2002-12-16 Assigned to IGT reassignment IGT ASSIGNMENT OF ASSIGNORS INTEREST (SEE DOCUMENT FOR DETAILS). Assignors: NELSON, DWAYNE R.
A method and apparatus of dynamically storing critical data of a gaming machine by allocating and deallocating memory space in a gaming machine is disclosed. One or more embodiments describe downloading or removing a new game to a gaming machine such that all existing critical data in NV-RAM memory is left intact. In one embodiment, the invention discloses a method and apparatus for dynamically allocating and deallocating memory space to accommodate either permanent or temporary storage in an NV-RAM. A method and apparatus is provided to monitor available memory space and dynamically resize the memory in NV-RAM. In one embodiment, a method is disclosed for performing an integrity check of the NV-RAM and determining whether a critical data error has occurred. In one or more embodiments, methods of compacting and shifting contents of an NV-RAM are described to consolidate available memory space or to prevent unauthorized access of NV-RAM memory.
This application is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 09/690,931, filed Oct. 17, 2000 and entitled High Performance Battery Backed RAM Interface. application Ser. No. 09/690,931 is attached herewith as an appendix.
FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of an example embodiment of non-volatile random access memory. In one embodiment the NV-RAM  104 consists of a number of memory elements arranged in rows and columns. For the purposes of discussion, a rudimentary memory element is described as a heap block 108. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the entire NV-RAM 104 comprises heap blocks 108 arranged in rows and columns. A particular heap block 108 may be specified by giving its row and column numbers. For the sake of simplicity, the example NV-RAM 104 is physically divided into 10 rows and 10 columns, providing a total of 100 heap blocks for the NV-RAM 104. For example, the first heap block 112, located at the top of the memory stack, may be referenced by its physical location in memory as the heap block located at (row 1, column 1), while the last heap block 116 may be referenced by its location defined by (row 10, column 10).
NV-RAM  104 plays a significant role in the normal operation of a gaming machine. The heap blocks 108 store data that may be classified as permanent or temporary data. The permanent type of data is described in this document as critical data. Critical data comprises data considered to be highly important. Critical data stores information related to the current or previous state(s) of a gaming machine. Examples of critical data include game history information, security information, accounting information, player tracking information, wide area progressive information, game state information, or any "critical" game related data. Critical data such as the amount of funds credited to or paid out from a gaming machine may be stored permanently in NV-RAM 104 as accounting information. This critical accounting information would reflect its current and prior states over successive rounds of play. To the casino owner, this information is important in determining the casino's profitability.
In contrast, temporary space may be used to process important commands related to the current state or operations of a gaming machine. After the commands are processed, the temporary space may be allocated for other purposes, such as storing critical data. For example, the operations that are necessary in transferring credits from a debit card to the gaming machine may require the use of data that is stored temporarily in the NV-RAM  104. This temporary, or non-critical, data may be used as part of a series of transactions or instructions to be executed. When the operations are completed, however, the contents of the memory may be purged, generating additional memory space.
NV-RAM  104 may maintain the contents of its memory over time through the use of a battery as a power source and is thus independent of externally supplied power. As a result, NV-RAM can continue to store data such as critical data as long as power is supplied. Typically, an NV-RAM contains its own internal battery source.
FIG. 2A illustrates an example method of downloading a new game to a gaming machine without destroying or deleting existing critical data. This is but one possible method of operation, and the present embodiment should not be considered as being limited to this example method of operation. In a step  204, a software client requests new game code. In one embodiment the request is transmitted though use of a device interface such as a key pad, touch pad, or card reader of a gaming machine. In other instances, the new game code may be transmitted from a remote computing device (i.e, workstation, server, or the like) or by a portable device (i.e., laptop, PDA, handheld, or the like) that may communicate with the gaming machine. The transmission may occur by either wireless or wireline communications. The software client may comprise a communication manager, bank manager, virtual player tracking manager, event distribution manager, event manager, or power hit detection manager. A more complete discussion of the term software client is disclosed in parent application Ser. No. 09/690,931, entitled High Performance Battery Backed RAM Interface, which is incorporated herein by reference.
At a step  208, the software client transfers critical data to or from an NV-RAM manager. In one embodiment the NV-RAM manager comprises non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage management software capable of effectively managing the non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage device. Critical data may be stored and accessed by a software controlled non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage file system. The non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage file system facilitates the viewing and modification of data residing in an NV-RAM. The non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage file system may be thought of as a file allocation system found in computer operating systems where files are organized by directories, subdirectories, and files. The NV-RAM manager communicates function requests to the NV-RAM. The function requests may include a request allocating or deallocating memory space, opening or closing files or data, and reading, writing, resizing, and moving of heap blocks within NV-RAM memory. As used herein, the term NV-RAM management system comprises a combination of the NV-RAM manager, the non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage file system, and NV-RAM, supported by processes executed by an operating system residing on the gaming machine. The operating system may comprise an operating system manufactured from companies such as a Microsoft, Apple, or LINUX. The NV-RAM management system may use standard application tools, such as a word processor program, to view the contents in NV-RAM. It is contemplated that any word processor, in conjunction with the non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage file system, may facilitate the display, addition, removal, and modification of critical data associated with the addition or removal of a particular game(s) within NV-RAM. An example word processor program includes Corel Word Perfect or Microsoft Word. The NV-RAM management system leaves existing critical data resident in NV-RAM intact during any addition or removal of critical data.
At a step  212, the NV-RAM manager dynamically interacts with the NV-RAM to perform function requests related to allocating or deallocating heap blocks that relate to writing or deleting critical data. The function requests are performed in collaboration with the software client and may comprise any one of the requests mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
At a step  216, the NV-RAM manager allocates the amount of NV-RAM required for the new game. It is contemplated that a program executed by the software client or hardware device may determine the size of the game to be loaded into NV-RAM. This information may be communicated to the manager in any manner. Thereafter, the NV-RAM manager verifies that adequate memory space exists and issues a request to allocate memory. The NV-RAM manager may perform an open function request to access an existing NV-RAM memory node. A node represents a range of related heap blocks in NV-RAM. A read function request on the NV-RAM provides a handle (or address) for the NV-RAM node of interest associated with a range of heap blocks. The heap blocks comprise used or unused blocks of memory associated with a particular handle. In sum, the appropriate heap blocks are allocated by the NV-RAM manager for a subsequent write function.
At a step  220, a decision is made regarding whether or not the memory size is adequate. If the memory size is not adequate, the process proceeds to step 224, in which a process called compaction, described below in more detail, is performed up to a set number of times, in this embodiment N times, to reorganize (or defragment) the memory. The process of compaction generates unused contiguous memory of a size sufficient for the storage of new critical data. At a step 228, the operation determines whether the number of compaction routines performed is less than or equal to N and continues the operation until n=N. If the available memory size is still insufficient, then the process terminates at a step 232, as indicated by Tilt Mode. A step 236 follows, indicating that the gaming machine now requires human intervention.
Alternatively, if at step  240 the adequate memory size is available, the operation proceeds to a step 240, wherein the available heap blocks are identified and a dynamic allocation of the heap blocks takes place. An appropriate number of heap blocks are assigned to the node with a unique handle. At a step 244, the NV-RAM manager performs a write function of the critical data associated with the new game onto contiguous heap blocks in NV-RAM.
FIG. 1 may aid in understanding the process described by steps  204-244 of FIG. 2A. As shown, a second game is added to an NV-RAM 104; the NV-RAM previously contained critical data elements associated with an existing game #1. As shown, the critical data elements corresponding to the first game have been stored in the first 8 heap blocks 108 of the NV-RAM 104 (i.e., row 1, columns 1-8). As part of the above-described process, the NV-RAM manager determines that the critical data requires 12 heap blocks. The NV-RAM manager facilitates the allocation of 12 contiguous heap blocks in NV-RAM. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the next 12 sequential heap blocks are allocated corresponding to the last two heap blocks in row 1 and all of row 2.
Returning to the method described in conjunction with FIG. 2, and in reference to FIG. 2A, the following discussion relates to verification of data integrity. At a step  248, the NV-RAM manager retrieves a copy of the original critical game data from the device interface and sends it to the software client, where it is stored in a first location in a memory, such as SDRAM or any other memory device.
SDRAM is synchronous dynamic random access memory and may be used to store data required for immediate processing performed by a processor in a gaming machine. This type of random access memory provides faster read and write cycle times but is not feasible for use in long term storage of critical data information in a gaming machine. Thereafter, at a step  252, the software client stores a copy of the data retrieved from NV-RAM in SDRAM.
Next, at a step  256, the software client compares the original critical game data in SDRAM with critical game data stored in NV-RAM. It is contemplated that a CRC may be performed on the original critical game data, as well as the data stored in NV-RAM, to verify that the data has not been altered. Thereafter, a decision is made, at a step 260, regarding whether or not the data stored in SDRAM matches the data stored in NV-RAM. If the data matches, the operation proceeds to a step 264. Alternatively, if the data does not match, the gaming machine enters a tilt mode as shown in step 268, and a wait state is entered at a step 272. This process insures that the critical data associated with new game software is written into NV-RAM without error before game play may occur.
At a step  304, a software client receives a request to remove a game from a gaming machine. Next, at a step 308, the software client invokes a function request to the NV-RAM manager to identify the handle or node of the critical data associated with the game to be removed. At a step 312, the heap blocks of memory corresponding to the node are tagged for removal. In step 316, the NV-RAM manager removes the NV-RAM heap blocks by deallocating the appropriate range of heap blocks. As part of this process, the heap block may be opened and read.
After removal of the data contained in the range of heap blocks, as shown at a step  320, the remaining available heap blocks in memory are resized to thereby provide a potentially larger memory space for future critical data storage. At a step 324, the NV-RAM manager or any other device, system, or software verifies the accuracy of the critical data stored in NV-RAM.
At a step  404, the operation initiates a critical game transaction. Examples of critical game transactions include, but are not limited to, reading the credit information from a debit card, adding an amount of credit to a gaming machine, and accepting currency from a player. The critical game transaction may require the use of NV-RAM either temporarily or more permanently. The NV-RAM may store values temporarily as an intermediate step in the calculation of critical data. For example, when accepting currency from a player, a bill validator may determine the value of the currency as an integer number of dollars. This information may be stored into NV-RAM temporarily, as an intermediate operational step, prior to determining the number of credits credited in the gaming machine. If the game comprises a 25 cent game, the number of credits calculated would correspond to forty credits if the player inserts a ten dollar bill. In this example, the critical data stored permanently in NV-RAM may comprise the number of credits (forty), although the number of dollars (ten) would comprise an intermediate operational value in the calculation of the number of credits. As a consequence, the intermediate value ten may comprise data that is stored temporarily in NV-RAM and is deleted upon the calculation of the critical data value forty which may be stored permanently in NV-RAM.
At a step  408, the NV-RAM manager allocates memory to facilitate a critical game transaction. The NV-RAM manager may allocate memory in preparation for storage of an example critical data associated with a game download, or it may deallocate memory (as when deleting contents from temporary NV-RAM memory) if a particular data is no longer required on the gaming machine. Typically, a critical game transaction will cause the NV-RAM manager to allocate memory space either temporarily or permanently, as shown at a step 412. The new data will reside in memory over a period of time as dictated by its function. At a step 416, operational transaction data is loaded, on a temporary basis, into NV-RAM space. As described earlier, this data may be used in an intermediate step as part of the calculation of a critical data. Thereafter, at a step 420, the resulting critical data is stored permanently in NV-RAM memory. At a step 424, data created, stored, or used for intermediate operational transactions may be destroyed, and the NV-RAM memory space may be deallocated.
Continuing on to FIG. 4B, the gaming machine may enter a game play mode at a step  428. During the course of game play, the gaming machine may undergo a number of different events, such as receiving currency, hopper tilt, reel tilt, protective tilt, power loss, player's card input, player's card removal, personal identification input, reel spin, multi-denomination change, jackpot tilt, and the like. During these transactional events, the temporary or permanent non-volatile memory or non-volatile storage requirements of the game or the gaming machine may change. Accordingly, at a step 428, the memory space allocations are continuously monitored. A decision occurs at a step 432 regarding the adequacy of memory at any point in time during gaming machine operation.
If memory is adequate, the gaming machine resumes game play by returning to step  424. Alternatively, if at step 532 the system determines that the memory space or size allocations are not adequate, the operation then advances to a step 436. At step 436, the operation dynamically resizes memory to facilitate a game play or any other operational transaction. The process may involve compaction, described below in more detail, to provide contiguous memory large enough for a particular transaction to occur.
Referring back to FIG. 1, a temporary NV-RAM memory space is illustrated as the first four heap blocks in third row  120 of the NV-RAM 104. It is contemplated that these blocks are used to store intermediate data required in the generation of critical data. For example, the critical data associated with the second game, contained in heap blocks located in row 2, columns 1-10, may have been generated through the use of data stored in the temporary NV-RAM space. The contents in temporary NV-RAM space 120 may be deleted after use, and the associated heap blocks may be deallocated.
FIG. 5 illustrates an operational flow diagram of an example method for performing an integrity check of data in non-volatile random access memory. In one embodiment this method is utilized to detect and fix changes to data that may have been caused by an electrical problem, such as a static discharge or a high voltage surge. This process may begin by powering up a gaming machine. This is shown at a step  504. The gaming machine performs an initialization of an NV-RAM which may include integrity testing of the memory.
Thereafter, at a step  508, the NV-RAM manager performs an integrity check on the NV-RAM and determines errors in a critical data element. At a step 512, the NV-RAM manager identifies the handle of the erroneous critical data element and determines the appropriate heap blocks that contain the erroneous critical data element. In one embodiment this comprises the NV-RAM manager performing an open function request to access memory containing the affected heap blocks. A read function request may then generate the appropriate ranges of heap blocks that require removal.
At a step  516, the NV-RAM manager performs a delete function request, allowing the NV-RAM to delete the heap blocks associated with the discovered error. At a step 520, any heap blocks containing unrelated critical data elements are left intact within the NV-RAM as the NV-RAM manager reloads the affected data into the appropriate locations in NV-RAM to restore the integrity of the critical data. In one embodiment, after the reload or rewrite occurs, the restored data may be re-tested. In one embodiment, an alert may be generated upon defection of corrupt data.
FIGS. 6A, 6B, and  6C illustrate example methods of NV-RAM compaction. Compaction is a process of re-organizing used and free memory within an NV-RAM to consolidate the free memory space into a larger size or into the largest contiguous memory size possible. The process of compaction causes an NV-RAM manager to write related critical data over a series of contiguous heap blocks. The process results in more efficient write and read functions performed by the NV-RAM manager. As a consequence, performance is improved significantly when related data is stored contiguously. Further, compaction achieves more efficient use of the memory by allowing a block of data to be written contiguously.
FIG. 6A illustrates an alternate embodiment of a method of compacting or reorganizing memory in NV-RAM. This may be accomplished by segregating used heap blocks from unused heap blocks. In a step  604, the NV-RAM manager sequentially analyzes heap blocks in NV-RAM. It is contemplated that the NV-RAM manager starts analyzing at the location of the first heap block (row 1, column 1) of the NV-RAM as described in FIG. 1, or at any location. In a step 608, a determination is made whether the heap block is in use (contains data). If the heap block is in use, the heap block is shifted or positioned to the top portion of the NV-RAM memory stack at a step 612. The used heap blocks that are shifted to the top portion of NV-RAM may be sorted based on the type of critical data stored within the heap block. The sorting criteria may include the type of critical data (i.e., accounting vs. game history data), type of game, or any other factor.
At a step  616, the nodes are resized to reflect the number of heap blocks associated with a particular node. A node is discussed in parent application Ser. No. 09/690,931, High Performance Battery Backed RAM Interface. Thereafter, at a step 620, the next heap block is analyzed and the process repeats itself by returning to a step 604. The process may time out or stop after the entire NV-RAM memory is compacted.
At a step  608, if the heap block is unused, the process reverts back to step 604, where the next heap block is analyzed. It is contemplated that the process of shifting heap blocks can be controlled by the software client in conjunction with the NV-RAM manager. It is contemplated that the process may commence and terminate based on factors such as time of day, frequency of NV-RAM use, the rounds of play on the gaming machine, or some other criteria.
FIG. 6B illustrates an alternate embodiment of a method for compacting or reorganizing memory in NV-RAM. This may be accomplished by shifting heap blocks either to the top or to the bottom of the NV-RAM memory stack. At a step  624, the NVRAM manager sequentially analyzes the heap blocks in NV-RAM. As described in FIG. 6A, the NV-RAM manager may begin analysis starting at the first heap block located at (row 1, column 1) of the NV-RAM or from any other location. At a step 628, a decision is made concerning whether or not the heap block in use.
If the heap block is in use, the process advances to a step  632, where the heap block is shifted to the top portion of NV-RAM. If the heap block is unused, the process advances to a step 636, and the heap block is shifted to the bottom portion of the NV-RAM memory stack. Thereafter, in either case, the associated nodes are resized to reflect the new re-organization or new ranges of used or unused heap blocks. This is illustrated at steps 640 and 644. At a step 648, the next heap block is analyzed and the process repeats itself. Because shifting of heap blocks is performed on both in use and unused heap blocks, it is contemplated that the system described in FIG. 6B may provide a faster method of compaction as compared to the system described in FIG. 6A.
FIG. 6C illustrates an alternate embodiment of a system of compacting or reorganizing memory in NV-RAM. This may be accomplished by shifting heap blocks to the top of the NV-RAM memory stack based on particular criteria. At a step  652, the NV-RAM manager sequentially analyzes the heap blocks in NV-RAM. At a step 656, a decision is made as to whether or not a heap block is in use. If the heap block contains data, the process proceeds to a step 660. Next, a decision is made concerning block size criteria. For example, the size criteria may be that the heap block size is less than or equal to 200 kilobytes before heap block shifting occurs. This type of criteria may facilitate the shifting of smaller blocks prior to the shifting of larger blocks, and the criteria may be controlled, such as for example, by a casino employee. At a step 664, an in use heap block meeting the desired criteria is shifted to the top portion of the memory stack in NV-RAM. It is contemplated the heap block may be shifted to portions of memory other than the top portion as described in this example embodiment. At a step 668, the range of available heap blocks is resized to reflect the additional available memory space. Next, at a step 672, the process repeats itself as the NV-RAM manager analyzes the next heap block.
It is contemplated that the shifting of heap blocks as described in FIGS. 6A, 6B, or  6C may be accomplished by shifting data to a distinct portion of memory different from that of the top or bottom of an NV-RAM memory stack. The methods of shifting to a specific location as described in these embodiments are examples and are meant for discussion purposes. Furthermore, it is contemplated that compacting may occur more readily when the availability of unused NV-RAM is low. In addition, it is contemplated that compacting may occur periodically or on specific times in a day, or specific days in a week. As part of initializing the NV-RAM, it is contemplated the NV-RAM is compacted when the NV-RAM manager is first started.
At a step  704, the NV-RAM manager randomly generates a node record. A node record stores a handle for the NV-RAM which may be a unique handle. This handle, used by the software client, may provide a pointer to the location in NV-RAM at where the node or file resides. Further, the node record may provide the file size, file name, and information regarding the status of the file. It is contemplated the status may be a flag that indicates and allows a possible resizing or removal of data in NV-RAM to occur. At a step 708, an associated heap block or a random heap block corresponding to the node record is selected. At a step 712, the heap blocks are placed at the bottom portion of the memory stack in NV-RAM. It is contemplated that data may be shifted to portions of the memory stack other than the bottom portion. FIG. 1 illustrates the physical location of the heap block as a result of shuffling the data to the bottom portion of the memory stack (shown as the heap block in (row 10, column 10)).
Next, in step  716, a compaction routine, such as that described in FIGS. 6A, B, or C, may be employed. The process hinders an unauthorized user's ability to identify the contents of a particular heap block because the contents of randomly selected heap blocks are continuously shifting to a new location within the NV-RAM.
FIG. 8 illustrates an operational flow diagram of an alternate method of operation of a system to prevent unauthorized access of data written into NV-RAM. At a step  808, critical game data associated with game code is identified and stored in SDRAM. At a step 812, the NV-RAM manager facilitates the processing of the critical data by providing the critical data to the NV-RAM manager. At a step 816, the NV-RAM manager identifies and allocates heap blocks to store the critical data. At a step 820, the NV-RAM facilitates the encryption and subsequent storage of critical data into SDRAM. The encryption can be any simple type of encryption. In one embodiment, the encryption comprises multiplying the critical data by a number that is unique to a gaming machine. This creates a unique encryption key that would not be known by a potential cheater. At a step 824, the encrypted critical data is written into NV-RAM.
a data file system for accessing and organizing the data stored in the non-volatile memory.
2. The system of claim 1, wherein the first data comprises critical data.
3. The system of claim 1, wherein the non-volatile memory comprises memory with a battery back-up.
4. The system of claim 1, wherein the non-volatile memory manager comprises machine readable code.
5. The system of claim 1, wherein the data is identified by files using a file system.
6. The system of claim 5, further comprising an application tool for accessing files in the file system.
wherein the existing second data remains intact after incorporating the new game.
8. The method of claim 7, further comprising verifying the accuracy, after the writing, of the first data that was written into the non-volatile memory.
9. The method of claim 7, wherein the first data comprises critical data.
10. The method of claim 7, wherein allocation further comprises verifying that adequate memory space exists in the non-volatile memory.
11. The method of claim 7, further comprising compacting the non-volatile memory to generate additional memory space.
deallocating the memory space previously occupied by the first critical data.
13. The method of claim 12, further comprising resizing remaining memory space resulting from the deletion of the first data.
14. The method of claim 12, further comprising verifying the accuracy of the second critical data in non-volatile memory after removal of the first data.
15. The method of claim 12, wherein the non-volatile memory manager comprises machine readable code.
16. The method of claim 12, wherein the deallocating is performed by the memory manager.
reallocating memory space having a second size for storing the first type of data.
18. The method of claim 17, wherein the second size is less than the first size.
19. The method of claim 17, wherein the second size is greater than the first size.
20. The method of claim 17, wherein the first type of data comprises critical data.
21. The method of claim 17, wherein allocating memory space is performed by a memory manager.
wherein re-writing leaves intact other data elements stored in the non-volatile memory.
23. The method of claim 22, wherein the testing occurs periodically.
24. The method of claim 22, further including re-testing the non-corrupt data after the re-writing.
25. The method of claim 22, wherein the testing comprises performing a cyclic redundancy check algorithm.
26. The method of claim 22, further comprising generating an alert regarding the identification of corrupt data.
27. The method of claim 22, wherein re-writing comprises deleting the corrupt data.
resizing a node to account for the shifting.
29. The method of claim 28, further comprising assigning new handle to the data after the shifting.
30. The method of claim 28, wherein the analyzing occurs sequentially in the non-volatile memory.
31. The method of claim 28, wherein the shifting causes data to be compacted into adjacent memory space.
32. The method of claim 28, wherein the shifting does not require the re-writing of other data in the non-volatile memory.
33. The method of claim 28, wherein shifting comprises shifting to a top or to a bottom portion of a memory stack in the non-volatile memory.
34. The method of claim 28, further comprising analyzing the data prior to shifting to determine if the data qualifies as movable data.
35. The method of claim 28, wherein the analyzing analyzes heap block size.
36. The method of claim 28, further comprising analyzing the amount of unused space within the non-volatile memory, and if the amount of unused space within the non-volatile memory is less than a predetermined amount, then executing the method of analyzing the first memory space, shifting, and resizing.
37. The method of claim 28, wherein the analyzing, shifting and resizing occurs periodically.
38. The method of claim 28, wherein the analyzing, shifting and resizing occurs whenever memory manager operation is initiated.
reassigning the data in the file manager.
40. The method of claim 39, further comprising compacting the memory elements sequentially to maximize memory utilization.
41. The method of claim 39, wherein the selecting occurs randomly.
42. The method of claim 39, wherein the memory elements comprise data.
43. The method of claim 39, wherein the memory elements comprise a block of data.
44. The method of claim 39, further comprising encrypting the data prior to writing into a non-volatile memory.
45. The method of claim 44, wherein the encrypting comprises multiplying the critical data with a unique value corresponding to a gaming machine.
ES2357472T3 (en) 2011-04-26 Electronic System casino game more playability, authentication and security.


text:
Governance , Incident & Breach Response , Security Operations
Medical Device Security: Creating an Inventory
Dale Nordenberg Describes New Efforts to Keep Track of Devices Marianne Kolbasuk McGee (HealthInfoSec) • August 15, 2016 10 Minutes
Dale Nordenberg, M.D., of MDISS
The challenges involved with tracking and managing the enormous number of diverse medical devices used in large healthcare entities contributes to the security risks posed by these products, says Dale Nordenberg, M.D., executive director of the Medical Device Innovation Safety and Security Consortium.
"The lifecycle of devices is such that many devices are in environments for decades," Nordenberg notes in part one of a two-part interview with Information Security Media Group. Healthcare entities, including those that have undergone mergers and acquisitions over the years, are "struggling with the diversity of the devices," he adds.
The creation of sophisticated inventory systems is critical to effectively dealing with the cybersecurity of thousands of devices, Nordenberg stresses.
"The ability to create high-quality inventories [including] granular data about each device and the characteristics inherent in the device - and the way they connect to the network - is a very big challenge," he says.
Collecting detailed information pertaining to the potential security issues about each medical device in use at their facilities is complicated by the fact that many manufacturers don't easily make this information available, he says. To help address the problem, MDISS - a not-for-profit consortium aimed at improving the security of medical devices throughout their lifecycles - worked with the National Health Information Sharing and Analysis Center to co-launch a Medical Device Security Information Sharing Council. Now, manufacturers and healthcare entities can report device vulnerabilities to the new council, he notes.
"The tools that we've built allow crowdsourcing so one healthcare system can do an assessment, collect detailed information about the device, [such as] the ports it requires, different kinds of communication protocols it can leverage, [and] whether or not the device can do encryption," he says.
In the interview (see audio player below photo), Nordenberg also discusses:
Top cybersecurity technical challenges involved with medical devices;
The varying levels of difficulty in securing some medical devices;
Other tips for securing the vast array of medical devices used within healthcare organizations.
In part two of this interview, Nordenberg discusses why medical device cybersecurity needs to be tackled as a "public health" challenge.
In addition to his role leading the MDISS consortium, Nordenberg, a pediatrician, is CEO of the consulting firm Novasano Health and Science. He's a member of the Health IT Standards Committee of the Department of Health and Human Services' Office of the National Coordinator for Health IT as well as the FDA's National Evaluation System for Technology Planning Board. He also co-chairs the recently launched Medical Device Security Information Sharing Council for the NH-ISAC.
Taking Initial Steps to Create an ISAO
When a DDoS Attack Isn't a DDoS Attack
https://www.careersinfosecurity.com/interviews/medical-device-security-creating-inventory-i-3290

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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The Triumph TR2 was a triumph of willpower. The forerunner of one of Britain's most successful sports car series, it was created by Sir John Black, head of the Standard Motor Company and of Triumph. Standard had supplied engines to the fledgling Jaguar Company, and Black desperately wanted to share or compete with Jaguar's success.
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The TR2's witches' brew of components defied identification in the glorious finished product. The new car was based on unused frames from the prewar Standard Flying Nine. The engine was devised from the 2.1 litre four used in both the Standard Vanguard and the Ferguson tractor. The suspension and rear axle came from the Triumph Mayflower sedan (you couldn't make this up!).
To save costs on stamping compound curves, the panels were beaten and welded; and the depth of the front intake hid a simple mesh instead of a formal grille. The designers even abandoned their idea for retractable headlight pods, and installed the fixed pods that completed the TR2's 'frog-eye' front.
For something out of nothing, the TR2 was a tour de force. America loved it, too, and the car won many Sports Car Club of America events. A team of TR2s also did well in the Mille Miglia and the 24 du Mans. The car was the least expensive model capable of over 100 mph (160 km/h). For style and sheer chutzpah, it matched the very best.
Tests by Motor magazine gave a top speed of 107.3 mph (172.8 km/h), and 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 12.0 secs.
You may come across a car called a 'long door Triumph TR2. These were the 1953 and early 1954 line production models, with doors that extended to the very edge of the car. A shorter door style was introduced in the autumn of 1954, which appears on the majority of TR2s.


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Performing the Word
Preaching as Theatre
By Jana Childers
$21.99 Show Buy
Whether they like it or not, actors and preachers have a great deal in common. Many churchgoers see the truth in the old saying that links preachers and frustrated actors, though few preachers seem anxious to acknowledge the family resemblance. Performing the Word destigmatizes the performance-based approach to preaching and shows how the experience, skills, and modi operandi of actors and performance artists may be applied to preaching. This volume is ideal for seminary students and preachers who wish to enrich their delivery and creativity skills.
Jana Childers
The Reverend Doctor Jana L. Childers, Dean and Vice President for Academic Affairs, and Professor of Homiletics and Speech-Communication at San Francisco Theological Seminary, is a Presbyterian minister who served congregations in Kansas and New Jersey before joining the seminary faculty. She holds a B.A. from Wheaton College, an M.Div degree from Princeton Theological Seminary and a Ph.D. from the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California.<?xml:namespace prefix = o ns = "urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office" />
Interests in the arts, spirituality and worship supplement Jana's "central and great love" – preaching. She has appeared at churches and conferences across the country in the one-woman show Berries Red (1987-1997), produced the original musical Push Up the Sky (1997-1999) at the GTU and is currently working to bring Aimee!, a play about the life of Aimee Semple Mc Pherson, to the stage. She is the author of Performing the Word: Preaching as Theatre (Abingdon Press, 1998), co-editor of The Abingdon Women's Preaching Annual, Series I, editor of Birthing the Sermon: Women Preachers on Creative Process (Chalice Press, 2001) which was awarded the Religious Communication Association's Book of the Year award, and editor of the forthcoming Purpose of Preaching (Chalice Press,2003).
Jana has appeared several times on Thirty Good Minutes, the television program produced by the Chicago Sunday Evening Club and was recently featured on the Odyssey Channel's Great Preachers series.
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Explore Freedom » Multimedia » The Libertarian Angle » Communism and the Cold War
Communism and the Cold War
by Jacob G. Hornberger March 31, 2015
Each week, FFF president Jacob Hornberger discusses the hot topics of the day. This week: the national-security state's hardening during the Cold War. The Libertarian Angle airs weekly. Go to the podcast here.
This post was written by: Jacob G. Hornberger
Jacob G. Hornberger is founder and president of The Future of Freedom Foundation. He was born and raised in Laredo, Texas, and received his B.A. in economics from Virginia Military Institute and his law degree from the University of Texas. He was a trial attorney for twelve years in Texas. He also was an adjunct professor at the University of Dallas, where he taught law and economics. In 1987, Mr. Hornberger left the practice of law to become director of programs at the Foundation for Economic Education. He has advanced freedom and free markets on talk-radio stations all across the country as well as on Fox News' Neil Cavuto and Greta van Susteren shows and he appeared as a regular commentator on Judge Andrew Napolitano's show Freedom Watch. View these interviews at LewRockwell.com and from Full Context. Send him email.
The Libertarian Angle – The Federal Reserve: Audit, Reform, or Abolish


ATHENS, Greece, April 9, 2019 /PRNewswire/ -- The birth of the first healthy baby through the pioneering Maternal Spindle Transfer method – implemented for the first time by the Institute of Life and Embryotools – is a global first, offering the potential to preserve the mother's genetic material. The method was implemented by Institute of Life IVF Center and Embryotools to address fertility issues associated with multiple in vitro fertilization (IVF) failures caused by cytoplasmic dysfunction of the oocytes or rare mitochondrial genetic diseases.
The 2.960 kilo boy was born at 7.46 a.m. today, 9 April 2019, to a 32-year-old Greek woman with a history of multiple IVF failures and poor oocyte quality. The mother and infant are both in good health.
The President of the Institute of Life, Dr. Panagiotis Psathas, stated: "Today, for the first time in the world, a woman's inalienable right to become a mother with her own genetic material became a reality. As Greek scientists, we are very proud to announce an international innovation in assisted reproduction, and we are now in a position to make it possible for women with multiple IVF failures or rare mitochondrial genetic diseases to have a healthy child. At the Institute of Life, our commitment is to continue to help even more couples facing fertility issues to have children with their own DNA, without having recourse to egg donors."
The scientific collaborator of the Institute of Life and co-founder of Embryotools, Dr. Nuno Costa-Borges, noted that, "The completely successful and safe implementation of the Maternal Spindle Transfer method – for the first time in medical history – is a revolution in assisted reproduction. I want to thank and congratulate the whole european team that made it possible, and especially the Institute of Life IVF Center. Our excellent collaboration and this exceptional result will help countless women to realise their dream of becoming mothers with their own genetic material."
The Maternal Spindle Transfer method, which was developed after five years of basic research at Embryotools in Spain and two and half years of pioneering clinical validation at the Institute of Life's laboratory in Greece, involves mitochondrial replacement in human oocytes, fully preserving the genetic material of the woman who wants to reproduce. In this way, specialists can overcome the problems of women with fertility issues and multiple IVF failures caused by cytoplasmic dysfunctions of their oocytes or women suffering from rare mitochondrial genetic diseases. Finally, the clinical implementation of the "Maternal Spindle Transfer" method is carried out under licensing and supervision of the Greek National Authority of Assisted Reproduction.
It is one of the largest and most advanced Assisted Reproduction Centers in Europe. It uses the most advanced technology, applying innovative treatments and techniques as well as the highest operational standards to provide certainty to the couples who put their trust in its services.


CBSE Date Sheet 10 Class – Central Board of sheet Secondary Education published cbse time table board for class 10 most class on 23rd December. english 2013 core 301. friday 01st march 10: 30 am. Each sample paper is important. CBSE Board Examination : Date Sheet for Class 10th, 12th Released on cbse. CBSE Class 12th Board Exams will take place in board March. Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE) Examination Results cbse - Class X11 PMT, 2013 Class X PDT Exam Results : Brought to you by exams National Informatics Centres ( NIC- MIT- INDIA) Pdf files are available in this cbse section these are very important according to the CBSE board exam.
Free PDF Download of CBSE Class 10 Date Sheet 2013 cbse – Class 10th Board Exam Time Table has 2013 been released by the Central Board of Secondary Education. in exams - Download here Description: CBSE is expected to release the: List of vocational subjects for February exams soon on cbse. ( exams class x) date sheet day 9th march, time subject code subject thursday, date exams 10. in New Delhi: Central Board of Secondary Education class ( CBSE) will release the date sheet for Class board exams soon. date- class sheet senior school examination,. As students all over India exams buckle up for cbse this sheet milestone paper of their lives the examination for CBSE Board Class 10 students will date begin on March 5 ends on April 4. functional english 101. central board of secondary education. day time sheet subject name , date sub- code.
Date sheet of class 10 cbse board exams 2013. in CBSE NET, JEE, NCERT CTET. CBSE Class 10 date exams sheet 2013 - Get to know time table date sheet of CBSE Board Class 10 ( High School) exam result. Date sheet of class 10 cbse board exams 2013. monday 04th march 10: 30 am. CBSE Class 10 Board Exam Previous Year Question Papers Download Pdf. CBSE class has issued 2013 datesheet for compartment examination class for class 10 sheet i.
It conducts the examination of those schools which are affiliated with cbse the CBSE. english elective 001. In available sense they 2013 like to be release examination schedule through online mode. However, sheet the date for Class 12th will be soon announced by the educational body - Central Board of Secondary Education ( 2013 CBSE). This exam will be held from July 16, onwards. CBSE has finally released the CBSE Class 10 Exam Date Sheet for. CBSE Class 10, 12 Board 2013 Exam Date Sheet To Be Released At Cbse. In board the latest circular released by CBSE, the exam dates are expected to be preponed.
CBSE Class 10 Compartment Datesheet ( Improvement of Performance). CBSE 10th Date board Sheet, CBSE Board 10th Exam time table 2013 – Central Board of School education known as CBSE conducts 2013 the exam of the class 10th. Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE) is a board of education for the Private Public Schools educational institutes under Union Government of India. CBSE Date Sheet for Class X can be accessed cbse on website www. Improvement of performance examination. Board exam for class 10 will start early this year as exams exams are starting 2013 from February month and ends cbse in March.
CBSE Date Sheet for class X board & XII is declared on 2nd January tentatively. CBSE class 10th board exams cbse are near so your preparation should be hard. How to check online CBSE Board Exam Date Class exams 10th 12th The fraction for catch board schedule through school or state board office is over. com will not be updated for some time, meanwhile visit cbse.
CBSE Class 10 datesheet. CBSE has issued datesheet for March annual exam. Download CBSE class 10 datesheet for exam using the link below. The class 10 exam will begin on March 01, with Painting as first exam. Last exam for class 10 will be conducted on March 15, for Home Science. CBSE Class 10th Date Sheet - CBSE Class X exam schedule CBSE Class 10th Date Sheet - The Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE) has announced the dates for the Class X examinations beginning from February 27,.
CBSE Class 10, 12 Date Sheet ; Check At Cbse. in New Delhi: CBSE has released the date sheets for class 10, 12 exams.
The Board will begin the exams from 5 March, after Holi festival.


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Rose Bowl Musings For The Huskies
December 23, 2018 December 23, 2018 by Jeff Wright, posted in Football
The Washington Huskies Football Team is about to embark on an adventure they haven't experienced in over 18 years as a program.
With the Rose Bowl Game almost a week away, the focus and seriousness will become apparent in the coming days leading up to the game.
In these monumental and historic games, it's important to take step back and enjoy the experience as well for the Husky fan base.
Lighthearted laughter during the Holidays is fun and for Husky fans there is a lot to be excited about this year and especially this week.
We take a comical look at all the reasons the Huskies should be excited for the upcoming Rose Bowl Game…..
Coach Petersen Gets To Save His Back Playing On Grass
With the success that the Huskies Football Program has had under Chris Petersen, it will delight fans to know that the Rose Bowl game will help his health. Rose Bowl Stadium is played on a grass field which the Huskies don't get to play on very often. Earlier this season, "Coach Pete" said he prefers to play on grass fields as opposed to turf fields. "I think grass is better. I do. I just think it feels better because I'm old and when I stand on turf my back hurts and it doesn't hurt when I'm on grass." Petersen said. Keeping Petersen healthy means he will be able to have a longer career coaching the Huskies.
Myles Bryant's Name In the Rose Bowl Program Instead Of Selling Them
Huskies "Nickel" Myles Bryant is from the city of Pasadena and this game will be a homecoming of sorts for him and his family. Growing up, Bryant used to make the Rose Bowl Game an annual event to attend each year. During his high school football career, Bryant actually sold Rose Bowl programs outside of the stadium as a fundraiser for his Loyola High School Football Team. This year, Bryant will actually be able to put on a uniform and experience the game from down on the field instead of from the stands. The drawback is he won't be making any money selling programs which might be a disappointment for him.
Last Chance For Ben Burr-Kirven To Win An Award Because He Is Short Of Them
Heading into the Rose Bowl Game, Ben Burr-Kirven enters the game as the nation's leading tackler at 165 total. The game will give Burr-Kirven one last chance to earn an award after a shortage of them this season. He only has been named 2018 Pac-12 Football Scholar Athlete of the Year, 2018 Pat Tillman Pac-12 Defensive Player of the Year, 2018 CoSIDA Academic All-America Second Team, 2018 CoSIDA Academic All-District 8, 2018 First-Team All-America (Associated Press, FWAA, ESPN, Athlon's), 2018 Second-Team All-America (TheAthletic.com, Walter Camp Football Foundation, SI.com, Sporting News, CBS, USA Today), 2018 Honorable Mention All-America (PFF), 2018 All-Pac-12 First Team, 2018 Academic All-Pac-12 First Team, 2018 Lott IMPACT Trophy Finalist, and 2018 Bednarik Award Semifinalist amongst some other awards. This Rose Bowl Game may make or break Ben's happiness with the lack of recognition he has received this season!
Gives Coach Ikaika Malloe The Opportunity To Wear His Hawaiian Shorts While Coaching
If there is one thing to know about coach Ikaika Malloe, it's his love for wearing shorts while he is coaching in practice. Call it an "island thing" because even in cold and rainy weather, Malloe can still be seen as a shorts loyalist. With the Rose Bowl set in beautiful Pasadena, California, it gives Malloe a chance to add to his wearing shorts resume. For the first time, Malloe can wear Hawaiian shorts while coaching an actual game and also during the month of December. Doing this will give him a recruiting advantage as well, with the Polynesian high school players that will be attending the game, who are interested in playing for the Huskies!
Myles Gaskin Gets Another Chance To Ride Off Into the Sunset With Another Platinum Hit
A few weeks ago, after the Huskies 28-15 Apple Cup victory, senior running back Myles Gaskin became famous while doing a postgame interview with teammate Salvon Ahmed. In the interview, Gaskin said "I Ain't Never Lost To No Coug'" and since then, that "hit" has gone Platinum for his Hip Hop Artist career. With the Rose Bowl ahead, Gaskin has the opportunity to make another Platinum "hit" while riding off into the sunset with a victory. By beating Ohio State in the Rose Bowl, Gaskin can gain more rapid acclaim with his new hit "I Ain't Never Lost To No Urban". Afterwards, Gaskin will face the tough decision of pursuing an NFL career or Hip Hop?!
Dean Rutz / The Seattle Times
Tagged Ben Burr-Kirven, Chris Petersen, Ikaika Malloe, Myles Bryant, Myles Gaskin, Salvon Ahmed
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Home London Attractions London's Famous Libraries
London's Famous Libraries
The libraries of London are some of the biggest and most impressive in the world. As the central hub of knowledge and information in the UK for centuries, London has become home to vast collection of books, journals and documents from all corners of the literary world.
If you're a big reader and you love the feeling of getting lost in the pages of a good book, you won't want to miss out on the chance to visit some of London's historic knowledge fountains. Just a stone's throw from the Park Grand Lancaster Gate London you'll find a number of libraries and we've put together this list of our favourites to help you on your journey.
Euston Road, London
It only seems fair to start the list off with the city's biggest and most iconic library. The British Library is home to the largest collection of books, journals and periodicals in the world. For centuries this literary paradise has served as a well of knowledge for scholars and academics all over the city. The centralized location next to St Pancras Station makes it very easy to access from anywhere in London, so be sure to pay a visit during your stay at the Park Grand Lancaster Gate London. With such a vast selection of material to choose from you could spend days exploring the shelves of the British Library and still have so much left to see.
Bishopsgate Institute
Bishopsgate, London
What this library near Liverpool Street Station lacks in size it more than makes up for in knowledge and history. If you're looking to learn about the history of London's social and political evolution throughout the ages, this is the place to do it. The quaint library features a gorgeous interior with beautiful woodwork and intricate fixtures. The Institute also offers regular seminars and classes where you can learn a new language or attend history lessons.
The Poetry Library
South Bank, London
If you prefer your literature to have a little more rhythm and a few more rhymes, head over to the colourful Poetry Library in the South Bank Centre for an afternoon of fun and intrigue. Whether you prefer the more sombre writings or you're a fan of upbeat rhymes, the Poetry Library's vast collection of works is sure to include something you like. If you check into the Park Grand Lancaster Gate London at the right time you will be able to catch one of the regular events and readings that take place.
Belvedere Road, London
The BFI Reuben Library is a must-see for anyone interested in film or photography. The extensive collection of material at the BFI beats any other in London, giving the opportunity browse decades of history. The world of cinema is rich with timeless titles and memorable characters, which are all documented at this paradise of movie memorabilia. Aspiring filmmakers from all over the country often venture to this iconic library to browse the amazing collection of books and journals.
Must-see landmarks near St George's Fields
Tranquil spots to visit in London
Hipsters In London
Fun things for kids to do near Bayswater this month
A Park Grand guide to getting in shape this New Year
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5 Things To Do in London's Parks in March
What to Expect from Hogwarts in the Snow
A Brief History of London's Parks


The preceding chapters covered the concepts of database storage using the SQLite database. In these chapters the assumption was made that the iOS application code would directly manipulate the database using SQLite C API calls to construct and execute SQL statements. Whilst this is a perfectly good approach for working with SQLite in many cases, it does require knowledge of SQL and can lead to some complexity in terms of writing code and maintaining the database structure. This complexity is further compounded by the non-object-oriented nature of the SQLite C API functions. In recognition of these shortcomings, Apple introduced the Core Data Framework. Core Data is essentially a framework that places a wrapper around the SQLite database (and other storage environments) enabling the developer to work with data in terms of Objective-C objects without requiring any knowledge of the underlying database technology.
We will begin this chapter by defining some of the concepts that comprise the Core Data model before providing an overview of the steps involved in working with this framework. Once these topics have been covered, the next chapter will work through an An iOS 7 Core Data Tutorial.
Core Data consists of a number of framework objects that integrate to provide the data storage functionality. This stack can be visually represented as illustrated in Figure 41-1.
As we can see from Figure 41 1, the iOS based application sits on top of the stack and interacts with the managed data objects handled by the managed object context. Of particular significance in this diagram is the fact that although the lower levels in the stack perform a considerable amount of the work involved in providing Core Data functionality, the application code does not interact with them directly.
Before moving on to the more practical areas of working with Core Data it is important to spend some time explaining the elements that comprise the Core Data stack in a little more detail.
Managed objects are the objects that are created by your application code to store data. A managed object may be thought of as a row or a record in a relational database table. For each new record to be added, a new managed object must be created to store the data. Similarly, retrieved data will be returned in the form of managed objects, one for each record matching the defined retrieval criteria. Managed objects are actually instances of the NSManagedObject class, or a subclass thereof. These objects are contained and maintained by the managed object context.
Core Data based applications never interact directly with the persistent store. Instead, the application code interacts with the managed objects contained in the managed object context layer of the Core Data stack. The context maintains the status of the objects in relation to the underlying data store and manages the relationships between managed objects defined by the managed object model. All interactions with the underlying database are held temporarily within the context until the context is instructed to save the changes, at which point the changes are passed down through the Core Data stack and written to the persistent store.
So far we have focused on the management of data objects but have not yet looked at how the data models are defined. This is the task of the Managed Object Model which defines a concept referred to as entities.
Much as a class description defines a blueprint for an object instance, entities define the data model for managed objects. In essence, an entity is analogous to the schema that defines a table in a relational database. As such, each entity has a set of attributes associated with it that define the data to be stored in managed objects derived from that entity. For example, a Contacts entity might contain name, address and phone number attributes.
Relationships – In the context of Core Data, relationships are the same as those in other relational database systems in that they refer to how one data object relates to another. Core Data relationships can be one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-many.
Fetched property – This provides an alternative to defining relationships. Fetched properties allow properties of one data object to be accessed from another data object as though a relationship had been defined between those entities. Fetched properties lack the flexibility of relationships and are referred to by Apple's Core Data documentation as "weak, one way relationships" best suited to "loosely coupled relationships".
Fetch request – A predefined query that can be referenced to retrieve data objects based on defined predicates. For example, a fetch request can be configured into an entity to retrieve all contact objects where the name field matches "John Smith".
The persistent store coordinator is responsible for coordinating access to multiple persistent object stores. As an iOS developer you will never directly interact with the persistence store coordinator and, in fact, will very rarely need to develop an application that requires more than one persistent object store. When multiple stores are required, the coordinator presents these stores to the upper layers of the Core Data stack as a single store.
The term persistent object store refers to the underlying storage environment in which data are stored when using Core Data. Core Data supports three disk-based and one memory-based persistent store. Disk based options consist of SQLite, XML and binary. By default, the iOS SDK will use SQLite as the persistent store. In practice, the type of store being used is transparent to you as the developer. Regardless of your choice of persistent store, your code will make the same calls to the same Core Data APIs to manage the data objects required by your application.
Create a new entity by clicking on the Add Entity button located in the bottom panel. The new entity will appear as a text box in the Entities list. By default this will be named Entity. Double click on this name to change it.
To add attributes to the entity, click on the Add Attribute button located in the bottom panel, or use the + button located beneath the Attributes section. In the Attributes panel, name the attribute and specify the type and any other options that are required.
Repeat the above steps to add more attributes and additional entities.
As demonstrated, Xcode makes the process of entity description creation fairly straightforward. Whilst a detailed overview of the process is beyond the scope of this book there are many other resources available that are dedicated to the subject.
The above line of code extracts the current value for the name attribute of the newContact managed object and assigns it to a string object.
The Core Data framework stack provides a flexible alternative to directly managing data using SQLite or other data storage mechanisms. By providing an object oriented abstraction layer on top of the data the task of managing data storage is made significantly easier for the iOS application developer. Now that the basics of Core Data have been covered the next chapter entitled An iOS 7 Core Data Tutorial will work through the creation of an example application.


Get a great haircut at the Great Clips Fleming Island hair salon in Fleming Island, FL. You can save time by checking in online. fleming island. (Next to Winn-Dixie). 1545 County Rd 220.
Salon Professionals. Fleming Island. Filter by Service. 1950 East West Parkway, Fleming Island, Florida 32003. Hair Hair Extensions Makeup Balayage, Brazilian Blowout. (904) 614-8792.
Nails Kute & Spa is a heaven for anyone addicted to nail polishes! With over hundreds of OPI nail colors to choose from, you are sure to be delighted to see an amazing collection of gel and regular nail polish sin our collection.


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Nelle telecomunicazioni per modulante si intende un'onda elettromagnetica che rappresenta l'informazione da trasmettere nell'etere o via cavo. Essa modifica una delle caratteristiche elettriche del segnale portante, come frequenza, ampiezza, fase, posizione, ecc. Da tale interazione si ottiene un segnale risultante, detto segnale modulato, che è quello effettivamente trasmesso.

Radiotecnica

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Miss Website Ninja is the data controller and we are responsible for your personal data (referred to as "we", "us" or "our" in this privacy notice).
Address: Kemp House 152 – 160, City Road, London, EC1V 2NX, UK.
We will only use your personal data for a purpose it was collected for or a reasonably compatible purpose if necessary. For more information on this please email us at hello@misswebsiteninja.com. In case we need to use your details for an unrelated new purpose we will let you know and explain the legal grounds for processing.


Custom Home – Kalamazoo, Michigan.
This ranch style home is located on a beautiful, spacious, private lot. Features main floor office, open living spaces, lots of smart storage options and custom finishes.
We are very happy with our Berchiatti Homes home! Brad was very attentive through all the details of building a new house. We love our home and all of the charming accents that make it unique. Brad always responded quickly to phone calls, texts and emails – and we had a lot of questions and ideas! We would definitely recommend Brad as a quality home builder with good ethics and customer service.


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Le rayonnement du corps noir, également appelé rayonnement complet ou rayonnement thermique, est le type de rayonnement électromagnétique à l'intérieur ou entourant un corps en équilibre thermodynamique avec son environnement, ou émis par un corps noir (un corps opaque et non réfléchissant) maintenu à une température constante et uniforme. Le rayonnement possède un spectre spécifique  et une intensité qui dépend seulement de la température du corps.

Le rayonnement thermique spontanément émis par les objets ordinaires peut être approximé par un rayonnement de corps noir. Une enceinte  parfaitement isolée, en équilibre thermique interne, renferme un rayonnement de corps noir, qui pourra être émis à travers un trou fait dans sa paroi, à condition que le trou soit assez petit pour que son effet soit négligeable sur l'équilibre.

Un corps noir à température ambiante paraîtra noir car la plus grande partie de l'énergie émise  est située dans le domaine de l'infrarouge, qui ne peut être perçue par l'œil humain. L'œil humain étant incapable de percevoir la couleur à de faibles intensités de lumière, un corps noir observé dans l'obscurité à la température la plus basse sera faiblement visible, et paraîtra subjectivement gris, même si son spectre physique atteint son niveau maximum  dans les infrarouges. Lorsqu'il devient un peu plus chaud, il prend une couleur rouge terne. Au fur et à mesure que sa température augmente, sa longueur d'onde diminue pour atteindre une couleur bleue-blanche éblouissante.

Malgré le fait que les planètes et les étoiles ne soient ni en équilibre thermique avec leur environnement ni des corps noirs parfaits, le rayonnement du corps noir est utilisé comme une première approximation de l'énergie qu'elles émettent. Les trous noirs sont des corps noirs presque parfaits, dans le sens qu'ils absorbent toutes radiations qui les frappent. Ils émettraient cependant un rayonnement de corps noir (appelé rayonnement de Hawking) d'après une température proportionnelle à leur masse.

L'expression « corps noir » a été introduite par Gustav Kirchhoff en 1860.

Spectre

Le rayonnement du corps noir possède un spectre de fréquence continu et caractéristique qui ne dépend que de sa température, appelé le spectre du corps noir et décrit par la loi de Planck. Le spectre atteint son maximum à une fréquence caractéristique qui se décale vers des fréquences plus élevées à mesure que la température augmente, et dont la plus grande partie de l'émission à température ambiante est située dans la région infrarouge du spectre électromagnétique.

Lorsque la température dépasse 500 degrés Celsius, les corps noirs commencent à émettre une importante quantité de lumière visible. Vus dans l'obscurité, ils sont d'un gris faiblement brillant, mais seulement parce que l'œil humain est sensible uniquement au noir et au blanc à de très faibles intensités. En réalité, la fréquence de la lumière dans le champ visible est rouge, cependant, l'intensité est trop basse pour être discernée comme étant rouge. Au fur et à mesure que la température augmente, le corps devient visible même lorsqu'il y a de la lumière ambiante. Il prend des couleurs tout d'abord de rouge terne, puis de jaune et, finalement, il émet une lumière « blanche-bleutée » éblouissante. Bien qu'il demeure de cette couleur à l'œil, l'augmentation de température amène son pic d'émissivité dans le rayonnement ultraviolet. Le Soleil, avec une température effective d'environ , peut être considéré comme un corps noir ayant un spectre d'émission dont le pic d'émissivité est situé dans la partie centrale et vert-jaune du spectre visible, mais avec une puissance importante dans l'ultraviolet également.

La table ci-dessous décrit l'échelle entière des températures thermodynamiques, depuis le zéro absolu jusqu'aux températures les plus extrêmes envisagées par les cosmologistes.

A Valeurs pour le corps noir vrai (ce que n'est pas le filament de tungstène d'une lampe). L'émittance d'un filament de tungstène est plus élevée dans les courtes longueurs d'onde que le corps noir, ce qui le fait paraître plus blanc.
B La valeur de  est approximative.
C Température vraie de la photosphère.

Explication

Toute matière ordinaire (baryonique) émet du rayonnement électromagnétique lorsqu'elle possède une température supérieure au zéro absolu. Cette radiation représente la conversion de l'énergie thermique d'un corps en énergie électromagnétique, et est alors appelée rayonnement thermique. C'est le processus spontané de répartition radiatif de l'entropie.

Inversement, toute matière ordinaire absorbe le rayonnement électromagnétique jusqu'à un certain degré. Un objet qui absorbe toute la radiation qu'il reçoit, dans toutes les longueurs d'onde, est appelé corps noir. Lorsqu'un corps noir est à une température uniforme, son émission possède une distribution spectrale d'énergie  qui dépend de la température. Cette émission est appelée rayonnement du corps noir.

Le concept de corps noir est une idéalisation, car un corps noir parfait n'existe pas dans la nature. Des matériaux comme le graphite et le noir de fumée, qui possèdent des émissivités supérieures à 0,95, se rapprochent fortement du « matériel noir » idéal.

Expérimentalement, le rayonnement du corps noir peut être établi au mieux comme étant la radiation de l'état d'équilibre dans une cavité à l'intérieur d'un corps rigide, à une température uniforme, qui est entièrement opaque et qui est seulement partiellement réfléchissante. Une boîte fermée avec des murs de graphite à une température constante ayant une petite ouverture sur l'une des faces latérales produit une bonne approximation du rayonnement de corps noir émanant de l'ouverture.

Le rayonnement du corps noir est la seule distribution d'énergie stable pour le rayonnement thermique qui peut persister dans un équilibre thermodynamique à l'intérieur d'une cavité. En situation d'équilibre, pour chaque fréquence, le total d'intensité de rayonnement qui est émis et réfléchi d'un corps (c'est-à-dire la quantité nette de radiation quittant sa surface, appelé « luminance énergétique ») est déterminé uniquement par la température d'équilibre, et ne dépend pas de la forme, du matériau ou de la structure du corps. Pour un corps noir (un absorbeur parfait), il n'y a pas de rayonnement réfléchi, et alors la luminance énergétique est due entièrement à l'émission. De plus, un corps noir est un émetteur diffus (son émission est indépendante de la direction). Conséquemment, le rayonnement du corps noir peut être vu comme étant le rayonnement d'un corps noir à l'équilibre thermique.

Le rayonnement du corps noir provoque une incandescence si la température de l'objet est assez élevée. Le point de Draper, situé à environ 798 K, est la température où tout solide devient incandescent d'un rouge faible. À , une petite ouverture dans le mur d'une large cavité opaque uniformément chauffée (que nous nommerons un four), vue de l'extérieur, apparaît rouge. À , il apparaît blanc. Peu importe comment le four est construit et de quel matériau, aussi longtemps qu'il est construit de manière que toute lumière qui y entre soit absorbée par les murs, sa lumière émise sera une bonne approximation du rayonnement du corps noir. Le spectre, et donc la couleur, de la lumière qui en sort est fonction de la température de la cavité uniquement. Une représentation graphique de la quantité d'énergie à l'intérieur du four par unité de volume et par unité de fréquence tracée par intervalles versus la fréquence est appelée courbe du corps noir. Différentes courbes sont obtenues en variant la température.

Deux corps qui sont de la même température demeurent en équilibre thermique mutuel, alors un corps à une température T entouré d'un nuage de lumière à une température T, en moyenne, émettra autant de lumière dans le nuage qu'il en absorbera, en suivant le principe d'échange de Prévost, qui réfère à l'équilibre radiatif. Le principe du bilan détaillé affirme qu'à l'intérieur d'un équilibre thermodynamique, chaque processus élémentaire se fait dans les deux sens de façon égale. Prévost a aussi démontré que l'émission d'un corps est logiquement déterminée seulement par son propre état interne. L'effet causal de la thermodynamique d'absorption sur la thermodynamique d'émission (spontanée) n'est pas direct, mais n'est qu'indirect, car il affecte l'état interne du corps. Cela signifie qu'à l'équilibre thermodynamique, la quantité de chaque longueur d'onde émise dans toutes les directions du rayonnement thermique d'un corps à une température T, noir ou non, est égale à la quantité correspondante que le corps absorbe parce qu'il est entouré par une lumière à une température T.

Lorsque le corps est noir, l'absorption est évidente : la quantité de lumière absorbée est la totalité de la lumière qui en frappe la surface. Pour un corps noir beaucoup plus gros que la longueur d'onde, l'énergie lumineuse absorbée à toute longueur d'onde λ par unité de temps est strictement proportionnelle à la courbe du corps noir. Cela signifie que la courbe du corps noir correspond à la quantité d'énergie lumineuse émise par un corps noir, ce qui en justifie le nom. C'est une condition pour l'applicabilité de la loi du rayonnement de Kirchhoff : la courbe du corps noir caractérise la lumière thermique, qui dépend seulement de la température des murs de la cavité, à condition que ces murs soient complètement opaques et peu réfléchissants et que la cavité soit en équilibre thermodynamique. Si le corps noir est petit, assez pour que sa taille soit comparable à la longueur d'onde de la lumière, l'absorption est modifiée, car un petit objet n'est pas un absorbeur efficace de la lumière avec une longueur d'onde de taille similaire. Cependant, le principe d'égalité stricte d'émission et d'absorption est toujours respecté dans les conditions d'équilibre thermodynamique.

Dans le laboratoire, le rayonnement du corps noir est approximé par le rayonnement d'une petite ouverture dans une large cavité, un hohlraum, dans un corps complètement opaque qui est seulement partiellement réfléchissant, maintenu à une température constante. Cette technique mène au nom « rayonnement de cavité » parfois utilisé pour désigner le rayonnement de corps noir. Toute lumière entrant par l'ouverture serait réfléchie plusieurs fois avant qu'elle ne s'échappe, étant presque certainement absorbée dans le processus. L'absorption se produit indépendamment de la longueur d'onde du rayonnement entrant (à condition qu'il soit petit comparé à l'ouverture). L'ouverture, par la suite, sera une bonne approximation d'un corps noir théorique et, si la cavité est scellée, le spectre du rayonnement de l'ouverture (c'est-à-dire la quantité de lumière émise de l'ouverture à chaque longueur d'onde) sera continu, et ne dépendra uniquement que de la température et du fait que les murs sont opaques et au moins partiellement absorbant, mais pas sur le matériau particulier duquel ils sont faits ni sur le matériau de la cavité (comparé avec le spectre d'émission).

Calculer la courbe du corps noir était un défi majeur dans la physique théorique lors de la fin du . Le problème a été résolu en 1901 par Max Planck dans le formalisme aujourd'hui connu comme étant la loi de Planck du rayonnement du corps noir. En faisant des changements à la loi du rayonnement de Wien (à ne pas confondre avec la loi du déplacement de Wien) conformément à la thermodynamique et l'électromagnétisme, il a trouvé une expression mathématique adaptée aux données expérimentales de façon satisfaisante. Pour y parvenir, Planck a pris l'hypothèse que l'énergie des oscillateurs dans la cavité était quantifiée, c'est-à-dire qu'elle existait en multiple de nombres entiers d'une certaine quantité. Einstein se basa sur cette idée et proposa la quantification du rayonnement électromagnétique lui-même en 1905 pour expliquer l'effet photoélectrique. Ces avancées théoriques ont finalement abouti au remplacement de la théorie de l'électromagnétisme classique par l'électrodynamique quantique. Ces quanta étaient appelés photons et on croyait que la cavité du corps noir contenait un gaz de photons. De plus, cela a mené au développement des distributions de probabilité quantique, nommées statistique de Fermi-Dirac et statistique de Bose-Einstein, chacune applicable à différentes classes de particules, fermions et bosons.

La longueur d'onde à laquelle le rayonnement est le plus fort est donnée par la loi du déplacement de Wien, et la puissance totale émise par unité de surface est donnée par la loi de Stefan-Boltzmann. Donc, à mesure que la température augmente, la couleur de l'incandescence change du rouge au jaune au blanc au bleu. Même alors que la longueur d'onde maximale se déplace à l'ultraviolet, assez de rayonnement continue d'être émis dans la longueur d'onde du bleu et le corps continuera de paraître bleu. Il ne deviendra jamais invisible — en effet, le rayonnement de la lumière visible augmente de façon monotone avec la température.

La luminance énergétique ou l'intensité observée n'est pas fonction de la direction. Par conséquent, un corps noir est un radiateur lambertien parfait.

Des objets réels ne se comportent jamais comme des corps noir idéaux parfaits, mais plutôt émettent des rayonnements à une fréquence donnée qui est une fraction de l'émission idéale. L'émissivité d'un matériau définit à quel point un corps réel rayonne de l'énergie comparé à un corps noir. Cette émissivité dépend de facteurs tels la température, l'angle d'émission, et la longueur d'onde. Cependant, il est normal en ingénierie d'assumer que l'émissivité spectrale d'une surface et son coefficient d'absorption ne dépendent pas de la longueur d'onde, afin que l'émissivité soit une constante. Cela est connu comme étant l'approximation du corps gris.

Avec des surfaces non-noires, la déviation par rapport au comportement d'un corps noir idéal est déterminée à la fois par la structure de la surface, telles la rugosité ou la granularité, et la composition chimique. Sur une base « par longueur d'onde », des objets réels en état d'équilibre thermodynamique local suivront quand même la loi du rayonnement de Kirchhoff : l'émissivité est égale à l'absorptivité, de sorte qu'un objet qui n'absorbe pas toute lumière incidente émettra aussi moins de rayonnement qu'un corps noir idéal ; l'absorption incomplète peut être dû à une partie de la lumière incidente étant transmise à travers le corps ou étant réfléchie à la surface du corps.

Formalisme

Loi de Planck

La loi de Planck énonce que:
.
où :
I(ν,T) est l'énergie par unité de temps (puissance) par unité de surface d'une surface qui émet dans une direction normale par unité d'angle solide par unité de fréquence par un corps noir à une température T, aussi connu comme la luminance énergétique.
h est la constante de Planck ;
c est la vitesse de la lumière dans le vide ;
k est la constante de Boltzmann ;
ν est la fréquence de la radiation électromagnétique ; et
T est la température absolue du corps.

Loi du déplacement de Wien

La loi du rayonnement de Wien caractérise la dépendance du rayonnement du corps noir à la longueur d'onde. Il s'agit d'une formule empirique proposée par Wilhelm Wien, qui rend compte de la loi du déplacement de Wien.

La loi du déplacement de Wien montre comment le spectre du rayonnement du corps noir à une température quelconque est lié au spectre à toute autre température. Si la forme du spectre à une température donnée est connue, il est possible de calculer la forme à toute autre température. L'intensité spectrale peut être exprimée en fonction de la longueur d'onde ou de la fréquence.

Une conséquence de la loi du déplacement de Wien est que la longueur d'onde à laquelle l'intensité par unité de rayonnement produit par un corps noir est à un maximum,
 est une fonction uniquement de la température
.
où b est la constante de déplacement de Wien. Elle est égale à  K m.

La loi de Planck a également été indiquée ci-dessus en fonction de la fréquence. Le maximum d'intensité est donné par
.

Loi de Stefan-Boltzmann

La loi de Stefan-Boltzmann indique que la puissance émise par unité de surface de la surface d'un corps noir est directement proportionnelle à la quatrième puissance de sa température absolue ;
. Attention, ici on parle de puissance par m². Il serait donc plus approprié d'utiliser le 'W' (Watt sur m²).

où  est la puissance totale rayonnée par unité de surface, T est la température absolue et σ  5,67 × 10-8 W m-2 K-4 est la constante de Stefan-Boltzmann. Cela découle de l'intégration  sur la fréquence et l'angle solide :
.
Le facteur  apparaît puisque nous considérons la radiation avec une direction normale à la surface. L'angle solide intégré s'étend sur  en azimut , et sur plus de la moitié de l'angle polaire :
.
où  est indépendant des angles et passe à travers l'angle solide intégré. En insérant la formule pour , on obtient
.
 est sans unité. L'intégral sur  à une valeur de , ce qui donne
.

Effet Doppler

L'effet Doppler relativiste cause un décalage de la fréquence de la lumière f provenant d'une source en mouvement par rapport à un observateur, on observe alors une onde de fréquence f'''.
.
où v est la vélocité de la source avec un observateur au repos, θ est l'angle entre le vecteur de vélocité et la direction de l'observateur-source mesuré dans le cadre de référence de la source, et c est la vitesse de la lumière. Cette équation peut être simplifiée pour les cas spéciaux où l'objet se déplace parallèlement à l'observateur (θ = π ou θ = 0), et pour les cas où la vitesse est très inférieure à c (v << c).

Par l'équation de Planck, le spectre de température d'un corps noir est proportionnel à la fréquence de la lumière et on peut substituer la température (T) pour la fréquence dans cette équation.

Dans le cas d'une source en mouvement qui se dirige parallèlement à l'observateur, on peut réduire l'équation à
.
Où v > 0 indique que la source s'éloigne, et v < 0 indique que la source s'approche.

Ceci est un effet important en astronomie, où les vitesses des étoiles et des galaxies peuvent atteindre d'importantes fractions de c. Un exemple se trouve dans le rayonnement du fond diffus cosmologique, qui présente une anisotropie dipolaire du mouvement de la Terre par rapport à ce champ de rayonnement du corps noir.

 Applications en astronomie

En astronomie, plusieurs corps émettent des spectres se rapprochant de ceux émis par les corps noirs. D'abord, des objets tels les étoiles sont fréquemment vus comme étant des corps noirs, bien que ce soit une mauvaise approximation. Ensuite, le fond diffus cosmologique illustre un spectre du corps noir presque parfait. Enfin, le rayonnement de Hawking, rayonnement hypothétique émis par les trous noirs, a une température qui dépend de la masse, la charge, et le spin du trou.

 Relation de la température entre une planète et son étoile

La loi de rayonnement du corps noir peut être utilisée pour estimer la température d'une planète en orbite autour du Soleil.

La température de la planète dépend de plusieurs facteurs:
 Les rayons incidents de l'étoile,
 La radiation émise par la planète,
 L'effet albédo, qui fait en sorte qu'une partie de la lumière est réfléchie par la planète.
 L'effet de serre (pour les planètes avec une atmosphère),
 L'énergie générée intérieurement par une planète due à plusieurs phénomènes tels la décroissance radioactive, le réchauffement par effet de marée et la contraction adiabatique par refroidissement.

L'analyse ci-bas considère le cas d'une planète dans du Système solaire.

La loi de Stefan-Boltzmann donne la puissance totale (énergie/seconde) émise par le Soleil :

.
où
 est la constante de Stefan–Boltzmann,
 est la température réelle du Soleil, et
 est le rayon du Soleil.

Le Soleil émet cette puissance dans toutes les directions. Ainsi, cette énergie se disperse selon la surface d'une sphère et seule une petite partie de la radiation est captée par la planète. La puissance du Soleil qui frappe la planète (au sommet de l'atmosphère) est donc :

.
où
 le rayon de la planète et
 la distance entre le Soleil et la planète.

En raison de sa haute température, le Soleil émet dans une large mesure dans l'ultraviolet et le visible (UV-Vis). Dans cette gamme de fréquences, la planète reflète une fraction  de cette énergie, ce qui correspond à l'albédo de la planète dans la gamme UV-Vis. En d'autres termes, la planète absorbe une fraction  de la lumière du Soleil, et reflète le reste. La puissance absorbée par la planète et son atmosphère est alors :

.

Même si la planète absorbe seulement une zone circulaire  de l'énergie émise par le Soleil, elle émet dans toutes les directions comme une sphère. Si la planète était un corps noir parfait, elle émettrait en fonction de la loi de Stefan-Boltzmann.

.

où  est la température de la planète. Cette température, calculée pour le cas de la planète agissant comme un corps noir en définissant , est connue comme la température effective. La température réelle de la planète sera probablement différente, en fonction de sa surface et les propriétés atmosphériques. Sans tenir compte de l'atmosphère et l'effet de serre, la planète, étant donné qu'elle est à une température beaucoup plus basse que celle du Soleil, émet principalement dans la partie infrarouge (IR) du spectre. Dans cette gamme de fréquences, elle émet  du rayonnement qu'un corps noir émettrait, ce qui correspond à l'émissivité moyenne dans la gamme infrarouge. La puissance émise par la planète est alors :

.

Pour un corps en équilibre d'échange radiatif avec son environnement, la vitesse à laquelle il émet de l'énergie rayonnante est égal à la vitesse à laquelle il l'absorbe :

.

En substituant les expressions pour l'énergie solaire et celle de la planète dans les équations 1-6 et en simplifiant le rendement estimé de la température de la planète, en ignorant l'effet de serre, on obtient Tp :

.

En d'autres termes, compte tenu des hypothèses formulées, la température d'une planète dépend seulement de la température de la surface du Soleil, du rayon du Soleil, de la distance entre la planète et le Soleil, de l'albédo et de l'émissivité de la planète.

 Température de la Terre
En substituant les valeurs mesurées pour les rendements du Soleil et de la Terre, on obtient :

.

Avec la moyenne d'émissivité  à l'unité, la température effective de la Terre est :

.

ou −18,8 °C.

Ceci est la température de la Terre si elle rayonnait comme un corps noir parfait dans l'infrarouge, en ignorant l'effet de serre (qui peut élever la température de surface d'un corps supérieur à ce qu'il serait si elle était un corps noir parfait dans toutes les spectres), et en supposant un albédo immuable. La Terre, en fait, rayonne pas tout à fait dans l'infrarouge comme un corps noir parfait, ce qui augmentera la température estimée à quelques degrés au-dessus de la température effective.

Pour estimer la température de la Terre si elle n'avait pas d'atmosphère, on peut prendre l'albédo et l'émissivité de la Lune comme une bonne estimation, qui sont d'environ 0,1054 et 0,95, respectivement, ce qui donne une température estimée d'environ 1,36 °C.

Les estimations de l'albédo moyen de la Terre varient dans la gamme 0,3-0,4, ce qui entraîne des températures efficaces estimées différentes. Les estimations sont souvent basées sur la constante solaire plutôt que la température, la taille et la distance du Soleil. Par exemple, en utilisant 0,4 comme albédo et une puissance de , on obtient une température effective d'environ 245 K. De la même façon, à l'aide d'un albédo de 0,3 et d'une insolation de 1372 W m-2 on obtient une température efficace de 255 K.

 Cosmologie
Le fond diffus cosmologique observé de nos jours est le rayonnement de corps noir le plus parfait jamais observé dans la nature, avec une température d'environ 2,7 K. Il a été émis au moment du découplage entre matière et rayonnement dans l'univers primitif. Avant cette époque, la plus grande partie de la matière dans l'Univers était sous la forme de plasma en équilibre thermique.

Selon Kondepudi et Prigogine, à une température très élevée (au-dessus de 1010 K), où le mouvement thermique sépare les protons des neutrons en dépit de l'interaction forte, des paires électron-positron apparaissent et disparaissent spontanément et sont en équilibre thermique avec un rayonnement électromagnétique. Ces particules forment une partie du spectre de corps noir, en plus du rayonnement électromagnétique.

 Notes et références
 Notes

 Références

 Bibliographie

 , traduit de Frühgeschichte der Quantentheorie (1899–1913)'', Physik Verlag, Mosbach/Baden.

 , traduit par F. Guthrie :

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Bolomètre
 Corps noir
 Loi de Planck
 Loi de Rayleigh-Jeans
 Température de couleur
 Thermographie
 Thermomètre infrarouge

Liens externes
 Courbe de rayonnement sur media4.obspm.fr.

Infrarouge
Transfert thermique