would develop a natural language.[43]
In the language deprivation experiment young infants were raised without human interaction in an attempt to determine if there was a natural language that they might demonstrate once their voices matured. It is claimed he was seeking to discover what language would have been imparted unto Adam and Eve by God. In his Chronicles Salimbene wrote that Frederick bade "foster-mothers and nurses to suckle and bathe and wash the children, but in no ways to prattle or speak with them; for he would have learnt whether they would speak the Hebrew language (which had been the first), or Greek, or Latin, or Arabic, or perchance the tongue of their parents of whom they had been born. But he laboured in vain, for the children could not live without clappings of the hands, and gestures, and gladness of countenance, and blandishments"[44][45]
Frederick was also interested in the stars, and his court was host to many astrologers and astronomers, including Michael Scot and Guido Bonatti.[46][47] He often sent letters to the leading scholars of the time (not only in Europe) asking for solutions to questions of science, mathematics and physics.[48]
In 1224 he founded the University of Naples, the world's oldest state university: now called Università Federico II.
AppearanceEdit
A 1781 picture showing the mummified corpse of Frederick II in Palermo.
A Damascene chronicler, Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, left a physical description of Frederick based on the testimony of those who had seen the emperor in person in Jerusalem: "The Emperor was covered with red hair, was bald and myopic. Had he been a slave, he would not have fetched 200 dirhams at market." Frederick's eyes were described variously as blue, or "green like those of a serpent."[49]
Law reformsEdit
His 1231 Edict of Salerno (sometimes called "Constitution of Salerno") made the first legally fixed separation of the occupations of physician and apothecary. Physicians were forbidden to double as pharmacists and the prices of various medicinal remedies were fixed. This became a model for regulation of the practice of pharmacy throughout Europe.[50]
He was not able to extend his legal reforms beyond Sicily to the Empire. In 1232, he was forced by the German princes to promulgate the Statutum in favorem principum ("statute in favor of princes"). It was a charter of liberties for the leading German princes at the expense of the lesser nobility and the entirety of the commoners. The princes gained whole power of jurisdiction, and the power to strike their own coins. The emperor lost his right to establish new cities, castles and mints over their territories. The Statutum severely weakened central authority in Germany. From 1232 the vassals of the emperor had a veto over imperial legislative decisions. Every new law established by the emperor had to be approved by the princes.
Significance and legacyEdit
See also: Subventio generalis
The Holy Roman Empire (German: Römisch-Deutsches Kaiserreich) at its largest extent (with "Kingdom of Sicily" in dynastic union) under Frederick II. He ruled mostly from Sicily.
Historians rate Frederick II as a highly significant European monarch of the Middle Ages. This reputation was present even in Frederick's era. Lansing and English, two British historians, argue that medieval Palermo has been overlooked in favor of Paris and London:
One effect of this approach has been to privilege historical winners, [and] aspects of medieval Europe that became important in later centuries, above all the nation state.... Arguably the liveliest cultural innovation in the 13th century was Mediterranean, centered on Frederick II's polyglot court and administration in Palermo.... Sicily and the Italian South in later centuries suffered a long slide into overtaxed poverty and marginality. Textbook narratives therefore focus not on medieval Palermo, with its Muslim and Jewish bureaucracies and Arabic-speaking monarch, but on the historical winners, Paris and London.[51]
Modern medievalists no longer accept the notion, sponsored by the popes, of Frederick as an anti-Christian. They argue that Frederick understood himself as a Christian monarch in the sense of a Byzantine emperor, thus as God's "viceroy" on earth.[8] Whatever his personal feelings toward religion, certainly submission to the pope did not enter into the matter in the slightest. This was in line with the Hohenstaufen Kaiser-Idee, the ideology claiming the Holy Roman Emperor to be the legitimate successor to the Roman Emperors.
Stained glass windows from the Strasbourg Cathedral, Alsace, Bas-Rhin, France, dated circa 1210–1270, depicting emperors of the Holy Roman Empire: Philip of Swabia, Henry IV, Henry V, and Frederick II
20th-century treatments of Frederick vary from the sober (Wolfgang Stürner) to the dramatic (Ernst Kantorowicz).[8] However, all agree on Frederick II's significance as Holy Roman Emperor.[8] In the judgment of British historian Geoffrey Barraclough, Frederick's extensive concessions to German princes—which he made in the hopes of securing his base for his Italian projects—undid the political power of his predecessors and postponed German unity for centuries.
However, the modern approach to Frederick II tends to be focused on the continuity between Frederick and his predecessors as Kings of Sicily and Holy Roman Emperors, and the similarities between him and other thirteenth-century monarchs. David Abulafia, in a biography subtitled "A Medieval Emperor," argues that Frederick's reputation as an enlightened figure ahead of his time is undeserved, and that Frederick was mostly a conventionally Christian monarch who sought to rule in a conventional medieval manner.[52]
FamilyEdit
Frederick left numerous children, legitimate and illegitimate:
Legitimate issueEdit
First wife: Constance of Aragon (b. 1179 – d. 23 June 1222).[53] Marriage: 15 August 1209, at Messina, Sicily.
Henry (VII) (1211 – 12 February 1242).[53]
Second wife: Yolande of Jerusalem (1212 – 25 April 1228).[53] Marriage: 9 November 1225, at Brindisi, Apulia.
Margareta (November 1226 – August 1227).
Conrad IV (25 April 1228 – 21 May 1254).[53]
Third wife: Isabella of England (1214 – 1 December 1241).[53] Marriage: 15 July 1235, at Worms, Germany.
Jordan (born during the Spring of 1236, failed to survive the year);[54] this child was given the baptismal name Jordanus as he was baptized with water brought for that purpose from the Jordan river.
Agnes (b and d. 1237).
Henry (18 February 1238 – May 1253), named after Henry III of England, his uncle; appointed Governor of Sicily and promised to become King of Jerusalem after his father died, but he, too, died within three years and was never crowned. Betrothed to many of Pope Innocent IV's nieces, but never married to any.
Margaret (1 December 1241 – 8 August 1270), married Albert, Landgrave of Thuringia, later Margrave of Meissen.
Frederick had a relationship with Bianca Lancia (ca. 1200/10-1230/46),[53] possibly starting around 1225. One source states that it lasted 20 years. She bore him three children:
Constance (Anna) (1230 – April 1307), married John III Ducas Vatatzes.[53]
Manfred (1232 – killed in battle, Benevento, 26 February 1266),[53] first Regent, later King of Sicily.
Violante (1233–1264), married Riccardo Sanseverino, Conte di Caserta.
Matthew of Paris relates the story of a marriage in articulo mortis (on her deathbed) between them when Bianca was dying,[55] but this marriage was never recognized by the Church. Nevertheless, Bianca's children were apparently regarded by Frederick as legitimate, evidenced by his daughter Constance's marriage to the Nicaen Emperor, and his own will, in which he appointed Manfred as Prince of Taranto and Regent of Sicily.[note 4]
Mistresses and illegitimate issueEdit
Unknown name, Sicilian Countess. According to Medlands, she was the first known mistress of Frederick II, then only King of Sicily. Her exact parentage is unknown, but Thomas Tuscus's Gesta Imperatorum et Pontificum (c. 1280) stated she was a nobili comitissa quo in regno Sicilie erat heres.
Frederick of Pettorano (1212/13 – aft. 1240), who fled to Spain with his wife and children in 1240.
Adelheid (Adelaide) of Urslingen (c. 1184 – c. 1222).[57] Her relationship with Frederick II took place during the time he stayed in Germany between 1215 and 1220. According to some sources,[58] she was related to the Hohenburg family under the name Alayta of Vohburg (it: Alayta di Marano); but the most accepted theory stated she was the daughter of Conrad of Urslingen, Count of Assisi and Duke of Spoleto.
Enzo of Sardinia (1215 –1272).[53]
Caterina da Marano (1216/18 – aft. 1272), who married firstly with NN and secondly with Giacomo del Carretto, marquis of Noli and Finale.
Matilda or Maria, from Antioch.
Frederick of Antioch (1221 – 1256).[53]
An unknown member of the Lancia family:[57]
Selvaggia (1221/23 – 1244), married Ezzelino III da Romano.
Manna, niece of Berardo di Castagna, Archbishop of Palermo:[57]
Richard of Chieti (1224/25 – 26 May 1249).
Anais of Brienne (c. 1205 – 1236), cousin of Isabella II of Jerusalem:[57]
Blanchefleur (1226 – 20 June 1279), Dominican nun in Montargis, France.
Richina of Wolfsöden (c. 1205 – 1236):[57]
Margaret of Swabia (1230–1298), married Thomas of Aquino, count of Acerra.
Unknown mistress:
Gerhard (died after 1255).
AncestryEdit
See also: Dukes of Swabia family tree and Family tree of the German monarchs
Ancestors of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
8. Frederick II, Duke of Swabia
4. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor
9. Judith of Bavaria
2. Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor
10. Renaud III, Count of Burgundy
5. Beatrice I, Countess of Burgundy
11. Agatha of Lorraine
1. Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
12. Roger I, Count of Sicily
6. Roger II, King of Sicily
13. Adelaide del Vasto
3. Constance, Queen of Sicily
14. Ithier, Count of Rethel
7. Beatrice of Rethel
15. Beatrice of Namur
Books written by Frederick IIEdit
De arte venandi cum avibus
^ The First Council of Lyon solemnly deposed and excommunicated the Emperor, absolving all his subjects from allegiance. This is the beginning of the Great Interregnum, which ended only with the coronation of Henry VII in 1312 (Henry failed to be crowned by the pope, the first emperor to be crowned by a pope after Frederick was Sigismund, in 1433).
^ The name is the chapter heading for his early years in Kantorowicz.
^ Constance had left the new-born to her friend, the duchess of Spoleto. The tradition that his mother wanted to call him "Constantine" is mentioned only later.
^ A charter issued by Emperor Frederick II dated 1248 was witnessed by Manfred [III], Marquis of Lancia, "our beloved kinsman" [dilectus affinis noster]. The word here used for kinsman is "affinis," that is, kinsman by marriage, not blood. A transcript of this charter is published in Huillard-Bréholles, 1861.[56]
^ Catholic Encyclopedia - Frederick II
^ "His dream of universal power made him regard himself as an emperor of classical times and a direct successor to Augustus", notes Roberto Weiss, The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity (Oxford: Blackwell) 1973:12.
^ Cronica, Giovanni Villani Book VI e. 1. (Rose E. Selfe's English translation)
^ Sammartino, Peter; Roberts, William (1 January 2001). Sicily: An Informal History. Associated University Presse. ISBN 9780845348772.
^ "Ma l'imperatore svevo fu conservatore o innovatore?". Archived from the original on 29 April 2015.
^ Abulafia, David (2002). Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-6836-5.
^ Detwiler, Donald S. (1999). Germany: A Short History. Southern Illinois University Press. p. 43.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Kamp, N (1995). "FEDERICO II di Svevia, imperatore, re di Sicilia e di Gerusalemme, re dei Romani". Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani (in Italian). 45. Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 26 May 2019.
^ FIU.edu
^ a b c Toch, Michael (1999). "Welfs, Hohenstaufen and Habsburgs". In Abulafia, David; McKitterick, Rosamond (eds.). The New Cambridge Medieval History:c.1198-c.1300. 5. Cambridge University Press. p. 381.
^ Madden, Thomas F. The New Concise History of the Crusades. MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2006.
^ Honorius III. "Ad Fredericum Romanorum Imperatorem." In Medii Aevi Bibliotheca Patristica Tomus Quartus, edited by César Auguste Horoy, 28–29. Paris: Imprimerie de la Bibliothèque Ecclésiastique, 1880. Archive.org
^ Peters, ed. (1971). "Roger of Wendover". Christian Society and the Crusades. Philadelphia.
^ Peters, ed. (1971). "The History of Philip of Novara". Christian Society and the Crusades. Philadelphia.
^ Marvin Harris, Cows, Pigs, Wars and Witches, Chapter 10
^ Gierson, Philip (1998). Medieval European Coinage: Vol.14. Cambridge University Press.
^ Bressler, Richard (2010). Frederick II : the wonder of the world. Yardley, Pennsylvania: Westholme. ISBN 9781594161094.
^ Adams, John P (18 September 2014). "SEDE VACANTE 1241-1243". csun.edu. Retrieved 19 December 2014.
^ Peter Jackson, "The Mongols and the West", page 66
^ Peter Jackson, "The Crusade against the Mongols (1241)," Journal of Ecclesiastical History 42 (1991): 14-15
^ Hungary Matthew Paris, 341-344.
^ Gian Andri Bezzola, Die Mongolen in Abendländischer Sicht (1220-1270): Ein Beitrag zur Frage der Völkerbegegnungen (Bern: Francke Verlag, 1974), 79-80
^ Jackson, pp. 66–67, p. 71
^ Jackson, pp. 61
^ Matthew Paris, English History, v.1, 344.
^ Regesta Imperii, (RI V) n. 3210, http://regesten.regesta-imperii.de/
^ Thomas of Split, History of the Bishops, 287
^ Master Roger, Epistle, 195
^ Harold T. Cheshire, "The Great Tartar Invasion of Europe," The Slavonic Review 5 (1926): 97.
^ Howorth, Sir Henry Hoyle. History of the Mongols: From the 9th to the 19th Century, Volume 1. Forgotten Books (June 15, 2012). p. 152.
^ a b c Kamp, Norbert. "CAPOCCI, Raniero (Raynerius de Viterbio, Rainerius, Ranerius, Reinerius)". Dizionari Biografico degli Italiani. Enciclopedia Italiana. Retrieved 20 June 2013.
^ Papal bull of excommunication of Frederick II
^ Ralph Henry Carless Davis, Robert Ian Moore. A History of Medieval Europe.
^ Dolezalek Isabelle. Arabic Script on Christian Kings: Textile Inscriptions on Royal Garments from Norman Sicily.
^ a b Cattaneo, Giulio. Federico II di Svevia. Rome: Newton Compton.
^ a b Maehl, William Harvey (1979). Germany in Western Civilization. p. 64.
^ Cantor, Norman F. (1993). The Civilization of the Middle Ages. p. 458.
^ Singleton, Charles (1989). The Divine Comedy, Vol. 1: Inferno, 2: Commentary. Princeton UP. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-691-01895-9.
^ Sicilian Peoples: The Jews of Sicily by Vincenzo Salerno
^ Gaetana Marrone, Paolo Puppa, and Luca Somigli, eds. Encyclopedia of Italian literary studies (2007) Volume 1 pp. 780–82, also 563, 571, 640, 832–36
^ Haskins, C. H. (July 1927). "The Latin Literature of Sport". Speculum. 2 (3): 244. doi:10.2307/2847715.
^ Albericus Trium Fontium, Monumenta, scriptores, xxiii. 943.
^ Medieval Sourcebook: Salimbene: On Frederick II, 13th Century
^ Coulton, C. G. (1907). From St. Francis to Dante : translations from the chronicle of the Franciscan Salimbene, 1221-1288 with notes and illustrations from other medieval sources. London: Nutt.
^ Salimbene de Adam (1942). Cronica. 1. Bari: G. Laterza.
^ Pabst, Bernhard (2002). Gregor von Montesacro und die geistige Kultur Süditaliens unter Friedrich II. (Montesacro-Forschungen) (in German). Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 307. ISBN 3-515-07909-2. Vor allem die Astrologie gewann immer an Einfluß und bestimmte teilweise sogar das Handeln der politischen Entscheidungsträger – die Gestalt des Hofastrologen Michael Scotus... ist ein nur ein prominenter Beleg (lit.: Mainly astrology gained ever more influence and in parts it even decided the acting of the political decision makers – the figure of court astrologer Michael Scot is just one prominent reference [among others].)
^ Little, Kirk, citing: Campion, Nicholas (2009). The Medieval And Modern Worlds. A History Of Western Astrology. II. Continuum Books. ISBN 978-1-4411-8129-9. Bonatti, for instance, was perhaps the most famous astrologer of his day and apparently advised Frederick II on military matters.
^ Görich, Knut. "Stupor mundi – Staunen der Welt". Damals (in German). Vol. 42 no. 10/2010. p. 61. Da die Demonstration gelehrten Wissens an den arabischen Höfen besonderen Stellenwert hatte, waren die Fragen, die Friedrich an muslimische Gelehrte schickte – sie betrafen optische Phänomene wie die Krümmung eines Gegenstandes im Wasser ebenso wie die angebliche Unsterblichkeit der Seele —, nicht nur Ausdruck der persönlichen Wissbegier des Kaisers (lit.:Because demonstration of scholarly knowledge played an important role at the Arab courts, the questions Frederick sent to Muslim scholars, regarding optical phenomena like the curving of objects in water as well as the alleged immortality of the soul, were not merely a sign of the emperor's personal intellectual curiosity).
^ Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Mirat al-Zaman', cited in Malouf, Amin The Crusades Through Arab Eyes (J. Rothschild trans.) Saqi Books, 2006, p.230
^ Rashdall, Hastings (1895). The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Clarendon Press. p. 85. Retrieved 20 November 2016. The physician [...] was not allowed to sell his own drugs ('nec ipse etiam habebit propriam stationem').
^ Carol Lansing and Edward D. English, eds. (2012). A Companion to the Medieval World. John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. CS1 maint: Extra text: authors list (link)
^ Abulafia, David (1988). Frederick II. A Medieval Emperor. Penguin Press. p. 436.
^ a b c d e f g h i j Steven Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers, (Cambridge University Press, 2000), 26.
^ Thomas Curtis Van Cleve's The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen: Immutator Mundi (Oxford, 1972). Page 381: "Certainly there is some evidence that a son, Jordanus, was born in the year 1236, and died shortly afterwards, but the only son of Frederick II and Isabella of England whose birth can be firmly established was a second Henry, born in 1238, and named after his uncle, Henry III, the King of England."
^ "Monachi Sancti Albani, Chronica Majora, Matthew of Paris, pg 572
^ Huillard-Bréholles, JLA (1861). Historia diplomatica Friderica Secundi. 6. Henricus. pp. 670–672.
^ a b c d e "Federico II, figli", Enciclopedia Federiciana (Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana, 2005).
^ CLUEB – Scheda Pubblicazione Archived 19 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor.
Fridericus II
Wikiquote has quotations related to: Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor
Abulafia, David (1988). Frederick II: A Medieval Emperor. Penguin Press. ISBN 88-06-13197-4.
Alio, Jacqueline (2017). The Ferraris Chronicle: Popes, Emperors, and Deeds in Apulia 1096-1228. Trinacria. ISBN 978-1-943-63916-8.
Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. Norton. ISBN 0-393-30153-2.
Cassady, Richard F. (2011). The Emperor and the Saint: Frederick II of Hohenstaufen, Francis of Assisi, and Journeys to Medieval Places. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
Cavendish, Richard (December 2000). "Death of the Emperor Frederick II". History Today. 50 (12).
Davis, R. H. C. (1988). A History of Medieval Europe. Longman. ISBN 0-582-01404-2.
Kantorowicz, Ernst (1931). Frederick the Second, 1194–1250. , the fundamental scholarly biography
Maalouf, Amin (1989). The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. Schocken. ISBN 0-8052-0898-4.
Mendola, Louis (2016). Frederick, Conrad and Manfred of Hohenstaufen, Kings of Sicily: The Chronicle of Nicholas of Jamsilla. Trinacria. ISBN 978-1-943-63906-9.
Masson, Georgina (1957). Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. Martin Secker & Warburg. ISBN 88-452-9107-3.
Powell, James M. (April 2007). Church and Crusade: Frederick II and Louis IX. Catholic Historical Review. 93. pp. 251–264. doi:10.1353/cat.2007.0201.
Smith, Thomas W. "Between two kings: Pope Honorius III and the seizure of the Kingdom of Jerusalem by Frederick II in 1225." Journal of Medieval History 41, 1 (2015): 41–59.
Van Cleve, T. C. (1972). The Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen: Immuntator Mundi. Oxford. ISBN 0-198-22513-X.
Wood, Casey A.; Fyfe, F. Marjorie, eds. (2004) [c. 1250]. The Art of Falconry: Being the De arte venandi cum avibus of Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0374-1. OCLC 474664651.
Texts on Wikisource:
"Frederick II. King of Sicily from 1197, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1215 to 1250" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
"Frederick II., Roman Emperor". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
"Frederick II" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913.
"Frederick II, emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" . Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
"Frederick II" . Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
Page at Dizionario Biografico degli Italiani website ‹See Tfd›(in Italian)
Frederick II – Encyclopædia Britannica
Psalter of Frederick II from around 1235-1237
Literature by and about Friedrich II. in the German National Library catalogue
Works by and about Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor in the Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek (German Digital Library)
"Fridericus II Imperator". Repertorium "Historical Sources of the German Middle Ages" (Geschichtsquellen des deutschen Mittelalters).
Stupor mundi Italian website
Deed by Frederick II for the branch of the Teutonic Order in Nuremberg, 30 January 1215, "digitalised image". Photograph Archive of Old Original Documents (Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden). University of Marburg. .
House of Hohenstaufen
Born: 1194 Died: 1250
Constance King of Sicily
with Constance (1198)
Henry II (1212–1217) Succeeded by
Conrad I & II
Isabella II King of Jerusalem
with Isabella II
Philip Duke of Swabia
Otto IV King of Germany
1220–1245/50 Succeeded by
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor&oldid=906060494"


text:
Q: What is the cardinality of the centralizer of a bijection? Let $\mathfrak{F}(0)$ be the set of all bijections $\mathbb{N}\mapsto\mathbb{N}$, and let $\mathfrak{F}(n+1)$ be the set of all bijections $\mathfrak{F}(n)\mapsto\mathfrak{F}(n)$. Given $\alpha\in\mathfrak{F}(n)$, is there a lower bound on the cardinality of $C_{\mathfrak{F}(n)}(\alpha)$, the centralizer of $\alpha$? Of course, since $C_{\mathfrak{F}(n)}(I)=\mathfrak{F}(n)$, where $I$ is the identity, the cardinality of the centralizer can be the same as that of $\mathfrak{F}(n)$. So the question is, is it possible to, using the axiom of choice as necessary, exhibit $\alpha\in\mathfrak{F}(n)$ such that $|C_{\mathfrak{F}(n)}(\alpha)|<|\mathfrak{F}(n)|$? Or, making things a little more concrete, is it possible to create $f:\mathbb{R}\mapsto\mathbb{R}$, a bijection, such that $|C_{\mathfrak{F}(1)}(f)|<|2^{\mathbb{R}}|$?

A: As far as I understand, the answer is negative (assuming $n>0$). It is easy to prove the following:
Claim. Let $X$ be an uncountable set. Let $G$ be the group of all bijections $X\to X$. Then for any
$g\in G$, its centralizer $Z(g)\subset G$ satisfies $|Z(g)|=|G|$. (This implies the claim, since all of $\mathfrak{F}(n)$ are uncountable.)
Proof. It suffices to show that $|Z(g)|\ge|G|$. Consider the partition of $X$ into orbits under the action of $g$. Each orbit is identified with a cyclic group ${\mathbb Z}/n{\mathbb Z}$ ($n\ge 0$) with $g$ acting as the shift by one. Since there are countably many isomorphism types of orbits, and each has countably many elements, there exists a particular $n\ge 0$ such that the corresponding set of orbits $X_n$ of this type has $|X_n|=|X|$. Now it is easy to see that the map from $Z(g)$ to the bijections of $X_n$ is surjective. (And hence
the cardinality of $Z(g)$ is at least the cardinality of the group of bijections of $X_n$.)

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Barbados & CPSO Sign Headquarters Agreement
by bgis | Nov 16, 2020 | press
Minister of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade, Senator Dr. Jerome Walcott displays the signed agreement during a virtual ceremony at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs this morning. (C. Pitt/BGIS) Efforts to further strengthen the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME)...
CSME Is Needed Now More Than Ever
by bgis | Oct 21, 2020 | press
Caribbean nations and citizens need to embrace the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME). This was stressed by Barbados' Ambassador to CARICOM, David Comissiong, while speaking to the Barbados Government Information Service recently about the importance of the...
CARICOM Member States Need Better Financing Deals
Regional governments need to attract better investment opportunities for their citizens, if Caribbean countries are to survive the current financial crisis. Barbados' Ambassador to CARICOM, David Comissiong, made this clear recently, as he gave a synopsis of aspects...
CARICOM Agriculture & Food Security Task Force Established
CARICOM now has a Food Security Task Force to ensure that member states make agricultural development a priority. This was disclosed by Barbados' Ambassador to CARICOM, David Comissiong, recently, as he gave the Barbados Government Information Service an...
Ambassador Outlines CARICOM Strategy Amidst COVID
Barbados and other CARICOM countries are doing "a phenomenal job" in controlling the COVID-19 pandemic. Member States were given the thumbs up by Barbados' Ambassador to CARICOM, David Comissiong, as he gave an update to the Barbados Government Information...
Ambassador Comissiong: Let Us Work Out A Solution
by bgis | Oct 5, 2020 | press
Statement by Barbados' Ambassador to CARICOM, David Comissiong – It Is Our CXC: Let Us Work Out A Solution In the interest of those 5th and 6th form students across our region who have been negatively impacted by the controversy surrounding the...
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Flaming Gorge Country is famous for its world class fishing, boating and family adventures. All set in the scenic splendor of the National Recreation Area.
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The social Mule deer is most often seen in herds. They are named for their very large (mule like) ears. Their tale is black tipped and is a distinguishing feature of this deer species. Mule deer are found in every habitat - urban areas, fields, meadows and forests. When frightened, they have a distinctive 4 legged hop or trot to safety.
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Celine Dion jumped at the chance to honour Aretha Franklin during Saturday night's Grammy tribute concert to pay the Queen of Soul back for the little things she took from her.
And Dion will be forever grateful she got the chance to sing with her idol before Aretha lost her battle with cancer last year.
Celine joined Jennifer Hudson, John Legend, and Kelly Clarkson, among others, at Saturday's tribute concert, which will air in America on March 10.


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Ca2+-binding motif underlies the unusual propert...
Ca2+-binding motif underlies the unusual properties of certain photosynthetic bacterial core light-harvesting complexes
Summary of our research
For many years we have been working on either Ca2+-bound or Ca2+-free light-harvesting (LH1) complexes from purple photosynthetic bacteria, with an overarching objective of revealing the minimum structural requirement for their highly selective Ca2+-binding. Following determinations of the structures for fully Ca2+-bound LH1 complexes, here we present a cryo-EM structure of a Ca2+-bound LH1 composed of multiple αβ-polypeptides in a single complex that, unlike our previous studies, originates from a species whose native LH1 contains a reduced number of Ca ions. Using this model, we have now been able to pinpoint the long-sought link between the two types of LH1 complexes and precisely define the minimum structural motif for specific Ca2+-binding; such binding is crucial for the biochemical and spectroscopic properties of the photocomplexes. This work is not "just another complex", but a complex from an unusual phototroph that has allowed us to answer an important and longstanding question that was not obvious from previous work. Our study lays the necessary foundation for advancing studies of selective metal-binding properties in other cellular systems and thus should appeal to a broad scientific audience, particularly those whose interests include metalloproteins, metal-related life science, bioenergetics, photosynthesis, structural biology, and the diversity of photosynthetic life on Earth.
Researcher information
TANI Kazutoshi
Appointed Professor, Mie University
Specialized area:
MIZOGUCHI Akira
Professor, Mie University
electron microscopy (Anatomy)
Zeng-Yu Wang-Otomo
Professor, Ibaraki University
KIMURA Yukihiro
Associate Professor, Kobe University
Humanities, Law and Economics(2)
Engineering(1)
Bioresources(7)
Regional Innovation(4)
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Faculty of Humanities, Law and Economics Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences
Faculty of Education Graduate School of Education
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Graduate School & Faculty of Bioresources
Graduate School of Regional Innovation Studies
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Mie University1577 Kurimamachiya-cho Tsu city, Mie 514-8507 JAPAN


Billy's Buttercream Bakery is one of the hottest bakeries in the City. There are always lines around the corner waiting for her scrumptious desserts. She's sweet, soft spoken and puts love into everything she bakes. A large portion of the proceeds from sales of her cookbook go to charities around the City.


Up to 150 lorries will be sent from Manston Airport to Dover during rush hour on Monday in a test to see if Britain is ready for a no deal Brexit.
In a letter to hauliers DfT and Kent County Council officials revealed they would run tests during the morning rush hour at 8am, and again at 11am, to 'establish the safest optimum release rate of HGVs' from the airfield to Dover along the A256.
It said it would pay for 100-150 hauliers from the local area to take part in the test of Operation Brock. Up to 6,000 lorries could be parked on the site under the plan.
Congestion at the Channel ports caused by the reintroduction of customs checks on goods has been one of the most commonly cited negative impacts of a no-deal withdrawal from the EU at the end of March.
In the event of congestion, lorries will first be parked on the M20 under Operation Stack in a similar way to when bad weather or strikes close the Dover-Calais route. Once that is full as far as Ashford, trucks would be sent to Manston.
The news came after it was reported that Theresa May was due to speak with European Commission president Jean-Claude Juncker on Friday as she seeks added flexibility in the Withdrawal Agreement.
MPs are due to debate the PM's Brexit deal on Wednesday ahead of a meaningful vote the following week but the EU has yet to offer any changes.
A DfT spokeswoman said: 'We do not want or expect a no-deal scenario and continue to work hard to deliver a deal with the EU.
'However, it is the duty of a responsible Government to continue to prepare for all eventualities and contingencies, including a possible no deal.
Parish council chairman Cllr Andrew Blaydes told Kent Online: 'The trial is essential and we have always said it needs to be tested to show the impact on local traffic.
However a poll of Conservative Party members has dealt a new blow to Mrs May's chances of getting her deal through the Commons, with 57% of grassroots Tories saying they would support leaving the EU without an agreement.
The DUP has also maintained its opposition to the plan because of the proposed customs 'backstop' element of the deal – affecting the Northern Ireland/Ireland border – agreed by Mrs May with Brussels.
DUP deputy leader Nigel Dodds insisted his party's opposition to Irish border backstop proposals had not lessened after a meeting with the Prime Minister on Thursday.
Brexit Secretary Stephen Barclay said a second EU referendum would 'trigger a very populist reaction' and would further divide the UK.
Speaking to German newspaper Die Welt he said: 'The current rate at which Britain is torn would be small compared to the tensions that a second vote would cause.
The comments echoed his Cabinet colleague Jeremy Hunt, after the Foreign Secretary said earlier this week that the consequences for democracy of another referendum would be 'devastating'.


A series from Bloomberg this week sheds light on a predatory lending practice that's turning New York's court system into a debt-collection machine. Some lenders that offer cash advances to small businesses require their customers to sign what's called a "confession of judgment." That means before borrowers get a loan, they sign away their right to defend themselves if the lender takes them to court. Then lenders can, without proof, accuse borrowers of not paying and legally seize their assets. Marketplace host Kai Ryssdal talked with Bloomberg's Zack Mider about the story.