As Yogi Berra remarked, "You can observe a lot by just watching," and the two-minute BBC video below reveals some important trends about how insistent Islam is overwhelming passive Europe in 2014.
Apparently the clerics in charge of a historically and architecturally important cathedral thought turning it into a flophouse for the enemies of Christianity was a fine idea. It speaks poorly of the belief of the Church in itself that local Catholics believed it was acceptable to defile a sacred space. Too bad Jesus isn't around to overturn the tables of the money-changers, er multiculturalists.
Interestingly, the Church of the Beguinage was transformed into diverse housing starting in 2000, when foreign asylum seekers trashed by place, yet the parish priest welcomed similar guests again in 2008. Someone should tell the naive church people that Muslims see Christian charity as a sign of weakness, and in most cases they are correct.
One also notices that most of the asylum seekers are young men who could defend their country from the Taliban they now flee. They presumably approved when western soldiers fought and died for a better Afghanistan, but now that the foreign troops are leaving, the fleebags have scrammed.
The asylum seekers are not ordinary bums; they are focused and energetic moochers. The driving distance between Brussels and Kabul is 4434 miles, shown in the map below.
Hundreds of Afghan asylum seekers are protesting in Belgium against being sent home. The BBC's Duncan Crawford reports from a makeshift camp in Brussels where families say being forced to return would amount to a death sentence.
Sitting inside a cramped, cold tent erected under the ornate roof of a 17th-Century church, 27-year-old Marwa Mahbub, an asylum seeker from Afghanistan, explains why she is refusing to return to her home country.
Marwa is among more than 200 Afghans who, since the end of last year, have set up home inside the Beguinage Church in central Brussels.
Originally from Helmand Province, she says she fled Afghanistan in 2008 after receiving death threats from the Taliban for promoting women rights.
Despite repeatedly applying for asylum in Belgium, her applications have been rejected.
"I'd prefer to die here than return to Afghanistan," she says, watching her six-year-old daughter Maria and four-year-old son Zakie play on the stone floor.
The church has been transformed into a tent village. Pews have been moved aside to make way for mattresses. Men huddle around electric lamps trying to stay warm, while children play on the pulpit as if it were a playground climbing frame. None of them go to school.
Just over 1,300 Afghans applied for asylum in Belgium last year. According to the EU statistical office Eurostat, more than 20,000 sought asylum across the EU.
The International Organisation for Migration (IOM) expects the numbers coming to Europe to rise when Nato troops leave Afghanistan this year.
"There's a huge feeling of uncertainty," Richard Danziger, the IOM's chief of mission for Afghanistan, told the BBC.
When Nato forces withdraw, there is a fear a power vacuum could develop that allows the hardline Islamist Taliban to seize more territory.
Some Afghans worry a civil war might again break out. Others think the Afghan economy will sharply decline due to a reduction in foreign aid.
For the Afghan asylum seekers in Belgium there is little prospect of work either. Hundreds of them have recently held demonstrations across Belgium to raise awareness about the situation they are in.
"We are not dangerous. We are in danger," proclaimed one of their banners at a recent march in the city of Ghent.
Some complain that they are caught in a legal limbo, denied asylum or a work permit but also unable to return to Afghanistan.
Els Keytsman, director of Flemish Refugee Action, told the BBC the Belgian government needed to do more to help.
The Belgian government stresses that an independent refugee body is in charge of deciding the fate of asylum applications.
"This protest cannot have an impact on the way we do the assessment," says Dirk Van den Bulck, commissioner general for Refugees and Stateless Persons.
He argues that it is safe to return to some regions in Afghanistan.
With tens of thousands of refugees from Syria, Iraq, Somalia and other countries all making their way to Europe, many countries have a huge backlog in asylum applications.
In October last year, the UK's Home Affairs Committee released an online report headlined "Asylum system under strain". The process was described as "overburdened and under severe pressure".
The prospect of more refugees arriving from Afghanistan, as well as the growing influx due to the conflict in Syria, could mean asylum systems across the EU come under even more strain.
Those who attempt to make the journey face daunting challenges, their fate often left in the hands of people smugglers, only to later be abandoned, to face potential imprisonment, or a life on the streets full of cold and hunger.
For Marwa, her dream is to remain in Belgium.
"We want jobs, to pay taxes and rent a house like other people," she says.


A piece for Swatch was the perfect opportunity for the ever-provocative Kenny Scharf, whose boundary-pushing work and sense of humour were a natural fit with the spirit of the brand. In Monster Time (GR121), Scharf makes an amusingly fierce animal out of the watch format, with bright lizard green lines trailing through the strap like tracks in the sand left by a snake. The dial, which barely contains the red-eyed visage of a toothy monster, is grasped by red plastic, and the hands rotate irreverently around the beast's grumpy face. The equally entertaining Fiz N' Zip (GN164) offers childlike whimsy with a wicked edge—grinning blue and yellow creatures.


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Show Review & Photos: Xiu Xiu, Circuits des Yeux & Newaxeyes @ Barboza
Posted on 09/12/2014 by BBS
Xiu Xiu, Circuits des Yeux & Newaxeyes @ Barboza, 8/5/14
Review by Nick Nihil
Photos by Dagmar
Before I get into the music let me first get this message out: if you've paid to get into a music venue for a show featuring live musicians, please SHUT UP. Music venues, particularly small ones usually featuring rock or other forms of music in a popular aesthetic, while often having a bar, do not serve the same functions of bars. A bar is where you go and talk loudly. A bar usually features some bullshit Pandora station being pumped through speakers, indicating that the purpose of the music isn't necessarily there for the patrons to listen intently. For those who say that a musician's job should be to command the crowd and shut them up, I'll say yes, but with a caveat. When a musician plays in a bar, whose performance is a mere blip or outlier within normal operations, and NOT in a venue open solely for exhibiting performers, it's on him/her to silence a crowd. When you've paid to get into a show and then decide to shoot your mouth off endlessly 20 feet from the stage, you're wasting your money and doing a disservice both to yourself, the rest of the audience who actually cares to pay attention to the performers, and the performers themselves. If you want to talk loudly, go the fuck to a bar or step outside. Dropping $10 doesn't entitle you to obnoxious behavior. Try actually engaging with what you've paid for – it does wonders for your experience. This, of course, also applies to the constant use of all of your electronic gizmos. Stop taking pictures and actually take in the show. Be engaged and responsive, otherwise you'll have a ton of pictures from things you barely remember.
Circuits des Yeux
This miasma of clatter and din was most apparent during Circuit des Yeux's set, a solo noise-folk performer combining elements of the Buckleys (both Tim and Jeff), PJ Harvey, and Nico. This was not a pretty, flowery singer-songwriter set. Often running her acoustic guitar through abrasive fuzz while, at one point, nearly swallowing the microphone while screaming into it, she brought an unusual but highly effective confrontational abrasiveness to the idea of the acoustic folk singer. Because her set was dynamic, the sound of the loud, drunk patrons often overpowered the quieter moments in her set. I would have loved her set a lot more had I not spent most of it choking on my own rage over the behavior of the crowd. In fact, just typing that sentence induced a rage flashback. That said, I haven't heard anyone else really pull off what she pulled off.
Xiu Xiu was everything I'd anticipated, though I missed the presence of Angela Seo. They've been one of my favorites for many years. First of all, they were loud enough to drown out all those assholes in the crowd, so YAY for that. Second, percussionist Shayna Dunkelman added an entirely different energy than Angela or her predecessor, Caralee McElroy. Whereas Angela held perfectly the brooding nature of Xiu Xiu's graphically tortured material, Shayna bounced and whacked drums with a manic pixie glee that seemed innocently joyful but with a hint of fem-dom sadism. Her energy seemed to carry over to Jamie Stewart who, in spite of the traumatic nature of the material, also seemed to be having fun. The big surprise of the night was their arrangement of "Sad Pony Guerrilla Girl." On both the new album and the subsequent tour, Stewart abandoned guitars in favor of synths, oscillators, and sample pads. It was stark, confrontational, harrowing, and explosive – almost diametrically opposite to the warm but wilting original. "Stupid in the Dark" hit with even greater indignation and ferocity, and "A Knife in the Sun" quaked the ground.
Newaxeyes
Seattle's Newaxeyes opened the show in a compelling nature with heavy beats and noisy soundscapes, apparently weathered some hefty guitar technical difficulties throughout the duration. Whatever broke, it didn't affect the show. This is another in a long line of of those badass Cornish kids who seem to spin gold everywhere they go. Don't miss these guys.
Written by: BBS on 09/12/2014.
Filed Under Photos, Show Reviews
This entry was tagged barboza, circuits des yeux, newaxeyes, nick nihil, posted by dagmar, xiu xiu. Bookmark the permalink.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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'We knew each other like the back of our hands': Glenn Cofield's brother remembers slain sibling
Family and friends remembered him as a caring, family-oriented person who was rooted in his faith and would go out of his way to help a stranger.
'We knew each other like the back of our hands': Glenn Cofield's brother remembers slain sibling Family and friends remembered him as a caring, family-oriented person who was rooted in his faith and would go out of his way to help a stranger. Check out this story on commercialappeal.com: https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/news/crime/2019/06/09/glenn-cofield-shooting-memphis-brother-crushed/1401302001/
Corinne S Kennedy and Daniel Connolly, Memphis Commercial Appeal Published 2:20 p.m. CT June 9, 2019 | Updated 3:05 p.m. CT June 9, 2019
After Glenn Cofield, a well-known community volunteer and financial services executive was killed, family and friends remembered him as a caring, family-oriented person who was rooted in his faith and would go out of his way to help a stranger.
Cofield was shot and killed Friday night leaving a charity event in Midtown. He was 57.
His older brother, John Cofield, said he was "crushed" by his brother's death.
"We were so close," he said. "We spoke in one-word sentences and nods. And we knew each other like the back of our hands."
Glenn Cofield (Photo: Houston Cofield. Used with permission of the Cofield family.)
Glenn Cofield grew up in Oxford, Mississippi, and went to college at Ole Miss. His brother said the family has deep roots in the Oxford area. The library at the residence of the chancellor of the University of Mississippi was recently renamed the "Cofield Reading Room" in honor of an exhibit of photographs Glenn and John Cofield's grandfather had taken of the novelist William Faulkner, John Cofield said.
Glenn Cofield recently started a publishing company to help his brother publish a book, "Oxford, Mississippi: The Cofield Collection." The book has been successful and was "a source of pride" for Glenn Cofield, his brother said.
Crime scene tape can be seen near the spot where Glenn Cofield was shot and killed Friday. (Photo: Corinne Kennedy/The Commercial Appeal)
He started his career in the international tax division of Arthur Andersen before joining Raymond James in 1993, when he opened the Memphis office, according to a biography on the company website. He had lived in Memphis for about three decades, his brother said.
John Cofield described his brother as a family man, someone who was very involved with his three sons' schools and school activities. He was a founding board member of Memphis-based Paragon Bank, a member of the Memphis Country Club and Institute of Management Accounts boards, a member of the FedEx St. Jude Golf Tournament Committee of 100 and was previously treasurer and president of Carnival Memphis.
Glenn Cofield had also been an usher at Independent Presbyterian Church. He said his brother often did works of charity for strangers.
On numerous occasions, Glenn Cofield would go to the grocery store and wait by the cash registers, picking up the grocery bill for large families then leaving before anyone could thank him, John Cofield said. He described his younger brother as "a real quiet Christian" who didn't want recognition for the good things he did.
Flowers were left in the grass beside the parking lot where Glenn Cofield was shot and killed Friday. (Photo: Corinne Kennedy/The Commercial Appeal)
"He was a fine man and I loved him," he said. "I want people to know that he was a fine man."
After John Cofield posted about his brother's death on Facebook, more than 2,000 people commented on the post, some sharing memories of Glenn Cofield from high school, saying that he would be missed and they would pray for the Cofield family.
Memphis resident Marty Ferguson knew Glenn Cofield in college; the two were fraternity brothers at Ole Miss. Their children also played basketball together when the kids were young, he said in an interview.
"He was a very nice person, very much a gentleman," Ferguson said. "He was always family oriented."
What we know so far: The killing of Glenn Cofield
2019 Memphis homicides: A comprehensive look at the victims, arrests and circumstances
Corinne Kennedy is a reporter for the Commercial Appeal. She can be reached via email at Corinne.Kennedy@CommercialAppeal.com or on Twitter @CorinneSKennedy
Read or Share this story: https://www.commercialappeal.com/story/news/crime/2019/06/09/glenn-cofield-shooting-memphis-brother-crushed/1401302001/
Memphis family hoped authorities would stop him. She died anyway.
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One is company, two is a crowd and three is a party so get your friends over and let the games begin. Let the beach games begin with the Sunnylife Cricket Set.
Set includes x1 bat, x1 ball, x1 wicket, x3 stumps with base.
Durable and tough PVC material.
Handy carry bag for easy transportation and storage.


In this tutorial, we will use Adobe Illustrator to create a vector drawing of a simple flower. In contrast to bitmap images, vector images can be re-sized up or down without losing any visual clarity. Illustrator is one of the most popular vector drawing software you can use for this purpose. This tutorial will show you how easy drawing with Illustrator is. Just check the image.
* Use the Polygon Tool with the Pucker & Bloat filter.
* Select paths with the Direct Selection tool.
* Apply different effects like Inner glow, Drop Shadow, Opacity and Blur.
* Learn to use the Pen tool to create paths.
* Make use of the Pathfinder and Magic Wand tools.


Wells Fargo & Co. WFC, -0.67% said Thursday it is launching a new marketing campaign, as the bank looks to "rebuild trust with customers." The new campaign, called "This is Wells Fargo," comes after the bank agreed last month to pay $575 million to settle claims that a fake-account scandal and improper auto-loan and mortgage charges harmed customers. The new campaign will include, which kicks off Friday, will include an "evolved" logo, a "modern" stagecoach and "digital friendly" colors and tone. "Our goal of delivering exceptional service to customers and helping them succeed financially remains central to everything we do," said Chief Executive Tim Sloan. "As customer expectations continue to evolve, this campaign highlights that Wells Fargo is transforming to provide easier, more personal and helpful solutions." Also last month, Wells Fargo fired dozens of district managers for oversight failures related to a sales scandal. The stock fell 0.5% in afternoon trade. It has slipped 0.6% over the past three months, while the SPDR Financial Select Sector XLF, -0.29% has gained 1.9% and the S&P 500 SPX, +0.10% has slipped 0.8%.


We have welcomed THIRTEEN people into our little UKC family in our Sales Support and Account Management teams, and we've taken on board our first apprentice.
We're the best at car leasing, and we need to keep training our staff so we stay the best – together we've put in ONE THOUSAND EIGHT HUNDRED AND NINE hours of training.
We have delivered THREE THOUSAND SIX HUNDRED AND EIGHTY FOUR brand new vehicles to their new homes. The most popular manufacturer is Toyota, but our most popular model is a Citroen C3.
We entered into an exclusive arrangement with Toyota to provide their Business Drive Direct service, which supports fleet and business drivers nationwide.
We need fuel to keep going, and have spent NINE HUNDRED AND EIGHTY FOUR POUNDS on coffee and tea.


NOTE: The below instructions show an 8Speed being outfitted with a rack. The 1Speed has very similar mounting hardware. Follow these instructions and use the videos for reference. Be aware that the bike you see in the video may not look exactly your bike!


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Every day, thousands upon thousands of screws and bolts are used to fasten components together. That may sound routine initially, however, specialists also take a closer look. Because if bolts and screws are too loose, components may move. If they are fastened too tightly, components and the fasteners themselves may be damaged.
The objective is to fix components to each other in a way that enables them to fulfil their function. When fastening, the torque must be correct in order to achieve the required clamp force (i.e. the force that a fastener uses to hold two components together). This is not always easy. In practice, tightening instructions often require assembly of fasteners to a specified torque value. However, the resultant clamp force is dependent on several factors. These include the geometry of the screw and the friction between the fastener and components. Surfaces often have a major influence on this. The friction between roughened surfaces is greater than between smooth ones. If fasteners are lubricated, friction is reduced. This applies to both external lubrication via grease or wax and integrated lubrication via the addition of a lubricant to the coating. Friction effects such as those between fastener and component are detailed with the total coefficient of friction (µtot). This comprises the friction in the thread (µth) as well as that between the head and head contact surface (µb). A very low total coefficient of friction runs the risk of the fastener working itself loose. If the factor is very high, fasteners need to be tightened with a high torque and the efficiency of the fasteners decreases.
In order to achieve the desired clamp force with a specified torque, the tightening instructions must assume a total coefficient of friction of the fasteners. Industrial companies and associations often specify a coefficient of friction window for this. For example, the German automobile industry association (VDA) recommends using fasteners with a µtot of 0.09 to 0.14. Coefficients of friction cannot be specified using measurement technology. They are identified via torque and clamp force. In this it is also necessary to take into consideration the geometry of the fasteners, more precisely, the pitch of the thread, the thread diameter, and the diameter of the contact under the head. The torque and pretension of fasteners are specified globally by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in standard ISO 16047. This standard also specifies how these coefficient of friction levels can be calculated. The title of the standard is ISO 16047 Fasteners – Torque/clamp force testing.
Example bolt:
A bolt that requires testing is screwed into the test bench and fixed with a reference nut. The bolt head lies against a reference bearing plate or a reference washer.
When tightening the bolt, the clamp force, the rotation angle, the total torque, and one of the two partial torques are measured. On some test benches, the partial torque is measured in the thread and under the head in others. The respective complementary partial torque can be identified via subtraction.
The clamp force, torque, and rotation angle can be used to calculate the three coefficients of friction (µth, µb, and µtot).
The ISO standard describes reproducible laboratory tests. These are useful, for example, in comparing the coefficients of friction of different coating systems. With these tests it is also possible to check the quality of the coating in ongoing production.
The ISO standard permits the use of different reference bearing plates or reference washers. These bearing surfaces may be of low or high hardness, uncoated, or zinc electroplated. The option of choosing between uncoated and zinc electroplated bearing surfaces reflects the prevailing procedures in the American and European markets. Zinc electroplated reference parts do not rust in storage, however, they have their own coefficient of friction. For example, brighteners in the electroplated zinc serve to lower the friction between the reference part and the fastener. Uncoated reference parts are oiled to protect against corrosion and are cleaned prior to use.
Coefficient of friction calculated according to ISO 16047 needs to be regarded with caution as it only really applies to the conditions on the test bench.
For hard bearing surfaces, the standard prescribes a narrow range of hardness. A broad range of hardness is permitted for soft bearing surfaces. Similarly, varying degrees of roughness are possible for both types of bearing surfaces.
The testing of fasteners with captive washers is not described in the standard. Nevertheless, coefficients of friction are determined for these parts. In this process the fasteners are screwed to their own washer. However, if the fastener (and with it the washer) is coated with a lubricant, the lubricated head of the fastener is tightened against the lubricated washer on the test bench. This "double lubrication" results in a lower coefficient of friction than if the fastener is screwed to a standardized reference part without its captive washer.
The problem: in practice there is rarely a differentiation between normal fasteners and those with captive washers. Tightening specifications for normal fasteners are also applied for those with washers. These are then tightened with the same torque, although the coefficient of friction of the fasteners with captive washers is lower. From a standardization viewpoint, this dilemma is unresolved. In practice, there are two ways in which companies deal with this: they accept that the total coefficient of friction lies at the lower limit of tolerance when using lubricated fasteners with captive washers or they specify separate process parameters for their use.
Note: fasteners with captive washers are used to prevent coated surfaces from being damaged during the screwing/bolting process. They can also be used to cover larger holes. With these fasteners a washer is threaded onto the blank; the subsequent cold forming in which the thread is rolled into the surface ensures that this washer cannot fall off.


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Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology
Environmental Toxicology Unit - GhEnToxLab
Ghent University - Faculty of Bioscience Engineering
About GhEnToxLab
Interplay between dietary lipids and cadmium exposure in rainbow trout liver: Influence on fatty acid metabolism, metal accumulation and stress response
The present study aimed at investigating interactive effects between dietary lipids and both short- and long-term exposures to a low, environmentally realistic, cadmium (Cd) concentration. We found that both dietary lipids and Cd exposure influenced fatty acid homeostasis and metabolism.
Scientific abstract
The present study aimed at investigating interactive effects between dietary lipids and both short- and long-term exposures to a low, environmentally realistic, cadmium (Cd) concentration. Juvenile rainbow trout were fed four isolipidic diets (31.7 g/kg) enriched in either linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3). From the 4th week of this 10-week experiment, the lipid level of the diet was increased (120.0 g/kg) and half of the fish fed each diet were aqueously exposed to Cd (0.3 μg/L) while the other half were not exposed to Cd (control). Fish were sampled and their liver was harvested for fatty acid profile, hepatic Cd and calcium concentrations, total glutathione level and gene expression assessment, either (i) after 4 weeks of feeding and 24 h of Cd contamination (day 29) (short-term Cd exposure) or (ii) after 10 weeks of feeding and 6 weeks of Cd contamination (day 70) (long-term Cd exposure). We found that both dietary lipids and Cd exposure influenced fatty acid homeostasis and metabolism. The hepatic fatty acid profile mostly reflected that of the diet (e.g. n-3/n-6 ratio) with some differences, including selective retention of specific long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) like DHA and active biotransformation of dietary LA and ALA into LC-PUFAs. Cd effects on hepatic fatty acid profiles were influenced by the duration of the exposure and the nutritional status of the fish. The effects of diet and Cd exposure on the fatty acid profiles were only sparsely explained by variation of the expression pattern of genes involved in fatty acid metabolism. The biological responses to Cd were also influenced by dietary lipids. Fish fed the ALA-enriched diet seemed to be the least affected by the Cd exposure, as they showed a higher detoxifying ability against Cd with an early upregulation of protective metallothionein a (MTa) and apoptosis regulator BCL2-Like1 (BCLx) genes, an increased long-term phospholipid synthesis and turnover and fatty acid bioconversion efficiency, as well as a lower long-term accumulation of Cd in their liver. In contrast, fish fed the EPA-enriched diet seemed to be the most sensitive to a long-term Cd exposure, with an impaired growth performance and a decreased antioxidant capacity (lower glutathione level). Our results highlight that low, environmentally realistic aqueous concentrations of Cd can affect biological response in fish and that these effects are influenced by the dietary fatty acid composition.
Full reference (link):
Ferain, A., Delbecque, E., Neefs, I., Dailly, H., De Saeyer, N., Van Larebeke, M., Cornet, V., Larondelle, Y., Rees, J.-F., Kestemont, P., De Schamphelaere, K. A. C., & Debier, C. (2021). Interplay between dietary lipids and cadmium exposure in rainbow trout liver: Influence on fatty acid metabolism, metal accumulation and stress response. Aquatic Toxicology, 231, 105676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105676
© 2018, GhEnToxLab. Designed by Dieter De Coninck.
Content maintained by Ilias Semmouri.
Hosted by Flanders Marine Institute (VLIZ)


On May 9, friends and members of the Friends of the Salmon River (FSR) - 50 nature enthusiasts - boarded a bus in Tamworth and set out on a day-long tour of the Salmon River. David Field, co-president of the FSR, organized the tour, an annual event that has happened since the group was founded in 2004 by Gray Merriam, also a co-president.
This year members decided to run the tour in the spring instead of the fall to give tour goers a different look at the landscape of this pristine river when it is running high in the spring.
On board the bus were FSR members and past board members geologist Dugald Carmichael, historian Michael Rehner and biologist/naturalist Don Cuddy, who provided a running commentary of all aspects of the river and watershed.
Rehner, the historian, talked about the various villages in the area: Henderson, Harlowe, Lonsdale, Forest Mills, Croydon, and Milltown and put them in their historical context numbering the hotels, mills and naming who settled them and when. Rehner also read interesting news clippings from archives that related to each town.
Halfway up the Arden Road, the group stopped at an off-the-grid house with one of the earliest log buildings in the area, built in the 1830s; it is supposedly haunted by the knocking sounds of a woman who was confined to the attic.
Tour-goers learned what these small towns were like in the thriving 1860s when some had over 50 houses, numerous hotels, grist mills and various stores and other services, all of which came about because of logging and the availability of water.
On Monday the FSR had planned a tree planting workshop at Beaver Lake for FSR members, who planned to plant 1200 riparian trees on their properties along the river, encouraging its continued ecological health.
The FSR are currently addressing various threats to the river's health and have taken the position that a dump located on the river's banks in Roblin should be closed. They are waiting for a response on that issue.
They are also drawing attention to recent changes to environmental legislation that allow projects like mini hydro projects to go ahead with less rigorous environmental assessment than previously required. This in turn could pose future threats to the watershed and the river.
For more information on Friends of the Salmon River, please visit www.friendsofsalmonriver.ca.


route from Toronto, ON, Canada to Miami, FL, USA by car. 2,391 km, estimated 21 hours 44 mins.
Highway route Generated between Toronto, ON, Canada and Miami, FL, USA.
The distance between these two points is 2,391 km, estimated 21 hours 44 mins.
Fiers de nos Pompiers et Policiers!


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CONCEPTUAL LEAD IN WATER EQUATION
EFFECTIVENESS OF LEAD IN WATER AVOIDANCE STRATEGIES
Research Article| May 24 2019
Understanding lead in water and avoidance strategies: a United States perspective for informed decision-making
Kelsey J. Pieper
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, 418 Durham Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
E-mail: kpieper@vt.edu
Adrienne Katner
Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA
Rebecca Kriss
Min Tang
Marc A. Edwards
Kelsey J. Pieper, Adrienne Katner, Rebecca Kriss, Min Tang, Marc A. Edwards; Understanding lead in water and avoidance strategies: a United States perspective for informed decision-making. J Water Health 1 August 2019; 17 (4): 540–555. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2019.272
The pervasiveness of lead in drinking water poses a significant public health threat, which can be reduced by implementing preventive measures. However, the causes of elevated lead in water and the benefits of lead in water avoidance strategies are often misunderstood. Based on experiences in the United States, this paper describes an oversimplified 'lead in water equation' to explain key variables controlling the presence of lead in drinking water to better inform public health practitioners, government officials, utility personnel, and concerned residents. We illustrate the application of the equation in Flint, Michigan and explore the primary household-level water lead avoidance strategies recommended during the crisis, including flushing, filtration, bottled water use, and lead pipe removal. In addition to lead reduction, strategies are evaluated based on costs and limitations. While these lead avoidance strategies will reduce water lead to some degree, the costs, limitations, and effectiveness of these strategies will be site- and event-specific. This paper presents a simplified approach to communicate key factors which must be considered to effectively reduce waterborne lead exposures for a wide range of decision makers.
This article has been made Open Access thanks to the generous support of a global network of libraries as part of the Knowledge Unlatched Select initiative.
corrosion, Flint Water Crisis, lead avoidance strategies, lead in drinking water
The short- and long-term impacts of chronic exposure to low doses of lead from drinking water are still being investigated, but the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has asserted that no amount of exposure is safe. Given the bioaccumulative nature of lead, the lack of a health-based exposure threshold, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) acknowledgement that drinking water regulations may not protect all individuals from potentially harmful lead exposures, exposure prevention is paramount (National Toxicology Program 2012). Drinking water is considered, by some, to be an underestimated source of lead, due to the corrosion of leaded drinking water infrastructure, lack of adequate treatment methods for controlling particulate lead, and sample collection methods that can undermine monitoring purposes (Schock 1990; Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2012; Edwards 2014b). Thus, instead of reacting to non-health-based regulatory triggers, public health officials should encourage vulnerable populations to take proactive precautionary measures to prevent water lead exposure and empower people with information on evidence-based strategies and technologies. Such evidence-based interventions are needed for both acute exposures such as those observed during the Flint Water Crisis and low-dose chronic exposures that are common in many Lead and Copper Rule (LCR) compliant cities with lead service lines (LSLs) (Katner et al. 2018; Pieper et al. 2018a).
While the Flint Water Crisis has elevated national concerns about water lead exposure (Hanna-Attisha et al. 2016), there have been other high profile contamination events that caused serious childhood lead exposure (Edwards & Dudi 2004; Edwards & Triantafyllidou 2007; Masters & Edwards 2015). For instance, the 2001–2004 Washington DC Lead Crisis went largely unreported to the public for 4 years, caused hundreds of cases of elevated blood lead over the old CDC level of concern (10 μg/dL), and was associated with increased fetal death and miscarriage rates (Edwards et al. 2009; Edwards 2014b). Although a perfect comparison is not possible due to differences in sampling pools and methods, available data (Figure 1) suggest that the Washington DC first draw water lead levels (WLLs) were much higher than Flint (Edwards et al. 2009; Pieper et al. 2018a). However, it is important to note that first draw samples (i.e., samples collected after 6+ h of stagnation) do not always represent the worst-case WLLs, as these samples do not adequately characterize lead release in the particulate form or from LSLs (Edwards & Dudi 2004; Del Toral et al. 2013; Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a, 2017; Katner et al. 2018). Learning from these and other water lead contamination events can help avoid future problems during water crises, action level exceedances, and harmful exposures that occur in cities that meet the LCR.
Representative histogram of WLLs during the Flint and Washington DC lead in water crises (Edwards et al. 2009; Pieper et al. 2018a).
The USEPA enacted the 1991 LCR to prevent widespread water lead exposure by reducing water corrosivity through corrosion control treatment (CCT) — corrosion control reduces the propensity of water to pick up lead when contacting plumbing infrastructure (U.S. EPA 1991). According to the LCR, water utilities must conduct the limited monitoring of high-risk homes under normal residential use conditions. High-risk homes are determined based on the age of structure and plumbing material composition, rather than selecting sites based on zonal variations in water corrosivity. If more than 10% of first draw samples exceed the lead action level of 15 μg/L, water utilities must optimize CCT, collect additional water samples, and notify the public. However, satisfying the LCR's action level requirements does not guarantee that a city's tap water is free of lead and is safe for all residents to consume (U.S. EPA 1991; Katner et al. 2016). The Natural Resources Defense Council revealed that in 2015, 5,363 water systems, serving more than 18 million US residents, had LCR health, monitoring, and/or reporting violations (Olson & Pullen Fedinick 2016). USA Today documented high WLLs in 350 schools and day-care centers between 2012 and 2015 (Ungar 2016), and also reported that 9,000 small water systems, serving almost 4 million rural residents, failed to test for lead in the past 6 years (Ungar & Nichols 2016). Moreover, private well users are not protected under the LCR, as private water systems (e.g., wells, springs, and cisterns) are not regulated by the USEPA (U.S. EPA 1991).
The three key variables that influence the presence of lead in drinking water at homes are: (1) lead-bearing plumbing; (2) corrosive water; and (3) ineffective CCT (Figure 2). The worst-case combination of these variables will produce the highest levels of lead in drinking water, whereas correcting one or all of these variables can potentially reduce or prevent lead in drinking water. The equation is qualitative rather than quantitative and underscores factors that must be considered when addressing lead in water issues.
Oversimplified conceptual equation illustrating variables leading to lead in drinking water.
Lead-bearing plumbing
The use of lead in plumbing materials has been reduced over the years through USEPA regulations and industry best practices (Figure 3; Table S1, available with the online version of this paper). The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments banned leaded and pure lead plumbing by requiring the installation of 'lead-free' plumbing (U.S. EPA 1989). However, 'lead-free' plumbing materials could still contain lead – up to 8% by weight until 2014 and a weighted average of 0.25% based on wetted surfaces thereafter (111th Congress 2011).
Lead-bearing plumbing components potentially used within drinking water systems. (a) Municipal water systems with responsibility split between the utility and the resident; (b) private wells which are solely the responsibility of the resident; and (c) home plumbing system which are solely the responsibility of the resident.
Lead-bearing service line materials
Pure lead pipes were widely used for service lines (pipe connecting premise plumbing and water main; Figure 3(a)) until the 1950s, though some cities continued to use LSLs until these pipes were banned in 1986 (Rabin 2008). LSLs are, by far, the most concentrated source of lead present in homes (100% lead) and can directly contaminate drinking water. When present, LSLs are often responsible for 50–75% of lead observed at the tap (Sandvig et al. 2008). Replacing LSLs as a solution to mitigate lead sources can sometimes be problematic as ownership of this pipe is split between the homeowner and water utility. When homeowners do not replace their section of the service line, only part of the lead pipe is replaced, which results in a partial lead service line replacement (PLSLR). When the utility's portion of the lead pipe is replaced with the copper pipe or brass connector fittings are installed, higher levels of lead sometimes result from accelerated corrosion of the lead pipe (Sandvig et al. 2008; Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2012; Cartier et al. 2013; St Clair et al. 2015) and physical disturbances of leaded scales may occur (Del Toral et al. 2013). As a result, occasionally PLSLRs do not reduce short- or long-term WLLs, but can even cause worse water lead issues.
Although LSLs are the primary service line material of concern, galvanized iron service lines (Figure 3(a)) and well components (Figure 3(b)) can also serve as a lead source and have been attributed to water lead problems (Sandvig et al. 2008; Clark et al. 2015; Pieper et al. 2017, 2018a, 2018b). A galvanized iron pipe is an iron pipe with a protective zinc–lead 'galvanized' surface coating. This galvanized coating often contained between 0.5 and 1.4% lead by weight until 2014 (Clark et al. 2015). Lead can leach into water from a pre-2014 galvanized iron pipe and be distributed to the tap or accumulate in iron rust layers along the interior of the pipe – creating both short- and long-term water lead problems (Clark et al. 2015; Pieper et al. 2017, 2018b). Even new post-2014 'lead-free' galvanized iron pipes (<0.25% lead in the surface coating) are still of concern due to the potential formation and remobilization of leaded rust scales (Pieper et al. 2016).
Lead-bearing household plumbing materials
Lead-bearing plumbing materials are still commonly used in home construction (Figure 3(c)). Leaded solders (composed of 40–50% lead) were used to connect copper plumbing until 1986 (U.S. EPA 1989; Edwards & Triantafyllidou 2007; Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2012). Several cases of childhood lead poisoning have been directly linked to the detachment of pieces of leaded solder (Edwards & Triantafyllidou 2007; Triantafyllidou et al. 2007). More recently, there have been concerns regarding pre-2014 'lead-free' brass (<8% lead by weight), as this lead-bearing component has been linked to several incidences of high WLLs in schools, buildings, and homes (Lytle & Schock 1996; Kimbrough 2001; Elfland et al. 2010; Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2012; Pieper et al. 2015b). Regardless of the piping material (copper or plastic), brass fittings such as ball valves, elbows, and faucet components are often present in the premise plumbing. Fortunately, 'lead-free' components containing <0.25% lead by the wetted surface (111th Congress 2011) have become available, which release lower lead in water (Pieper et al. 2016). However, new recommendations by the American Association of Pediatrics to reduce water lead to below 1 μg/L in school water may be difficult to achieve even with some products designed to meet the 2014 'lead-free' standard (American Academy of Pediatrics 2016; Parks et al. 2018).
Water corrosivity
Some waters are naturally corrosive, whereas other waters are naturally non-corrosive. There are several well-established water chemistry parameters that influence the corrosivity of drinking water such as dissolved oxygen, pH, water disinfectants, chloride-to-sulfate mass ratio, and alkalinity (Schock 1989, 1990; Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2007). These parameters are controlled and routinely monitored by the drinking water operators (see 'Ineffective CCT'). Although lead cannot typically be detected by taste, smell, or sight in water, studies note that higher water corrosivity (and resulting WLLs) can sometimes associate with certain unpleasant or undesirable characteristics of the drinking water. For example, private well users who had obvious signs of corrosion (e.g., plumbing leaks), blue-green staining on plumbing fixtures, and described the taste of water as metallic were more likely to have copper concentrations and low water pH, which were correlated with high WLLs (Pieper et al. 2015b). Researchers have also occasionally linked the incidence of red/rusty water reports to elevated WLLs, as the corrosion of iron pipes may indirectly result in higher WLLs (Masters & Edwards 2015; Pieper et al. 2017, 2018a). While the presence of red/rusty water may be an indicator of lead in some situations, that is often not always the case (Tang et al. 2018).
Ineffective CCT
Corrosion control by public water supplies involves the manipulation of pH, the adjustment of alkalinity, and/or the addition of corrosion inhibitors (e.g., phosphates or silicates), to reduce problems from lead pipes and other plumbing. However, residents reliant on private wells are responsible for implementing corrosion control, with associated responsibilities for monitoring and maintenance (Swistock et al. 2013; Pieper et al. 2015b). Although corrosion chemistry can be complex and dependent on plumbing materials (e.g., brass and solder), appropriate CCT can reduce lead in water through three dimensions of performance: (1) minimizing the dissolution of soluble lead and leaded scale layers by adding corrosion inhibitors to the water or increasing water pH and/or alkalinity (Figure S1(a)); (2) promoting the development of protective scale layers that reduce corrosion rates and the dissolution of soluble lead (Figure S1(b)); and (3) increasing the durability of leaded scale layers to prevent the destabilization and detachment of such layers to water (Figure S1(c)) (Figure S1 is available with the online version of this paper) (Schock 1989; Edwards & McNeill 2002). According to the LCR, any water utility serving ≥50,000 residents must have a state-approved optimized CCT plan (U.S. EPA 1991). CCT is only required in systems serving <50,000 residents when a utility exceeds the lead and/or copper action level during their required water sampling. The installation of CCT devices in private wells is limited and only corrects the water chemistry after treatment and only rarely the chemistry of water within the well plumbing (Swistock et al. 2013; Pieper et al. 2015a, 2015b).
Measuring lead in water
The LCR requires the collection of first draw samples, which was once considered the worst-case scenario as dissolved lead concentrations increase with stagnation time. This 1 L first draw sample will typically capture 7.9 m (25.9 ft) of a 6.4 mm (0.25 in.) diameter pipe, which only includes household (or premise) plumbing and not lead from the service line. Researchers have concluded that single first draw samples may not capture the worst-case water lead, which is particularly true for homes with LSLs or homes with particulate lead problems (Edwards & Dudi 2004; Renner 2008; Del Toral et al. 2013; Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a, 2017; Katner et al. 2018). Other factors that can result in reduced detection of lead hazards include sampling in cold weather and at low flow rates, prior removal of aerator filters, pre-flushing the night before collection, and inadequate sample processing in the laboratory (Katner et al. 2016). In recognition of inherent weaknesses in the LCR sampling protocol, researchers are utilizing profile sampling methods to more accurately characterize the entire plumbing network, including the premise plumbing and service lines, and its detachment in response to higher flow rates (Del Toral et al. 2013; Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a, 2017). Thus, it is imperative that proper sampling protocols be used to quantify water lead accurately.
The pervasiveness of lead in drinking water poses a significant public health threat, but exposure can be reduced or prevented almost completely, through the implementation of preventive measures. However, problems with monitoring, regulating, and remediating water lead have long been misunderstood due to the complexity of plumbing and corrosion control. With the USEPA's new 'war on lead' (Siegel 2018), it is imperative that simple but accurate scientific information be communicated effectively to a wide range of decision makers to reduce water lead exposures. This paper illustrates the application of an oversimplified 'lead in the water equation' to explain the key variables that control the presence of lead in water to lay audiences and presents factors to consider when selecting a household-level water lead remediation strategy. A case study methodology is used to inform practice based on the Flint Water Crisis. This work aims to provide public health practitioners, government officials, utility personnel, and concerned residents with a science-based model to inform communications, decision-making, and implementation of household-level avoidance strategies for lead from drinking water.
The application of the lead in the water equation is demonstrated through a case study of Flint, Michigan. Published and newly collected data from Flint were applied to evaluate the four primary water lead avoidance strategies: (1) flushing, (2) bottled water, (3) lead filters, and (4) LSL replacement (Table 1). The overall approach was to evaluate each strategy based on costs, limitations, and reductions in lead exposure (defined as WLL reductions or by water lead avoidance).
Comparison of the four household-level lead remediation strategies used during the Flint Water Crisis
Reduction in WLLs (μg/L)
Financial costsa
Initial water lead value
Intervention water lead value
Percent of samples reduced <AL
Cost of water per gallonb
Installation and maintenance fees
Non-exhaustive tangible and intangible impacts Potential impacts in Flint
Flushing Home of resident zeroc (1 home; 32 samples) First draw of 2,171 μg/L 3,550 μg/L
at 1 min 0% <$0.001 Volume of water flushed
1 min: 8.3 L (2.2 gal)
3 min: 24.9 L (6.6 gal)
5 min: 41.5 L (11.0 gal)
25 min: 207.5 L (55.0 gal)
Price of water flushed
$0.002 per 1-min flush
$0.01 per 5-min flush
$0.05 per 25-min flush Extra water use burden on water utility with morning and afternoon 3 min flush
Daily: 2.2 million L (0.6 million gal)
30 days: 65 million L (17 million gal)
Extra water use burden on household with morning and afternoon 3 min flush
Daily: $0.01
30 days: $0.35
- Cost of water for local utility
- Water scarcity challenges
- Water and wastewater treatment burden
- Infrastructure impacts
- Additional demand
- Educating residents on the protocol
- Prompting intervention adoption
- Developing education materials
- Perception of water safety
1,412 μg/L
at 3 min
at 25 min
Community-wide in August 2015d (268 homes; 3 samples per home) 90th percentile of 26.8 μg/L 11.3 μg/L
at 1 min 94%
6.6 μg/L
Community-wide in March 2016d (156 homes; 3 samples per home) 90th percentile of 22.4 μg/L 9.0 μg/L
Bottled water (costs and water lead estimates derived from three samples from each of five brands)e – <1 μg/L 100% $0.77–$8.32e Family of four drinking and cooking water needs
Daily: 5 L (1.3 gal)
30 day: 600 L (159 gal)
Price of bottled water
30 day: $122.05
Save $0.14 on water bill Plastic bottle to solid waste
Daily: 5–40 bottles
30 days: 159–1,200 bottles
- Ongoing cost of bottled water
- Reduced water use from utility
- Resident may use less water (7 gal/day compared to 100 gal/day)
- Transportation to procurement/distribution of bottled water
- Trash/recycle burden
- Environmental and utility burden of discarded materials
- Benefit of the avoidance of other contaminants and taste/odor compounds
- Educating residents on bottled water use
NSF 53 filters Home of Resident Zerof (1 unfiltered and 1 filtered sample) Influent of 13,200 μg/L 20 μg/L 0% < $0.001 Installation:
$15–50 for filter unit
$10–15 per cartridge
Tap-mounted: replace filters every 3–4 months
Pitcher style: replace filters every 1–2 months Other considerations:
- Ongoing cost of filter replacements
- Burden of getting initial and replacement filters
- Environmental and utility burden of discarded filters
- Perceived risk of microbial contamination
Community-wideg (241 homes; 1 unfiltered and 1 filtered sample per home) Unfiltered 90th percentile of 68 μg/L Filtered 90th percentile of <1 μg/L 100%
LSL replacemente(1 house; 18 samples) First draw of 2,171 μg/Lc 2.1 μg/L
first draw
<1 μg/L
32.4 μg/L
at 2 min 94% <$0.001 Estimated $2,800 to replace 25 ft. LSL and 192 ft. galvanized iron service line Other considerations:
- Perception of safety
- One-time high cost to utility
- Cost to consumer for full LSLR
- Removal, transportation, and disposal old materials
aIntervention costs (bottled water, filters, and LSL replacements) were provided to Flint residents at no cost at times during recovery.
bCost of water in Flint (RFC 2016).
cWater lead measured in April 2015 (Pieper et al. 2017).
dWater lead measured in August 2015 and March 2016 (Pieper et al. 2018a).
eMeasurements and data collected during this effort.
fFilter assessment at Virginia Tech in February 2016 (Edwards 2016).
gFilter assessment by USEPA in January 2016 (U.S. EPA 2016a).
Data from two publications (Pieper et al. 2017, 2018a) were used to evaluate reductions in WLLs. Based on an average kitchen faucet water flow rate of 8.3 L/min (2.2 gal/min) (Welter 2016), the volume of water flushed was calculated at the household and city level. The price of water in Flint used in this assessment was from a 2016 Raftelis Financial Consultants (RFC) report, which was $3.30 per 14,195 L (3,740 gal) (RFC 2016). This rate was used to evaluate the increase in water bills at the household and city level.
To determine WLLs in bottled water, five brands distributed during the Flint Water Crisis (Deer Park, Great Value, Kroger, Member's Mark, and Nestle) were analyzed. Specifically, a 10 mL aliquot was collected from each bottle after thorough shaking, and three bottles of each brand were analyzed (n = 15 samples; three bottles from five brands). To evaluate bottled water costs, we reviewed popular brands available in three Virginia grocery stores in August 2018. Using reported statistics on average water use per person, it was assumed that 5 L (1.3 gal) was the volume of water used per day for all cooking and drinking purposes (U.S. Geological Survey 2016). Lastly, the savings from switching from municipal water to bottled water was calculated based on water volumes and the RFC report.
Lead filters
The USEPA published data from their in-home filter efficacy testing (U.S. EPA 2016a). For our analysis, only homes and buildings with paired unfiltered samples and filtered samples collected after the installation of a new filter were used (n = 241). It is important to note that unfiltered samples were not required to have 6+ h of stagnation until March 2016, and filtered samples were collected after running water through the new filter for 2 min. If multiple unfiltered samples were collected, samples were collected with the aerator removed (n = 5) and first draw samples (n = 2) were selected. Paired samples collected from the same home (n = 20) were used in this analysis if the samples were collected from different faucets and/or on different sampling dates with a new filter being installed. The minimum reporting limit for lead during the USEPA study was 0.5 μg/L. To evaluate filter costs, we reviewed popular brands available in four national box stores in August 2018.
LSL replacement
To evaluate WLL reduction after replacing the service line at the home of a Flint resident with high sustained WLLs (Pieper et al. 2017), follow-up profile samples were collected. Specifically, after 6+ h of stagnation, 18 sequential 1 L samples were collected at normal flow and shipped to Virginia Tech for analysis. All samples and aliquots were acidified with 2% (v/v) concentrated nitric acid and digested for a minimum of 16 h before analysis using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) per method 3125 B (American Public Health Association et al. 1998). For data quality assurance and quality control, blanks and spikes of known concentrations were measured every 10–15 samples. The costs of a full or partial line replacement depend strongly on site-specific considerations, such as access constraints, but cost estimates have ranged from $1,000 to $7,000 per home (Lambrinidou & Edwards 2013) to $2,500 to $8,700 per home (U.S. EPA 2016b).
Limitations of cost and cater lead estimations
There are limitations to the approaches used to estimate costs and WLL exposures. Indirect costs (e.g., increased solid waste and recycling of plastic bottles) were not included in this analysis, but they are important to identify and quantify (Wang et al. 2018). Also, WLLs can be highly variable, which makes realistic measurements of exposures to lead in water difficult to calculate. The focus of this paper was a case study for Flint, Michigan, and it is advisable that when this framework is applied to other locations, decisions should be based on as much site-specific data as are available. Thus, this framework aims to help communities consider and evaluate appropriate intervention strategies.
Using the lead in the water equation in Flint
This section presents how the lead in the water equation (Figure 2) can be applied through a case study of the lead water crisis in Flint, Michigan. In Flint, all three factors were involved, resulting in high lead in water levels.
Most housings in Flint were constructed between the 1950s and 1960s, and few homes were built after 1986, suggesting a high prevalence of LSLs and lead solder. Previously, the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MDEQ) estimated that at least 15,000 service connections were full or partial LSLs (MDEQ 2015). New estimates suggest that 29,100 service line connections are either lead or galvanized iron service lines (Moore 2016).
Corrosive water
The Flint River water had different water chemistry (e.g., chloride levels and pH), resulting in a drinking water supply that was more corrosive to the drinking water infrastructure than Detroit water (Del Toral 2015; Devine & Edwards 2016; Pieper et al. 2017). Specifically, when exposed to Flint River water, metal release into drinking water was 3.5–4.2 times higher (Devine & Edwards 2016). This increase in water corrosivity was also evident in the deterioration of water quality, as residents reported changes in taste, smell, and clarity of the water (Figure S2, available with the online version of this paper) (Felton 2014; Carmody 2015).
When switching to treated Flint River water, city officials did not continue adding orthophosphate inhibitors (i.e., they discontinued CCT) to the finished water (Del Toral 2015; Davis et al. 2016; Masten et al. 2016; Pieper et al. 2017). Thus, the previously formed leaded scale layers began deteriorating and falling into the water (Pieper et al. 2017, 2018a). Moreover, without these protective layers, lead-bearing plumbing was in contact with the corrosive Flint River water, and the dissolution of lead from plumbing may have been occurring (Devine & Edwards 2016).
Reducing and preventing water lead exposure
The City of Flint reconnected to the less corrosive Detroit water service in October 2015 and enhanced CCT was implemented in December 2015 (Davis et al. 2016; Masten et al. 2016; Pieper et al. 2018a). Replacement of the 29,100 lead and galvanized iron service lines began in February 2016 and is still underway (Moore 2016). By once again reducing the corrosivity of the source water and boosting the dose of corrosion inhibitors, the city is reducing WLLs and correcting the damage done to the water infrastructure (Pieper et al. 2018a). In essence, the present-day Flint water has reduced all three elements of lead in the water equation (Figure 2).
When public health officials or residents are concerned about WLLs, four household-level avoidance strategies are commonly recommended: (1) flushing water prior to consumption; (2) using bottled water; (3) installing or using a filter certified under NSF/ANSI 53 to remove lead; and (4) removing lead-bearing plumbing. This section explores WLL reduction efficacy associated with these water avoidance strategies communicated during the Flint Water Crisis and discusses some of the potential financial burdens, maintenance needs, and water conservation implications associated with these remediation strategies (Table 1).
Flushing water prior to consumption
Existing public health and utility messages suggest that residents flush water for 30 s to 2 min before consumption (Katner et al. 2018), as this will remove any stagnant water in contact with lead-bearing plumbing components. In homes where the primary sources of lead are brass fittings or lead-soldered joints in the premise plumbing (Figure 3(c)), short flushing protocols will often be effective (Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a; Katner et al. 2018). When partial or full LSLs are present, residents are encouraged to flush a high-volume tap (e.g., bathtub tap) for at least 5 min before flushing the kitchen tap for 1–2 min (Figure 3(a)) (U.S. CDC 2013). However, even this more extensive flushing protocol is not effective if leaded sediments and unstable scales are present within the system (Renner 2008; Del Toral et al. 2013; Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a, 2017). Thus, flushing protocols must be tailored for specific plumbing configurations and the type of lead release (Katner et al. 2018). Moreover, flushing is only effective when consumers follow procedures diligently and frequently, and WLLs can increase rapidly during short periods of stagnation (e.g., 50% dissolved lead after 1 h) (Schock 1990).
Resident Zero (the Flint resident who uncovered the dimensions of the crisis) was advised by city officials to flush the water for 25 min before consumption due to progressively increasing WLLs in early 2015 (Smith 2015). However, in-depth testing in April 2015 revealed that all samples collected after a 26-min flushing period (>100 L) still contained lead above 15 μg/L (217–13,200 μg/L) (Pieper et al. 2017). Moreover, WLLs collected after 20 min of flushing were actually increasing, demonstrating that this advice was ineffective in the midst of the water crisis. During community-wide testing in August 2015, a 3-min flush resulted in a 75% reduction in the first draw 90th percentile WLL (26.8–6.6 μg/L; n = 268), but 47% of residents still had detectable water lead (≥1 μg/L) (Pieper et al. 2018a). After switching back to Detroit water service with enhanced CCT, the city issued a lead advisory, recommending that residents flush the tap water for 5 min before consumption. Water lead samples collected in March 2016 confirmed that 3 min of flushing reduced WLLs for most homes in Flint (Pieper et al. 2018a). Specifically, there was an 86% reduction in the first draw 90th percentile WLL after 3 min of flushing (22.4–3.2 μg/L; n = 156), and 99% of samples were below 15 μg/L. However, 30% of residents still had detectable water lead, and several homes experienced spikes in lead (maximum of 69 μg/L), which were likely linked to the disruption of previously formed leaded scale layers. Thus, sole reliance on flushing as a strategy for reducing WLL exposure appeared to be inconsistently effective during the Flint Water Crisis.
While 3 min of flushing reduced WLLs for most homes in Flint, there were substantial financial burdens and water conservation implications that need to be considered (Table 1). Assuming that the water flow rate from a kitchen faucet is 8.3 L/min (2.2 gal/min) (Welter 2016), flushing for 3 min would have disposed of 24.9 L/flush (6.6 gal/flush). If all 43,404 service connections in Flint flushed twice per day (morning and after work), approximately 2.2 million L (0.6 million gal) would have been flushed daily (City of Flint 2016). Over a 30-day period, this would have amounted to 65 million L (17 million gal). As water service was largely a fixed cost operation in Flint, flushing practices would have only slightly increased water bills for residents (RFC 2016). At $3.30 per 14,195 L (3,740 gal), flushing 3 min twice daily would have cost only $0.01 or $0.35 over 30 days. Therefore, flushing was a low-cost remediation strategy for residents, but was not always effective, and may have increased water and wastewater operation costs and wasted a substantial quantity of water (Wang et al. 2018).
Consuming bottled water
The USEPA does not regulate bottled water quality, rather the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for the safety and appropriate labeling of bottled water (FDA 2010). FDA's bottled water regulations do not pertain to approximately 60–70% of brands, as they are packaged and sold within the same state (Olson et al. 1999). There has been considerable debate regarding the health protectiveness of FDA's bottled water standards. But in terms of lead, the FDA has a lower allowable threshold than the USEPA – bottled water must contain less than 5 μg/L, which is a third of the action level (U.S. EPA 1991; FDA 2010).
To quantify WLLs in bottled water and potential bottled water lead exposure, our research team analyzed five brands distributed during the Flint Water Crisis (Deer Park, Great Value, Kroger, Member's Mark, and Nestle). All 15 samples contained non-detectable WLLs (<1 μg/L), demonstrating that these brands were safe for lead, and confirming that bottled water is a viable option that can be distributed during a water lead crisis. In addition, other corrosion-related metals (iron, copper, and zinc) were also below detectable levels (<10 μg/L). These brands differed mainly with respect to other water quality factors (e.g., sodium concentrations and water hardness) that can impact aesthetics (more information about bottled water quality and brands can be found at www.nsf.org). While bottled water provides a safe drinking water alternative in terms of lead, there are financial and environmental implications associated with its use. Moreover, the use of bottled water can impede the recovery of the system, as there will be a limited flow of distributed water with CCT in the premise plumbing and service lines.
Based on our review of popular brands available in grocery stores, a 1-gallon off the shelf container can cost between $0.77 and $1.75, while individual bottles can cost between $0.77 and $8.32 per gallon. Assuming the average person uses 5 L (1.3 gal) daily for all cooking and drinking purposes, a family of four will use 600 L (159 gal) of water over a 30-day period (U.S. Geological Survey 2016). Using the least expensive bottled water option, this family would spend $122.05 (not including tax) and only save $0.14 on water bill due to the conservation of 20 L/day (assuming $3.30 commodity charge per 14,195 L) (RFC 2016). As for waste generation, a family could generate 5–40 empty bottles daily and 159–1,200 empty plastic bottles monthly when using gallon and 16.9 ounce bottles, respectively. These estimates are consistent with a CNN profile of the Luster family in Flint (Zdanowicz 2016). Over 3 days, this family of three used approximately 4.8 gal for cooking, 3.6 gal for drinking water, and 6.9 gal for miscellaneous activities such as washing dishes and brushing teeth. While bottled water provides a safe alternative when tap water is lead-contaminated, this option may not be financially feasible or sustainable for low-income residents. Moreover, due to the inconvenience and expense, residents may use less water – the Luster family used 7 gal/day compared to an average of 100 gal/day (U.S. Geological Survey 2016).
Using a filter certified to remove lead
There are numerous treatment options available that are certified to remove specific health-related contaminants from drinking water (a consumer tool for identifying water filters certified to reduce lead can be found on the USEPA's website). NSF is one certifying body of water filters. NSF/ANSI 53 certified point-of-use (POU) filters can be a low-cost option to remediate water lead (NSF International 2015). POU filters are designed to treat water at a specific outlet, which limits the volume of water needed to be filtered. The activated carbon media sorb dissolved lead and trap particulate lead to reduce WLLs below 10 μg/L for water containing up to 150 μg/L lead (NSF International 2015). Thus, filters can be an effective remediation strategy if expired filter cartridges are regularly replaced. While POUs are available as tap-mounted, under-the-sink, and pour-through (pitcher filters) from numerous companies, tap-mounted units were recommended and distributed during the Flint Water Crisis (U.S. EPA 2016a).
At the onset of the Flint Water Crisis, there were concerns regarding POU efficacy for homes with WLLs above the NSF/ANSI 53 threshold of 150 μg/L. Our team filtered the worst water lead sample from the home of Resident Zero (sample containing 13,200 μg/L) through an NSF/ANSI 53 certified ZeroWater™ lead filter and observed that 99.85% of the water lead was removed (Edwards 2016; Pieper et al. 2017). Although the filtered water was still above the USEPA action level on this extreme 'worst-case' sample, this experiment illustrated that POU filters are effective in dramatically reducing WLLs even under the most extreme conditions. The USEPA conducted additional NSF/ANSI 53 POU testing to examine the efficacy of Brita™ and Pur™ brand filters under more typical 'worst-case' WLLs in Flint (the 90th WLL of the unfiltered sample population was 68 μg/L) (U.S. EPA 2016a). Based on paired data from 241 Flint homes, POU filters were capable of removing lead in exceedance of 150 μg/L (reduced 4,080 to 0.9 μg/L). Moreover, in most homes, WLLs were reduced to non-reportable levels after filtration (the 90th WLL of the filtered sample population was <0.5 μg/L; high of 1.01 μg/L). Thus, the USEPA data clearly demonstrated that POU filters could effectively reduce the lead in tap water to well below both the action level and the bottled water standard, which is consistent with prior research (Deshommes et al. 2010, 2012).
Although POU filters were distributed during the Flint Water Crisis at no cost to the residents (U.S. EPA 2016a), these devices are also readily available at local stores. Based on our review of popular brands available, tap-mounted POUs typically cost less than $50, with some models as low as $15. The filter capacity for most units was between 100 and 200 gal (projected to last 3–4 months), and the average cost for a replacement filter cartridge was $10–15. These POU filters cost between $25 and $35, with a replacement filter cartridge costing approximately $10–15. The pitcher style requires more frequent maintenance, as these units are only rated for 25–40 gal (projected to last 1–2 months). Over a 30-day period, the least expensive tap-mounted and pitcher style POU filters would cost only $10–15 in replacement cartridge needs, but this remediation requires an initial purchase of $15–50 for the filtration device. Thus, both POU styles provide a low-cost, effective remediation strategy for residents, but the ease of installation and filter replacement maintenance need to be considered when communicating this strategy.
Removal of partial or full LSLs
Exposure to water lead can be prevented by safely removing sources of lead. In the drinking water infrastructure, LSLs are the most concentrated source of lead and can directly contaminate drinking water. For example, assuming a family of four uses 400 gal of water per day, each foot of ¾″ lead pipe contains enough lead to raise every drop of water above the action level for more than 100 years (Edwards 2014a). Thus, replacing the LSL with a non-leaded alternative will greatly reduce water lead exposure.
As previously described, the home of Resident Zero had high WLLs over a 26-min flushing period (>100 L) – the first draw and median WLLs were 2,171 and 1,747 μg/L, respectively (Pieper et al. 2017). In May 2015, the 25 ft LSL and 192 ft galvanized iron service lines present at the home of Resident Zero were replaced with a non-leaded pipe. The following week, a subsequent lead profile containing 18 sequential 1-L samples was collected at this home. There was a substantial decrease in WLLs even though there was no corrosion control in the system at that point – the first draw and median WLLs were 2.1 and 1.9 μg/L, respectively. However, there was a spike of 32.4 μg/L in the 17th liter of water, which is consistent with other literature suggesting short-term incident of high WLLs even after full service line replacements (Sandvig et al. 2008; Cartier et al. 2013). In addition, this practice still leaves lead sources within the home plumbing, which after the LSL is removed, becomes the source of 100% of the lead in water and can still far exceed the lead action level (Triantafyllidou & Edwards 2007; Triantafyllidou et al. 2007). Indeed, during the Flint Water Crisis citizen-led sampling events, the worst-case home sampled (WLL of 1,051 μg/L) had no lead pipe, rather the lead was derived from detaching pieces of lead solder (Pieper et al. 2018a).
Efforts are currently underway to repair and replace the water infrastructure throughout Flint. It was estimated to take almost a decade to address all infrastructure replacement needs at the previous rate of repair, as only 224 of the 29,100 needed replacements had been completed between February and December 2016 (Derringer 2016; Moore 2016). Service line replacement can be a slow process due to its labor-intensive nature (e.g., destruction of streets and sidewalks, removal of complex landscaping, or tree root systems) (City of Flint 2016; Derringer 2016). The cost of service line replacements can also be cost prohibitive, especially for low-income communities (Katner et al. 2016). Additional environmental injustices can arise, as replacement decisions are at the discretion of the property owner, not renters. Through the USEPA funding, LSL and GSL replacements will be done at no cost to Flint residents (U.S. EPA 2017). However, most cities are not provided this kind of government support. Without state or federal assistance, the cost of a full line replacement ranges from $1,000 to $7,000 per home and may cost more depending on access constraints and other site-specific considerations (Lambrinidou & Edwards 2013). When residents are unable to pay for the replacement of the service line on their property, PLSLRs are conducted – a practice that disproportionately impacts low-income residents (Katner et al. 2016). Some water utilities are also 'gifting' the LSLs, which shift both the ownership and financial burden of LSL replacement to the customer (Kaplan & Hiar 2012). Removing the source of lead in drinking water infrastructure is an important step in preventing water lead exposure, but it is a time, labor, and financially intensive process.
When considering potential lead in water exposure and choosing household-level avoidance strategies, it is necessary to understand the protections afforded by regulations and public health guidance. The USEPA's current regulatory framework attempts to account for both water chemistry and infrastructure contributions to lead release by requiring sampling at consumers' taps (U.S. EPA 1991). However, lead sampling protocols were designed to inform regulatory oversight, not to characterize exposures or public health risks. Moreover, up to 10% of homes sampled during the LCR protocol can contain substantial lead as well as homes not sampled during LCR testing campaigns. Officials are also required to promote flushing on annual consumer confidence reports, and PLSLRs are still required under some non-compliance/exceedance circumstances despite evidence of the short-term-associated risks (Katner et al. 2016, 2018). While USEPA regulatory officials recognize the limitations of the LCR in protecting all individuals in a city from high water lead exposures, public health officials have long misinterpreted regulatory compliance as public health assurance. The CDC's guidance for investigating the homes of lead poisoned children does not require water lead testing if other sources of lead were found or if the city is meeting the LCR action level (U.S. CDC 2002). This recommendation has omitted water lead testing in LCR-compliant cities and overlooked a potential route of low-dose chronic lead exposure. These misinterpretations have led to missed opportunities to detect water lead issues and empower people with information on strategies that would allow them to take responsibility for independently addressing potential risks.
The four household water lead avoidance strategies presented in this study reduced WLLs to some degree, but the effectiveness of these avoidance strategies will be site-specific. As explored in Flint, flushing reduced WLLs overall, but the household-level effectiveness was inconsistent. While city officials initially advised residents to flush their taps before using the water, this recommendation was replaced by using bottled water and/or an NSF/ANSI 53 lead filter. This work, along with others (U.S. EPA 2016a), have documented that both bottled water and lead filters are strategies that consistently provided safe drinking water. Although replacing the leaded plumbing removes the source of lead, as evident in Flint, this cannot be implemented at the height of a crisis.
For communities concerned about lead in drinking water, building age and knowledge of plumbing materials will help determine the appropriate avoidance strategy, as this information can indicate likely types of leaded infrastructure present. For example, homes with pre-1986 plumbing are more likely to have leaded plumbing sources, including LSLs and lead solder, and may need more intensive interventions like plumbing replacements and avoidance strategies (e.g., bottled water and NSF/ANSI 53 filters). In contrast, lower risk homes, including homes built after 1986 (no LSLs or lead solder) and homes built after 2014 (<0.25% lead in the wetted surface), may not require plumbing replacements, but rather suffice with NSF/ANSI 53 filters. Although flushing is often promoted, it is important to know the presence and location of leaded plumbing materials, as it is not effective when particulate lead and LSLs are present in the system (Del Toral et al. 2013; Clark et al. 2014; Pieper et al. 2015a; Katner et al. 2018). Lastly, other potential variables impacting the residents and the city, such as financial burden, trash and recycling needs, and water conservation implications are difficult to estimate due to poor record keeping and limited research exploring such costs (Wang et al. 2018).
There is a critical need for proactive interventions to prevent lead exposure from drinking water instead of relying on reactive regulatory compliance actions that may not be sufficiently protective of public health. In this study, we illustrate the application of an overly simplistic lead in water equation to help understand that worst-case WLLs result from a combination of corrosive water, leaded drinking water infrastructure, and the absence of corrosion controls. Improving any of these conditions can reduce WLLs. The water lead avoidance strategies primarily focus on interventions at the household level to reduce potential water lead, including removal of leaded plumbing, remediation strategies such as flushing and filtration, and complete avoidance by switching to bottled water consumption. The optimal strategy for a given residence will be site-specific and based on a variety of factors and considerations. Thus, engaging with residents and the community will be critical to successful implementation. This work provides public health practitioners, government officials, utility personnel, and concerned residents with science-based information for informed communication, decision-making, and implementation of household-level avoidance strategies for lead from drinking water.
The research presented in this article was supported by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (#8399375) and by the National Institute of Food and Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture (#2016-67012-24687). Data presented in this article were supported by the National Science Foundation through a Rapid Research Response grant (#1556258), a supplement to CBET Award (#1336650), and funding from the Community Foundation of Greater Flint. The authors would like to acknowledge the work of LeeAnne Walters (Resident Zero) and Miguel Del Toral (USEPA), for their assistance with water lead sampling, and Jeffrey Parks, William Rhoads, and Siddhartha Roy, for their assistance with sample collection and analysis.
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OA copyright CC BY 4.0.
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text:
Los peces tropicales son peces que habitan en medios ambientes tropicales en diversas partes del mundo, incluyendo tanto a especies de agua dulce como a especies de agua salada.

Los peces tropicales son populares como peces para acuario, ya que muy a menudo poseen colores brillantes. En los peces de agua dulce, esta coloración por lo general deriva de la iridiscencia, mientras que en los peces marinos por lo general es producto de pigmentos.

Los acuaristas a menudo utilizan el término peces tropicales para referirse especialmente a aquellos de agua dulce, mientras que los peces tropicales marinos son llamados simplemente peces marinos. Los peces tropicales criados para acuarios caseros incluyen:

 Especímenes capturados en ambientes naturales.
 Individuos de determinadas especies nacidos en cautividad. Esta categoría incluye los desarrollados mediante selección artificial, por sus características físicas especiales, tales como aletas largas o coloraciones especiales (como los albinos, por ejemplo).
 Híbridos de más de una especie.

Los buzos a menudo son también entusiastas de los peces tropicales.

Peces de arrecife de coral

Muchos peces tropicales marinos (especialmente aquellos de interés para los acuaristas) son los que viven en los arrecifes de coral. Los arrecifes de coral forman ecosistemas complejos, con una gran biodiversidad. Entre sus muchos habitantes, los peces sobresalen por ser particularmente coloridos e interesantes de observar. Cientos de especies pueden existir en una pequeña área de un arrecife saludable, muchos de ellos ocultos o bien camuflados. Los peces de arrecife han desarrollado muchas especializaciones ingeniosas para adaptarse y sobrevivir en los arrecifes.

Los arrecifes de coral ocupan menos del 1 % del área de la superficie de los océanos del planeta, y aun así, proveen un hogar al 25 % de todas las especies de peces marinos. Los hábitats de arrecife son un gran contraste con los hábitats de aguas abiertas, los cuales conforman el otro 99 % de los océanos del mundo.

Sin embargo, la pérdida y degradación del hábitat de los arrecifes de coral, el incremento de la polución marina, y la sobrepesca (incluyendo el uso de prácticas de pesca destructivas), amenazan la supervivencia de los arrecifes de coral y de los peces de arrecife asociados a ellos.

Véase también
 Acuariofilia
 Anexo:Familias de peces de agua dulce

Acuarios

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia