text:
ChinaTalk
Rethinking Industrial Policy with Nintil
www.chinatalk.media
Can government support for research actually slow down progress?
Yesterday on the podcast I published a, dare I say, scintillating interview with José Luis Ricón Fernández, an independent researcher who runs the blog nintil.com and one of my favorite thinkers on the internet. He took issue with last week's ChinaTalk on US industrial policy with Rob Atkinson and the simplified narrative on government getting all the credit for innovation.
We discussed whether the state really invented the iPhone, lessons from the Soviet experience in the space race, why the way we fund science is broken, what mass conversions to Mormonism would mean for the American economy, and how to live forever.
Below, I featured a few excerpts most relevant to China and US industrial policy. Click here for a link to the full podcast. Be sure to read down to where José makes the case that under certain circumstances government R&D money can in fact retard scientific progress.
What Rob Atkinson Missed On How Industrial Policy Works
Jordan: So you take issue with Rob Atkinson, president of ITIF and guest on ChinaTalk a few weeks ago. What does he get wrong about the extent to which industrial policy has contributed historically to the West's technological and economic preeminence?
José: He wrote this white paper that talks about the way you should react to Chinese industrial policy, and as part of that he briefly touches on the history of industrial policy in the U.S., arguing that the U.S. has been doing industrial policy since its origin, people typically point to Hamilton as evidence of this.
From there, you can either say that it contributed somewhat to the U.S.' success, you can say this was key to the success of the U.S., or you can say it was detrimental, it cost more than it got back from those policies. The U.S. has indeed engaged in industrial policy (IP) since the beginning, tariffs ranging from purposes from raising revenue to restricting trade so that the U.S. could protect its infant industries in various sectors, like ship building, or at one point machine tools. There is no disagreement that the U.S. did that, but now the question becomes: was this effective for the long run success of the U.S. in those sectors? And then second, what was the counterfactual?
And here's where we are running into the general problem of industrial policy.
The latest review of the whole literature around IP was by Nathan Lane in 2019. It's called "The New Empirics of Industrial Policy." And if there is a theme around this literature, it's that it's extremely difficult to tease out the extent to which IP works.
And indeed Atkinson himself grants that economics cannot really judge industrial policy because it's kind of holistic in some sense, it can touch the entire economy, it can change the advantages of countries and other things.
I think that economics can be used to assess industrial policy and if it cannot, then in that case, we should probably be more agnostic about it actually. But I'm not implying that just because there are no randomized trials that we should just discard the whole thing. That would be committing the parachute fallacy, that just because there aren't randomized trials whether or not parachutes work we should be agnostic with parachutes. Parachutes of course work.
My beef with IP discourse is that it's very one-sided. You have people saying, maybe more on the free market side, "Oh, it never works. There are the loose papers saying, 'It didn't work in East Asia and it didn't work in the West and it will never work.'" On the other hand, you have, "No. Actually, it's great. It works for developing countries, for developed countries, and in East Asia, in the West and it's the best thing since sliced bread." There are indeed studies that say that it worked and it didn't work, but it's important to consider the whole thing in the aggregate and then see what these studies actually say.
This latest literature review I was pointing to by Nathan Lane, let me just quote from the end of his paper. He says, "Nations have and will continue to shape their industrial destinies. Nevertheless, even with the recent papers reviewed in this study, literature in industrial policy is still thin, dwarfed by the attention these policies receive from policymakers. This review is a proposal to take these interventions more seriously as subjects of inquiry."
I'll be very careful with being overly optimistic about IP. If there is one conclusion from the recent empirics of IP it's that it's pretty much dependent on which industry, which country, in which period of development it is applied. I guess it's kind of like a death by nuance to some extent. I think it's true that it worked for East Asia. And I think that some of it can work for the current U.S., even though those things won't be the same things that worked for [East Asia]. I don't think the U.S. should just go all in on steel or heavy chemical industries. I think that the IP for the future will be very different from what it has looked like so far.
Did the US Government Invent the iPhone?
Jordan: Before we talk about future policies, let's do a little more historical investigation. One of the books that you've taken issue with is Mariana Mazzucato's The Entrepreneurial State, a centerpiece of the literature arguing that the U.S. government and U.S. government research money was integral in creating the world we live in today. What issues do you have with that narrative?
José: There are different ways one could read the book. Suppose that you believe that innovation is just a matter of scrappy entrepreneurs in a garage and that's how you get everything. That is, of course, fake news. And the book is a good corrective to that view in that it shows that, indeed, governments and, in particular, the U.S. government have been funding lots of innovation.
Now that's the tricky thing. When we say that "the government did X or DARPA invented the internet," what do we mean by that? And that's where things get complicated. One example is the iPhone.
Some people say the state invented the iPhone. Now there's this chart that has its title, "What Makes The iPhone So Smart?" and we can see things like lithium-ion batteries, liquid-crystal displays, microprocessors, multi-touch screens, and all those things feeding into the iPhone.
In those boxes, for example for multitask screens, we can see DoD, CIA, NSF. Whereas for, let's say, HTTP or HTML, which is basically the underpinnings of modern websites, it says CERN. So from this chart, we may think that it says DoE or DoD it means that there was some kind of program, that these departments of the U.S. government consciously designed or fostered the development of screens. Hence the state is not just a patron of basic research but in addition consciously guided the development of this technology.
What Mazzucato is saying is not just that the U.S. government has funded research or basic research, which is the kind of externalities or public goods problem that most economists would say the state should intervene in to fund more basic research, but that the state has done more than that. In the multi-touch screen's case, for example, if one digs into the actual story of what happened there its that there was this guy called Wayne Westerman and John Elias at the University of Delaware.
Westerman was a PhD student under Elias and they were studying something else. They were studying neuromorphic systems, whatever those are, and they were indeed being funded by the NSF and the CIA.
Now, this is not unlike the way most basic things are funded. You have agencies and they give money to researchers to fund things. But here they were not funding multi-touch screens. In the history of multi-touch screens, they stress that they were working on something else. And then in getting to their actual goal which they were paid to do, they developed on their own these multi-touch systems to aid them in their research.
But it doesn't end there. If you can keep tracing that innovation back, you get to this guy called Bob Boie at Bell Labs who had actually invented multi-touch screens before them. But you can still keep going and find this guy called Nimish Mehta at the University of Toronto in Canada, who developed a multi-touch system before even the Bell Labs guy. Although in his case, he wasn't able to touch screen.
In general, you can separate the extent to which it was basic research literally funded in a more blue sky ways or without a lot of intention behind it. You can also point to the fact that it happened in various places at once. So one specific program wasn't completely required for actual development.
Another example is that Maria Mazzucato will say, not only did the state somehow consciously bring all of this into existence rather than fund the underlying ecosystem that actually developed all this, but actually the state funded, directly, Apple: that Apple had a God called state venture capital right at its inception.
There is some truth to this, indeed. The naïve story was that the state invested half a million dollars in Apple in 1978 or something like that. Well, if one looks into that, actually it was not the state. It was the Chicago Investment Bank, a corporation, that did that. This bank was the Small Business Investment Company, which means that the loan they gave to Apple was kind of secured by the government, so the government was subsidizing them to do that. But again, it was the bank that decided to give the funding to Apple. It was not a conscious decision from any [government] agency.
Then on top of that, Apple was already pretty well funded anyway. So by the point where they got that money, they already had gathered...
Jordan: It wasn't tipping point money.
José: Yeah, exactly. It was just like one more investor in Apple, it was not what either made or broke Apple. I think that that's the general theme with the book: the real facts are broadly correct but the interpretation you can draw from them seems somewhat tilted towards the point of view the book is making.
So what makes the iPhone the iPhone? It's not necessarily the touch screen or its square shape. There were already phones with multi-touch screens. It was the combination of design and software that basically made the iPhone.
Jordan: And there were plenty of enormous multi-billion dollar companies that could have put all these things together at that time.
José: Yeah and Apple was mocked. Steve Ballmer from Microsoft said that people will never buy a phone without a keyboard because people want to type with actual keys. So I think that the allocation of credit to a state and Apple has to be put in that context in that yes, indeed, there were those basic science investments were there, but the key point with further investments is that they were not purposeful. They were not done with the intention of, "We want to champion this technology and I have an overarching program to make iPhones."
Basic vs. Applied Research
Jordan: To what extent do nations capture the benefits of the research that they fund, as opposed to it going into a global commons that makes all boats rise?
José: In the very long-term, scientific publishing is made available to everyone. The basic research that the U.S. does can be used by a firm in China. China has been investing a lot in applied research because the U.S. is funding a lot of more basic stuff. That makes sense for them, given that they are catching up to the frontier [of science]. But the U.S. cannot afford to say, "You're piggybacking on basic research." It would be difficult to stop that breadth of diffusion.
Now, that process is not equal. It doesn't work equally for all countries. You need the know-how and the background industry to actually leverage that research. You could go online and read as many semiconductor papers as you want, but you're not going to be making 5nm chips in your garage. You need to have fabs to do so. there's an introduction between having the capability to absorb the research (having scientists and engineers and industry that can actually take that research in) and actually having access to the research.
You will end up diffusing [research] but the extent to which it ends up being used will depend on a range of things, including preexisting advantages and some industrial policy as well. For example, if China didn't invest heavily in semiconductors, they wouldn't see a homegrown industry there and they wouldn't be leveraging U.S. research in that field.
But if you don't have a good environment to have businesses working on that, and you don't have engineers and scientists and universities to do the research, it's difficult to get anything off the ground, even if you naïvely read the papers and have the knowledge.
Jordan: What do you think of the argument that government funding in certain fields can, in fact, retard scientific progress. I'm thinking about the Where Is My Flying Car book and the arguments he makes about nanotechnology.
José: That's an interesting argument that rarely gets made. In most economic models, you throw R&D into the bucket, and then out comes more economic growth. Decreasing marginal returns more R&D means increased productivity but at a slower rate. But only a handful of people are thinking about whether it could be the case that funding more research could actually be detrimental.
There are some cases where this might be true. One case would be in the space industry, actually. Historically, the U.S. military has paid a lot of money to U.S. defense contractors to build rockets to carry military payloads into space. Likewise, the U.S. government financed the space shuttle.
When you have the defense sector involved, you usually end up in a situation where the defense sector doesn't tend to care much about costs. They care about performance and getting things done without those things necessarily being cheap, which leads to rockets being stagnant in an era where they work, they are robust, they are safe, but they don't come down in costs.
Then Space X comes in (with some help from NASA under their commercial apprenticeship program).
They say, we're going to make rockets super cheap and we're going to make them land and all that. This is something that doesn't make sense if you are a defense contractor. It's hard to imagine that the U.S. would not want lots of military satellites, but suppose we didn't have that. Then it could be that industry could have geared itself towards more cost efficient rockets that cater to the civilian world.
Another area would be the Manhattan Project and nuclear energy, which may sound surprising. Nuclear energy is clean, very efficient, and a generally great form of energy.
We owe nuclear energy, largely, to its origins in the Manhattan Project. Its objective was to build nuclear weapons. That it was funded in that way means two things: one, it was born "tarnished" by the association with the military; second, it was rushed into production. In a way, we got nuclear energy before quote "we should," which means that we got, in the case of the U.S.S.R., Chernobyl, and in the U.S., Three Mile Island. These are isolated incidents. In general, nuclear energy is very safe. But in the public imagination… people got very scared about those things.
Now you could imagine an alternative world in which there is decreased funding for nuclear energy from the government, or in a more laissez-faire way with various labs working on it independently. At some point, Westinghouse picks up the development of nuclear reactors and it develops more slowly. It could be that we wouldn't have had all these disasters and that people would be more optimistic about nuclear energy, leading to more nuclear energy installed and less coal and fossil fuels being used.
We will never know the extent to which this is true because it's past history and we will never have another case where we would reinvent nuclear energy.
Another case of this might be in fusion energy. There are a bunch of scientists that have written editorials to Nature that have complained that most of the funding for fusion has gone to one project, ITER. If you want to work in fusion as an academic, to some extent you have to work in this one paradigm because that's where the money is.
This has stifled the development of other approaches, which may or may not work. But I think having some diversity of funding is good. If you are just channeling money in one direction and your winner fails, then you're left with nothing. I think it really pays off to find diverse ways to fund, instead of trying to focus funding in one thing.
Jordan: Yeah, it's interesting because that's sort of the Chinese industrial policy model over the past 15 or 20 years. You give everyone a ridiculous amount of money and then you have 20 companies that are overfunded and eventually whittled down from there as opposed to the Soviet model where you just have one champion and if it works or it doesn't, you're stuck with the date you came to the party with.
José: During the space race, the Soviets followed a more decentralized approach in that they had lots of design bureaus, to some extent, competing with each other to build the different kinds of rockets and to propose different kinds of plans to go into space.
To some extent that might have been a success of Soviet space industry. They may have lost the space race for reasons that I think are due to their manufacturing capabilities, which were not as advanced as the U.S. making it difficult for them to manufacture reliable components. But the Soyuz rocket has historically been a relatively reliable and cheap way of sending things into space to an extent that the U.S. has not matched until recently.
It shows that, even in a Soviet context, if you have a diversity of people trying different approaches and then you pick a winner at the end, you're probably better off than if you put all your money into an SLS or a space shuttle.
LCDs, T-shirts, and Semiconductors: The Geopolitical Case for IP
José: So LCD screens appear as NIH, NSF, and DoD in the chart. If I look at LCD screens in the U.S., the Army funded a lot of work in this space and they actually funded a consortium. People might have heard of SEMATECH, a public-private partnership to foster the development of semiconductors in the United States. The U.S. tried to do the exact same thing for an LCD screen. Back then, it was facing a lot of competition from Japan and they tried to both impose tariffs against Japanese LCD screens, as well as try to subsidize U.S. LCD manufacturers.
That didn't work in that case. You could say that either that it failed and it was a waste of resources, or you could say on the other end that actually the U.S. government should have doubled down on LCD screens and funded them even more… which is again circling back to the issue of assessing industrial policy.
Jordan: So let's broaden out a bit. We have a lot of complicated histories of a lot of really important products that may have had their timelines pushed back or forward a little bit by government intervention, but these aren't necessarily the slam dunk cases that the proponents of today's industrial policy really want to use as points when they're arguing for a hundred billion dollar push to support semiconductors, or what have you. Given that context, what do you think are the smart justifications for having a more aggressive industrial policy?
José: The most textbook, tame, empirically supported case for R&D funding is that the private sector will not invest sufficiently in R&D because it's difficult for a given company to capture the downstream effects of that research. Now, this doesn't mean that the private sector doesn't do any research. It just means that it doesn't do enough of it. So that's one case as a justification for that, but one can go beyond this.
We could potentially just make one given country, let's say the U.S., into a semiconductors superpower. The free trade argument for why countries should not do that is something about competitive advantage: different countries have different competitive advantages and that they should specialize in what they are good at. But that doesn't quite work in general. The original case was about wine. David Ricardo was talking about wine production in Portugal and I'm sure probably Canada will never be a wine producing superpower. Sure. But you can change what your country is good at by targeted investments. So it's a completely different case. If you let things be, you can end up in a place where you didn't want to go.
At the same time, you could say that the price to make your country into some kind of superpower is, in a way, pushing against the "trends of history," which seems to be pushing towards Taiwan in this case. If you succeed, then you end up with an advanced manufacturing capability in your country. If you fail you just throw a bunch of money to waste.
Jordan: It's really interesting thinking about Taiwan, José, because I don't think you could sit there in 1980 and say the trends of history are leading Taiwan to have the most important semiconductor company in the world.
José: That's completely correct. My meaning is that, right now if the U.S. doesn't do anything, it's going to be Taiwan [leading the world in semiconductor production]. You could also say that maybe it will go to China because China will actually try harder to do it there.
Countries can indeed shape the future development of their industries, but the arguments around the extent to which this quote "works" (and works is a loaded word here is) is, is this good for the welfare of the population in the country. That is, the U.S., for example, benefits greatly from just buying chips from TSMC in Taiwan.
Now if TSMC were in the U.S., the U.S. could benefit in various ways. It could benefit from lower prices and it could benefit geopolitically, which I think is probably the strongest argument for industrial policy. Suppose there were some kind of confrontation between the U.S. and China, or even without being a confrontation, some kind of geopolitical contest of some kind. China could say, "Well, you are not doing this so we will not give you rare earths," for example. China produces [80% of global rare earth supply], which are used in all sorts of things from electric motors to semiconductors. Then the U.S. would be in trouble.
Moreover, if the U.S. doesn't have manufacturing capability and it needs to build stuff, let's say in the worst case scenario, then it's difficult to build up advanced manufacturing capability if you don't have it. So there is a case to maintain it, even though it's not "in the short term, economically efficient."
Geopolitical dominance is, in my view, the strongest and most clear-cut case for industrial policy. The other ones can also be made but I think this one is the strongest and I think it justifies more than other IP cases.
For example, the protectionist case for industrial policy, or, sort of the mercantilist case, will say, "the U.S. has a trade deficit. The U.S. is importing more than it is exporting, and we should fix that." I think that's not necessarily a problem in and of itself. The deficit estimates that the U.S. is buying more than it sells, and that eventually the U.S. may have to export to pay for that. But the dollar is a reserve currency. Typically, when you import a lot, your currency depreciates, which then makes your exports more attractive, so your deficit fixes itself.
Now the U.S. can keep buying stuff without, quote "paying for them" because the dollar is a reserve currency and there's lots of demand for dollars outside of the U.S. It's not a great argument.
Then we also have the argument that one should focus on industries that are export oriented. Famously, Studwell documented that East Asia industrial policy was all about fostering strong, advanced, export-oriented industries and trying to get those competitive in export markets.
For the U.S. it shouldn't necessarily be exports. It should be, of course, about advanced industry. If you need to set up a new t-shirt factory in the U.S. because you need garments that you cannot get any more from Malaysia because of some blockade, sure, you can do it. But if you need semiconductors and for some reason TSMC isn't available to you anymore, you cannot just stand up a new fab in one year. You need that to be there to begin with.
But there is one more thing in the trade deficit case for IP: natural resources.
If you want to be geopolitically independent or have some power in that regard, you need to have resources available to you to just make thing. You need oil. Maybe not in the far future, but right now, you need oil. You need rare earths. You need steel and iron. So, in that regard, you can start by having a stockpile of these things. For example, when somebody like China is going into Africa to secure resources there, they just could pursue a similar policy to make sure that the raw materials that ultimately go into manufacturing are also available there.
Back in the fifties, when you had the first strong defense of IP by Raúl Prebisch in the context of Latin America. They were thinking about IP not in a country-way, but for the whole of Latin America. That is, Latin America as a whole could do IP in that let's say different countries could do different things and work together well. The U.S. for example, could say maybe you shouldn't care much if production is in Germany. Take ASML, one key company that supplies tooling for semiconductor manufacturing is a Dutch company. Europe, in general, is an ally of the United States, which is also geographically, not that far. It means that the U.S. shouldn't necessarily try to get ASML into the U.S. but they should make sure that ASML doesn't just disappear from Europe and go to China.
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Thread. A masterclass in how to read the news.
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José is right about basic research. Look up Xifeng Wu and public health in China, more precisely how big data is used, other places are falling behind. I am talking about Zhejiang specifically, rural China is a different story. When you get basic research and public health right, the economy is free to grow and there will be innovations.
This might be good for Asia and the region, but the study was done by Xifeng, in Mainland China.
EliWallach
Hey Jordan, I really appreciate the podcast. Great work. I lived in China from 2016-2017 and developed a strong connection to the place. However, I am getting increasingly worried about people-people relations. I came across this article on ChinaLawBlog that raised my eyebrows. I think it would be excellent fodder for discussion due to its relevance to current, prospective, and former China ex-pats. I do not think the topic is very simple so I would love to get your take on the issue.
https://harrisbricken.com/chinalawblog/americans-australians-british-and-canadians-are-being-singled-out-in-china-and-ive-got-proof/
© 2023 Jordan Schneider


Sog, a Goblinesh Gather has been through a lot, it may be a tough year for Grayson's Grey Rangers of Sog. With the Phoenix Moth flying free in the Northern Gathers, many want to capture it and harness its epic power. Word is spreading of a miracle near Sog. The Rangers that have been recruited recently are tasked to head out and clear out some of the forces of Darkness and Flame that the Crimson Crusade have left behind. After the Battle of the Phoenix Moth's Birth there are many forces of Darkness left over, not to mention other things that the Crimson Crusade's Prelacy have left in their retreat back to Camon. Can the Rangers make things safer for their beloved City of Sog?
This is part of the ongoing "living" style campaign we are running at cons and events everywhere, as well as online via the Roll20 Virtual Tabletop System and Google Hangouts. The campaign site for the whole thing: http://www.shaintar.com/. Make your own character, or use one of the many pre-gens on hand. The stories at each table will be unique and exclusive to this show, individual experiences for each and every player that become canon in the official Shaintar setting. 6 players, no experience needed, materials provided. Novice and Seasoned characters Preferred, no Heroic or Legendary characters.


Powerful 'Flame' cyberweapon tied to popular Angry Birds game May 28, 2012: A screenshot from researchers at Kaspersky Labs shows the code behind Flame, called "the most sophisticated cyber weapon yet unleashed."Kaspersky Labs The most sophisticated and powerful cyberweapon uncovered to date was written in the LUA computer language, cyber security experts tell Fox News -- the same one used to make the incredibly popular Angry Birds game. LUA is favored by game programmers because it's easy to use and easy to embed. "The people who developed the malware … found an ingenious way to use a code not part and parcel of a hacker's normal arsenal, and that made it harder to detect," he told Fox News. 'They found an ingenious way to use a code not part of a hacker's normal arsenal But this new weapon is twenty times the size of earlier cyberbombs and far more powerful, making it practically an army on its own, said Roel Schouwenberg, a senior security researcher with Kaspersky Labs. "Flame is a cyberespionage operation," he told FoxNews.com.
Powerbase Online BackTrack Security Training by Offensive Security The Creators of BackTrack have developed training that will take you through all aspects of a penetration test. Whether you are a seasoned penetration tester or just starting off, we have a course that can help you take your skills to the next level. Our online courses are designed to give you flexibility to work at your own pace. Our flagship course, Penetration Testing With Kali (PWB) will open your eyes to the skills needed to perform a penetration test from A to Z. After that you can move on to Cracking the Perimeter (CTP) – which focuses on exploitation using many of the skills you learned in the PWB class. Our courses are designed to work with a combination of our videos, pdf's and a full lab environment. If you want to be a proffesional in the field, the way to go about it is to train in security penetration testing with the best.
Set up your own Pen-testing/Hacking Lab Network using a Single System | www The only thing to look for is your systems hardware configuration. You should have minimum 2 GB RAM but it is highly recommended to use 3 GB RAM for a 32 bit operating system. We will be using Oracle VirtualBox in this tutorial. You can download virtualbox from this link [Reference 1]. Once you have installed Vbox, the next step is to download the Extensions pack. You can get it from this link [Reference 2] Once you have followed these initial steps, you are half done.
Open Data Network | Netzwerk zur Frderung von Open Government, Open Data, Transparenz und Partizipation BASH Programming - Introduction HOW-TO: Variables NextPreviousContents 5. Variables You can use variables as in any programming languages. There are no data types. You have no need to declare a variable, just assigning a value to its reference will create it. 5.1 Sample: Hello World! #! Line 2 creates a variable called STR and assigns the string "Hello World!" 5.2 Sample: A very simple backup script (little bit better) #! This script introduces another thing. Notice that in this script, the output filename will be different every day, due to the format switch to the date command(+%Y%m%d). Some more examples: echo ls echo $(ls) 5.3 Local variables Local variables can be created by using the keyword local. #! This example should be enought to show how to use a local variable.


Fancy a tobogganing party? There are plenty of opportunities here of Toboggan runs in the Brand valley. Experience great downhill runs – whether it's relaxed or fast – a tobogganing party here is a welcome diversion! Whether by day, when the sun makes the snow glisten, or by night when the evening lights of the snowy village shimmer – tobogganing with us is always a special event.
A more romantic alternative is Toboggan safari.
From the parking lot Palüdbahn, through the stunning Schattenlagant area you can reach the Schattenlagan Hut after about 2 hours. You may often find the local Hut owner, Ernst Schedler, waiting at the entrance to his mountain restaurant with a welcoming Schnapps. If you want to steel yourself before the rapid departure, you will find a cosy place to rest at the Hut. Toboggans can also be obtained free of charge directly from the Hut owner.
This toboggan run can be reached easily and directly from the village railway station. After a 5-minute journey on the gondola lift, you will have the opportunity to enjoy a fast-paced downhill ride. Every Tuesday from 7pm to 10pm you can even enjoy the toboggan run at night. Of course, you could also take the panoramic cableway to the Frööd restaurant for a bite to eat.


A brief look into the Indigenous peoples of California and thier food.
California is one of world's greatest places for food and foodies alike. We're the agricultural leader of the United States, providing most of the nations crops such as artichokes and avocados, which are exclusively grown in California. We brought unto the world the fast food giants McDonalds, Carl's Jr, and Taco Bell. We have the most Michelin rated restaurants in the USA, and Southern California is where the current love of food trucks started while Northern California has one of the largest wine countries outside of Europe.
But it didn't happen that way overnight. California has seen the flags of over four nations and millions of people come and leave their legacy in the 31st state. Food is a big part of who we are, but sometimes, many might not understand the importance that history plays on food and vice versa. Food is a result of many things coming together: environment, geography, politics, science, culture, art, and other intersectional topics we tend to overlook or consider.
To start us off, we're looking into the lives of the first inhabitants of California, The indigenous tribes that called this place home.
Popular theory holds that the first natives to arrive in North America, and by extension California came around 30,000 to 13,000 thousand years ago, back when the Bering Strait wasn't a thing like it is now. Groups of people coming from Siberia and Northeast Asia followed their prey across the land bridge into North America.
Many of these peoples broke off and settled in different places all over North and South America. Some of these adventurers eventually wandered into what would later become California.
The Mojave desert to the Southeast.
With that in mind, the climate was perfect for the first Californians who made their way from the icy land bridge to settle down. There was ample food, so ample in fact that mainstream agriculture as we knew it wasn't necessary for them to find food like it was with their contemporaries in the East Coast or the Southwest.
For this article, we're going to take a look at a tribe that's local to our own home in the South Bay, The Ohlone. They lived in an area that would've included most of the City of San Francisco, the Peninsula, the East and South San Francisco Bay all the way down to modern day Monterey and Watsonville.
So, what did the Ohlone people eat?
Knowing most of our readers, and through no fault of their own, you probably have a guess what their main staple crop was.
Corn isn't native to California, or even to the modern US. Corn actually came from Central America from the Pre Olmec peoples, and transmitted to the Southwest and East Coast Native American peoples.
What the Ohlone actually subsisted on was…the mighty acorn.
You see, California has a ton of oak tree varieties, and nearly all of them drop acorns every fall season. Now, most people today wouldn't even think of acorns of being a viable food source for humans, (chipmunks maybe, but definitely not humans) but way back before the Europeans arrived, it was one of the main food sources for many tribes all across California, especially the Ohlone. Harvesting the trees was a community effort, the men would shake the trees while the women and children would pick up the acorns that had fallen to the ground.
After the acorns were gathered, they were ground into a flour and had water poured in and out from the basket they were in to leach them (if you're curious as to how to do it yourself, although we do advise care and caution), as acorns have toxins called tannins that can seriously hurt or kill you unless you remove them first from the nuts themselves; this took hours to do with the traditional method of pouring water in and out until the water was clear. If you were a part of the Ohlone tribe, the flour would then have water poured into it again and possibly heated with hot rocks placed into the water until it boiled, turning it into a porridge.
There were plenty of other non-acorn fruits and vegetables for the tribes to gather too, like wild berries, mushrooms, onions and grapes.
While formal agriculture didn't take place the way we know it, the Ohlone tribes did practice a sort of a controlled burn of the local fields surrounding their villages. This would ensure that there was enough ground open enough to allow more food sources to grow, thus allowing them to continue to maintain their hunter-gatherer lifestyles.
You're probably imagining bands of hunters, either mounted or on foot, hunting their prey with bows and arrows.
Well, I got some news for you.
If you think this actually happened in California, Grab a seat, we need to have a talk.
Bows and Arrows actually didn't make an appearance in North America until 500 AD, so they were fairly recent even when the Europeans arrived. It was much more common for the native tribes to use throwing spears to hunt. Those same spears, as well as nets and other tools, would be more practical for fishing.
Also, native horse species went extinct in North America around 13,000 BC. Indigenous peoples wouldn't see a horse until the arrival of the Europeans.
One might also think of the sweat lodge when thinking of the Native Americans. Before a hunt, the men of some villages would gather in the sweat lodges to prepare for the hunt: repairing tools, offering prayers and rubbing herbs all over their bodies to remove the scent of human that might otherwise alert their prey to their presence.
The Ohlone, like all of their fellow indigenous Californians, lived in relative peace and prosperity. This however, would change in the year 1542, when men from a far away land sailed up the coast and altered the course of the history of California.


text:
Georgia's Lt. Governor Threatens Delta Over NRA Boycott... 'I'll Kill Delta's Tax Benefits'
By Becky Loggia February 27, 2018 at 9:32am
In what is sure to be considered the latest fallout from the deadly Parkland, Florida school shooting, Georgia's Lt. Gov. Casey Cagle has threatened Delta Air Lines over what he suggests is unfair treatment.
The lieutenant governor announced Monday that, unless Delta reinstates its ties with the National Rifle Association, he will halt any tax legislation slated to benefit the major airline company.
I will kill any tax legislation that benefits @Delta unless the company changes its position and fully reinstates its relationship with @NRA. Corporations cannot attack conservatives and expect us not to fight back.
— Casey Cagle (@CaseyCagle) February 26, 2018
"I will kill any tax legislation that benefits @Delta unless the company changes its position and fully reinstates its relationship with @NRA," Cagle tweeted. "Corporations cannot attack conservatives and expect us not to fight back."
According to NBC, Delta is one of many large corporations that have cut ties with the National Rifle Association in the wake of the Valentine's Day shooting at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Florida that left 17 people dead, and claimed shortly after that it would not be offering discounted fares for members of the NRA to attend their annual meetings.
Do you think Cagle's ultimatum was justified?
The move coincided with a bigger call throughout the nation to ban assault-style rifles, such as an AR-15, which was used by 19-year-old Nikolas Cruz in the Florida shooting spree.
In a news release by the company, Delta claimed its decision "merely confirmed its neutral status" when it came to the growing national debate over guns.
As Cagle's comment picks up throughout social media, thousands have added their own praise or disapproval of the lieutenant governor's actions.
https://twitter.com/painefultruths/status/968288832226582529
Perhaps the people of Georgia should vote for and donate to his Democratic opponent Stacey Abrams. Take away the power he wields and he can't threaten the jobs of 30,000 hard working men and women.
— Ruth G (@Ahamilton123) February 27, 2018
You hope to strong-arm a company to act against its convictions? Delta does not stop to service NRA members, but it reserves the right to not give them special treatment.
— andreaserben (@andreaserben) February 27, 2018
The threat to the company from the lieutenant governor came at a time when Delta was near to convincing lawmakers to restore a $50 million sales tax exemption on jet fuel, as it would be the prime beneficiary of the tax cut.
Cagle's threat of tax exemption is reportedly making its way through the legislature, as he claims to use his position as president of the state Senate and runner-up for Georgia governor to effectively "sink" the proposed sales tax exemption on jet fuel.
"I'm tired of conservatives being kicked around on our values," Cagle told Channel 2 on Monday. "And it's time that we stand up and fight and show corporations that conservative values are important."
GOP Senator Stumps Biden's Judicial Nominee with Basic Questions About Constitution: 'How Do You Not Know This?'
However, Finance Committee Chair Chuck Hufstetler stated that he believes the tax cuts will ultimately pass, though he admitted that he was less sure when it came to the jet fuel tax break.
"I think we need to have further discussions on that issue before we move forward," Hufstetler said.
business and money, conservatives, guns, National Rifle Association NRA, Senate
Becky Loggia
ASU grad who loves all things reading and writing.
Becky is an ASU grad who uses her spare time to read, write and play with her dog, Tasha. Her interests include politics, religion, and all things science. Her work has been published with ASU's Normal Noise, Phoenix Sister Cities, and "Dramatica," a university-run publication in Romania.
Bachelor of Arts in English/Creative Writing
Politics, Science/Tech, Faith, History, Gender Equality
Jim Carrey Attacks Kent State Grad Posing With AR in Controversial Portrait
Lindsey Graham Goes All In for Trump: 'Will End North Korea Threat in First Term'
Starbucks CEO to Employees: Everyone 'Considered a Customer'
Chinese 'Re-Education Camps' Force Muslims to Drink Alcohol and Eat Pork -- Report
Kashuv Responds After Parkland Activists Attack Trump, NRA Following Santa Fe Shooting

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Les Schwab Amphitheater/
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344 SW Shevlin, Bend, OR
Les Schwab Amphitheater details
Les Schwab Amphitheater Seating Chart Details
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Over the last week Doug has done an excellent job chronicling Hudl's announced plans to change the pricing & storage plans so many coaches rely upon.
To say the changes weren't well received would be a fair statement.
This morning, Hudl has announced a bit of a compromise. No change to their new pricing structure (which really didn't seem to be a significant issue for most folks); but they are adding to each team's available storage capacity. Have a look….
There is more to their announcement; but those are the most relevant points. Head here to read the full announcement.
As always, please don't hesitate to send thoughts (anonymously) to [email protected] or @FootballScoop.


South Sutter Charter School (SSCS) is a WASC accredited charter school managed by Innovative Education Management(IEM). The school is part of the IEM family of parent choice charter schools that thousands of families have chosen for their children in grades TK through 12 since 1993. IEM-managed charter schools have graduated over 13,000 students. SSCS was approved as an independent study charter by the California Department of Education in 2005. The school serves students in Sutter, Butte, Colusa, Placer, Sacramento, Yolo, and Yuba counties.
Parent's work with a California credentialed teacher to develop individualized learning opportunities by choosing home-based or community-based instruction, select individualized curriculum based on learning style and functioning grade level, providing materials, resources and supportive instruction, promoting real-life context-based learning. Our Educational Specialists are highly trained, No Child Left Behind certified credentialed professionals available to you as needed in home-based and independent study learning environments.


text:
The London Fashion Week opens to the public
The famous Jungle dress worn by JLo inspires the new Chain Reaction Concepts x Versace
Virgil Abloh is accused of having copied the name Off-White
Reebok unveils new supplement 'Nailed It'
Melissa launches a capsule collection with Opening Ceremony
Chanel Appoints its first Head of Diversity and Inclusion
#GucciPrêtÀPorter is Gucci's new FW19 advertising campaign
Fendi launches new Men's Baguette
The most beautiful luxury boutiques in Mykonos
Sotheby's and Stadium Goods to auction 100 of the rarest sneakers in the world
A large collective exhibition celebrates Hello Kitty's 45th birthday
Wes Anderson and Juman Malouf to exhibit in Milan
Night Fever. Designing Club Culture from 1960 to Today
Lenny Kravitz has designed a Leica in ecological python leather
Rankin's latest project aims at changing the notion of 'selfie'
Capri, the island of mermaids
Banksy's surprise appearance in Piazza San Marco, Venice
Virgil Abloh designs unique Pioneer CDJs and Mixer
Sotheby's will host the largest ever Supreme auction
Gucci's favourite photographer on display at Maxxi in Rome
Nameless Music Festival changes location
Sónar Festival adds Stormzy to its incredible line-up
The Italian New Wave Fourth Annual Summit returns this weekend
Top 10 must see acts at Sónar Festival
Lucio Battisti's music will soon be streaming on Spotify and Apple Music
With "Up Next Live" Apple brings live music worldwide
The complete program of Ortigia Sound System Festival 2019
10 Sónar Festival Gems you should get to know
The best music summer festivals of 2019
A$AP Rocky could now be facing a 6 years sentence
What went down at the Stranger Things X Coca-Cola pop-up
The Roar of Milan: the launch event of Milan's PUMA third kit
What went down at the Kappa FuturFestival 2019
Women Do Football - Italy vs Netherlands viewing party
The best sneakers spotted at the "THE EVENT" in Ferrara
adidas used the same template for all the goalkeepers' jerseys
Juventus has left FIFA and announced a partnership with PES 2020
The UC Sampdoria 2019/2020 Home kit
The Arsenal 2019/2020 Away jersey
Inter Milan launched its new claim, 'Not for Everyone'
The Manchester City 2019/2020 Third Kit
Inter Milan unveils new 2019/2020 font
7 players without contract with a beautiful Instagram profile
The Venezia FC 2019/2020 Home shirt
What's wrong with FaceApp
Will the next Agent 007 be a black woman?
5 things to do for the Milan weekend
Gucci unveils the new section of its app dedicated to arcade video games
Fashion Film Festival Milano returns in November with its sixth edition
Inflatable Island's giant unicorns
A new Supreme's legit fake popped out in Germany
Dear Italians, Stop Painting Yourselves Black
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In Fashion 4 months ago
The best beauty looks of MFW
From Prada braids to the colourful eyeliner of Iceberg
nss Milan Fashion Week FW19 Awards
The last Fendi show designed by Karl Lagerfeld
The Roman fashion house said goodbye to the great designer
The eternal love between Carrie Bradshaw and the Fendi Baguette
The actress of Sex and the City starred in the last episode of #BAGUETTEFREINDSFOREVER
Looking for "The Missing Baguette"
#BAGUETTEFRIENDSFOREVER
5 fashion trends directly from the FW19 menswear shows
What we're going to wear next season
Paris Men's Fashion Week FW19 Moodboard
The inspirations directly from the catwalks
Milan Men's Fashion Week FW19 Moodboard
What we need to ask at Milan Fashion Week
Fashion Week begins, with the aim of exploiting the potential of Milan
Author Tommaso Berra
The Men's Fashion Week season opens today in Milan after the not-so-exciting shows seen in New York and London in recent weeks. At a time when the city of Milan is undergoing profound changes and a phase of exponential economic development, Milan's fashion seems to be going in the opposite direction, fossilized in a few certainties that seem to not keep up with the times. One wonders if Fashion Week is not wasting the city's potential, right now Milan has become one of the most important creative and urban centers in Europe. At a time when fashion is more on Instagram than on catwalks, Milan is a fertile ground, a perfect place to experiment, to open up to new projects, fostering inclusiveness and involvement. All this, however, does not seem to happen, and meanwhile Italian fashion loses consensus and buyers, as well as showrooms, are abandoning Italy.
From the cities perspective
After Expo 2015, Milan is experiencing a moment of brightness, as opposed to the situation of instability in the country. The city has approached Europe and moved away from Rome, reversing the negative trend of the '90s and 00s, choosing an open and international identity.
The big brands have recognized the appeal and the creative width of Milan bringing back investments and openings: just think of Apple, Starbucks and the next of Uniqlo. The Municipality has also supported and fostered cultural fervor by promoting private investments of public interest - such as Fondazione Prada, Fondazione Feltrinelli or HangarBicocca - and recognizing the value of places like Macao and other community centers historically repudiated by institutional bodies. Milan has also physically changed its face, with the big projects of Porta Nuova, CityLife and the next redevelopment of the railway stations, but also with the bike and scooter sharing that allows us to rediscover new neighborhoods.
The portrait of Milan in 2019 is that of a growing and successful city, which has brought its creativity back to the center of Europe and the world. The best example of this success is the Design Week, which as an event for professionals has decided to change and involve the whole city for 7 days a year with events open to the public. The success is there for everyone and despite being an easy model to copy, the fashion week decided instead to keep its model distant from this model, closing the doors to those who are not in the system.
Italian fashion is obscured by Pitti, a weak event compared to Men's Fashion Week, but that works. The event in those days interacts with Florence, with a total service to buyers, and key figures in the fashion system but that are unaccustomed to coming to Milan.
From the fashion perspective
It is useless to delude ourselves that fashion is to be done during fashion week. Virgil Abloh as the ultimate spiritual entity of fashion in 2019, built his success on Instagram, focusing on intelligent and original communication, and not on the value of the collections themselves. The Italian fashion week has become more a statement of a moment, a fair, whose grandeur is no longer justified even by the quality of the collections, wasted by the need for speed. Only the ability of illusion remains fashionable, but not enough to mask the inconsistency of the proposals.
In addition, there is a real fact, the shows cost a lot and the brands have started to wonder if it still makes sense to spend millions of euros for 15 minutes of performance, which no longer represent the main and most effective way to sell the collections. The last edition has confirmed that brands have preferred to organize parties and presentations, more engaging and less expensive, compared to set up shows. In the last season, the best proposal of the MFW was the project presented by Moncler, which physically intervened on the city, to restore the Raccordati warehouses also thanks to the patronage of the municipality. The project and the clothes of Pierpaolo Piccioli, Craig Green, Matthew Williams, and Hiroshi Fujiwara were opened to the public during the last day of Fashion Week, as an act of common good will and a chance to present themselves to an unselected audience. An interesting and engaging project, in its exceptional realization.
Reflecting on the role of fashion week, an article published in Vox attributed the decline to the birth of influencers. I think it is wrong and unwise to not admit that it is a normal evolution of the way of communicating, which is entrusted with the task of disseminating the images. This leads to questioning the concept of exclusivity and that of the unveiling, the first exclusive and primary mission of the magazines. Magazines have changed when the way of propagating the images has changed, and consequently the purchase of the garments, which has moved the editorial titles to the background, which no longer dictates the trends. The magazines have gone through different phases of evolution over the past two decades. From blogs, we moved to Facebook, which is based on community interaction to then move on to Instagram, for a quick, immediate and only visual fruition, made of images that travel with a rapidness that the written word can not sustain. Magazines have lost power, now in the hands of micro-influencers. In a discourse of both information and influence, a post by Diet Prada or a Kendall pic, compared to a Vogue editorial, has more power now. There is no more dream or expectation, concepts that belong to the DNA of fashion and that justify the quality of the craftsmanship, exploited by the need for immediacy.
Milan has its historical moment and the attention of big brands, it can raise the level of Italian fashion, which perhaps is presumptuously thought of as being healthy. Milan should take on the example of London, more informal and creative in its proposals. Milan does not seem free from constraints and ready to break away from a rigid court label. Milan fashion believes it is enough in itself, but narcissism and presumption are only pathologies.
pitti design week expo 2015 Milan Women's Fashion Week FW19 Moncler
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"I can't say enough about Jonathan and Griggs Irrigation. Very professional, extremely knowledgeable and does quality work. We initially scheduled to have some additional lines added to our existing system, but took Jonathan's advice and also had all of our sprinkler heads changed out. We could not be happier! Every inch of our yard is now covered and the system is now much more efficient. Our lawn has never looked better. Highly recommend them. You can't go wrong with Griggs Irrigation."
"I rarely write a testimonial; however, Jonathan and Griggs Irrigation are exceptional. Extremely easy to work with, I felt confident in Jonathan's knowledge and was highly impressed by his overall professionalism. Also, I feel it is important to share that our job was completed for less than he quoted!! I will not hesitate to call Griggs Irrigation in the future, and highly recommend them to anyone with irrigation needs."
"Everything's up and running." These words are music to our ears after suffering with sections of our system that would not run. Jonathan diagnosed and repaired the problem promptly and efficiently. He kept us informed of his time and cost, there were no surprises. He is friendly and polite and has a strong work ethic. Even though he had to dig up part of our yard, he did so with as little damage as possible, leaving us nothing else to do but turn on the sprinklers. We'd recommend this company to our friends for sure."
"Prompt response, professional service, courteous and above all extremely knowledgeable. I will continue to use Griggs on all irrigation issues. Thanks Jonathan."
"Very impressed with exceptional service. Replaced broken heads within an hour and offered some good advice. Very reasonable. Recommend Griggs Irrigation for your sprinkler systems. Thank you Jonathan."
"I am very impressed with Griggs Irrigation. Jonathan impressed me with the way he conducted business before he ever did my sprinkler work. He responded to phone calls, showed up on time to give me a quote, then called back a couple of days later to follow up. After we agreed as to a cope of work, Jonathan was at my house first thing in the morning and worked until 6 at night. He did an outstanding job and didn't try to sell me more than I needed. Griggs Irrigation will be the only company I call the next time I need sprinkler repair."
"It was a blessing in disguise when Jonathan just appeared out of nowhere out front looking at our lawn and our sprinkler problem. He drove up, got out of his truck and asked if we had a sprinkler system and did we need any work done on it. We sure did! Within no time, he found a broken pipe and a needed adjustment to our water pressure. He ordered a few parts and promptly returned a few days later to replace some broken heads. It's funny how things work out. Jonathan was very courteous, answered all our questions and made some recommendations. Thank you, Jonathan, for coming to our rescue. I highly recommend Griggs Irrigation!"
"Jonathan is prompt, polite, personable and knowledgeable. He answered all our questions about the equipment and its operation. He made adjustments to his initial design to meet our needs and desires resulting in our complete satisfaction. Jonathan did not rush with any aspect of the job and ensured everything functioned properly. On a 1 to 5 rating scale, we give him an emphatic 5."
"I have used Griggs Irrigation several times for issues related to my sprinkler system. Jonathan has always gotten back to me very quickly to set up an appointment. He is very knowledgeable and offers reasonable prices. I would highly recommend this company."
"Before calling Griggs Irrigation I had used several companies to try and fix all of the problems with my irrigation system. No one could figure out the problem and none of their tried fixes worked. My expensive landscaping kept dying. Jonathan came out and diagnosed the problem and made all of the repairs in one day. My system now works and all my plants are growing and flowering. Extremely professional is how I would describe Griggs Irrigation. I will be a customer for life!!!"


Mardi Gras Day in 2019 is March 5. Mardi Gras Day (also known as Fat Tuesday) is the last day of the (New Orleans) Carnival season and the day before Ash Wednesday. Mardi Gras Day falls on a different day each year, however, it is always 46 days before Easter.
2019 Mardi Gras Party @ EaT Cajun Kitchen & Oyster Bar | Food Specials, Hurricanes, Live Music & More!
March 5 @ EaT:An Oyster Bar – Join EaT Cajun Kitchen & Oyster Bar for our 10th Annual Mardi Gras PARTY!! A Celebration of Cajun Creole Culture With Food Specials, Hurricanes and live music!
February 22 @ Revolution Hall – Pedro the Lion has always been David Bazan, but it took a long time to get back there. In August 2016, during what he now recognizes as his lowest point, Bazan was touring the country alone in an aging minivan and found himself in his hometown of Phoenix, AZ.
February 17 @ Spare Room – Once a year, players from all ShanRock's Triviology venues gather together on neutral territory to do battle! Everyone is invited to join the Olympian Open; the winning team will become the wild card seed which then goes up against the Titans in the Invitational!
February 26 @ Newmark Theater – All Classical Portland (89.9 FM) is proud to present the 2nd annual Lovefest Concert, featuring performances by Portland's top musical talent introduced on-stage by All Classical Portland radio hosts.
Brooklyn Bust Up Comedy Showcase @ Bar 33 Brooklyn | FREE, Featuring Portland's Funniest Finalist Becky Braunstein, Amanda Lynn Deal, James Barela & More!
February 20 @ Bar 33 Brooklyn – To celebrate the shortest, coldest month of the year we have the biggest and hottest line up we've ever had!


text:
using NodaTime.Annotations;
using NodaTime.Utility;
using System;

namespace NodaTime.TimeZones
{
    // Note: documentation that refers to the LocalDateTime type within this class must use the fully-qualified
    // reference to avoid being resolved to the LocalDateTime property instead.

    /// <summary>
    /// The result of mapping a <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" /> within a time zone, i.e. finding out
    /// at what "global" time the "local" time occurred.
    /// </summary>
    /// <remarks>
    /// <para>
    /// This class is used as the return type of <see cref="DateTimeZone.MapLocal" />. It allows for
    /// finely-grained handling of the three possible results:
    /// </para>
    /// <list type="bullet">
    ///   <item>
    ///     <term>Unambiguous mapping</term>
    ///     <description>
    ///       The local time occurs exactly once in the target time zone.
    ///     </description>
    ///   </item>
    ///   <item>
    ///     <term>Ambiguous mapping</term>
    ///     <description>
    ///       The local time occurs twice in the target time zone, due to the offset from UTC
    ///       changing. This usually occurs for an autumnal daylight saving transition, where the clocks
    ///       are put back by an hour. If the clocks change from 2am to 1am for example, then 1:30am occurs
    ///       twice - once before the transition and once afterwards.
    ///     </description>
    ///   </item>
    ///   <item>
    ///     <term>Impossible mapping</term>
    ///     <description>
    ///       The local time does not occur at all in the target time zone, due to the offset from UTC
    ///       changing. This usually occurs for a vernal (spring-time) daylight saving transition, where the clocks
    ///       are put forward by an hour. If the clocks change from 1am to 2am for example, then 1:30am is
    ///       skipped entirely.
    ///     </description>
    ///   </item>
    /// </list>
    /// </remarks>
    /// <threadsafety>This type is an immutable reference type. See the thread safety section of the user guide for more information.</threadsafety>
    [Immutable]
    public sealed class ZoneLocalMapping
    {
        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the <see cref="DateTimeZone" /> in which this mapping was performed.
        /// </summary>
        /// <value>The time zone in which this mapping was performed.</value>
        public DateTimeZone Zone { get; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" /> which was mapped within the time zone.
        /// </summary>
        /// <value>The local date and time which was mapped within the time zone.</value>
        public LocalDateTime LocalDateTime { get; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the earlier <see cref="ZoneInterval" /> within this mapping.
        /// </summary>
        /// <remarks>
        /// For unambiguous mappings, this is the same as <see cref="LateInterval" />; for ambiguous mappings,
        /// this is the interval during which the mapped local time first occurs; for impossible
        /// mappings, this is the interval before which the mapped local time occurs.
        /// </remarks>
        /// <value>The earlier zone interval within this mapping.</value>
        public ZoneInterval EarlyInterval { get; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the later <see cref="ZoneInterval" /> within this mapping.
        /// </summary>
        /// <remarks>
        /// For unambiguous
        /// mappings, this is the same as <see cref="EarlyInterval" />; for ambiguous mappings,
        /// this is the interval during which the mapped local time last occurs; for impossible
        /// mappings, this is the interval after which the mapped local time occurs.
        /// </remarks>
        /// <value>The later zone interval within this mapping.</value>
        public ZoneInterval LateInterval { get; }

        /// <summary>
        /// Gets the number of results within this mapping: the number of distinct
        /// <see cref="ZonedDateTime" /> values which map to the original <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" />.
        /// </summary>
        /// <value>The number of results within this mapping: the number of distinct values which map to the
        /// original local date and time.</value>
        public int Count { get; }

        internal ZoneLocalMapping([Trusted] DateTimeZone zone, LocalDateTime localDateTime,
            [Trusted] ZoneInterval earlyInterval, [Trusted] ZoneInterval lateInterval, int count)
        {
            Preconditions.DebugCheckNotNull(zone, nameof(zone));
            Preconditions.DebugCheckNotNull(earlyInterval, nameof(earlyInterval));
            Preconditions.DebugCheckNotNull(lateInterval, nameof(lateInterval));
            Preconditions.DebugCheckArgumentRange(nameof(count), count, 0, 2);
            this.Zone = zone;
            this.EarlyInterval = earlyInterval;
            this.LateInterval = lateInterval;
            this.LocalDateTime = localDateTime;
            this.Count = count;
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Returns the single <see cref="ZonedDateTime"/> which maps to the original
        /// <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" /> in the mapped <see cref="DateTimeZone" />.
        /// </summary>
        /// <exception cref="SkippedTimeException">The local date/time was skipped in the time zone.</exception>
        /// <exception cref="AmbiguousTimeException">The local date/time was ambiguous in the time zone.</exception>
        /// <returns>The unambiguous result of mapping the local date/time in the time zone.</returns>
#pragma warning disable CA1720 // Identifier contains type name
        public ZonedDateTime Single()
#pragma warning restore CA1720
        {
            switch (Count)
            {
                case 0: throw new SkippedTimeException(LocalDateTime, Zone);
                case 1: return BuildZonedDateTime(EarlyInterval);
                case 2:
                    throw new AmbiguousTimeException(
                        BuildZonedDateTime(EarlyInterval),
                        BuildZonedDateTime(LateInterval));
                default: throw new InvalidOperationException("Can't happen");
            }
        }

        // TODO: Reimplement as switch expressions after fixing https://github.com/nodatime/nodatime/issues/1269

        /// <summary>
        /// Returns a <see cref="ZonedDateTime"/> which maps to the original <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" />
        /// in the mapped <see cref="DateTimeZone" />: either the single result if the mapping is unambiguous,
        /// or the earlier result if the local date/time occurs twice in the time zone due to a time zone
        /// offset change such as an autumnal daylight saving transition.
        /// </summary>
        /// <exception cref="SkippedTimeException">The local date/time was skipped in the time zone.</exception>
        /// <returns>The unambiguous result of mapping a local date/time in a time zone.</returns>
        public ZonedDateTime First()
        {
            switch (Count)
            {
                case 0: throw new SkippedTimeException(LocalDateTime, Zone);
                case 1:
                case 2: return BuildZonedDateTime(EarlyInterval);
                default: throw new InvalidOperationException("Can't happen");
            }
        }

        /// <summary>
        /// Returns a <see cref="ZonedDateTime"/> which maps to the original <see cref="NodaTime.LocalDateTime" />
        /// in the mapped <see cref="DateTimeZone" />: either the single result if the mapping is unambiguous,
        /// or the later result if the local date/time occurs twice in the time zone due to a time zone
        /// offset change such as an autumnal daylight saving transition.
        /// </summary>
        /// <exception cref="SkippedTimeException">The local date/time was skipped in the time zone.</exception>
        /// <returns>The unambiguous result of mapping a local date/time in a time zone.</returns>
        public ZonedDateTime Last()
        {
            switch (Count)
            {
                case 0: throw new SkippedTimeException(LocalDateTime, Zone);
                case 1: return BuildZonedDateTime(EarlyInterval);
                case 2: return BuildZonedDateTime(LateInterval);
                default: throw new InvalidOperationException("Can't happen");
            }
        }

        private ZonedDateTime BuildZonedDateTime(ZoneInterval interval) =>
            new ZonedDateTime(LocalDateTime.WithOffset(interval.WallOffset), Zone);
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub