text:
metallic chemical element of silvery appearance with symbol Al and atomic number 13
Aluminium (in American and Canadian English also: aluminum) is a chemical element. The symbol for aluminium is Al, and its atomic number is 13. Aluminium is the most abundant metal. It is a mononuclidic element.
Aluminium, 13Al
aluminium: /ˌæl(j)ʊˈmɪniəm/ ( listen)
(AL-(y)uu-MIN-ee-əm)
aluminum: /əˈljuːmɪnəm/ ( listen)
(ə-LEW-min-əm)
aluminum (U.S., Canada)
silvery gray metallic
Standard atomic weight Ar, std(Al)
26.9815384(3)Template:Infobox element/symbol-to-saw/CIAAW-saw-element-page
Aluminium in the periodic table
magnesium ← aluminium → silicon
group 13 (boron group)
p-block
[Ne] 3s2 3p1
933.47 K (660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F)
2.375 g/cm3
10.71 kJ/mol
284 kJ/mol
24.20 J/(mol·K)
−2, −1, +1,[1] +2,[2] +3 (an amphoteric oxide)
2nd: 1816.7 kJ/mol
3rd: 2744.8 kJ/mol
Van der Waals radius
Spectral lines of aluminium
face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod
(rolled) 5000 m/s (at r.t.)
237 W/(m⋅K)
26.5 nΩ⋅m (at 20 °C)
paramagnetic[3]
Molar magnetic susceptibility
+16.5·10−6 cm3/mol
Bulk modulus
Mohs hardness
Vickers hardness
160–350 MPa
after alumina (aluminium oxide), itself named after mineral alum
Antoine Lavoisier (1782)
Discovery and first isolation
Hans Christian Ørsted (1824)
Named by
Humphry Davy (1812)
Main isotopes of aluminium
26Al
trace 7.17×105 y β+ 26Mg
ε 26Mg
γ –
100% stable
Category: Aluminium
3 Occurrence and preparation
3.1 In space
3.2 On Earth
4 Compounds
6 Recycling
7 Toxicity
8 Ways of exposure
10 Environmental effects
12 Related pages
People have tried to produce aluminium since 1760. The first successful attempt, finished in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin. He presented his results and showed a sample of the new metal in 1825.[6] In 1827, German chemist Friedrich Wöhler repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium.[7] (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.) He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium.[8] In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal. For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as personewho discovered of aluminium.
PropertiesEdit
Aluminium is a very good conductor of electricity and heat. It is light and strong. It can be hammered into sheets (malleable) or pulled out into wires (ductile). It is a highly reactive metal, although it is corrosion resistant.
A fresh film of aluminium is a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation.
Aluminium prevents corrosion by forming a small, thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer protects the metal by preventing oxygen from reaching it. Corrosion can not occur without oxygen. Because of this thin layer, the reactivity of aluminium is not seen. As a powder it burns hot. Uses include fireworks displays and rocket fuel.
Occurrence and preparationEdit
Pure aluminium is made from bauxite, a kind of rock that has aluminium oxide and many impurities. The bauxite is crushed and reacted with sodium hydroxide. The aluminium oxide dissolves. Then the aluminium oxide is dissolved in liquid cryolite, a rare mineral. Cryolite is normally produced artificially though. The aluminium oxide is electrolyzed to make aluminium and oxygen. The largest producer of aluminium is China. China produces about 31,873 thousand tonnes of aluminium.
Aluminium was once considered a precious metal that was even more valuable than gold. This is no longer true because, as technology improved, it became cheaper and easier to make pure metal.
In spaceEdit
It is the 12th most abundant of all elements. It is the 3rd most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers.[9] The only stable isotope of aluminium is aluminium-27. It is the 18th most abundant nucleus in the Universe. It is created after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become Type II supernovae: this fusion creates magnesium-26, which, when capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium. Essentially all aluminium now in existence is aluminium-27; aluminium-26 was there in the early Solar System but is now extinct. The trace quantities of aluminium-26 that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas.[10]
On EarthEdit
Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass.[11] In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element by mass (8.23%). It is also the third most abundant of all elements in the Earth's crust. A lot of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.[12] But, the Earth's mantle is only 2.38% aluminium by mass. Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg.[13]
Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel, and turquoise.[14] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea.
Aluminium forms chemical compounds in the +3 oxidation state. They are generally unreactive. Aluminium chloride and aluminium oxide examples. Very rarely are compounds in the +1 or +2 oxidation state.
UsesEdit
Many things are made of aluminium. Much of it is used in overhead power lines. It is also widely used in window frames and aircraft bodies. It is found at home as kitchenware, soft drink cans, and cooking foil. Aluminium is also used to coat car headlamps and compact discs. It is used in electrical transmission lines because of its light weight. It can be deposited on the surface of glass to make mirrors, where a thin layer of aluminum oxide quickly forms that acts as a protective coating. Aluminum oxide is also used to make synthetic rubies and sapphires for lasers. Aluminum can now be produced from clay, but the process is not economically feasible at today.
Pure aluminium is very soft, so a harder metal is almost always added. The harder metal is usually copper. Copper/aluminium alloys are to make ships, because the aluminium prevents corrosion, and the copper prevents barnacles.
Aluminium compounds are used in deodorants, water processing plants, food additives, and antacids. Lithium aluminium hydride is a really strong reducing agent used in organic chemistry.
Aluminium sulfate is used in water treatment. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in leather tanning, and in production of other aluminium compounds.
Anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of many inorganic and organic compounds.
Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as antiperspirants. Sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator for drying of cement.
Aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent.
Aluminium phosphate is used to make glass, ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints, varnishes. Aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid, and mordant. It is used also in water purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the waterproofing of fabrics.
Aluminium is used in automobiles, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, spacecraft. Aluminium is used in making doors, siding, building wire, sheathing, roofing and other building materials.
RecyclingEdit
Since aluminium needs to be made by electrolysis, it requires a very large amount of electrical power. Recycling aluminium would be much cheaper. That's why recycling plants were opened. The cost of recycling aluminium is much less than the cost of making it from bauxite.
Recycling involves melting the scrap. This is a process that only needs 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore. But, 15% of the input material part is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[15] An aluminium stack melter makes a lot less dross, about 1%.[16]
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling processes still contains useful amounts of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a very complex waste. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which ignites on contact with air.[17] Even with these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[18]
ToxicityEdit
Aluminium is not used in the human body, although it is very common. People debate whether its use in deodorants and water treatment is healthy. Aluminium ions slow down plant growth in acidic soils. Aluminium may be a factor in Alzheimer's disease (a disease when the brain stops working and the patient is confused).[19][20] But the Alzheimer's Society says overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.[21]
In most people, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals. Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by United States Department of Health and Human Services. There is little proof that normal exposure to aluminium is a risk to healthy adult. There is proof of no toxicity if it is taken in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of body mass.[22] Most aluminium taken will leave the body in feces. Most of the small part that enters the blood, will be excreted via urine.[23]
Aluminium rarely causes vitamin D-resistant osteomalacia, erythropoietin-resistant microcytic anemia, and central nervous system changes. People with kidney insufficiency are at a risk the most. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates may result in aluminium binding to the things in the intestines. It also increases the removal of other metals, like iron or zinc. Really high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia.
A small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms when touching products containing aluminium.[24]
Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis. Fine aluminium powder can also explode.
Ways of exposureEdit
Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water has more aluminium than solid foods.[25] Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water. Major sources of human exposure by mouth to aluminium include food (because of its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (because of its use in water treatment), and medicines that have aluminium in it.[26] Very high exposure of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and dialysis patients.[27]
Taking of antacids, antiperspirants, vaccines, and cosmetics give possible ways of exposure.[28] Eating acidic foods or liquids with aluminium increases aluminium absorption. Maltol has been shown to increase the build up of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.[29]
TreatmentEdit
In case of suspected sudden consumption of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate. It may be given to help remove aluminium from the body by chelation.[30][31] But, this should be applied with caution as it not only reduce aluminium in the body, but can also reduce those of other metals such as copper or iron.[30]
Environmental effectsEdit
High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites. Small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or incinerators. Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down. But, small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.[23]
Acid rain is the main natural factor to move aluminium from natural sources. It is also the main reason for the effects of aluminium on the environment.[32] The main factor for the presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.[33]
In water, aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on animals that with gills like fish by causing loss of plasma- and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure.[32]
Aluminium is one of the primary factors that reduce the growth of plants on acidic soils. In acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs the growth and function of the root. It is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils.[34][35][36][37] Wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium. It releases organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is thought to have the same method of tolerating aluminium.[38]
Aluminium production has its own problems to the environment on each step of the production process. The major problem is the greenhouse gas. These gases are caused by the electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The strongest of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process.[27]
A Spanish scientific report from 2001 claimed that the fungus Geotrichum candidum eats the aluminium in compact discs.[39][40] The better studied bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus Cladosporium resinae are commonly found in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosene-based fuels, and laboratory cultures can decompose aluminium.[41] However, these types of bacteria do not eat the aluminium; but rather, the metal is corroded by microbe waste products.[42]
GalleryEdit
Pure (white) and impure (yellow) forms of aluminium chloride
A roll of aluminium
Bauxite, aluminium ore
Aluminium cans ready for recycling at Central European Waste Management's plant in Europe
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aluminium.
List of common elements
↑ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35 (2): 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291.
↑ D. C. Tyte (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0. S2CID 4163250.
↑ Lide, D. R. (2000). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds" (PDF). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0849304814.
↑ D. C. Tyte (1964). "Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide". Nature. 202 (4930): 383. Bibcode:1964Natur.202..383T. doi:10.1038/202383a0.
↑ Dohmeier, C.; Loos, D.; Schnöckel, H. (1996). "Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 35: 129–149. doi:10.1002/anie.199601291.
↑ Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; Orna, Mary Virginia (2015). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-938334-4.
↑ Venetski, S. (1969-07). "?Silver? from clay". Metallurgist. 13 (7): 451–453. doi:10.1007/BF00741130. ISSN 0026-0894. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ "Ueber das Aluminium". Archiv der Pharmazie. 130 (3): 291–292. 1854. doi:10.1002/ardp.18541300315. ISSN 0365-6233.
↑ Solar System abundances and condensation temperatures of the elements (PDF). Lodders, K. 2003. ISSN 0004-637X.
↑ Clayton, Donald (2003). Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos: Hydrogen to Gallium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-53083-5.
↑ "Wayback Machine" (PDF). web.archive.org. 2011-09-28. Retrieved 2020-08-28. Cite uses generic title (help)
↑ The Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium: Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry. Wade, K.; Banister, A.J. 2016. ISBN 978-1-4831-5322-3.
↑ Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition (PDF). Palme, H.; O'Neill, Hugh St. C. 2005.
↑ Downs, A. J. (1993-05-31). Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7514-0103-5.
↑ "Benefits of Recycling". Ohio Department of Natural Resources.
↑ "Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations" (PDF).
↑ "Why are dross & saltcake a concern?". Experts123. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
↑ Added value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt (PDF). Dunster, A.M. 2005.
↑ Ferreira PC, Piai Kde A, Takayanagui AM, Segura-Muñoz SI (2008). "Aluminum as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease". Rev Lat Am Enfermagem. 16 (1): 151–7. doi:10.1590/S0104-11692008000100023. PMID 18392545. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ Rondeau, V.; Jacqmin-Gadda, H.; Commenges, D.; Helmer, C.; Dartigues, J.-F. (2008). "Aluminum and Silica in Drinking Water and the Risk of Alzheimer's Disease or Cognitive Decline: Findings From 15-Year Follow-up of the PAQUID Cohort". American Journal of Epidemiology. 169 (4): 489–96. doi:10.1093/aje/kwn348. PMC 2809081. PMID 19064650.
↑ Aluminium and Alzheimer's disease, The Alzheimer's Society. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
↑ Physiology of Aluminum in Man. 1998. ISBN 0-8247-8026-4.
↑ 23.0 23.1 "ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Aluminum".
↑ "Aluminum Allergy Symptoms and Diagnosis". Allergy Symptoms. 2016-09-20. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
↑ Yokel, Robert A.; Hicks, Clair L.; Florence, Rebecca L. (2008-6). "Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese". Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association. 46 (6): 2261–2266. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004. ISSN 0278-6915. PMC 2449821. PMID 18436363. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ United States. Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, issuing body. Toxicological profile for aluminum. OCLC 832737188.
↑ 27.0 27.1 "Aluminum". The Environmental Literacy Council. Archived from the original on 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
↑ Chen, Jennifer K., editor. Thyssen, Jacob P., editor. Metal allergy : from dermatitis to implant and device failure. ISBN 978-3-319-58503-1. OCLC 1031466049. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
↑ van Ginkel, M. F.; van der Voet, G. B.; D'Haese, P. C.; De Broe, M. E.; de Wolff, F. A. (1993-03). "Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone". The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine. 121 (3): 453–460. ISSN 0022-2143. PMID 8445293. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ 30.0 30.1 "ARL: Aluminum Toxicity". Archived from the original on 2019-08-31.
↑ "Aluminum Toxicity". Wayback Machine.
↑ 32.0 32.1 Rosseland, B. O.; Eldhuset, T. D.; Staurnes, M. (1990-03). "Environmental effects of aluminium". Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 12 (1–2): 17–27. doi:10.1007/BF01734045. ISSN 0269-4042. PMID 24202562. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Dolara, Piero (2014-12). "Occurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 65 (8): 911–924. doi:10.3109/09637486.2014.937801. ISSN 1465-3478. PMID 25045935. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Pereira, Luciane Belmonte; Tabaldi, Luciane Almeri; Gonçalves, Jamile Fabbrin; Jucoski, Gládis Oliveira; Pauletto, Mareni Maria; Weis, Simone Nardin; Nicoloso, Fernando Teixeira; Borher, Denise; Rocha, João Batista Teixeira (2006-08). "Effect of aluminum on δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) and the development of cucumber (Cucumis sativus)". Environmental and Experimental Botany. 57 (1–2): 106–115. doi:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.05.004. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Toxicity and tolerance of aluminium in vascular plants. Andersson, Maud. 1988.
↑ Horst, Walter J. (1995). "The role of the apoplast in aluminium toxicity and resistance of higher plants: A review". Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde (in German). 158 (5): 419–428. doi:10.1002/jpln.19951580503. [permanent dead link]
↑ Ma, Jian Feng; Ryan, Peter R; Delhaize, Emmanuel (2001-06). "Aluminium tolerance in plants and the complexing role of organic acids". Trends in Plant Science. 6 (6): 273–278. doi:10.1016/S1360-1385(01)01961-6. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Magalhaes, Jurandir V.; Garvin, David F.; Wang, Yihong; Sorrells, Mark E.; Klein, Patricia E.; Schaffert, Robert E.; Li, Li; Kochian, Leon V. (2004-08). "Comparative Mapping of a Major Aluminum Tolerance Gene in Sorghum and Other Species in the Poaceae". Genetics. 167 (4): 1905–1914. doi:10.1534/genetics.103.023580. ISSN 0016-6731. Check date values in: |date= (help)
↑ Bosch, Xavier (2001-06-27). "Fungus eats CD". Nature. doi:10.1038/news010628-11. ISSN 1476-4687.
↑ "Fungus 'eats' CDs". 2001-06-22. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
↑ "Studies on the 'Kerosene Fungus' Cladosporium Resinae (Lindau) De Vries — Part I. The Problem of Microbial Contamination of Aviation Fuels | NZETC". nzetc.victoria.ac.nz. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
↑ "Aircraft Fuel System Contamination & Starvation | Intelligence". web.archive.org. 2015-02-25. Retrieved 2020-08-28.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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There is also a compelling reason why Progressives should be closely involved with working out the way in which voucher programs will be designed and implemented. We are rightly not convinced that it is appropriate to simply "let the market lip" with no regard for the consequences, that government should wash its hands of its responsibility of ensuring that justice is done, in education, for those who are most vulnerable to unfair treatment, most likely to lack advocates in their interest, most in need of extra support.
Public funding for schools which are not operated by government is coming in the United States, as it came decades ago in other Western democracies: in Canada, Australia and Britain, in France, the Low Countries, Germany, Spain and Denmark, and as it has come over the past decade in Sweden and in the countries of the former Soviet bloc. Indeed, public funding for schools which are not operated by government-we call them "charter schools"-is the hottest education reform of the Nineties, supported by Democrats and Republicans alike. All that has been excluded in the US, apparently, is schools which reflect the religious convictions and choices of parents, and now parents in Cleveland and in Milwaukee are receiving public funds to send their children to such schools as well. Can anyone doubt that more cities and states will follow?
The question for Progressives, I suggest, is whether they will join in the discussions through which these programs are shaped, or persist in a state of denial while others make all the running. They might pause to reflect that in none of the countries in Western Europe where the Left are now in political control have they proposed to abolish the present arrangements for parent choice of religious schools; it is reported in The New York Times of October 20, 1998 that the first ex-communist premier of Italy is expected to be more generous to Catholic schools than have been any of his Christian-Democrat predecessors.
But isn't this a question of 'Church and State'? No, that is a fundamental misconception which only emerged in the Fifties. The historical record is clear: opposition to public funding for religious schools-and even to their existence, as with the Ku Klux Klan's campaigns for the "little red schoolhouse" in the 1920s--was based on anti-immigrant sentiment. The Protestant majority felt profoundly threatened by millions of Catholic and Jewish immigrants, and the goal of preventing children from following their parents' unAmerican ways motivated legislation from the 1850s on blocking public funding to non-government schools. These debates-which never mentioned the First Amendment-were an echo of political struggles in Europe, especially France, where for some decades the Catholic Church fought against Liberal governments with control of the schools the most important pawn in those battles. But in the United States it is not the Catholic Church which is creating the demand for religious schools-the Catholic "market share" dropped dramatically in recent decades-but millions of parents, many of whom are Evangelical Protestants, African-American Protestants, Muslims ... or Jews. Thousands of new schools have been established since the 1970s, and the great majority of these have a religious character.
Isn't it "unconstitutional" to provide public funds for the education of children in religious schools? Curiously, while the First Amendment privileges the free exercise of religion as especially worthy of protection, the effect of Supreme Court decisions over the past forty years has been to treat religion as the only forbidden motivation for school choice. Parents may choose among publicly-funded schools because of ambition for their children, or pedagogical theory, or fear of minority children, but they have not been able to choose because of religious conviction. This reverses the legal situation in other Western democracies, which privilege and support school choice based upon religious convictions over other motivations. Such policies recognize that religion has a way of encapsulating, for many parents, a whole range of hopes, moral convictions, and loyalties that they want above all to transmit to their children.
The signs are more positive for flexibility on the part of the courts now than they have been in many years. The Rosenberger case, requiring that government act on the basis of "content neutrality" between religious and non-religious activities, the Agostini case (here in New York City), finding that secular educational goals can be met within religious schools, and other recent decisions create strong prospects that the door will continue to open. Public funds are already going to religious day-care programs and adolescent programs, as well as to colleges, without First Amendment barriers, and the Charitable Choice provision of the federal welfare law has created a whole new ball-game. But I'm not here to argue the legal case, but the policy case, for a voucher system of funding education.
I said at the start that there were two principled reasons why Progressives should support and work for a well-designed and equitable voucher system. The first, I said, is Freedom. Parents have a fundamental right, in a free society, to decide about the values that their children will be taught in school. 'Mat tight has been recognized by a whole string of international covenants, beginning with the U. N. Declaration on Human Rights (1948), which states that "parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children" (article 26, 3). Similarly, the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights guarantees "the liberty of parents ... to choose for their children schools, other than those established by public authorities, which conform to such minimum educational standards as may be laid down or approved by the State and to ensure the religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own convictions" (article 13,3).
It is on the basis of this fundamental human right, and not of any theory about "markets," that virtually all the other Western democracies provide public funding to non-government schools that meet public standards and that are selected freely by parents.
Nor is this anchored only in the abstractions of human rights, but also in a series of Supreme Court decisions, notably in Pierce v. Society of Sisters (1925), where the Court famously declared that "the fundamental theory of liberty upon which all governments in this Union repose excludes any general power of the state to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers only." But, as Progressives have argued vigorously in the case of abortion, a right which you cannot afford to exercise is no right at all!
If Freedom demands that we allow parent choice, then, Justice demands that we support and promote it, especially for low-income families and those otherwise condemned to send their children-under mandatory attendance laws-to schools which they are convinced are doing or win do them harm. The learning gap in our society based upon social class and race is larger than the gap in other comparable societies. That is, the achievement gap between high-scoring and low-scoring schools in the United States is substantially larger than that in other countries with many immigrant children in their schools, like Australia or the Netherlands or France.
In a society driven by educational credentials, what happens during the years of formal schooling has a dramatic life-long impact. If religious schools can offer an education that might make all the difference to a poor child or youth, it is unjust to make it impossible for their families to choose such schools, because we--who are able to do so much for our own children (including deciding where we will live)--see these schools not as benevolent but as a threat to democracy. They are, instead, a threat to an undemocratic monopoly system of vested interests.
Nothing could be more futile than to debate--as so many do--about whether an abstraction called "school choice" is a good or a bad thing. Choice is massively present in American education, and those who exercise it (most parents including those with children in public schools-and most public school teachers who are parents) would not willingly give it up. A report by the National Center for Education Statistics found that, in 1993, of families with incomes over $50,000, 72 percent had their children in private schools, public schools of choice (such as magnet schools), and schools which they had selected through residence decisions.
Those who oppose public policies that would allow poor parents to choose what schools their children will attend, claiming that this would undermine the common public school and thus divide American society, do not apply that argument consistently. After all, if the unity of our society requires that children from different backgrounds attend school together, why should we allow the affluent to enroll their children in private schools or escape to the suburbs? Why not forbid private schools and mandate metropolitan school desegregation? We have not heard such proposals from the defenders of the public school monopoly, nor are we likely to. After all, big-city public schoolteachers are twice as likely as the general public to put their own children in private schools, and have strongly resisted residency laws requiring them to live within the school districts which employ them. Few--perhaps none--of their allies in Congress and the White House send their own children to the District of Columbia public schools.
However, there are significant negative effects from the present non-system of parent choice of schools, under which individual choices tend to increase racial and class segregation and the funding and taxation inequities between cities and suburbs. The question for Progressives, then, is not whether to have choice, but how to ensure that choice has equitable and socially-beneficial effects? This is what I've been devoting most of my attention to in recent years; it is a rather lonely position to be in because most of those I would expect to be my allies are committed to maintaining the government monopoly on public education at all costs.
I will not go into details here about how to make choice function equitably, but want to close by noting that nothing that I have said suggests that we should abandon public education in the slightest respect. In the first place, public education does not have to be provided in schools owned and operated by local government, as the charter school movement amply demonstrates. Public education is education which is available to all without cost and which is publicly accountable for fairness and for quality, whether provided by government or not. I wish, indeed, that all of our government-operated public schools met that standard of accountability!
In the second place, the existing public schools should be set free to function with greater autonomy and focus, freed from the smothering bureaucracy which crushes the education out of them I was in charge of urban education and civil rights for Massachusetts for 21 years, through all three Dukakis terms, and finally grew convinced that lasting improvements could be achieved only through fundamental structural changes. That's why I became an early supporter of charter schools, and eventually of vouchers. All public schools should be as autonomous as charter schools and should be eligible for vouchers. To the extent that they areas good as their advocates claim, they will suffer neither enrollment nor financial losses. When we abolished individual school attendance zones in Boston and a dozen other Massachusetts cities, public schools were suddenly forced to demonstrate to parents that they could serve their children effectively. Some closed, many improved. But the improvements were more limited than they should have been, because the schools were still tangled in the compulsion of any bureaucratic system to require that all of its parts behave precisely the same.
Abraham Lincoln pointed out that a nation could not survive half slave and half free. The truth applies to a nation's educational system as well. I am not for vouchers as a way for some lucky children to escape from a bankrupt public education system, but as a way to transform that system, to abolish its choking monopolies and reshape it in ways consistent with a free society.


text:
Der Begriff Bisamapfel bezeichnet Duftstoffzubereitungen mit Zutaten wie Ambra oder Moschus ("Bisam") sowie die tragbaren, meist annähernd kugelförmigen Behälter, in denen sie aufbewahrt wurden. Bisamäpfel wurden bis ins 17. Jahrhundert hinein zu medizinischen Zwecken verwendet und dienten oftmals gleichzeitig als Schmuck.

Begriffe
Die Bezeichnung "Bisamapfel" kam um 1500 in der deutschen Literatur auf; vorher verwendete man oft die Begriffe pomum ambrae oder pomum odiferum. Damit war nicht nur das Gehäuse, sondern auch die wesentlich teurere Duftmasse im Innern gemeint. Manche Bisamäpfel wurden wegen des hohen Anteils an Harzen so hart, dass sie gar keinen Behälter benötigten und direkt an einer Kette um den Hals getragen werden konnten.

Es ist unklar, ob mit "pomum ambrae" immer die Einheit von Duftstoff und Behälter gemeint war. Zum ersten Mal bezog sich Adam Lonitzer in seinem Kräuterbuch unmissverständlich auf den Bisamapfel als Behälter, in dem gegen "bösen Geruch" ein mit Ehrenpreiswasser vollgesogener Schwamm aufbewahrt werden sollte.

Weitere Bezeichnungen für den Bisamapfel sind unter anderem Bisamkopf, Bisamknopf, Balsamapfel, Ambraapfel, Bisambüchse, Pisambüchse, Moschuskugel, Desmerapfel, Desmerknopf, Pomander, Riechapfel und Oldanokapsel. Wentzel bezeichnet nur die aufklappbare Variante der Bisamäpfel als Pomander, Gewürzbüchschen oder Gewürzbüchslein.

Ursprünge und Verwendung

Frühe Duftstoffbehälter
Duftstoffe und Duftstoffbehälter sind seit Jahrtausenden nachweisbar. Dazu zählen Grabbeigaben, orientalische Balsamarien der Frühzeit, ägyptische Alabastertöpfe und andere Gefäße. Plinius der Ältere schrieb über die Parfüms der Könige der Parther und erwähnte, dass diese entweder als Salbe aufgetragen werden oder in duftenden Beuteln am Körper getragen werden konnten.

Giovanni da Procida berichtete, dass der König von Tyros Alexander dem Großen neben Gold, Silber, Edelsteinen und anderen Kostbarkeiten auch hundert Duftäpfel als Tribut schickte.

In China umgaben sich vornehme Damen und Herren aus der Aristokratie mit einer Duftwolke; zu diesem Zweck wurden unter anderem Duftkugeln verwendet. Aus der Tang-Dynastie (7. Jahrhundert–1. Hälfte 8. Jh.) ist eine dekorierte Duftkugel aus Silber überliefert. Innerhalb der beiden von einem Scharnier zusammengehaltenen Hälften befindet sich ein Goldschälchen, das – ähnlich wie bei Wärmekugeln – von einer kardanischen Aufhängung in waagrechter Lage gehalten wird. Derartige Duftkugeln wurden entweder an Ständern aufgehängt oder am Gewand getragen. Aus derselben Zeit sind auch mehrere ähnliche Duftbehältnisse aus Japan bekannt.

Der Ursprung des europäischen Bisamapfels liegt im Orient; diese Vermutung wird auch dadurch gestützt, dass einige Bisamäpfel mit "à la façon de Damaz" beschrieben wurden. Ihr orientalischer Vorläufer war "Sukk", ein aus der "Ramik" genannten Grundsubstanz hergestelltes Medikament. Rezepte für Ramik nannten häufig getrocknete Früchte, die mit Honig im Mörser zerstoßen wurden. Die entstandene Masse wurde getrocknet und in Form von Platten, Pastillen oder Kugeln aufbewahrt. Zusammen mit diversen Duftstoffen ergab sich dann der Sukk. Eine Anleitung zur Herstellung des Sukk stammt von Ibn Amran, der im 9. Jahrhundert lebte. Ketten aus Sukk-Kugeln konnten nicht nur für Medikamente verwendet, sondern auch als Halsschmuck getragen werden.

Der arabisch-sizilianische Dichter Ibn Hamdis schrieb, dass während eines Festmahls eines im frühen 12. Jahrhundert regierenden tunesischen Fürsten die Gäste mit einer Duftkugel spielten, die sie sich über die Seidenteppiche zurollten.

Heilmittel im Mittelalter

Kulturelle Begegnungen mit dem Morgenland gab es während der Kreuzzüge; so kamen auch Duftstoffe nach Europa. Die erste Erwähnung im europäischen Kulturkreis fanden Bisamäpfel 1174, als die Gesandten Balduins IV. Friedrich I. goldene, mit Moschus gefüllte Äpfel überreichten.

Der aus Salerno stammende Lehrer der Medizin Johannes de Sancto Paulo († 1214/15) verordnete in einem seiner medizinischen Werke einen Ambraapfel gegen die Beschwerden des Kopfes. Ein ganz ähnliches Rezept erwähnte etwa ein halbes Jahrhundert später Petrus Hispanus in seinen Thesaurus pauperum.

Der Riechapfel war ein Universalheilmittel, dessen erhoffte Wirkung mit dem Wohlgeruch untrennbar einherging. Medizinische Texte des 14. Jahrhunderts verordneten ihn bei Verdauungsbeschwerden, zur Stärkung der "membrorum principalium" (womit wahrscheinlich die männliche Potenz gemeint war) sowie bei Komplikationen im Gebärmutterbereich. Außerdem sollte der Riechapfel die Abwehrkräfte stärken, indem sein Duft die Dämonen und die aus dem Boden aufsteigenden Dämpfe vertrieb und so das Herz stärkte.

Arme wie auch reiche Leute konnten einen Duftapfel bei sich tragen. Er konnte auch billige Kräuter enthalten und in Seide eingewickelt, in durchlöcherten Holzdosen getragen oder in Edelmetall-Behältnissen aufbewahrt werden. Je nach Indikation konnte man ihn an Hals, Nase oder vor das Gesicht halten, in den Händen tragen oder an den Puls anlegen.

Pestepidemien
Während der Pestpandemie des 14. Jahrhunderts und auch bei späteren Epidemien fanden Bisamäpfel besonders große Verbreitung. Der Lehrmeinung zufolge begünstigte verunreinigte Luft die Ansteckung mit Krankheiten, sodass man durch Räucherungen mit Duftstoffen oder den Gebrauch des Riechapfels entgegenwirken müsse.

Oft orientierten sich die Verfasser von Pestschriften an arabischen Autoren und beriefen sich auf Avicenna. Ein anonymer Autor aus dem deutschsprachigen Raum empfahl als Infektionsschutz, bei jedem Zusammensein mit anderen parfümierte Schwämme und Tücher zu benutzen und einen Ambraapfel in der Hand zu halten. Der fürstliche Leibarzt Cardo riet in seinem 1348 verfassten Traktat über den "morbus nunc dominans" zum Gebrauch von Duftstoffen in dreierlei Form: als angefeuchteter Schwamm, als Pulver oder als Riechapfel. Im Sinne der Temperamentenlehre hatte der Arzt auf das Klima und auf das Wesen des Kranken abgestimmte Mittel zu verschreiben. So gab Nicolaus von Udine für den Sommer und den Winter zwei verschiedene Rezepturen für Riechäpfel an.

Jean d'Outremeuse berichtet, dass "Jehan de Bourgoigne, dit à la Barbe" (bei dem es sich ihm zufolge um Jehan de Mandeville handelte), als Astrologe und Arzt in Lüttich gewirkt habe. Dort habe er den Reichen als Mittel gegen die Pest Moschus und Ambra, den Armen Nelken und Muskatnuss verordnet und empfohlen, in der Hand Ambraäpfel oder andere Duftstoffe zu halten. Zahlreiche Autoren empfahlen Ambraäpfel nur den Reichen, und häufig war man der Ansicht, dass für die Armen Labdanum genügen würde. Ein Autor, der Prior der Kartause bei Rostock und 1392 Rektor der Prager Universität war, empfahl verschiedene, auf die Reichen, die Mittelschicht und die Armen abgestimmte Äpfel mit jeweils unterschiedlichem Moschusgehalt. Einfache Leute hatten wenig Gelegenheit, wohlriechende Düfte zur Abwehr gegen Krankheiten anzuwenden; einige folgten wohl der von Paracelsus empfohlenen, aber umstrittenen Methode, an Fäkalien zu riechen.

Im Gegensatz dazu wurden für Päpste, Könige und Kaiser nur die besten Duftstoffe verordnet. Die medizinische Fakultät in Paris etwa verfasste auf Anforderung von Philipp VI. ein Gutachten, das König und Königin den reinsten Ambra empfahl, da dieser die beste Wirkung zeige und nicht nur wohltuend und lindernd wirke, sondern auch alle Organe widerstandsfähiger mache und die Lebensgeister wecke.

Ein Autor des späten 14. Jahrhunderts zeigte sich enttäuscht über seine allzu verweichlichten Zeitgenossen, die den Riechapfel nicht mehr so sehr wie ihre Vorfahren schätzen würden. Ein florentinischer Arzt schlug in seinem 1382 verfassten Konsilium unterschiedliche Riechapfel-Rezepturen für kalte und für warme Tage vor, wodurch man mit Gottes Hilfe vor der Pest geschützt sei.

Zu Beginn des 15. Jahrhunderts warnte Johannes Jacobi vor dem Gebrauch des Ambraapfels, da dieser schädlich für das Herz sei. Dem widersprach ein unbekannter Schreiber, der als Bettler oft an der frischen Luft gewesen sei und dennoch die Pest überlebt hatte. Aus eigener Erfahrung könne er den Bisamapfel als vorbeugende Maßnahme nur empfehlen. Eine medizinische Sammelhandschrift aus dem 15. Jahrhundert, die neun Rezepte für Ambraäpfel von verschiedenen Autoren – darunter bekannte Ärzte aus Oberitalien – enthält, beweist, dass Duftäpfel im 15. Jahrhundert weit verbreitet waren.

Obwohl der Bisamapfel meist eine medizinische Bestimmung hatte, verwendete man ihn auch gleichzeitig als Schmuck – vor allem ab dem 15. Jahrhundert, als das Tragen von schmückenden Objekten im Bürgertum zur Mode wurde. Zweifellos trug man Duftäpfel auch, um unangenehme Körpergerüche zu kaschieren. Gelegentlich wurden Bisamäpfel auch in Büchern über Kosmetik erwähnt. Girolamo Ruscelli (1500–1566) empfahl eine Duftkomposition, die auf vielfältige Weise verwendet werden konnte – um den eigenen Körper zu parfümieren, sollte sie zu einer Kugel geformt und in einem Bisamapfel getragen werden.

16.–18. Jahrhundert

Auch im 16. Jahrhundert waren Bisamäpfel recht beliebt. Ein Arzneibuch des Walther Hermann Ryff (um 1500–1548) behandelt sie sehr ausführlich und gibt fünf Rezepturen an, die aber keine besonders großen Unterschiede aufweisen. Tabernaemontanus empfahl 1577 den Reichen, zur Pestabwehr wohlriechende Duftstoffe in Säckchen einzunähen. Diese könne man dann in die Betten legen oder unter den Kleidern und in den "Bisemapfflen" tragen.

Tabernaemontanus unterschied bei seinen Rezepten für Bisamäpfel nicht nur zwischen sommerlichem und kaltem Wetter, sondern auch zwischen verschiedenen Temperamenten – so etwa für den Fall, dass "es aber im Sommer und die Person hitziger Natur" sei. Außerdem lieferte er eine präzise Herstellungsvorschrift für Bisamäpfel: Nachdem Mörser und Pistill erwärmt und die Harze mit etwas Rosenwasser zähflüssig gemacht wurden, sollte man die Inhaltsstoffe zusetzen und die Masse nach Belieben formen. Anschließend sollten mit einem spitzen Gegenstand kleine Löcher in die Masse gemacht und diese mit Moschus und Ambra aufgefüllt werden. Zwecks Erhaltung der Frische wurde der Riechapfel mit Seide umhüllt.

Theodor Zwinger empfahl seinen Ärztekollegen, Kranke erst eine halbe Stunde nach Sonnenaufgang zu besuchen und "einen höltzernen, durchlöcherten, mit Rauten, Wacholderbeeren und Angelica-Wurtzen angefüllten Knopff oder eine frische Zitrone und Pomerantzen" mitzunehmen und oft daran zu riechen.

In Arzneibüchern des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts finden sich nur wenige Rezepte für Bisamäpfel. Unter der Überschrift Vor die Nasen, wenn man ausgehen will, soll man halten und darauf riechen erschien im 17. Jahrhundert eine ärztliche Verordnung, die für jeden Wochentag auch von einfachen Leuten leicht zu sammelnde Kräuter und Duftstoffe empfahl. Lediglich für den Samstag wurde ein "Pomander" sowie für den Sonntag und Montag ein "Thiesemknöpflein" erwähnt.

Weitere Rezepturen finden sich in den "Praelectiones" des Dispensatorium regium et electorale Borusso-Brandenburgicum. Ein dort beschriebener Duftapfel gehörte zu den teuersten Präparaten, da er drei Gulden pro Loth kosten sollte (im Vergleich dazu kostete das ebenfalls teure Bibergeil nur einen Gulden).

Der Frankfurter Stadtarzt Johann Schröder gab in seinem in mehreren Ausgaben erschienenen Arzneibuch mehrere Rezepte für Bisamäpfel an; ein 1669 beschriebener sollte die "Säfte" beeinflussen. Von einem Gebrauch bei Pestepidemien riet er ab:

Ein von Henricus Madathanus 1631 veröffentlichtes Rezept für einen Ambraapfel wurde Zedlers Grossem Universallexikon mit den Worten gelobt, es sei

Seit dem ausgehenden 16. Jahrhundert wurden Bisamäpfel immer mehr von den weniger kostspieligen flüssigen Essenzen ersetzt, die in einem Flakon, genannt Vinaigrette, aufbewahrt wurden. Doch auch im 18. Jahrhundert hatte sich die Trennung zwischen Parfüm und Heilmittel noch nicht vollzogen. Davon zeugt, dass der 1720 in Frankreich entstandene "Pestessig", der angeblich gegen die Pest immun machte, sich rasch in ganz Europa verbreitete. Ab diesem Zeitpunkt verdrängten Vinaigrettes die Riechäpfel endgültig.

Varianten

Formen und Verzierungen
Bei Bisamäpfeln legte man oft großen Wert auf eine schöne Gestaltung. Die meisten bestanden aus Gold oder Silber; Kupfer oder andere unedle Metalle wurden nur vereinzelt verwendet – solch edle Behälter waren also nur Reichen vorbehalten.

Der Durchmesser von Bisamäpfeln variiert zwischen 2 und 8 cm. Die Form konnte äußerst vielfältig sein und reichte von Granatäpfeln ("en façon de Grenade"), Rosenkranzperlen, Betnüssen oder reliquiarförmigen Anhängern bis hin zu ganzen Ketten. Nicht nur runde, sondern auch birnen-, herz- oder zirbelnussartige Formen kamen vor. Viele Exemplare waren ornamental durchbrochen und mit Edelsteinen, Perlen oder Korallen besetzt, von denen man sich ebenfalls magische Wirkung versprach. Manche Behältnisse bestanden aus feinmaschigem Filigrangeflecht, auch Niello- und Emailarbeiten wurden angefertigt. Es sind aber auch einige recht einfach gestaltete Duftbehältnisse bekannt, deren Löcher ähnlich wie Teekugeln siebartig angeordnet sind.

Im 15. Jahrhundert entstand mit den "Kleinmeistern" eine eigene Berufsgruppe, die Schmuckentwürfe für Gold- und Silberschmieden anfertigte. Zu ihr zählten Martin Schongauer und Wenzel Hollar, die auch Bisamäpfel entwarfen.

Bisamäpfel lassen sich unter anderem durch Vergleiche mit Gemälden grob datieren. Oft werden in zeitgenössischen Porträts Bisamäpfel an Rosenkränzen oder – als Symbol der weltlichen Macht – in der Hand gehalten. In der Zeit von 1500 bis 1525 waren gebuckelte Bisamäpfel besonders beliebt. Vom 15. bis in die Mitte des 17. Jahrhunderts wurden des Öfteren Bisamäpfel getragen, die aus blütenblattartig gebogenen Drähten bestanden.

An einigen Bisamäpfeln war eine Quaste oder eine Kette befestigt. Dogen trugen an ihren kostbaren Gewändern acht bis zehn Bisamäpfel. Manchmal wurden Duftäpfel in schöne, meist rote Seidentücher eingeschlagen. Diese Farbe hatte historische Gründe: früher hielt man rote Kleidung für wärmer und empfahl sie gegen Rheuma; später übertrug man diesen Nutzen auch auf andere Bereiche der Medizin. Im 15. Jahrhundert kamen unter Adligen so genannte "coussins" in Mode. Dabei handelte es sich um Stoffbeutel und -kissen, in denen sowohl pulverisierte Duftmischungen als auch Ambraäpfel getragen werden konnten.

Besonders prunkvolle Bisamäpfel wurden in den Inventaren von Monarchen und kirchlichen Würdenträgern erwähnt. Als Beispiel mag ein 1499 Margarete von Österreich geschenkter Bisamapfel aus Gold dienen, der durch ein mit sechs Diamanten und sechs Rubinen besetztes Band verziert wurde und eine Rose mit fünf weiteren Diamanten beherbergte. Einige Adlige verfügten über ganze Sammlungen von Duftäpfeln; so etwa kaufte 1484 Siegmund von Tirol einem Hausierer 27 Stück ab. Die ersten genauen Beschreibungen von Bisamäpfeln finden sich in den burgundischen Schatzinventaren des 14. Jahrhunderts.

Heute befinden sich nur noch wenige Bisamäpfel im Besitz von Museen oder Privatsammlungen. Smollich stellt in ihrem Standardwerk zum Thema über 70 Exemplare, die hauptsächlich aus englischen und deutschen Museen stammen, kurz vor. Schmitz erwähnt eine fast 150 Objekte umfassende Privatsammlung.

Duftstoffe

Jeder der im Folgenden aufgelisteten Inhaltsstoffe war in den meisten Rezepten für Bisamäpfel enthalten: Styrax, Rosenblätter, Labdanum, Moschus, Muskatnuss, Ambra und Gewürznelken (absteigend nach Häufigkeit der Nennung geordnet). Es wurden aber viele weitere Kräuter, Gewürze, Blüten, Schalen, Früchte, Harze und Dufthölzer genannt. Im Durchschnitt verwendete ein Rezept elf Bestandteile.

Im Laufe der Jahrhunderte veränderten sich die Inhaltsstoffe von Bisamäpfeln kaum, was an den bereits detaillierten Herstellungsvorschriften und am hohen Ansehen der Verfasser vorheriger Literatur lag. Schon Plinius der Ältere erwähnte viele Inhaltsstoffe, die auch in späteren Rezepturen von Riechäpfeln vorkommen. Auch im Orient waren derartige Substanzen populär. Yuhanna ibn Masawaih etwa nannte in seiner Schrift Einfache aromatische Substanzen fünf "primäre" Duftstoffe (Ambra, Kampfer, Aloeholz, Moschus und Safran), von denen alle bis auf den Safran des Öfteren in Rezepten für Bisamäpfel genannt wurden.

Eine Besonderheit englischer Rezepte war die Verwendung schwarzer Gartenerde als Inhaltsstoff. Im Schauspiel Lingua: or, The Combat of the Tongue (1607) eines unbekannten Autors heißt es dazu ironisch:
 "Your only way to make a good pomander is this:—Take an ounce of the purest garden mould, cleansed and steeped seven days in change of motherless rosewater; then take the best ladanum, benzoine, both storaxes, ambergris, civet, and musk: incorporate them together, and work them into what form you please. This, if your breath be not too valiant, will make you smell as sweet as my lady's dog."

Unterteilte Bisamäpfel
Um der Vielfalt der Duftstoffrezepturen gerecht zu werden, verfügten besondere Formen der Bisamäpfel über Unterteilungen, die mittels Scharnieren ausgeklappt und deren Inhalt ausgetauscht werden konnte. Diese besondere Form der Bisamäpfel besteht meist aus vier, sechs oder acht Segmenten, die teils mit Schiebedeckeln versehen sind.

Häufig war auf den Segmenten der Name des darin enthaltenen Duftstoffs eingraviert. Hierbei wurde des Öfteren auch Schlagbalsam genannt, der bei Schlaganfällen, Krämpfen und Ohnmacht verwendet wurde.

Vanitas-Symbole
Die seit Beginn des 16. Jahrhunderts populären Vanitas-Darstellungen, die die Vergänglichkeit des Lebens aufzeigten und zu einem gottgefälligen Lebenswandel aufriefen, sind auch bei Bisamäpfeln vorzufinden. Nicht wenige Stücke sind in Form eines Totenkopfs gefertigt. Die künstlerische Detailfreude reicht von einfachen bis zu anatomisch exakten Schädeldarstellungen. Eines der überlieferten Objekte stellt auf der einen Seite das Haupt eines Mädchens und auf der anderen Seite einen Totenschädel dar.

Ein Inventar von 1635 erwähnt eine Gebetskette aus Ambrakugeln mit einem Totenkopf. Ein besonders aufwändiges Exemplar beherbergt im Schädelinnern eine farbige Miniatur, die Christus mit ausgestreckten Armen zeigt. Der untere Schädelteil stellt das flammende Fegefeuer dar.

Rosenkränze

Einige Rosenkränze waren mit einem Bisamapfel versehen. Reiche hofften wohl durch derartige Zeichen christlicher Demut, sich dem Vorwurf der Überheblichkeit entziehen zu können, zugleich aber in den Genuss von Statussymbolen und heilbringendem Schmuck zu kommen.

Bisamäpfel konnten sowohl vom Rosenkranz herabhängen als auch als so genannter "Einhänger" beidseitig mit dem Kranz verbunden sein. Sehr häufig wurden sie als "Paternosterzeichen" (Abschlussmarkierung) verwendet, gelegentlich wurden sie zwischen zwei Gesätzen aus je zehn Perlen eingefügt. So eingearbeitete Duftbehältnisse waren nicht zwangsläufig kugelförmig – Joos van Cleves Bildnis einer Frau von 1525 zeigt einen Rosenkranz mit einem Bisamapfel in Form eines Spitzovals. Das Bildnis Jungfrau mit Kind des Meisters von Alkmaar aus der Mitte des 15. Jahrhunderts zeigt einen von einem Rosenkranz herabhängenden Bisamapfel, der mittels einer unbenutzten zweiten Öse auch als Einhänger angebracht werden konnte.

In einem Wallfahrtsbuch mit dem Titel Wolriechender Marianischer Quitten-Apfel (1702) rechtfertigte Regineberto Schuel das Vorhandensein von Bisamäpfeln an Rosenkränzen, zumal Augustinus von Hippo in seinen Confessiones Wohlgerüche als einzige Form des irdisch-sinnlichen Genusses nicht verurteilt hatte.

Sonderformen
Es wurde von Kombinationen aus Wärmekugel und Bisamapfel berichtet. In diesem Fall steigerte die Wärme zusätzlich die Duftentwicklung.

Anfang des 16. Jahrhunderts baute Peter Henlein in Bisamäpfel kleine Uhren ein. Laut den Nürnberger Stadtakten erhielt er 1524 15 fl. für einen "vergulten pysn Apffel für all Ding mit einem Oraiologium". Mehrere Bisamapfeluhren aus Peter Henleins Zeit sind erhalten (siehe auch Weblinks).

Im Inventar des 1611 bis 1615 entstandenen Pommerschen Kunstschranks erwähnt dessen Auftraggeber Philipp Hainhofer eine Pfeife, in deren unterem Teil sich ein kugeliges Behältnis mit einem in rote Seide eingewickelten Bisamapfel befindet. Bei einem weiteren, als "doppelten Bisamknopf" beschriebenen Objekt handelte es sich um einen aufschraubbaren zylindrischen Behälter mit zwei halbkugelförmigen, ornamental durchbrochenen Deckeln, der duftende rote und rotbraune Pasten enthielt.

Weiterhin haben sich Bisamäpfel in Gestalt kleiner Dosen, Kröten, Schnecken, Schafe oder echter Äpfel erhalten. Ein mit Unterteilungen versehenes Exemplar hatte einen Standfuß, der zugleich als Siegelstempel diente. An einem anderen erhaltenen Objekt hängt ein sechsteiliges Manikürbesteck.

Literatur

 Heiner Meininghaus, Christa Habrich: Düfte und edle Flakons. Arnoldsche, 1998, ISBN 3-925369-82-1
 Heiner Meininghaus: Muskatreiben und Pomander für edle Gewürze. In: Weltkunst 17. Jahrgang Nr. 14, 15. Nov. 2001
 Ruth-E. Mohrmann: Zwischen Amulett und Talisman. Bisamäpfel als Standeszeichen. In: Symbole des Alltags. 1992, S. 497–516.
 Eugen von Philippovich: Bisamäpfel. In: Kuriositäten/Antiquitäten. S. 264–266. Klinkhardt & Biermann, Braunschweig 1966
 Eric C. Rodenberg: Intricate pomander clock may be first pocket watch. In: Antique Week. The Weekly Antique Auction & Collecting Newspapers. Band 46, Nr. 2326, 2014, S. 1–3.
 Rudolf Schmitz: The pomander. In: Pharmacy in History. 31.1989, 2, S. 86–90.
 Renate Smollich: Der Bisamapfel in Kunst und Wissenschaft. (= Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Pharmazie. 21) Deutscher Apotheker Verlag, Stuttgart 1983, ISBN 3-7692-0733-5.
 Hans Wentzel: Bisamapfel. In: Reallexikon zur Deutschen Kunstgeschichte. Bd. II. Zentralinstitut für Kunstgeschichte, Stuttgart/Waldsee 1948, Sp. 770–774.

Weblinks

 Ein Bisamapfel im Museum Lüneburg
 Ein vom Auktionshaus Dorotheum versteigerter Bisamapfel
 Bisamapfeluhren der Henleinzeit

Einzelnachweise

Medizingeschichte
Duftstoff
Behälter nach Inhalt

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Former missionary to South Korea dies at 91
Nov. 20, 2020 | UM News
The Rev. George E. Ogle (center) in an archived July 4, 1971 photo in front of the Soongeui Methodist Church in Incheon, Korea, where he was a clergy member. Next to Ogle is the Rev. Ho-moon Lee (elected as a bishop of the Korean Methodist Church.) File photo courtesy of Soongeui Methodist Church in Incheon, Korea.
During his years in South Korea, the Rev. George Ogle was referred to by many titles: missionary, evangelist, organizer, educator, father of Korean workers and poor people, and a strong advocate of the Korean democracy movement.
Ogle, whose Korean name was Myung-geol Oh, died Nov. 15 at the age of 91. Earlier this year, on June 20, the government of the Republic of Korea recognized him with the People's Medal for his contribution toward Korean human rights and democracy.
The Rev. George E. Ogle
Photo courtesy of Faith and Intelligence Publishing House, Seoul, Korea.
"He was an apostle of justice and a model who took the cross of Jesus Christ and lived faithfully to the call of Christ," said the Rev. Kil Sang Yoon, retired from the United Methodist Board of Higher Education and Ministry.
Born on Jan. 17, 1929, in Pitcairn, Pennsylvania, Ogle was sent to South Korea in 1954, soon after graduating from Duke Divinity School and being ordained a pastor in The United Brethren Church.
At the time, South Korea was devastated by the Korean War. He taught English and preached the Gospel at Methodist schools in Gongju and Daejeon for three years.
The Rev. Sang-yoon Lee, chair of the Institute for Future Policy Studies of the Korean Methodist Church, remembered Ogle as "one of the missionaries who understood Korea better than anyone at that time."
The American pastor realized there was a wave of industrialization in Korea in the 1950s, which forced thousands of young people from the countryside to urban areas. After he returned to Chicago in 1957, he prepared for a ministry that would engage these new workers.
Ogle also met Dorothy Lindman, who was working as a public health nurse for the Chicago Infant Welfare Society, during his U.S. stay. They married in 1959 and headed back to South Korea by freight.
A small thatched hut in Incheon, purchased by Ogle, became the home of Incheon Industrial Evangelism, which would evolve into the Urban Industrial Mission, the birthplace of the Korean workers movement.
In 1971, Ogle turned over leadership of the Urban Industrial Mission to the Korean people and moved back to the United States to finish his PhD in international industrial relationships at Wisconsin State University. After receiving his degree in 1973, Ogle returned to South Korea to teach at Seoul National University for five years.
At the time, there were endless protests by college students, pastors and professors over the Yushin Constitution, which codified the de facto dictatorial powers held by President Park Chung-hee. Protestors who made public, critical comments often were arrested.
During one Thursday prayer service for families of Christian political prisoners, Ogle spoke and prayed for eight young men who were falsely accused and sentenced to death in the People's Revolutionary Party. Due to these actions, Ogle was deported from Korea on Dec. 14, 1974. On April 9, 1975, 18 hours after the Supreme Court of Korea confirmed the sentence, the Korean government executed the young men.
The Rev. George Ogle was deported from South Korea by Korean government on Dec. 14, 1974. File photo courtesy of the Korea Democracy Foundation.
"Ogle's deportation was a piece of living evidence that shows how far the Methodist mission had affected Korea," said Lee, who observed the situation closely. "Ogle did not yield to dictatorship and stood up for the weak."
Even after being deported to the United States, Ogle tried in various ways — including testifying at a U.S. Congressional hearing — to share the truth of the People's Revolutionary Party case. But after hearing about the execution, he suffered unbearable pain.
"Even in the tense situation of being arrested and deported by the Park Jeong-hee regime, which used young people as scapegoats of the regime without evidence, Ogle did not lose the dignity of a Christian," said Walter Butch Durst, former missionary to South Korea at the time. "He was a sincere and religious pastor who cherished deep love and interest for the Korean people in his heart."
The Ogles moved Koreans' hearts by sending their children to a school attended by ordinary Korean children. This was a symbol of how much they loved Korea.
Ogle taught at Emory University's Candler Seminary in Atlanta from 1975 to 1981. He then moved to Washington to serve as director of the Department of Social and Economic Justice for the United Methodist Board of Church and Society until he retired in 1991.
He visited Korea in 1984 as a guest speaker to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the Korean Methodist Church and in 2002 received the Human Rights Award from the Korea Democracy Foundation founded by President Kim Dae-jung.
Ogle spent his last 18 years in Lafayette, Colorado, writing novels and memoirs.
One of his books was "How Long, O Lord: Stories of Twentieth Century Korea," published in 2003. The historical novel was based on his experiences with the Korean democracy movement, including the People's Revolutionary Party case. The book was translated by the Rev. Jungrye Hahm in Korea.
"He was deported while working for my mother country, and it was the only way to express my gratitude," said Hahm, when asked why she volunteered to translate the novel. "I learned the modern history of Korea through Rev. Ogle's perspective."
The Rev. James Chongho Kim remembered Ogle as a person who stood out above all else.
The Korea Democracy Foundation invited the Rev. George Ogle (left), Fr. James Cinot (middle) and Dorothy Ogle (right) to honor their contributions to Korean democracy. They met the victims of the People's Party in Seoul, Korea, in 2002. File photo courtesy of the Korea Democracy Foundation.
"He was a man who really lived a real evangelical life," said Kim. "Although he was a very handsome white man, he had a warm heart with humility like a Korean countryman. He practiced the Gospel and Christianity and tried to make a world he believed in. He showed us in life what the true shepherd and the pastor was. It was the grace of God that he was with us. He did not show off, so people don't know him well."
Wisconsin Area Bishop Hee-Soo Jung said he was one of those influenced by Ogle and his Urban Industrial Mission.
"Ogle trained and equipped two outstanding Korean Methodist leaders, Rev. Seung-hyuk Cho and Rev. Hwa-soon Cho, and established a base for the Korean Methodist Church's social mission," said Bishop Jung. "He was a friend of the poor and workers.
"Mrs. Dorothy Ogle also devoted herself to the ministry for peace and reconciliation on the Korean Peninsula. The Ogles contributed greatly to democracy and peace on the Korean Peninsula."
Ogle is survived by his wife; their four children, Martin (Lisa Schwartz Ogle), Kathy (Charles Askins), Karen (Paul Fohrman) and Kristine, and six grandchildren.
Kim is director of Korean and Asian news at United Methodist Communications.
Contact him at 615-742-5470 or newsdesk@umcom.org. To read more United Methodist news, subscribe to the free Daily or Weekly Digests.
Army chaplain returns to his native South Korea to serve
The Rev. DooSoo Lee's latest pastoral appointment has taken him to his motherland. Lee, who is Korean American and a U.S. Army chaplain, currently serves at the base in South Korea.
Clergy record free music videos for Lenten season
Two Korean United Methodist clergy shared free hymns and special music that can be used during the Lenten season and on Easter Sunday.
Missionaries cope with coronavirus challenges
Travel bans and fears of contracting COVID-19 complicated the service of United Methodist missionaries in 2020.


Western Carolina University's School of Music provides student musicians with academic, performance, and recording experiences that prepare them for careers in the profession. From our award-winning Pride of the Mountains Marching Band to our regionally acclaimed Music Education and Commercial & Electronic Music programs, our students are surrounded by excellence. In addition to admittance to WCU, students who wish to study in the School of Music must audition. See the link below for specific audition information.
Our bassoon studio is led by Dr. Will Peebles, who in addition to being an accomplished musician has a small collection of historic double reed instruments.
The clarinet studio is led by Dr. Shannon Thompson, who performs with the Asheville and Hendersonville Symphonies and teaches in the summers at InterHarmony International Music Festival in Arcidosso, Italy.
WCU's flute studio is led by accomplished flutist Dr. Eldred Spell, who has appeared as a recitalist and clinician throughout the United States, Canada, and England.
WCU's French horn studio is led by Dr. Travis Bennett, who regularly performs with orchestras around the Southeast and has performed in concert tours in China, Germany, and Jamaica.
Dr. Chris Beyt, a jazz guitarist, bassist, composer, recording engineer, and educator, leads WCU's jazz guitar studio. He has performed with distinguished artists such as Dave Liebman, Michael League, Randy Brecker, and the Mobile Symphony Orchestra.
Jazz pianists will study with Pavel Wlosok, a Czech pianist, composer, and educator. Pavel is a 2000 IAJE Gil Evans Fellowship recipient and has performed with jazz greats Bobby Watson, Joe Lovano, Kenny Wheeler and more.
The MIDI / Synthesis Studio is led by Dr. Damon Sink. Students can learn to make music with the latest DAWs, launchpads, and analog synthesizers.
Oboe players will study with performer Brian Seaton, who is accomplished not only as a performer but also as a master in finishing and repair of double reed instruments.
WCU's percussion studio is led by Dr. Adam Groh, an ardent supporter of new solo and chamber music for percussion. He has performed alongside So Percussion, members of the Bang on a Can All-Stars, and was a featured performer with the Denkyem Percussion Group.
WCU piano students will study with accomplished pianist and Associate Dean of the College of Fine and Performing Arts, Dr. Andrew Adams. Students can train in classical performance as well as commercial music.
The WCU saxophone studio is led by Dr. Ian Jeffress, the alto saxophonist of the award-winning Assembly Quartet, and saxophonist with the Asheville Symphony Orchestra.
Students studying trombone will train under Dr. Zsolt Szabo, the Principal Trombone of the Brevard Philharmonic Orchestra and previously the Principal Trombone of the Ars Viva Symphony Orchestra in Chicago.
The tuba studio at WCU is led by Dr. Michael Schallock, an accomplished performer who also serves as coordinator of the music education program and faculty advisor to the WCU Collegiate Music Educators Association.
Trumpet students at WCU study with Dr. P. Bradley Ulrich, who also performs with the Asheville Symphony Orchestra and serves as Executive Director of the Trumpet Festival of the Southeast.
Whether your musical interests lie in classical, Broadway, jazz, opera, or gospel, the vocal and choral music program at Western Carolina University offers a wide array of opportunities.
There is still room in some studios for Fall 2019. Contact the School of Music for more information.
Auditions for Fall 2019 will take place in late January and February 2019.
Western Carolina's award-winning, 500-member marching band draws some of the best band talent from across the Southeast.
Through support from donors, WCU's Friends of the Arts and our music faculty, the School of Music offers several competitive scholarships. Interested students must apply for scholarships through the University each year prior to Feb. 1 for the following fall.


Toronto, May 15 2014 - Environmentalists are applauding a landmark Federal Court ruling that puts the brakes on building expensive and risky new nuclear reactors in Ontario.
"The Federal Court has thrown out the approvals for building new reactors at Darlington. This is a win for Canadians' right to meaningfully participate in environmental reviews and understand the risks of nuclear power," said Theresa McClenaghan, Executive Director of the Canadian Environmental Law Association (CELA).
In his ruling, released on May 14, Justice Russell agreed with environmental groups that a federal environmental review panel wrongly recommended approval of Ontario Power Generation's (OPG) proposal to build up to four new reactors at the Darlington without first examining the environmental effects of radioactive fuel waste, a Fukushima-type accident, and hazardous emissions.
In October 2013, the Ontario government announced that it was suspending plans to build the new reactors. But without this ruling, the deficient assessment and licence issued to OPG could have been used to revive the project at any time over the next decade.
"The Court's decision shows just how badly federal authorities failed the public. If our case motivates regulators to pay more attention to the impacts of big projects on our waterways, then we could not have asked for a better outcome," says Mark Mattson, environmental lawyer and president of Lake Ontario Waterkeeper.