text:
\section{Introduction}
Long duration gamma-ray bursts ~\citep[GRBs; duration $\gtrsim  2$s;][]{Kouveliotou1993ApJ} are thought to originate from the collapse of rapidly rotating massive stars (25-30 $M_{\odot}$)~\citep{Woosley2006ApJ} and this is supported by their observed association with supernovae (SNe) of type I b/c~\citep{Galama1998Nature, Stanek2003ApJ, Hjorth2003Nature}. With luminosities of $10^{51-52}$ erg/s over cosmological distances from $z = 0.0085$ ~\citep{Galama1998Nature} to $z > 8.0$~\citep{Tanvir2009Nature,Salvaterra2009Nature,Cucchiara2011ApJ}, and emission over most of the electromagnetic spectrum, GRBs are excellent probes of the environment of their host galaxies and any intervening absorbers ~\citep{Savaglio2003ApJ,Chen2005ApJ,Fynbo2006AA,Savagio2006NJPh,Prochaska2007ApJ,Piramonte2008AA,Fynbo2009ApJS,Savaglio2012MNRAS,Zafar2012ApJ,Japelj2015AA}.

Since the launch of the {\it Swift} satellite mission in 2004 ~\citep{Gehrels2004ApJ} high quality X-ray spectra (0.3 - 10 keV) of GRB afterglows are now routinely obtained with the X-Ray Telescope ~\citep[XRT;][]{Burrows2004SPIE}. The rapid arc-second localisation of GRB afterglows with the XRT, which has a detection rate of $>$ 95$\%$~\citep{Evans2009MNRAS}, has enabled quick photometric and spectroscopic follow up from ground-based observatories. These follow-up observations have provided the redshift of the burst and have resulted in high signal-to-noise (S/N) observations of the absorption features originating from the circumburst medium, host galaxy interstellar medium (ISM) and intervening absorbers in UV/optical/NIR afterglow spectra. The column densities of neutral gas inferred from Lyman-$\alpha$ absorption in GRB afterglow spectra indicate that a high percentage of GRB hosts are damped Lyman-$\alpha$ systems (DLAs; $N_{HI} > 2 \times 10^{20.0}$) or sub-DLAs ($10^{19.0} < N_{HI} < 2 \times 10^{20.0}$) ~\citep{Wolfe2005ARAA,Prochaska2007ApJ,Fynbo2008ApJ,Savaglio2012AN,Sparre2014ApJ,Cucchiara2015ApJ}. Absorption features due to singly ionised species such as \ion{Zn}{ii}, \ion{Fe}{ii}, \ion{S}{ii,} and \ion{Si}{ii} from the ISM are regularly seen in the GRB UV/optical afterglow spectra. On the basis of temporarily varying lines of singly ionised species due to photo-excitation by UV afterglow photons, the absorbing gas can be located at a distance of a few 100 pc from the GRB progenitor ~\citep[e.g.][]{Vreeswijk2007AA,DElia2011MNRAS, Vreeswijk2013AA, Hartoog2013MNRAS, Kruehler2013AA}. Absorption from highly ionised species within the host galaxy, such as \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi} and \ion{Si}{iv}, are more challenging to detect because they lie within the Lyman-$\alpha$ forest, and they have weaker line strengths. However, their detection has been reported in a dozen GRB afterglows at $z>2$ ~\citep{Prochaska2008ApJ, Fox2008AA}. The highly ionised species are located either within the circumburst medium of the GRB, $<$ 20 pc from the progenitor, or within the ISM at distances of  $>$ 400 pc from the GRB progenitor, and can extend into the halo of the GRB host ~\citep{Fox2008AA}.

The soft X-ray spectra of 60$\%$ of GRBs show absorption in excess of Milky Way absorption ~\citep{Evans2009MNRAS, Campana2010MNRAS, Campana2012MNRAS, Starling2013MNRAS}. However, the nature and location of the soft X-ray absorbing material is not clear, since the narrow line absorption/emission features in soft X-ray spectra are not resolved with the {\it Swift}/XRT. Although ASCA ~\citep{Tanaka1994PASJ}, BeppoSAX ~\citep{Boella1997AAS}, Chandra ~\citep{Weisskopf2000SPIE} and XMM-Newton ~\citep{Jansen2001AA} X-ray observatories are capable of resolving narrow line features, this possibility is impeded by typically long delays before the GRB observations begin by which time the X-ray afterglow has dimmed significantly. Previously claimed X-ray absorption and emission features in pre-Swift GRB afterglow spectra ~\citep{Piro1999ApJ,Yoshida1999AAS,Antonelli2000ApJ,Piro2000Science,Yoshida2001ApJ,Reeves2003AA,Butler2003ApJ,Watson2003ApJ} have been largely put in doubt ~\citep{Sako2005ApJ}.

The interstellar gas absorbs X-rays largely independent of temperature as long as this gas is not fully ionised. Therefore the cold neutral, warm ionised and hot ionised phases of the ISM are equally opaque to soft X-rays. The equivalent hydrogen column density ($N_{HX}$) inferred from absorption in soft X-ray spectra is greater than the host neutral hydrogen column density $(N_{HI})$ in a high percentage of GRBs~\citep{Watson2007ApJ,Campana2010MNRAS} with the difference at times exceeding a factor of ten. The $N_{HX}$ for GRBs with known redshift is measured by fitting the broad soft X-ray absorption with a neutral absorber, and then converting the best-fit metal column density to an equivalent neutral hydrogen column density assuming solar abundances. GRBs preferentially occur in subsolar metallicity environments ~\citep{LeFloch2003AA, Modjaz2008AJ, Savaglio2009ApJ, GrahamFruchter2013ApJ} and if this is considered, $N_{HX}$ would increase further. The soft X-ray absorption traces the total metal content along the GRB line of sight rather than the hydrogen content and thus one should compare neutral metal column densities with the total metal column densities to estimate the excess X-ray absorption. ~\citet{Schady2011AA} compared GRB host column densities of singly and highly ionised species with the soft X-ray absorbing metal column densities rather than the neutral hydrogen column densities and concluded that these species were insufficient to account for the excess soft X-ray absorption. Instead they postulated that a significant component of ultra-highly ionised gas that is transparent to UV photons could be responsible for the excess absorption.

Other investigations into this problem have concentrated on sources of absorption that are both intrinsic and external to the GRB host galaxy. ~\citet{Campana2010MNRAS, Campana2012MNRAS} and more recently~\citet{Starling2013MNRAS}, analysed a large sample of {\it Swift} GRBs with known redshift, and found that $N_{HX}$ increased with redshift, implying that the soft X-ray absorption excess has an external origin. ~\citet{Behar2011ApJ} found that the opacity of GRBs beyond $z =$ 2 remains constant, and suggested that a low redshift neutral and diffuse intergalactic medium (IGM) with metallicity of 0.2-0.4$Z_{\odot}$ could be the X-ray primary absorber for GRBs at high redshift ($z \gtrsim 2.0$). Similarly, ~\citet{Starling2013MNRAS} conclude that a warm-hot IGM (WHIM) with temperatures between $10^{5-6}$ K and metalicity $> 0.2 Z_{\odot}$ could explain the excess absorption for GRBs at $z \gtrsim 3$. However, recent results from surveys of intergalactic \ion{O}{vi} absorbers at low redshift with HST show that the median metalicity (of IGM gas) at $T \sim 10^{5.5}$ K is 0.1$Z_{\odot}$ ~\citep{Savage2014ApJS}. On the basis of cosmological simulations ~\citet{Campana2015AA} show that metals in the circumgalactic medium (T $\sim 10^{6-7}$ K; $0.2 - 0.4 Z_{\odot}$) expelled by galactic winds from dense groups of small galaxies at low redshift can account for soft X-ray absorption in GRBs at $z \gtrsim 3$. For GRBs at $z < 2$, the contribution to the soft X-ray absorption from components external to the GRB host galaxy are expected to be $N_{HX} < 10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$. On the other hand, ~\citet{WatsonJakobsson2012ApJ} have previously argued that selection effects may produce the $N_{HX}-z$ correlation, and when low redshift, dust obscured GRBs with high $N_{HX}$ ($> 10^{22}$ cm$^{-2}$) are included in the GRB samples, the significance of this correlation is greatly reduced, thereby suggesting that the IGM plays a lesser role in causing excess soft X-ray absorption.

Absorption by sources internal to the GRB host have been suggested owing to the fact that $N_{HX}$ is larger for bursts with higher $N_{HI}$ ~\citep{Kruehler2011AA, Kruehler2012ApJ, Campana2012MNRAS, Watson2013ApJ}. On the basis of both a positive correlation between $N_{HX}$ and line of sight host dust extinction ($A_{V}$), and also between $N_{HX}$ and $N_{HI}$,~\citet{Watson2013ApJ} attribute the soft X-ray absorption to dense \ion{H}{ii} regions of the GRB host. Since singly ionised helium produces a soft X-ray absorption profile similar to neutral hydrogen without absorbing UV photons, ~\citet{Watson2013ApJ} suggest that \ion{He}{ii} in low metallicity, dense \ion{H}{II} regions ($10^{3-4}$ cm$^{-3}$) within 5 pc of the GRB is the dominant source of the absorption. Higher column densities of \ion{He} would increase the X-ray opacity within the \ion{H}{ii} region by almost an order of magnitude. ~\citet{Krongold2013ApJ} , who studied the time-dependant photoionisation of the circumburst environment by the afterglow, found that a soft X-ray excess $\gtrsim 10$ can be explained if the progenitor is embedded in a dense molecular cloud with a density that is $\sim 10-100$ times higher than the ISM, and is partially ionised out to $5-30$ pc. In their simulations, solar metallicities within the dense absorbing material were required to produce an order of magnitude difference in X-ray and UV absorbing column densities. However, the largest problem that these models face is in explaining how such a highly ionised dense medium could remain in pressure equilibrium with the cold and dense neutral phase ISM.

Given the continual lack of a clear explanation for the soft X-ray absorption excess, in this paper we explore the effect of hot gas within the GRB host ISM may have on our X-ray afterglow observations. Since GRBs are associated with massive stars and SNe, the ISM of such galaxies is likely to be turbulent ~\citep[e.g.][]{OstrikerShetty2011ApJ, Walch2011ApJ, Avillez2012ApJ}, with large volume filling factors of hot and ultra-highly ionised gas, as has been observed in a number of GRB hosts ~\citep{Fox2008AA}. We aim to understand the imprint that such an ISM would have on the GRB afterglow spectra, with a particular focus on how the ultra-highly ionised species traced by, \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi} and \ion{O}{vii} affect the afterglow absorption.

To do this, we consider data cubes obtained from simulations of a multiphase and turbulent ISM driven by SNe with gas that is in collisional ionisation equilibrium (CIE). We pass random lines of sight through the data cubes and keep track of the absorbing column of all C, N, and O ions along each line of sight. The paper is organised as follows: In section 2 we discuss the expected turbulence in the ISM within GRB host galaxies, provide details of the ISM data cubes that we used, and describe our line-of-sight code used to determine the hydrogen and metal column densities. In section 3 we describe how we estimate the X-ray excess absorption from the measured column densities and compare our results to observations. We discuss our results in section 4 and we provide a summary of our results in section 5.

\section{Methodology}
\begin{figure*}
\centering
        \includegraphics[width=17cm]{ISM_1cc.jpg}
        \caption{ISM data cube with density 1 cm$^{-3}$. Left: Particle number density as a function of temperature. Middle: Volume-weighted probability density functions (PDFs) as a function of temperature. Right: Volume-weighted PDF as a function of particle number density.}
        \label{fig1:ISM-1cc}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
        \includegraphics[width=17cm]{ISM_3cc.jpg}
        \caption{As in Fig.~\ref{fig1:ISM-1cc} but for the ISM data cube with density 3 cm$^{-3}$.}
        \label{fig2:ISM-3cc}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
        \includegraphics[width=17cm]{CNO_ion_1cc.jpg}
        \caption{Column densities of C (left), N (middle) and O (right) ions for 100 sightlines passed through our ISM data cube with density 1 cm$^{-3}$ (datacube1). The black points indicate the average ion column densities for our 100 sightlines.}
        \label{fig3:CNO-ion-1cc}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
        \includegraphics[width=17cm]{CNO_ion_3cc.jpg}
        \caption{As in Fig.~\ref{fig3:CNO-ion-1cc} but for the ISM data cube with density 3 cm$^{-3}$.}
        \label{fig4:CNO-ion-3cc}
\end{figure*}

\subsection{Turbulent ISM: A property of low mass star-forming galaxies}
Turbulence within the ISM is driven by massive stellar feedback \citep[e.g.][]{OstrikerShetty2011ApJ, Kim2013ApJ}. GRB hosts have high SFR \citep[e.g.][]{Savaglio2009ApJ}, are associated with SN explosions and are thus likely to have a turbulent ISM.

Host galaxies of GRBs have a typical mass of $\sim$$10^{9} M_{\odot}$ and like most low mass ($< 10^{10} M_{\odot}$) star-forming galaxies (SFGs) are often seen to be irregular and clumpy ~\citep{Fruchter2006Nature}. These consist of star-forming clumps and lack a central bulge ~\citep[e.g.][]{ElmegreenElmegreen2005ApJ, FoersterSchreiber2011ApJ}. The kinematics inferred from H-$\alpha$ line emission suggest that SFGs are rotating disks or are dominated by random motion ~\citep[e.g.][]{FoersterSchreiber2006ApJ, Newman2013ApJ}. The H-$\alpha$ emission-line studies and resolved maps of  such galaxies show their ISM to be turbulent with large outflows ~\citep[e.g.][]{Newman2012ApJ}. \citet{Milvang_Jensen2012ApJ} find that GRB hosts are Lyman$-\alpha$ emitters with equivalent widths larger than bright Lyman break galaxies (LBGs). ~\citet{Fox2008AA} report all seven GRBs in their sample to be absorbed by high velocity (few 100 km/s), highly ionised gas within the host galaxy, and ~\citet{Thoene2007ApJ} report absorption by high velocity, low ionised gas clouds possibly from the halo of the host galaxy, all of which are indicative of star formation driven outflows.

Massive star winds and SN explosions inject energy into the ISM causing it to heat up and expand. These regions of hot gas form SN bubbles extending out to kpc scales ~\citep{Avillez2004AA, Krause2013AA} have a low particle density and exist in dynamic equilibrium with high density and low temperature neutral gas creating a multiphase ISM. We consider simulations of an ISM that employ these properties.

\subsection{Interstellar medium data cubes}
Details of the three-dimensional ISM data cubes that we used are given in ~\citet{Gatto2015MNRAS}. In summary, the size of the box is 256 pc$^{3}$ with a resolution of $2$ pc. The two data cubes we used for this work had an initial hydrogen density of 1 cm$^{-3}$ and 3 cm$^{-3}$, and we label them as datacube1 and datacube3 for the rest of the paper. Simulations with initial temperature of $5000$ K were driven artificially for 25 Myr prior to the onset of the SN explosions. Thereafter, turbulence in these boxes is driven by type II SN explosions, where the SNe are placed at random peaks at all times for datacube1, and at density peaks for $50\%$ of the time and at random positions for the other $50\%$ for datacube3. SN explosions at peak position correspond to SNe that explode within their natal region, while the SN explosions at random positions correspond to SN explosions from runaway stars. In the latter case, the SN explosion is more likely to occur in the ISM phase with largest volume filling factor and thus low density gas. The higher the density of the ambient medium of a SN, the more of the energy injected by the SN that is radiated away, and the lower the energy transfered to the ISM. Thus ISM with peak SN explosions causes a low fraction of hot gas within the ISM, and ~\citet{Gatto2015MNRAS} conclude that these simulations do not produce a realistic ISM. However, they further demonstrate that as the density of the ISM data cube increases to $\ge$ 3 cm$^{-3}$, purely random SN explosions cause the ISM data cubes to be completely filled with hot gas due to a lack of radiative cooling and lack of gas outflows because of the strict periodic boundary conditions employed for the simulations. We thus restrict our analysis to the data cube with density 1 cm$^{-3}$ with SNe placed at random positions, and the data cube with density 3 cm$^{-3}$ with SN explosions distributed equally between peak and random positions.

The SN rates for simulations with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ and 3 cm$^{-3}$ are set at 3 Myr$^{-1}$ and 14 Myr$^{-1}$, respectively. The SN rate is chosen to be proportional to the star formation rate (SFR), where the latter is assumed to follow the Kennicutt-Schmidt relation ~\citep{Kennicutt1998ApJ}. Using a Chabrier initial mass function (IMF) ~\citep{Chabrier2003PASP} and star formation efficiency of $1\%$ this corresponds to one SN per $10^{2}$ $M_{\odot}$ of stellar mass formed with a predefined thermal energy of $10^{51}$ erg. The simulations with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ and 3 cm$^{-3}$ were run for 130 Myr and 198 Myr, respectively. We use two simulations with different gas densities to see if a relation between the ISM type and  X-ray absorbing gas exists. The densities of carbon, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen are given as inputs. Solar abundance ratios are assumed for both the simulations. Although GRBs are typically found to reside within subsolar metallicity galaxies ~\citep{LeFloch2003AA,Modjaz2008AJ,Savaglio2009ApJ,GrahamFruchter2013ApJ}, for metallicities in the range $1.0 Z_{\odot} > Z > 10^{-3}Z_{\odot}$, the dynamics of the simulated ISM are a weak function of metallicity ~\citep{Walch2011ApJ}. While super-solar GRB hosts have been reported ~\citep{Levesque2010ApJ, Savaglio2012MNRAS, Kruehler2012AA, GrahamFruchter2013ApJ, Elliott2013AA}, no GRB hosts with $Z < 10^{-3}Z_{\odot}$ have been observed. The lowest metallicity thus far known for a GRB host galaxy is $Z \sim 0.01 Z_{\odot}$ (GRB050730; Starling et al. 2005, GRB090926A; Rau et al. 2010. D'Elia et al. 2010), and the average host metallicity is $\sim 0.5 Z_{\odot}$ ~\citep{Prochaska2007ApJ, Savaglio2012AN}. We therefore expect the filling factor of warm and hot gas in our data cube to be a fair representation of the multiphase ISM within GRB host galaxies.

The formation and cooling of ions (\ion{H}{I}, \ion{H}{II} and \ion{C}{II}) and molecules ($H_{2}$, CO) are calculated as the simulations using algorithms from ~\citet{Glover2010MNRAS} and ~\citet{GloverClark2012MNRAS}, and the cooling rate for highly ionised oxygen, for example \ion{O}{vi}, is incorporated in accordance with CIE ~\citep{GnatFerland2012ApJS}. Thus, our treatment of the gas under the conditions of CIE is consistent with the simulations. The gas within the injection radius is heated to $10^{6} - 10^{7}$ K when the SN explodes, and the speed of the blast expanding within the SN bubble corresponds to the speed of sound within the local region. The superbubbles then expand adiabatically and cool correspondingly. They are, however reheated time after time with subsequent explosions.

The simulations do not take the ionisation of dense regions by UV emission from massive stars into account, and only trace the collisionally ionised gas, which is only relevant above $10^{4}$ K. Thus all gas below $10^{4}$ K is approximated to be neutral. Under conditions of CIE, \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi}, and \ion{O}{vii} form at T $> 10^{5}$ K and peak at T $\sim 10^{5.5}$ K ~\citep{SutherlandDopita1993ApJS}. Large column densities of highly ionised gas can therefore only be produced in our simulations if the fraction of volume covered by these hot-diffuse regions is high. In Fig.~\ref{fig1:ISM-1cc} and Fig.~\ref{fig2:ISM-3cc} we plot the particle number density against temperature in the left panel, and the volume-weighted probability density functions (PDFs) for temperature and density, in the middle and right panels, respectively, for datacube1 and datacube3. The general widths of the temperature and density distributions is similar to that of previous studies ~\citep[e.g.][]{Avillez2004AA} .The middle and right panels of Fig.~\ref{fig1:ISM-1cc} and Fig.~\ref{fig2:ISM-3cc} show that the hot-diffuse regions within the ISM data cubes do indeed cover a high volume fraction. Fig.~\ref{fig2:ISM-3cc} also shows the presence of a higher volume fraction of hot and low density gas in datacube3 compared to datacube1, and a higher volume fraction of cooler gas which leads to the formation of higher densities of molecular hydrogen.

\subsection{Line of sight sampling}
Rays of random orientation are passed through 100 random positions within the ISM data cubes with typical path lengths $\sim$ 350 pc. We ensure that our sightlines sample large length scales (few 100 pc). In tracking the cells within the data cube that are crossed by our ray, only those cells where the ray crosses $> 1/10$ of the resolution of the cell (i.e. 0.2 pc) are considered, and we verify that no cell is selected twice. The temperature of the gas and number density of hydrogen is extracted for each selected cell, and the C, N, and O number density within each cell is calculated assuming solar abundances from ~\citet{Asplund2009ARAA}. To calculate the ion fractions for C, N, and O, we use the CIE tables from ~\citet{SutherlandDopita1993ApJS}, which are appropriate for solar metallicities and are consistent with the assumptions that went into the data cube simulations. The distance traversed by the ray within each cell is calculated by keeping track of the entry and exit point for the cell, and the total distance traversed by the ray is then the sum of the distances traversed through all selected cells. The column densities of H, C, N, and O ions along the line of sight is the summation of their respective column densities in each cell. It is important to calculate the distance travelled within each cell to measure the column densities accurately as neither the density within the data cube nor the distances travelled within each cell are uniform.

Amongst C, N, and O, the ionisation potentials for \ion{O}{i} and \ion{H}{i} are most similar (13.598 eV and 13.618 eV), and thus we consider \ion{O}{i} as a tracer of neutral gas and oxygen ion species from \ion{O}{i} to \ion{O}{viii} as tracers of the X-ray absorbing gas, which we refer to as $N_{OX}$. The absorption excess along each sightline is estimated as the ratio of the X-ray absorbing oxygen column density, $N_{OX}$, to neutral oxygen column density, $N_{OI}$.

\section{Results}
\begin{figure}
\centering
        \resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics{NOX_NOI_frac_cumulative.jpg}}
        \caption{Green and brown lines show the the cumulative distribution of $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$ for 100 sightlines crossed through our ISM data cubes with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ and 3 cm$^{-3}$, respectively, and the blue dashed line shows the observed cumulative distribution of $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$ for a sample of 16 GRBs.}
      \label{fig5:O-hist-O-ion}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\centering
        \resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics{NOtot_NOI_frac.jpg}}
        \caption{$N_{OX}$ (solid points) and $N_{OI}$ (open points) as a function of absorption excess for 100 sightlines crossed through our ISM data cubes with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ (purple points) and 3 cm$^{-3}$ (blue points).}
        \label{fig6:NOX-NOI-frac}
\end{figure}

\begin{table*}
\caption{Column densities of highly ionised gas \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi} measured in GRB afterglow spectra ~\citep{Fox2008AA, Prochaska2008ApJ} and along the lines of sight through our turbulent ISM data cubes(Avg., Max). Only the measured absorption from low velocity components (few 100 km/s) are given. The column densities for the ions from ~\citet{Fox2008AA} without error bars correspond to saturated lines and are uncertain.}
\label{Table:1}
\centering
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c c c}
\hline\hline
GRB & z & $N_{CIV}$ & $N_{NV}$ & $N_{OVI}$ & $N_{SiIV}$ & Ref.\\
\hline
Avg. (1 cm$^{-3}$)  & ... & 13.40 & 12.82 & 13.68  & 12.65 & this work \\

Max. (1 cm$^{-3}$) & ... & 14.37 & 13.59 & 14.19  & 13.86 & this work \\

Avg. (3 cm$^{-3}$)  & ... & 13.45 & 13.03 & 13.91 & 12.70 & this work \\

Max. (3 cm$^{-3}$) & ... & 14.32 & 14.34 & 14.44 & 13.64 & this work \\

GRB 021004 & 2.32 & ...  & 14.53$\pm $0.06 & 14.95$\pm $0.20  & 15.25$\pm $0.20 & 1\\
          & & ... & 14.64$\pm $0.04 & ... & ... & 2 \\

GRB 050730 & 3.97 & $\sim$ 15.24 & 13.80$\pm$0.14 & $\sim$ 15.94 & 14.16$\pm $0.06 & 1\\
         & & ... & 14.09$\pm$0.08 & ... & ... & 2\\

GRB 050820 & 2.62 & 13.13$\pm $0.06 & 13.17$\pm $0.08  & ... & 14.91$\pm $0.07 & 1 \\
                &  & ... & 13.45$\pm $0.05 & ... & ... & 2 \\

GRB 050922C & 2.2 & 15.69$\pm $0.35 & 13.76$\pm $0.07 & 14.44$\pm $0.05 &14.49$\pm $0.16 & 1\\
                & & ... & $>$ 14.19 & ... & ... & 2 \\
GRB 060206 & 4.05 & ...  & 13.73$\pm $0.15 & ... & ... & 2\\

GRB 060607 & 3.08 & 15.94$\pm $0.32 & ... & ... & 13.54$\pm $0.09 & 1\\
                & & ... & $<$ 12.61 & ... & ... & 2 \\

GRB 071031 & 2.69 & $\sim$ 15.11 & 14.41$\pm $0.15 & $\sim$ 15.14 & 15.93$\pm $0.51 & 1\\

GRB 080310 & 2.42 & $\sim$ 16.66 & 14.03$\pm $0.05 & 15.12$\pm $0.09 & $\sim$ 15.00 & 1\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\tablebib{(1)~\citet{Fox2008AA}; (2) ~\citet{Prochaska2008ApJ}.}
\end{table*}

Figures~\ref{fig3:CNO-ion-1cc} and ~\ref{fig4:CNO-ion-3cc} show the distribution of C, N, and O ion column densities traced along our 100 lines of sight for datacube1 and datacube3, respectively. For both the simulations, the column densities of ultra-highly ionised species \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi} and \ion{O}{vii} are found to be similar to the neutral and singly ionised components within the \ion{H}{ii} regions (gas T $> 10^{4}$ K). However, the column densities of \ion{C}{i}, \ion{N}{i}, and \ion{O}{i} increase further once the neutral ions within denser regions (gas T $< 10^{4}$ K) are considered. The column densities of \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi}, and \ion{O}{vii} are generally seen to be the highest after \ion{C}{i}, \ion{N}{i}, \ion{O}{i} and \ion{C}{ii}, \ion{N}{ii}, and \ion{O}{ii}, respectively. The denser data cube shows a rise in the ionisation profile at ionisation levels higher than \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi}, and \ion{O}{vii} owing to the higher volume fraction of hotter $\ge 10^{7}$ K gas in the ISM.

In Fig.~\ref{fig5:O-hist-O-ion} we plot the cumulative distribution of the soft X-ray absorption excess, $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$, measured along our 100 sightlines for datacube1 (green line) and datacube3 (brown line), and for comparison we also show the cumulative distribution of the excess measured in a sample of 16 GRBs (blue small-dashed line) ~\citep{Schady2011AA, Hartoog2013MNRAS, Sparre2014ApJ, DElia2014AA, Kruehler2013AA, Friis2015MNRAS}. We find that 92$\%$ and 72$\%$ of the sightlines through datacube1 and datacube3, respectively, trace $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} < 4$, and $8 \%$ and $21 \%$ of the sightlines trace $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 10$. The observed $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$ distribution is made up of the sample of GRBs with a detected X-ray afterglow and a well-measured \ion{Zn}{ii} column density from UV/optical spectra, which are typically undepleted elements. Assuming solar relative abundances~\citep{Asplund2009ARAA}, we converted the X-ray absorbing column density to an equivalent Zn column density following the method of ~\citet{Schady2011AA}, and we assume that $\frac{N_{ZnX}}{N_{ZnII}}$ $\sim$ $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$. We do not consider GRBs with reported column densities from other singly ionised metals, such as \ion{Si}{ii}, \ion{S}{ii} or \ion{Fe}{ii}, due to the uncertainty in the dust depletion ~\citep[e.g.][]{Savaglio2003ApJ, DeCia2013AA}. In Fig.~\ref{fig5:O-hist-O-ion}, it can be seen that 25$\%$ of the GRBs in our sample have a soft X-ray absorption excess $>10.0$ and 20$\%$ have an absorption excess $<4.0$.

All GRBs within our sample have a soft X-ray absorption excess $>2.0$ and thus warrant an additional absorbing component in addition to the neutral ISM. For the 25$\%$ of the GRBs with high excess $>10.0$, the turbulent ISM with density 3 cm$^{-3}$ could provide a natural explanation but the neutral and total oxygen column densities for such sightlines is 2-3 orders magnitude lower than those observed in GRB afterglow spectra ~\citep{Schady2011AA}. A high percentage of sightlines through our data cube show excess $< 2.0$, 86$\%$ and 63$\%$ for datacube1 and datacube3, respectively; these require an additional component to a turbulent ISM to produce the higher X-ray absorption excess. We find that the fraction of sightlines with significant absorption excess ($\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 2.0$) increases with density and the supernova rate, thus a turbulent ISM with higher density than 3 cm$^{-3}$ is a better representative of GRB host ISM.

In Fig.~\ref{fig6:NOX-NOI-frac} we show $N_{OX}$ and $N_{OI}$ against $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$ for the 100 sightlines crossed through the tested ISM data cubes. We see that for both the data cubes $N_{OX}$ remains fairly constant at $10^{15.5}$ cm$^{-2}$ for $2 \leq \frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} \leq 10$, whereas $N_{OI}$ gradually decreases from $10^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$ at $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} = 2$, to $10^{15}$ cm$^{-2}$ at $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} = 7$ and shows a steep decline for $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} \geq 8$. For datacube3 a high percentage $\sim 20\%$ show an absorption excess of $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} \geq 10$, with $10^{15}$ cm$^{-2} \leq N_{OX} \leq 10^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$ and $N_{OI} < 10^{15}$ cm$^{-2}$. This suggests that sightlines with $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 2$ cross a relatively smaller volume of neutral gas rather than a higher volume of ionised gas. The contribution from cold gas to both $N_{OX}$ and $N_{OI}$ dominates the measured $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$ ratio, such that any significant X-ray excess resulting from a sightlines through a hot, diffuse cloud is rapidly diluted away by the contribution from a cold, dense cloud. This is also reflected by the increase of 2-3 orders of magnitude in both $N_{OX}$ and $N_{OI}$ for sightlines with $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} < 2$.

In Table~\ref{Table:1} we compare \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi}, and \ion{Si}{iv} column densities within our data cubes with those measured within a small sample of GRB host galaxies by~\citet{Prochaska2008ApJ} and~\citet{Fox2008AA}. To accomplish this, we track the Si ions in addition to the C, N, and O ions already traced. Si ions with two or more missing electrons are predominantly collisionally ionised, and thus in these cases our derived column densities are reliable. The ionisation potential of \ion{Si}{i} is lower than \ion{H}{i}, and thus we cannot accurately track the \ion{Si}{i} and \ion{Si}{ii} ion fractions and column densities within the data cubes. ~\citet{Fox2008AA} reported both high velocity (few 1000 km/s) and low velocity (few 100 km/s) absorption components, and in Table~\ref{Table:1} we report only the column densities of the low velocity absorption components, which are more likely to originate from the GRB host ISM. The velocity of the gas within the cells of our data cube is typically 10 - 100 km/s and is always below 500 km/s. We find that the measured column densities of \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi,} and \ion{Si}{iv} are typically an order of magnitude larger than those traced along our 100 sightlines. For a typical GRB line of sight that crosses through a path length of 350 pc, the density of the GRB host ISM required to explain the column densities of \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi,} and \ion{Si}{iv} ions should be an order of magnitude higher than the density of the ISM data cubes. Or else, the column densities can be produced by GRB host ISM with a density that is a factor of 2-3 higher than the ISM data cube and a path length of $\sim$ kpc. The later is the likely scenario given the small size of the GRB hosts ($\sim$ 5 kpc) ~\citep{Fruchter2006Nature}.

We report the $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{OVI}}$, $\frac{N_{NV}}{N_{OVI}}$, and $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ ion fractions from the data cubes, and GRB afterglow spectra for the low velocity absorption components in Table~\ref{Table:2}. We also report the median of the ion ratios along with the average ratios for our 100 sightlines. The average and median ion ratios of $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{OVI}}$ and $\frac{N_{NV}}{N_{OVI}}$ measured along sightlines through both the ISM data cubes are comparable to the observed ratios reported in ~\citet{Fox2008AA}. However, the average ion ratio of $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ is inconsistent with those observed in GRB afterglow spectra. Nevertheless, the median ratio of $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ for our sightlines through datacube1 and datacube3 are in agreement with $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ ion fraction observed in GRB afterglow spectra.

\section{Discussion}
The turbulent ISM with density 3 cm$^{-3}$ have properties that match the observed properties such as \ion{C}{iv}, \ion{N}{v}, \ion{O}{vi}, and \ion{Si}{iv} column densities, and $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{OVI}}$, $\frac{N_{NV}}{N_{OVI}}$, and $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ ion fractions. Sightlines passed through the ISM data cube with density 3 cm$^{-3}$ can produce the large soft X-ray absorption excess ($\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 10$) seen in GRB afterglow spectra. However, the total oxygen column densities for such sightlines is typically 10$^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$ and 2-3 orders of magnitude lower in comparison to those observed in GRB afterglow. While an ISM with higher density and larger length scale would increase $N_{OX}$ it is unlikely that these will produce the column densities observed in GRB spectra. Also, a large fraction of sightlines do not show significant absorption excess and this is in stark contrast to the observations. In the following section we explore additional consequences such an absorbing medium has on the observations profiles that either enhance or challenge the proposed scenarios and discuss alternative sources of X-ray absorption that could be responsible for the excess X-ray absorption.

\begin{table*}
\caption{Column density ratios for low velocity component of the highly ionised gas observed in the optical spectra of four GRBs taken from ~\citet{Fox2008AA}, and the average ratios for the 100 sightlines crossed through our data cubes. The values in bracket for $N_{CIV}/N_{OVI}$, $N_{NV}/N_{OVI}$, and $N_{CIV}/N_{SiIV}$ are the median ion ratios of our sightlines through the data cubes.}
\label{Table:2}
\centering
\begin{tabular}{c c c c c}
\hline\hline
GRB & z & $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{OVI}}$ & $\frac{N_{NV}}{N_{OVI}}$  & $\frac{N_{CIV}}{N_{SiIV}}$ \\ \\
\hline
GRB 050730 & 3.97  & 0.40 $\pm $ 0.25 & $<$0.09 & 3.7 $\pm $ 0.9 \\
GRB 050922C & 2.2 & ... & 0.21 $\pm $ 0.04 & ...\\
GRB 071031 & 2.69  & 1.6 $\pm$ 0.4 & $<$ 0.11  & 3.2 $\pm $ 0.9 \\
GRB 080310 & 2.42  & 0.55 $\pm $ 0.11 & $<$ 0.05 & 25 $\pm $ 4 \\
ISM (1 cm$^{-3}$) & -- & 0.63 (0.38) & 0.15 (0.125) & 60 (7.72)\\
ISM (3 cm$^{-3}$) & -- & 0.55 (0.25) & 0.16 (0.09) &1650 (7.75)\\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}

\subsection{Could molecular hydrogen account for some of the excess?}
\begin{figure}
\centering
        \resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics{NH2_NHI_1cc_3cc.jpg}}
        \caption{Molecular hydrogen fraction ($f(H_{2})$) against $N_{HI}$ along the lines of sight for data cubes with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ (blue solid triangles) and 3 cm$^{-3}$ (red solid circles). Column density of $H_{2}$, detected in GRB afterglow spectra for five GRBs (GRB 060206; ~\citep{Fynbo2006AA}, GRB 080607; ~\citet{Prochaska2009ApJ}, GRB 120327A; ~\citet{DElia2014AA}, GRB 120815A; ~\citet{Kruehler2013AA}, GRB 121014A; ~\citet{Friis2015MNRAS}) are indicated in green and six GRBs with upper limits on $f(H_{2})$ are indicated in black ~\citep{Tumlinson2007ApJ, Ledoux2009AA}. Projected $N_{HI}$ for the $f(H_{2})$ for data cubes with densities 1 cm$^{-3}$ (blue open triangles) and 3 cm$^{-3}$ (red open circles).}
        \label{fig8:MolH}
\end{figure}

Since GRB host galaxies are star-forming galaxies, and given the positive relation between molecular hydrogen and star formation ~\citep[i.e. Kennicutt-Schmidt law;][]{Kennicutt1998ApJ, Bigiel2008AJ}, we would expect there to be an abundance of molecular gas within GRB host galaxies. We therefore consider whether molecular hydrogen could cause a notable amount of additional X-ray absorption.

Our ISM data cubes include molecular gas and thus allow us to estimate the molecular hydrogen fraction, $f(H_{2}) = 2N_{H_{2}}/\left[2N_{H_{2}} + N_{HI}\right]$, along the traced line of sights. In Fig.~\ref{fig8:MolH} we show $f(H_{2})$ against $N_{HI}$ for the 100 sightlines crossed through our ISM data cubes indicated by blue solid triangles and red solid circles for datacube1 and datacube3, respectively, for five GRBs\footnote{The detection of $H_{2}$ along the line of sight to GRB 060206 is tenuous ~\citep{Prochaska2009ApJ}.} (green squares) with detected $H_{2}$ absorption in their afterglow spectra and six GRBs (black points) with upper limits on column densities of $H_{2}$ within the host ISM. As expected, for both ISM data cubes, we find that the sightlines with larger neutral metal column densities encounter a higher $H_{2}$ fraction. The observed \ion{H}{I} column densities are larger than those measured along our sightlines through both data cubes. As noted earlier, this is due to the larger length scales probed by the GRB afterglow and/or higher density of the GRB host ISM. We scale the path of the typical path length of our sightlines to increase \ion{H}{I} column densities for the sightlines within our data cubes to form an overlap between the detections from the GRB afterglow spectra and those are indicated with blue open triangles and red open circles for datacube1 and datacube3, respectively. For each data cube, the projected \ion{H}{I} column densities are obtained by multiplying by a scale factor, which is given by the ratio of average $N_{HI}$ for three GRBs with $0.01 < f(H_{2}) < 0.1 $ to the $N_{HI}$ within our sightlines at average $f(H_{2})$ for the three GRBs. The scaled path lengths for datacube1 is $\sim$26 kpc and for datacube3 is $\sim$17 kpc, assuming typical path length of 350 pc for our sightlines.

Molecular hydrogen can absorb soft X-rays and the effective absorption excess can be estimated as $[2.85 N_{H_{2}} + N_{HI}]/N_{HI}$, where the cross-section of $H_{2}$ is 2.85$\sigma_{H}$ ~\citep{Wilms2000ApJ}. In order for $H_{2}$ to produce a soft X-ray absorption excess of $>$ 2.0 , the $H_{2}$ fraction would then need to be $>$ 0.5 . For all GRBs with detected $H_{2}$ absorption, the molecular hydrogen fraction is less than $0.1$, and this corresponds to a soft X-ray absorption excess of less than 1.2 . Furthermore, for a sample of six GRBs with good quality optical afterglow spectra, ~\citet{Tumlinson2007ApJ} place an average upper limit of $10^{-6.5}$ on $f(H_{2})$. On the basis of simulations,  ~\citet{Whalen2008ApJ} show that the molecular hydrogen within the GRB vicinity would be destroyed by UV radiation from massive stars prior to the onset of GRB. They  highlight the possibility, however, that absorption from molecular clouds from less active star-forming regions within the GRB host that are unrelated to the GRB progenitor region may be detected occasionally in the GRB afterglow spectra. So far, such examples of intervening molecular clouds have not been the cause for the X-ray absorption excess. For example, GRB 120327A ~\citep{DElia2014AA}, GRB 120815A ~\citep{Kruehler2013AA}, and GRB 121014A ~\citep{Friis2015MNRAS} with firm detections of $f(H_{2})$ and three of the GRBs in ~\citet{Tumlinson2007ApJ} (GRB 050820,GRB 071031, and GRB 080413) that have stringent upper limits on $f(H_{2})$, are part of our sample and they have significant X-ray absorption excess ($N_{OX}/N_{OI} >$ 4.0).

Although, our analysis suggests that a large $H_{2}$ fraction ($f_{H2} >$ 0.5) would result in an observed X-ray excess, the excessive attenuation from gas and dust along such sightlines would typically prevent the GRB afterglows from being detected. Such sightlines could be observed in large GRB hosts with a dense ISM and with early-time sensitive spectra. These shall also lead to detection of high hydrogen fractions ($f(H_{2}) > 0.1$), which have been missed in observations so far ~\citep{Noterdaeme2015AA}.

Interstellar dust is unlikely to be the cause of the X-ray excess. The relation between $A_{V}$ and $N_{HX}$ along GRB lines of sight has been  studied extensively. The seminal works of ~\citet{GalamaWijers2001ApJ} and ~\citet{Stratta2004ApJ} were the first to point out the very high gas-to-dust ratio, $\frac{N_{HX}}{A_{V}}$, in comparison to the Milky Way. Studies with larger samples that include heavily dust-extinguished GRBs verify this claim and have provided evidence of a positive correlation between $N_{HX}$ and $A_{V}$ ~\citep{Schady2007MNRAS, Starling2007ApJ, Schady2010MNRAS, Greiner2011AA, Zafar2011AA, Zafar2012ApJ, Watson2013ApJ, Covino2013MNRAS}. The most heavily dust extinguished GRBs are found in the most massive GRB hosts with high $N_{HX}$ and $N_{HI}$ ~\citep{Kruehler2011AA, Perley2013ApJ}, and although $N_{HX}$ and $A_{V}$ appear to be correlated, the rate of increase in $N_{HX}$ does not trace the increase in $A_{V}$, with $\frac{N_{HX}}{A_{V}}$ decreasing with an increase in $A_{V}$ ~\citep{Kruehler2011AA}. GRB 080607, a roughly solar metallicity GRB, is a good example, having had one of the dustiest sightlines yet detected ~\citep[$A_{V} \sim$ 3.3;][]{Perley2011AJ}, and yet a similar $N_{HX}$ and $N_{HI}$. Furthermore, most of the GRBs in the sample of ~\citet{Schady2011AA} were relatively unextinguished by dust. Thus, dust within the GRB host ISM cannot be the source of the soft X-ray absorption excess.

\subsection{Additional sources of soft X-ray absorption excess in GRBs}
As already stated in section 1, the alternate sources of X-ray absorption, such as as a dense circumburst medium ~\citep{Krongold2013ApJ}, or hot IGM ~\citep{Behar2011ApJ,Starling2013MNRAS} face challenges. ~\citet{Krongold2013ApJ} require the circumburst medium to be dense ($> 100$ cm$^{-3}$), pre-ionised and to extend to a few 10 pc, and how such dense hot regions of gas could exist in pressure equilibrium with the neutral phase ISM is not clear. From the density vs temperature plots for multiphase ISM, left panel in Fig.~\ref{fig1:ISM-1cc} and Fig.~\ref{fig2:ISM-3cc}, we do not find gas clouds with density $>$ 10 cm$^{-3}$ and temperature $> 10^{4}$ K in a multiphase ISM. Similar conditions might however be present in young massive star clusters ~\citep[e.g.][]{Krause2012AA, Palous2013ApJ} and these scenarios need to be pursued further.

Highly ionised gas, unaccounted for in our simulations, could also arise as a result of photoionisation from massive stars and delayed recombination. Photoionisation by hot stars is unsuitable to produce the high ionisation stages of oxygen (\ion{O}{vi} and \ion{O}{vii}),which we are primarily interested in. Soft X-ray emission (0.2 - 2 keV) from SN-remnants, superbubbles, and non-thermal sources ~\citep[e.g.][]{Sasaki2002AA, Haberl2012AA, Krause2014AA} scales with the star formation rate and would total to a luminosity of 10$^{40}$ erg s$^{-1}$ for a typical GRB host, insufficient to produce significant columns of hot gas. Non-equilibrium ionisation (NEI) may change the detailed ionisation structure compared to the collisional ionisation assumption made here ~\citep{Avillez2012ApJ}. NEI can cause ions like \ion{C}{v}, \ion{N}{vi}, and \ion{O}{vi} to be produced between $10^{3.8} \le$ T $\le 10^{5.5}$ K unlike CIE conditions, where these ions can only be produced at T $> 10^{5}$ K. However, the soft X-ray absorption excess is measured as the ratio of total oxygen column density to the neutral oxygen column density and, thus, is insensitive to the detailed ionisation structure. We find neutral oxygen in denser regions for a collisionally ionised ISM, where collisions are frequent and delayed recombination does not have a large impact. Therefore, while the detailed NEI stage abundances would be interesting to have in this context, they would not lead to very different values for NOX and NOI. Therefore, we believe the conclusions of our analysis are robust.

Some source of hot gas, in addition to the turbulent ISM, is required to explain the observed X-ray absorption excess, and in particular, the paucity of GRBs in our sample with low soft X-ray absorption excess, $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} < 2.0$. Absorption by collisionally ionised ISM eases the constraints on absorption by the circumburst medium and the WHIM.

\section{Summary and future work}
We estimate the soft X-ray absorption excess for a sample of 16 GRBs as the fraction of total oxygen column density to neutral oxygen column density, $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}}$, and we find that significant soft X-ray absorption excesses, $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 2.0$, occurs in every case. Furthermore, half of the GRBs in our sample show $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} > 10$. It is important to quantify the soft X-ray absorption for GRBs to estimate and explain the total X-ray absorbing column densities that produce this excess. In our simulations of collisionally ionised ISM, typical of star-forming galaxies such as GRB hosts, we find values of excess compatible with observations only for a small number of sightlines. In these cases, however, $N_{OX}$ is orders of magnitude below the observed values, which are typically of the order of 10$^{18.5}$ cm$^{-2}$. We therefore find that the ISM in GRB host galaxies cannot be the main contributor to the X-ray absorbing column for GRB afterglows. Alternate scenarios, possibly involving absorption from the circumburst medium and the WHIM, will have to be invoked to explain soft X-ray absorption excess along all the sightlines.

To obtain the observed \ion{H}{i} column densities, the path length of the sightlines through datacube1 is required to be $\sim$26 kpc and the path length of the sightlines through datacube3 is required to be $\sim$17 kpc. GRB hosts typically are smaller in size, $<$10 kpc ~\citep{Fruchter2006Nature}, and thus their ISM are required to be denser by a factor of 2 or 3 over 3 cm$^{-3}$ to explain the observed \ion{H}{i} column densities. ISM data cubes with density 10 cm$^{-3}$  have a higher SN rate (77 Myr$^{-1}$) and thus a more turbulent ISM. We observe that increase in density of the ISM data cubes results in higher volume fraction of hot gas and, thus, an ISM with density 10 cm$^{-3}$ could have a lower fraction of sightlines with $\frac{N_{OX}}{N_{OI}} < 2.0$. It seems, however, unlikely, extrapolating from the two simulations we have analysed, that the total oxygen column would increase enough to match observations.

On the basis of the ISM data cubes in our analysis, we predict the presence of ultra-highly ionised gas traced by \ion{C}{V}, \ion{N}{VI,} and, \ion{O}{VII}. In Chandra and XMM-Newton X-ray observations of the Blazar outburst, K-$\alpha$ absorption lines from elements such as \ion{N}{VI} and \ion{O}{VII} produced by the WHIM have been detected, corresponding to column densities of $\sim$$10^{15} - 10^{16}$ cm$^{-2}$, albeit with low statistical significance ~\citep[e.g.][]{Nicastro2005ApJ, Kaastra2006apJ}. The GRB afterglow soft X-ray, $0.3 -10$ keV, integrated flux at beginning of the Swift XRT observations is $\sim$$10^{-10}$ erg/cm$^{2}$/s. This flux typically decays to $\sim$$10^{-12}$ erg/cm$^{2}$/s after about six hours and to $\sim$$10^{-13}$ erg/cm$^{2}$/s about 24 hours after the GRB trigger. The next generation of X-ray observatories such as Astro-H ~\citep{Takahashi2012SPIE} and the Athena X-ray Observatory ~\citep{Nandra2013arXiv} will be able to detect absorption features from ultra-highly ionised gas within the WHIM to high significance even approximately 10 hours after the GRB trigger. Such a detection with GRBs serving as beacons would be possible in $\sim$$100$ ks with Astro-H ~\citep{Tashiro2014arXiv} and in $\sim$$50$ ks with X-ray IFU ~\citep{Nicastro2014cosp} on board Athena ~\citep{Barret2013arXiv}. The regions of hot gas within the GRB host ISM are expected to be denser and localised within sub-kpc scales in comparison to the diffuse WHIM; the absorption signature due to the ultra-highly ionised gas within the ISM and circumburst medium should be easily detected within the exposure times required to detect the WHIM. Thus, apart from probes of the WHIM, GRBs shall serve as unique probes of the hot gas in star-forming galaxies that are ionised by massive stars.

\begin{acknowledgements}
We thank D. Breitschwerdt, D. B. Fox, and H. van Eerten for their suggestions and comments. P.S. and M.T. acknowledge support through the Sofja Kovalevskaja Award to P. Schady from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation of Germany. This work was supported by funding from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft under DFG project number PR 569/10-1 in the context of the Priority Program 1573 "Physics of the Interstellar Medium".

\end{acknowledgements}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
(Grades 6-8)
To book a program, contact the corresponding department. Our programs meet West Virginia and Ohio Content Standards and Objectives.
Program fees vary, please call for detailed pricing information.
IN SCHOOL
The Dirt on Dirt
Soils are essential to life on Earth! Investigate the properties of different soil types by looking at their particles and how much water they can hold. Learn about the important role soil has for plants, animals, and us!
Exploring Ecosystems
Ecosystems include live plants and animals as well as nonliving components such as soil, air and water. Take a close look at some of West Virginia's ecosystems, their food webs and how those ecosystems change over time.
Freshwater Frenzy
Two or more days of hands-on learning that focuses on ecology. Take a trip to the stream to explore the aquatic life and learn what its diversity reveals about the biological health of the water and local watershed. Students participate in observation, collection, and identification of fish and macroinvertebrates, as well as abiotic testing of the stream.
Geology Rocks!
After learning about the basic groups of rocks, investigate fossils that give us clues to the past, and learn about the different types of rocks as you play "Rock Cycle Ruckus" and "Metamorphosis Master," two geology games that will have you rocking and rolling.
Learn about owls' unique adaptations for nocturnal life and dissect an owl pellet to find and identify prey bones that can be taken home with you! Up close study of owl feathers, bones and pictures teach the importance of these animals as top predators.
Sugarbush Spring
Investigate the tools and techniques of maple syrup. Students will explore forest habitat, use techniques of tree identification for Sugar Maple trees, and explore the rich history of maple sugaring. Only available mid-March.
Using stop-motion animation, which is created by physically manipulating real-world objects and photographing them one frame at a time. Students will use Lego bricks, clay and wire to create 3-D animated movies. Available year-round. 4 hours – $400. Maximum of 24 students.
Art Explorers
Art Explorers is a traveling Art History program that enables schools to choose prints and hands-on art projects from 13 different time periods in art history. All materials such as patterns, tools, inks, clay and more are included with each lesson. Available year-round. OI staff can instruct the program or schools may rent the kit(s).
Students will complete the full process of ceramic art creation, use the pottery wheel, engage in trim work and glaze completed work. Program consists of 3 one-hour visits available year-round. $12.75 per student. Maximum of 24 students.
Connecting Art, History & Science through Raku
This program integrates art, science and history through the Japanese pottery form of Raku. Students will learn about Japanese culture, create hand built teacups from clay, observe the Raku firing process and participate in a Japanese Tea Ceremony. Available year-round. Program will be offered in 3 one-hour sessions.
Digital Movie Making
Students will participate in workshops covering different aspects of movie making including screenwriting, storyboarding, acting, makeup & effects and camera use & equipment. Available year-round. 1 1/2 hours – $150.
Maximum of 24 students.
Students will learn digital photography while examining and photographing shapes, sequences and patterns around the Stifel building or your school building. Work will be uploaded to Photoshop for editing. This program is suitable for schools using iPads. Available year-round. 3 hours – $300. Maximum of 24 students.
i-Puppets
Increase your students' exposure to and interest in science, technology, engineering, art and math (STEAM) through an art-infused curriculum. This program combines creative dramatics, craft materials, robotic components and a custom visual-programming tool to build and animate robotic creations. Available year-round. OI staff can instruct the program or schools may purchase the kit(s).
Instant Theater
Learn the art of improvisation and how with a simple suggestion a scene or monologue can be made up on the spot. Available Sept. – Mar.
Kid's Stretch & Flex
Stress flexibility, muscle development and control using chairs & floor.
Appalachian Dance
Try some "down home" dancing. Learn basic clogging steps and a short routine set to Appalachian music.
Glass Museum Tour
Tour focuses on the history, products and importance of the Wheeling glass companies. See more than 3,500 pieces of glass and china that were produced locally and experience the excitement of how glass is made and used through a live glassblowing demonstration. Observing the artists at work enhances each student's Museum experience by broadening understanding of the art: the physics and chemistry of glass, as well as its cultural and historical aspects. (Pre-lesson vocabulary and materials are available.) $4.25 per student for single museum. $6.25 per student for both museums.
Hot Glass Roadshow
Hot Glass Roadshow is a fully operational traveling glassblowing studio complete with propane fired glass furnace. Our glass artist will demonstrate the process of creating art glass from molten form to finished product. Teacher packets including the historical significance of the glass industry, tools and equipment used in glass production and a glassworking vocabulary list are included. Hot Glass Roadshow is available as an assembly program in the fall and spring. $350. Call 304-242-7272 for more information.
Mansion Museum Tour
While relating the story of Earl Oglebay and the Oglebay family (for whom the Mansion was a second home in which they lived seasonally from 1901-1926), the tour teaches students about life in the Ohio Valley from the era of George Washington to the times of the Titanic. Tour includes the historic Oglebay Mansion, the Wheeling History exhibit, Wymer General Store, and Oglebay family exhibits. $4.25 per student for single museum. $6.25 per student for both museums.
Monument Place
Monument Place, also know as the Osiris Temple in Elm Grove, is the most historic house in Wheeling. Built by Moses and Lydia Shepherd in 1798, the home was visited by six US presidents and other early American dignitaries such as Henry Clay. This Power Point presentation illustrates the history of this grand building.
The National Road
This Power Point presentation explores the history of America's first federally funded highway, now Route 40, from its construction by the Shepherd family and its use as a National highway traveled by presidents and people moving westward, as well as its use as a local road today.
The Ohio River
From its history as a major transportation route during the French and Indian War and its role in founding Wheeling to its use as a highway for industry, the Ohio River is one of the most important features in Wheeling history. This Power Point presentation chronicles the history and stories of the river from steamboats to barges.
Roller Coasters, Fairs and Frolics: Wheeling's Amusement Parks
Wheeling boasted several amusement parks, including Wheeling Park, the West Virginia State fairground on Wheeling Island, Mozart Park, and Luna Park, located on an island on the Ohio River that is no longer in existence. All of these featured wooden roller coasters and other rides and amusements. Wheeling Park boasted West Virginia's first water slide while the state fairgrounds featured the state's largest swimming pool! This Power Point presentation features a look at Wheeling's amusement parks taken from the postcard collection of Ellen Dunable.
Streetcars, Trains and Trolleys: Transportation in Wheeling
How did people in Wheeling travel before the automobile? This Power Point presentation looks a public transportation in the city from horse-drawn trolleys to trolleys powered by steam and electricity. Wheeling was one of America's first cities to adopt the electric trolley, and even had its own incline. A history of the B & O Railroad is also featured.
Programs by Grade Level
Tours, Performances
& Just for Fun Programs
Book a Program
304-242-6855 (Science & Nature Programs)
304-242-7700 (Visual Arts, Performing Arts & Dance)
304-242-7272 (History, Glassmaking & Museum Tours)
G.E.M.S. Program Assistance

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Front End Loader For Garden Tractors
Peg Perego John Deere Front Loader With the John Deere Front Loader, outdoor play is more exciting. Keep kids going with our premiere pedal and chain drive tractor.
We offer a complete line of tractor front end loaders for a variety of farm tractors
Mowing: Raise the height of the lawn mower blades in the summer. They will sprout and grow next spring, then dry and be ready to dig later in summer. Tomatoes: Blossom End Rot is a disorder charact.
Wants ads and For Sale ads for antique tractors, parts, implements and farm equipment
In June, massive flooding along Germany's Elbe and Danube rivers caused massive damage across the country. Many families lost everything and it may turn out to be the most expensive natural disaster i.
Jump to text The storm that shut down much of the South slowly rolled into the Northeast late.
Because according to the "Family Radio" network, 6 p.m. Saturday will be when the "rapture" begins and the end of days begins. Well, the Family Radio network's founder, 89-year-old Harold Camping,
Tractor Attachments – Lawn Tractor Attachments, Garden Tractor Attachments – Mower Decks, Snowblowers, Rototillers, and Front End Loaders. Specializing in used John Deere attachments.
A 90 percent chance of snow, mainly after 10 p.m., is in the National Weather Service forecast. And the latest reports say the Triad could see 4 to 8 inches tonight with new accumulation of 1 to 3 inc.
Who says you should choose between form and function? Little Buck Loader is a stylish and durable front end loader that connects seamlessly with your John Deere garden tractor, allowing you to conquer projects like snow removal, brush clearing, and landscaping with fun and ease.
the Wheel Horse garden tractors require a side mount pump orientation via bracket that bolts directly to the engine case
Some 3,700 trucks thunder down the highways near Keene each day. Wisness pulls up to a tattered, abandoned one-room school with faded cedar shakes on the roof outside and old tractor tires, barn swal.
Garden Tractors, Compact Tractors, Riding Lawn Mowers, Attachments, Mower Decks, Snowblowers, Rototillers, and Front End Loaders
New economy front end tractor loader kit works in many popular farm tractors – up to 30 HP; Kits available for the Ford 9N, 2N, 8N and other Ford compact tractors
Let Us Do the Heavy Lifting. John Deere offers a full-line of front end loaders for sub-compact, compact, utility and row crop tractors.
Compatible with 4R Series Tractors and older 4 Series Tractors of similar size; Quik-Park™ loader mounting system for fast, easy attachment and removal
Helpful information and resources on Kubota tractors from SSB Tractor, a leading provider of tractor parts, manuals, implements and toys
Page Contents. Comparison Table of Different Garden Tractors; Who should consider buying a tractor for gardening? What is the difference between a Riding Lawn Mower and a Garden Tractor?
A crash involving a semi truck and loader on southbound U.S. 23 in Ann Arbor left one driver in critical condition and shut down the freeway Tuesday afternoon, authorities said. The driver of the load.
8AM to 5PM Monday thru Friday, Saturday 8AM to noon. Fall and winter hours: November thru end of February. 8AM to 5PM Monday thru Thursday, Friday 8AM to noon. inventory from an existing 30 year runni.
Tractor Uses. A tractor is a large, heavy duty vehicle with a petrol or diesel motor delivering high torque at a low speed. Tractors are especially indispensable in the world of agriculture, as they can tow implement or machine attachments used for ploughing, tilling, harrowing, planting and feeding, as well as spraying fertilizers and pesticides.
Chainsaw Fuel Line For Sale In Ct AutoZone, Inc. (NYSE: AZO) Q4 2018 Earnings Conference Call September 18, 2018, 9:00 a.m. CT Operator Good morning, and welcome to the AutoZone Conference Call. Your lines have been placed on. Lubrita is an independent company that has been manufacturing and blending lubricants in Europe, with a production capacity of as high as 130,000 tons
Lawn Mower Cover Home Depot From the YouTube description: Dustin arrived at the Home Depot in Salt Lake City thinking he was there to help his roommate pick out some lighting for a party. When he was taken to the lumber aisle, w. Lawnmower: Throughout the spring and summer, setting the mower to maximum height is one of the best
These holders also can be used to keep many small metal tools tidy. Metal funnels can hold twine and string. Thread through the narrow end of the funnel for a handy dispenser. Keep dangerous substance.
Garden tractor, upgrades, loaders, and backhoes CAD Plans by P.F. Engineering, and sample pictures and videos of those.
Browse through Kubota's BX1880/BX2380/BX2680 Sub-Compact tractor inventory, filter search by features to find the best fit for you, or even build your own. Then find a dealer close by with your desired product!
Today's economists are asking us to embrace technology and prosper from it, despite the challenges to our labour market. So where are the Government's forward-thinking policies, asks Jim Chalmers. In.
Stepping On Garden Rake Hit In Face Memes
Do Devon Rex Cats Shed


Charging Cables for X-WATCH smart watches.
USB-charging cable for X-WATCH SIONA XW FIT. The premium ladies smart watch by XLYNE Pro.
Good conductivity with its copper core, high protection thanks to the premium cover.
Input/ Output voltage: 5V, enables charging with a maximum of 1000 mA.
Compatible with all common USB 2.0 ports.
USB-charging cable for X-WATCH QIN XW PRIME II. The premium smart watch by XLYNE Pro.
Input/ Output voltage: 5V, enables charging with a maximum of 2000 mA.
USB-charging cable for X-WATCH NARA XW PRO. The premium smart watch by XLYNE Pro.


text:
<?php

declare (strict_types = 1);

namespace LegoW\ZFTools\Command;

use LegoW\ZFTools\Command\CreateController\{
    ControllerClassGenerator,
    ControllerFactoryClassGenerator,
    ModuleConfigGenerator,
    ModuleNotExistsException
};

/**
 * Description of CreateController
 *
 * @author junior
 */
class CreateController extends AbstractCommand
{

    protected $availableOptions = [
        'module' => 'required',
        'name' => 'required'
    ];
    protected $options = [];
    protected $errorInfo = [];

    public function run(): int
    {
        if (!$this->moduleExists($this->options['module'])) {
            throw new ModuleNotExistsException("Module does not exist");
        }
        if ($this->createController($this->options['module'],
                        $this->options['name'])) {
            return 0;
        }
        return 1;
    }

    public function createController(string $moduleName, string $controllerName): bool
    {
        $defaultWD = $this->changeToRoot();
        chdir('../module/' . $moduleName);
        if (!is_dir('src/Controller')) {
            mkdir('src/Controller', 0775, true);
        }
        chdir('src/Controller');
        $this->generateControllerFiles($moduleName, $controllerName);
        $this->addControllerToModuleConfig($controllerName);
        chdir($defaultWD);
        return true;
    }

    protected function generateControllerFiles(string $moduleName,
            string $controllerName): bool
    {
        $contollerGenerator = new ControllerClassGenerator($moduleName,
                $controllerName);
        file_put_contents($controllerName . 'Controller.php',
                $contollerGenerator->generate());
        $factoryGenerator = new ControllerFactoryClassGenerator($moduleName,
                $controllerName);
        file_put_contents($controllerName . 'ControllerFactory.php',
                $factoryGenerator->generate());
        return true;
    }

    protected function addControllerToModuleConfig(string $controllerName)
    {
        chdir('../..');
        if (is_file('config/module.config.php')) {
            $configGenerator = new ModuleConfigGenerator($controllerName);
            file_put_contents('config/module.config.php',
                    $configGenerator->generate());
        }
    }

    /**
     *
     * @param string $moduleName
     * @return bool
     */
    protected function moduleExists(string $moduleName): bool
    {
        $defaultWD = $this->changeToRoot();
        $moduleFile = '../module/' . $moduleName . '/src/Module.php';
        if (is_file($moduleFile)) {
            include_once $moduleFile;
        }
        chdir($defaultWD);
        return class_exists($moduleName . '\\Module');
    }

}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


According to the Washington Post, total outstanding student debt has passed $1 trillion, more than the nation's credit card debt, and average indebtedness for students is rising. While I've often written about whether college is beneficial in modern society (where some of the most successful and wealthiest entrepreneurs are college drop outs), for many there is proven long-term fiscal value of a degree. But not everyone can afford to pay outright for skyrocketing tuition costs.


Essential Reality showed for the first time its P5 Glove at Macworld Expo New York yesterday.
The Mac-compatible glove allows the user to fully control screen images in a 3D world. Using sensors, it accurately measures each finger flex, plus the position of the users hand in 3D space, according to the company.
Using technology more commonly used for high-end motion capture, the P5 Glove will bring gesture-driven control to games and other applications when it ships early next year.
The glove is tracked in 3D space, and gives co-ordinate, pitch, roll and yaw data. While it will require games to be designed specifically for it to take full advantage of the technology, it can also be used as a mouse replacement.
The P5 is likely to sell for under £100 when it ships, making it ideal for gamers, or anybody wishing to interact with applications in 3D.


Published 04/22/2019 03:09:32 pm at 04/22/2019 03:09:32 pm in Orange Gray Shower Curtain.
orange gray shower curtain orange and white shower curtain orange and grey shower curtains charming ideas teal and grey shower orange and grey shower curtain uk.
orange and grey shower curtain uk top,burnt orange and gray shower curtain,orange and grey shower curtain ukc,orange and grey shower curtain ukzn,orange and grey shower curtain uke,orange and grey shower curtain ukfcu,orange and grey shower curtain ukrainian,burnt orange and gray shower curtains,orange and grey shower curtain uk,orange and grey shower curtain ukulele,orange and grey shower curtain ukm.


text:
Derek Pitts takes reigns as Gardner Newman Middle School principal
Published 12:00 am Thursday, August 20, 2015
Contributed report
Derek Pitts is the new principal for Gardner Newman Middle School.
http://lagrangenews.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/37/2015/08/web1_WEB0823DerekPitts2.jpgDerek Pitts is the new principal for Gardner Newman Middle School.
Derek Pitts knows building relationships — creating an environment for positive communications and parental involvement will be key as he ventured into the role of principal at Gardner Newman Middle School this school year.
Pitts grew up in Eufaula, Alabama, where his father finished out his own career in education. Pitts' love of coaching and young people led him to also pursue a career in education.
He graduated from the University of Southern Mississippi with his bachelor's degree in health, physical education and recreation. He went on to earn his masters in administration and supervision from Georgia State University, and his specialist degree in administration and supervision from Troy State University.
He has 21 years' experience in administration, with 15 years as a principal. His principal posts include elementary, middle, high and alternative schools. In addition to his extensive administration background, he has been a science and P.E. teacher, as well as a middle school head football coach, a high school tennis coach and a junior varsity girls' basketball coach.
The summer was a busy one for Pitts. He closed out the end of one year, participated in professional learning, attended orientations and prepped to start his first year at Gardner Newman.
In addition, Pitts was putting things in place, looking at budgets, planning for next year, reviewing and tweaking school improvement plans and really honing in on the strategic focus of the school. He was also preparing his new staff for full implementation of the Positive Behavior Intervention System, or PBIS, at the school level.
Luckily, PBIS is not new to him, as he instilled the intervention system's structure and components at his former school, Maggie Brown Alternative Middle School, in Coweta County.
A family-oriented man, Pitts is also involved as a youth leader in his church, where he and his wife work with the middle school group.
He and his wife have three daughters, one of which is also an educator.
From a press release submitted by Troup County School System.
LaGrange moves forward with marketing effort
By Donny Karr dkarr@civitasmedia.com http://lagrangenews.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/37/2015/08/web1_LDN-Web-logo13.jpg LaGRANGE — City officials are moving forward with a marketing campaign aimed at attracting new... read more
Troup asks legislature to change structure of elections board


This entry was posted in Humor Parodies and Musings, Love Intimacy and Relationships, Science and Nature and tagged Botany, Cacao bean, Cacao tree, Dark chocolate, Ecology, Ecuador, Fermenting, Finca Sarita treehouses, Food, To'ak Chocolate, Witches' broom by Professor Taboo. Bookmark the permalink.
No, but I'd be interested in (at least) tasting that staggeringly expensive coffee made from monkey-pooh coffee beans.
Irish coffee, YES!!! But that's not chocolate, is it?
I do accept gift boxes! Hehe. I never knew this.
If I were richer, I'd go in with you, cause I really want to know just how delicious this chocolate must be!
Bwahahahahaha!!! Oh my. Sorry my less-than To'ak brotha, I am not laughing at you, but with you and with deep heartfelt empathy.
Well, yeah… I AM sorta laughing at just how "potent" cacao is to those goddesses — who indeed rock tha cradle of civilization/life making us mere mortals-n-men just useful for only 1 or 2 good things 😉 — compared to our litany of endearing talents they just SWOON for. Hahahaha.
Great comment Robert! Thank you.


1.Reasonable and economical design:One machine with plasma and flame torch,the cutting metal thickness less than 10mm,plasma torch is the best choice,the thickness more than 10mm ,flame torch is the best choice.
2.High quality stepping motors and drives for portable cutting machine,servo motors and drives for table/gantry type machine.
3.Solenoid valve,power line even plugs are all choosed strictly to guarantee product's quality.
4.CNC system is with high configuration and high performance.Starfire,Fangling and Start can be choosed.FastCAM design software an support AutoCAD etc.
Case shell of mechanical and electrical products processing,advertising signages,process decoration, black smith gardens, automobile, shipbuilding, electrical accessories cutting and processing ,welding industry etc.
Iron plate,stainless steel plate,titanium plate,galvanized sheet, high speed steel,etc.
Remark: All machine models can be customized according to clients' special requirement.
We have a strong professional technical team to provide the best products.
We have experienced managers with the most perfect price system integration schemes for our customers.
Established business partner with many customers from Russia, Ukraine, U.S., Japan, South Korea, Canada, Italy, Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Brazil, Pakistan etc. more than 50 countries.
Meanwhile, we insist the principle of "the best products, the most reasonable price, the maximum benefits for customers", there are prestigious fame in the industry business field.
All response and suggestion from you, we promise to give you a satisfactory reply in 12 hours.
Standard export wooden box, and all the machine parts have been packaging, and whole of the machine with waterproofing membrane. And then have been package use standard wood case (The fumigation-free ), on the case top and bottom have steel tube for support. Let it more strong to avoid damage during the transport and for long distance transportation.
One year warranty for machine, and if machine parts not work because of quality, we can repair and replace parts for free in one year.
Control system CD for software in English and with manual.
24 hours technical support by call, email, skype, whatsapp, wechat and so on.
Exceed warranty period: if the cnc machine parts have any problems, we can offer new machine parts discounted / agent price for you.


The Federal Circuit has weakened the presumption against means-plus-function claim interpretation in its recent en banc decision in Williamson v. Citrix Online, LLC, issued on June 16.
Diverging from a line of precedent dating back to 2002, the majority opinion (written by Judge Richard Linn) held that there is no "strong" presumption that the term "means" is required in the claims to signal that a patent applicant intended interpretation under 35 U.S.C. 112(f) (35 U.S.C. 112 para six, prior to the America Invents Act). That line of Federal Circuit cases established a heightened bar to overcome the presumption against interpreting a functional claim element, which lacked the word "means," as a means-plus-function claim element.
On appeal, the Federal Circuit reviewed de novo and concluded that the district court had erred in its construction of various claim limitations; as a result, the Federal Circuit vacated a non-infringement ruling for various claims of U.S. Patent No. 6,155,840 ('840 Patent) and remanded that issue back to the district court. However, more significantly, the Federal Circuit affirmed the district court's interpretation of the claim limitation "distributed learning control module" as a means-plus-function claim and affirmed the district court's judgment of invalidity of other claims of the '840 Patent.
Voicing concern that the majority opinion is a misstep, Judge Jimmie Reyna (concurring in part and dissenting in part) recommended revisiting judicially created presumptions that now underpin means-plus-function analysis.
In urging the court to recognize invocation of §112, para. 6 as the patentee's choice and merely the court's job to uphold, Newman argued the majority's ruling effectively transforms statutorily dictated analysis into a tool to confound certainty, wherein §112(f) may be invoked in litigation even though the patentee chose otherwise during examination, wrote the specification and claims on a different legal standard and was examined by the USPTO accordingly.
In lowering the barrier to invoking §112(f), the Federal Circuit has altered the expectations of, and requirements on, patentees seeking to claim protection for their innovations using functional language, in particular, software implemented inventions. Indeed, this Federal Circuit opinion now places §112(f) in the same cache of weapons as §101 (the requirement that a claim be directed to statutory subject matter) for defendants attacking software patent claims issued by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).
Thus, the validity of a large number of applications drafted and examined based on the prior standard for applying means-plus-function interpretation may be called into question because the specification may not disclose sufficient structure corresponding to claimed functions.
For more information, contact the Barnes & Thornburg attorney with whom you work or a member of the firm's Intellectual Property Law Department in the following offices: Atlanta (404-846-1693), Chicago (312-357-1313), Columbus (614-628-0096), Delaware (302-300-3434) Elkhart (574-293-0681), Fort Wayne (260-423-9440), Grand Rapids (616-742-3930), Indianapolis (317-236-1313), Los Angeles (310-284-3880), Minneapolis (612-333-2111), South Bend (574-233-1171), Washington, D.C. (202-289-1313).
© 2015 Barnes & Thornburg LLP. All Rights Reserved. This page, and all information on it, is proprietary and the property of Barnes & Thornburg LLP. It may not be reproduced, in any form, without the express written consent of Barnes & Thornburg LLP.


text:
Major Win on Appeal for Client TIN, Inc. in Commercial Dispute
A three-judge panel in the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit unanimously ruled in favor of our client, TIN, Inc., on August 8, 2011, ruling that the breach of contract case brought against our client must be dismissed as a matter of law.
The dispute arose out of two pump and installation projects that TIN, Inc., (d/b/a Temple-Inland) contracted UO Group to complete. At the outset of the work, Temple-Inland explicitly instructed UO Group that any change in the scope of the work had to be approved in writing by Temple-Inland prior to commencement of the work. The projects progressed and exceeded the originally expected time and cost, but no written approvals were secured for any of the changes. Upon completion, UO Group billed Temple-Inland for the entire amount of work performed. Temple-Inland resisted paying the amount, citing the lack of contractually required written approvals. UO Group countered that the Project Manager, Temple-Inland's representative on the project, had verbally approved the changes. Temple-Inland said he had no authority to do that.
UO Group sued Temple-Inland and the case went before a jury. Before the jury was given the case, Temple-Inland filed a motion for judgment as a matter of law. (In the Fifth Circuit opinion, the court explained "matter of law" by citing precedent: "A motion for judgment as a matter of law should be granted if "there is no legally sufficient evidentiary basis for a reasonable jury to find for a party.'") The jury found for the plaintiffs. Temple-Inland filed a post-judgment motion for judgment as a matter of law. The court denied this and ordered Temple-Inland to pay more than a quarter million dollars in damages plus attorneys fees of more than $450,000. Temple-Inland appealed.
In reversing the lower court and finding for Temple-Inland, Circuit Judges Thomas M. Reavley, Emilio M. Garza and Leslie H. Southwick found that UO Group presented no evidence that they had good reason to believe Temple-Inland's Project Manager had the actual or apparent authority to approve changes in work without going through the written approval process that was specified in their contract. "Key to the tests for both actual and apparent authority," the judges wrote, "is the need for some action or omission by the principal, not merely the agent." [The Project Manager]'s own actions toward UO Group cannot establish actual authority - express or implied - because they are not the actions of the principal." Since Temple-Inland had said nothing about it being acceptable to forgo written approvals, UO Group had no business proceeding with changed work without them.
John LaBoon, Jason Kennedy and Lindsey Rodgers represented Temple-Inland on appeal. At oral argument, John LaBoon argued on behalf of Temple-Inland. You can read the court's ruling here.
Jason Kennedy


text:
Silfra Fissure Snorkeling Day Tour
Langjokull Ice Cave - World's Largest Ice Tunnel
Landmannalaugar From Reykjavik
Magical Auroras - Northern Lights Tour
The Ice Cave Beneath the Volcano
Golden Circle Complete - Classic Minibus Tour
Glacier Wonders
Snaefellsnes Kirkjufell Small Group
Crystal Ice Cave
Raufarhólshellir Lava Caving
South Coast, Jokulsarlon Glacier Lagoon & Diamond Beach
6-Day Ring Road Tour Around Iceland
Laugavegur & Fimmvorduhals Multi Day Trek - 6 Day Tour
7-Day Tour Around Iceland from Reykjavik
3 Day Jokulsarlon, Golden Circle and Ice Caving Tour
Laugavegur Trek 4 Day Hiking Tour
2 Day Jokulsarlon, South Coast and Ice Caving Tour
The Ultimate 8 Day Iceland Ring Road Tour
4 Day Golden Circle, South Coast & volcano eruption site
3-Day - Iceland's Highlands and Volcano Adventure
3 Day - Mývatn, Akureyri & North Iceland Tour
9 Days - Around Iceland, Highlands and Volcano Adventure
5 Day South Coast, Northern Lights and Snæfellsnes Peninsula Tour
Laugavegur Trek & Glacier Hike - 7 Day Tour (Huts)
Self Drive Tours
5 Day Self Drive Tour | Golden Circle, South Coast & Jokulsarlon
13 Day Road Trip Around Iceland I Ring Road & Westfjords
3 Day Self Drive Tour | Golden Circle & The South Coast
7 Day Self Drive Tour | South Coast, Snaefellsnes & Golden Circle
8 Day Ring Road Self-Drive Tour
9 Day Self Drive Tour | The Ring Road & Snaefellsnes
10 Day Self Drive Tour | The Ultimate Ring Road
Private Northern Lights Adventure Tour
Private Golden Circle Tour
Private Green Iceland Sustainability Tour
Private Tour to Meradalir Volcano Eruption
Glacier Hiking and Ice Climbing - Fun Private Tour
Vikings of Thule - Golden Circle & Hveravellir - Two Days
Private tour to Jokulsarlon Glacier Lagoon
Custom Northern Lights Safari - Tours for 2 - 10 days
Northern Lights in Iceland - Tour Combinations
Private Iceland South Coast
Borgarfjordur and Langjokull Glacier - Super Jeep
Renewable Energy & Geology - 10 Day Educational Tour
Ice Cave Tours
Golden Circle Tours
Lava Caving Tours
Glacier Lagoon Tours
Snaefellsnes Peninsula Tours
Volcano Tours
Hiking & Trekking Tours
Vík í Mýrdal
Gullfoss Waterfall
Thingvellir National Park
Kirkjufell Mountain
Reynisfjara Black Sand Beach
The Laugavegur trail
Skogafoss Waterfall
About Us Information FAQ Blog Deals Contact Us
Thorsmork Valley
All You Need to Know About Hiking Thor's Valley
Fjords Valleys
Guided Tours in Thorsmork Valley
About Thorsmork
Thorsmork Hiking Map
How to Get to Thorsmork
Guided Tours to Thorsmork
Iceland's Best Multi-Day Treks
Thorsmork is one of the most popular hiking areas in Iceland. It is also possible to do a sightseeing super jeep tour to the area. The rugged and rocky ridges provide great views of the valleys and rivers beneath. Browse our tours below to discover this scenic paradise.
Hiking Tour
Thorsmork Day Hike
Availability May - Oct
Departs From Hvolsvöllur
Ratio 1:14
Meet on Location Yes
Pick Up No
Super Jeep adventure and Thorsmork nature reserve
Laugavegur Trail - 6 Days Hiking Tour in Iceland
Availability Jun - Sept
Duration 6 day
Departs From Reykjavik
Group maximum 16
6- Day Hiking Tour On Iceland's Famous Laugavegur Trail
Group maximum 16 people
Multi-day Trek Laugavegur Trail & Fimmvörðuháls
Best of Iceland - Helicopter Tour
Availability All Year
Minimum age No limit
Group minimum 3 people
Fly Over the Golden Circle, Landmannalaugar Geothermal Area, Thorsmork & Eyjafjallajokull Volcano
Thorsmork Valley is the ultimate haven for hikers and nature lovers. This place looks almost too enchanting to be true! Thorsmork is a lush valley in the deserted wilderness of the Icelandic Highlands. It is a green oasis far from Iceland's paved roads and cultivated lands.
Thorsmork Valley is a protected nature reserve and part of Katla UNESCO Global Geopark. The Geopark covers an area of 9,542 sq. km (5,929 sq. mi) and is a sanctuary to waterfalls, glaciers, black sand beaches, and moss-covered fields.
The name Thórsmörk (Þórsmörk or Thorsmork) translates to "The Valley of Thor" and refers to the god Thor in Norse mythology. Thor is the god of lightning and thunder and associated with strength and fertility.
The valley is one of the greenest and most fertile places in Iceland. The landscapes encompass everything from lush birch forest and moss-covered fields to active volcanos and glacier rivers cutting through black sand deserts.
Thorsmork is the name of the valley and mountain ridge within the Markarfljót, Þröngá, and Krossá rivers. Many people, including locals, use the name to describe the area within three glaciers: Mýrdalsjökull, Eyjafjallajökull, and Tindfjallajökull.
Thorsmork Valley is enclosed by jagged mountains topped with blue glacier caps. The mossy slopes contrast with the black plains carved by glacier rivers. The area is also dense with birch forests, a rare sight on the barren island. In summer, wild arctic flowers bloom in the green fields.
Some of Thorsmork's mountain peaks hide active volcanoes. After the notorious Eyjafjallajökull eruption of 2010, two new craters formed at the valley. They're named Magni and Móði (Modi) after two sons of Thor. These names mean brave and strong.
The contrasts of the fresh volcanic ash and rough blue glacier tongues pressing down into the verdant green valley are just amazing. Surreal geologic formations couple with moss covered slopes to truly enchant the human mind.
The lush Birch forests make this area even more special, as Iceland doesn't have many forests at all. This is why Thorsmork was designated as a Natural Mountain Reserve after the 1918 eruption of the nearby Katla Volcano. Today, this land is part of the vast Katla Geopark.
A wide variety of vegetation prospers in this lush oasis. Countless types of moss, ferns, Birchwood, and a variety of other small shrubs grow here. Friendly and curious Arctic foxes live in the valley, and these lovely creatures sometimes approach humans, much to the delight of hikers.
We recommend buying a hiking map in Húsadalur or Langidalur. You can also download a hiking app on your phone. Keep in mind that network coverage isn't always available. If you're planning on a longer hike, it's a good idea to download an offline map beforehand and use a GPS device.
The valley is located in the southern Icelandic Highlands around 160 km (100 mi) from Reykjavik. The drive to Thorsmork from the capital takes about 2.5 hours. This close distance from the city means you can easily take a day tour from Reykjavik to the valley. Hike the area for a few hours before heading back to the city.
As you can see, there are several well-mapped trails throughout this fantastic location. However, there are also plenty of amazing guided tours to safely take you into the area. If you are uncertain about driving on mountain roads, crossing rivers and navigating wilderness trails alone, it's wiser and safer to join a group.
You can easily find amazing Super Jeep tours to these popular hiking areas as well as bus tours that take you to the short and easy trails. Professional monster truck drivers and skilled hiking guides will lead you to the most beautiful places and popular trails in Thorsmork.
This breathtaking place is one of those natural phenomena that cannot be described in words or images, but must be seen, felt, and experienced in person to be truly appreciated.
Traveling to Thorsmork in Summer
Between mid-June and the end of September, visit Thórsmörk in larger 4X4 Jeeps. You can either join one of the super jeep tours that run in the area or travel with a large rental car.
From Seljalandsfoss Waterfall, leave the Ring Road and take Road 249 to the Highlands. This road leads to an F-road that is only suitable for very large Jeeps. You will have to drive on rough, unpaved roads and cross 15-20 rivers without bridges. If you have a rental car, make sure to check with your rental company to see if you are permitted to drive on F-roads.
Note: There is no insurance coverage for river crossings in Iceland. Also, bare in mind that crossing Krossá can be really dangerous, even for those who've done it many times.
Follow Road F249 for approximately 25 kilometers (15 miles) and park your car in the Krossá Car Park right by the sign for the huts. Even though the Krossá River is very close to the final destination, never attempt to cross the river because it is especially dangerous. Only specialized super jeeps are able to cross it.
Another way to get to Thorsmork Valley in summer is on a specialized Highland bus. The bus departs from Reykjavík daily with a few stops along the South Coast. Catch the bus from late June up until the first week of September.
Traveling to Thorsmork in Winter
The Highlands aren't accessible by rental cars in winter. The roads are covered in deep snow. The best way to get to this part of Iceland is on a guided snowmobile or super jeep tour.
The Volcano Huts campsite is open all year round. It's usually not busy during the winter. Enjoy the cozy atmosphere in a heated hut far from civilization. Enjoy the sight of the Northern Lights above the valley!
Landmannalaugar Hike Tours
Book Landmannalaugar Hiking Tour And Explore Incredible Landscapes
Laugavegur hiking Tours
Hike Laugavegur for Multicolored landscapes
Weather in Thorsmork
Thorsmork has a special microclimate. The valley is protected by high mountains so the winds are weaker and the temperatures are slightly higher than in the surrounding area.
While you can expect slightly milder temperatures than in the rest of the highlands, the weather in Thorsmork can change every minute. Proper equipment and clothes are essential when hiking the valley. You should have sturdy, waterproof hiking boots and multi-layered clothing designed for outdoor activities.
What to Do in Thorsmork
Thorsmork is the base camp for two of Iceland's favorite treks: Laugavegur and Fimmvörduáls. Both trails run into the valley but from opposite directions. The Fimmvörðuháls Hike is 25 km (15.5 mi) long and starts in Skógar on the South Coast of Iceland. The trail leads through the mountain ridge between the Eyjafjallajökull and Myrdalsjökull glaciers and ends in Thorsmork.
The world-famous, 55-kilometer (34-mi) long Laugavegur Trail starts in Landmannalaugar, at the northern end of the Highlands. It runs southwards through the colorful rhyolite mountains and finishes in Thorsmork.
Many hikers connect these two trails. They start the trek in Landmannalaugar, take a break in Thorsmork, and reach the finish line in Skógar. Naturally, it can be completed starting in the opposite direction, too. The landscapes are equally beautiful in both directions.
Thorsmork is also great for day hikes that vary in distance and difficulty.
The Fimmvörduháls Volcano Hike lasts from 5 to 7 hours and takes you to the newly formed volcanic craters Magni and Modi. During this hike, you'll see the valley from above as your guide leads you to the highest point of Fimmvörduháls Pass. The view encompasses everything from glaciers to snow-capped mountains to volcanoes.
The Tindfjöll Circle is a 4-6 hour hike offering some of the most beautiful viewpoints in Thórsmörk. It features a few challenging parts, where you will face rough terrains such as narrow ridges and steep moraines. The Tindfjöll Circle is a popular trail, but the hike is not for the faint of heart. However, it's fun and guarantees a memorable experience for skilled hikers.
Thorsmork is home to some the most beautiful hiking trails in Iceland. It connects two mind-blowing multi-day trekking routes. Combining the famous Laugavegur and Fimmvörðuháls trails results in a four- to six- day hike and an unforgettable adventure.
The world-renowned Laugavegur trail runs 55 kilometers from the Landmannalaugar hot springs valley through the steaming lava fields, colorful mountains, black deserts and thrilling canyons of Thorsmork. From here, hikers can continue south.
The 25-kilometer Fimmvörðuháls hike starts in Thorsmork and passes by some brand new volcanic craters that were formed in the notorious Eyjafjallajökull eruption of 2010. This exciting trail leads hikers between three glaciers and into an incredibly scenic canyon with countless stunning waterfalls along the way. The epic hike ends at the majestic Skógafoss waterfall.
Those connecting these two hiking scenic trails will get a spectacular hike that might be the adventure of their lives!
Where to Stay Near Thorsmork
Thórsmörk has many valleys, but Húsadalur, Langidalur, Básar, and Slyppugil are the most visited. There is a campsite in each of the valleys. The best-equipped facilities are at the Volcano Huts in Húsadalur. It's also a popular overnight location as most hikers finish their longer treks in Húsadalur.
Húsadalur Valley has cottages with private bedrooms and dormitories available as well as glamping (glamorous camping) beds. There is a restaurant that offers a buffet breakfast and hot meals throughout the day, mainly serving up Icelandic home-style cuisine.
The Iceland Touring Association operates a hut in Langidalur Valley. It's a spacious two-story hut that accommodates 75 people. The ground floor has a large heated entrance hall for storing wet equipment. There are two fully-equipped kitchens and a large dining hall where you can sit down to eat comfortably. Altogether, there are two large sleeping halls and three separate quarters with bunk beds. Also, there's a small shop where you can get snacks and drinks.
Langidalur has a large campground. Campers must bring their own stoves. A large shower block and toilet facilities are located outside of the hut. Showers are accessible for a small fee.
Básar Valley has a campground with showers and huts that accommodate 83 people. Gas stoves and kitchenware are available at the huts for free, but there's a fee for using the showers.
A small and quiet campsite in Slyppugil offers toilet facilities and showers for an extra charge. There are no electric outlets or kitchens, but the campsite offers a playground and barbecue facilities.
Most campsites are open from May or June until October. You don't need to book campsites in advance, but you do need to book huts. If you book a hiking tour with us, we'll take care of your accommodation and guarantee your place once you've completed your booking.
Safety in Thorsmork
If you're traveling without a guide, make sure to check the weather forecast and weather warnings before heading to Thórsmörk. Upon arrival, stop at the information point to ask about trail conditions before heading out on your hike. It's a good idea to download the SafeTravel app and make sure that you submit your travel plans before leaving.
For those who are traveling alone or aren't experienced hikers, we recommend joining a guided tour. The guides for these hikes have been trained to lead you safely through the terrain and know how to cope with the sometimes challenging conditions that hikers can face in Iceland.
If you're not traveling on a guided tour, hut wardens are a great source for valuable information. They know Thorsmork like the back of their hand and they're always up to date with all that happens around. Wardens can advice on weather and give you hiking tips, so make sure to approach them!
Thorsmork is a highly protected area. Please note that camping in nature reserves outside of the designated campsites is both illegal and unsafe. There are plenty of huts and campsites in the area where you can pitch your tent or reserve a place to sleep.
Respect any closures. Even if it's muddy, always stay on the hiking trails. Do not step on the moss. Be considerate of others and respect nature — never leave any waste behind.
Destination: Iceland
Stopover Packages
New Year Tours
About Iceland
Live Aurora Forecast
Iceland through Webcams
Map of Iceland


If you like to make peanut butter and jelly sandwiches that are not for immediate consumption, and you don't like the way the jelly seeps through its side and ruins its share of the bread, I have a suggestion for you. If you spread peanut butter on both slices of bread, and then spread the jam on top of the peanut butter, the peanut butter works as an insulating layer, and you avoid jelly sog.
If you are a person who tends not to buy organic produce because of a cost concern, might I suggest something? I've noticed lately that sometimes the organic produce is the same price, or even cheaper than the regular kind. The other day at Safeway, the organic apples were cheaper than the pesticide apples. It's worth checking, is all I'm saying. If you don't buy organic produce because of some sort of moral opposition to it, then by all means, continue as you are.
If you are someone who needs to buy clothes for a businessy work environment, might I recommend Banana Republic? While initially pricey, they OFTEN have very good sales, including the additional percentage off of already on sale items kind, which is one of my favorites. They also have an extensive petites section if you are of the shorter persuasion. They also have a tall section if you are of the taller persuasion, although I think that is online only. If you buy in stores, they do simple alterations, such as hemming.