text:
\section{Introduction} \label{sec:intro}

JWST is expected to have the capability to characterize the atmospheric composition of temperate rocky planets. In particular, the NIRSpec PRISM instrument
will likely have the ability to identify spectral features in the atmospheres of temperate terrestrial exoplanets in
as few as ten transits \citep{batalha_transiting_2014, batalha_strategies_2018, fauchez_impact_2019, birkmann_near-infrared_2022}. NIRSpec's broad wavelength range of $0.6-5.3$ $\mu$m
and moderate resolution of $R \approx 20-300$ \citep{jakobsen_near-infrared_2022} make it ideal for constraining spectral features of multiple habitability indicators and biosignatures including H$_2$O, CO$_2$, and CH$_4$
\citep{fauchez_impact_2019}. Simultaneous measurements with NIRSpec PRISM across a broad wavelength range, which would include multiple spectral features at different wavelengths,
can enhance the signal-to-noise ratio of these species.

TRAPPIST-1 is an ultracool M8V dwarf star
($T_{eff} = 2550 \pm 50 $ K) at a distance of twelve parsecs, with seven known planetary companions \citep{liebert_ri_2006, gillon_temperate_2016, gillon_seven_2017}. Of these, planets e, f, and g are all potentially within the habitable zone of their planet, although f and g would require atmospheres with a greenhouse gas complement beyond H$_2$O, e.g., with CO$_2$ and/or CH$_4$, due to their lower received flux \citep{kasting_habitable_1993, kopparapu_habitable_2013, gillon_seven_2017, lincowski_evolved_2018}. However, e has previously been shown to feasibly sustain some amount of liquid surface water under a much wider variety of atmospheric surface pressures than f or g \citep{turbet_modeling_2018, sergeev_trappist-1_2022}, and is among the most likely known exoplanets to host surface liquid water \citep{wolf_assessing_2017}. It will be observed throughout four transits with NIRSpec PRISM during JWST's Cycle 1 (GTO 1331, PI: Lewis), which may be enough to partially characterize its atmosphere \citep{morley_observing_2017, fauchez_impact_2019,  lustig-yaeger_detectability_2019}, and may in the future be complemented by reflection and emission spectra from ELT \citep{lin_high-resolution_2022}. JWST is expected to be able to view TRAPPIST-1e transiting a maximum of 85 times during its nominal 5.5 year lifetime \citep{lustig-yaeger_detectability_2019, komacek_clouds_2020}. However, with the recent increase of JWST's potential lifetime
to 20 years \citep{rigby_characterization_2022}, TRAPPIST-1e may be viewable up to $\sim$320 times during transit, well past the required number of transits predicted
to identify molecular spectral signatures \citep{lustig-yaeger_detectability_2019, komacek_clouds_2020}.

TRAPPIST-1e has a near-Earth like radius and density, and receives 60\% of Earth's incident flux \citep{gillon_seven_2017}. It is likely either tidally locked or in a higher-order orbital resonance \citep{turbet_modeling_2018}, with an orbital period of $6.099$ days \citep{gillon_seven_2017}.
TRAPPIST-1e may be an aquaplanet, as shown by \cite{agol_refining_2021}, which identified TRAPPIST-1e's density as $\rho = 0.889^{+0.030}_{-0.033}\rho_{E}$ using transit-timing variations, and found that if iron makes up $\ge$25\% of the total planetary mass, there should be a higher water mass fraction than Earth's to account for the calculated density.
Observations to date have only ruled out a hydrogen-rich atmosphere for TRAPPIST-1e,
with a lack of strong spectral features observed with HST/WFC3
implying a terrestrial planet with a higher mean molecular weight atmosphere \citep{de_wit_atmospheric_2018}. If TRAPPIST-1e is tidally locked and sustains surface liquid water, water vapor signal strength in transit spectroscopy may be dependent on cloud cover, as
water clouds would flatten the spectral features by increasing the continuum height, requiring more transits to identify spectral features with certainty \citep{greene_characterizing_2016, fauchez_impact_2019, suissa_dim_2020, mikal-evans_detecting_2021}.

It has been previously demonstrated that, similar to the O\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} biosignature pair \citep{krissansen-totton_disequilibrium_2018, meadows_exoplanet_2018}, CO\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} could serve as a
biosignature when seen in disequilibrium in a planetary atmosphere \citep{kleinbohl_buildup_2018, mikal-evans_detecting_2021}. Life could also drive the atmospheric chemistry to equilibrium via catalysis. However, in order to study the potential to observationally assess the inhabitance of a planet with JWST, we focus here on the previously proposed CO$_2$-CH$_4$ disequilibrium pair as a possible biosignature \citep{meadows_exoplanet_2018}. The O\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} pair is harder to characterize as a biotic reaction for TRAPPIST-1e due to the likelihood of O\textsubscript{2}/O\textsubscript{3} false positives in transit spectra from pre-main sequence runaway greenhouse effects in water-rich planetary atmospheres orbiting M dwarfs \citep{tian_high_2014,wordsworth_abiotic_2014,luger_extreme_2015}, making the CO\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} pair a better candidate to constrain the potential biosphere of TRAPPIST-1e.
A lack of CO in a CH\textsubscript{4}-inclusive environment is only known to exist if that methane is produced biotically, as other methane sources (such as volcanic outgassing and high-frequency impact events) contain carbon monoxide as a byproduct \citep{krissansen-totton_understanding_2022}. As such, atmospheres with significant CO\textsubscript{2} and CH\textsubscript{4} but little CO
have the potential to be maintained biotically.

Previous work has shown that climatological factors such as the cloud cover and day-night heat transport on tidally locked rocky exoplanets depend strongly on the coupled planetary parameters of rotation rate and instellation
 \citep{yang_stabilizing_2013,wolf_assessing_2017, turbet_modeling_2018, fauchez_impact_2019, shields_climates_2019, suissa_dim_2020}. For tidally locked planets such as TRAPPIST-1e, it is expected that the climate is characterized by day-night temperature contrasts, with a hot and cloudy substellar point and a
 cold and less cloudy antistellar point \citep{merlis_atmospheric_2010,showman_atmospheric_2013-1, yang_stabilizing_2013, koll_temperature_2016}. TRAPPIST-1e in particular is a special case, that falls between the Rhines (or intermediate) rotator and the fast rotator regimes

 \citep{showman_atmospheric_2013-1, haqq-misra_demarcating_2018, sergeev_bistability_2022}. As such, it is expected to contain aspects of both regimes, depending on atmospheric composition; while the day-night temperature contrast should be large as in intermediate-rotating tidally-locked planets, there may also be a superrotating

 eastward jet in the tropics,
 with large cyclonic eddies in the extratropics formed by the day-night contrast causing a global standing wave pattern, as expected on a fast rotator \citep{showman_atmospheric_2013-1}. In this case, the weak temperature gradient (WTG) parameter, which encapsulates the effect of rotation on planetary-scale atmospheric dynamics, is $\Lambda \approx 2$, as predicted in  \citet{pierrehumbert_atmospheric_2019} for a Rhines rotator tidally-locked planet $\left( \Lambda > 1 \right)$. However, the climate state of this model includes a superrotating equatorial jet, as predicted for a fast rotator, which arises from TRAPPIST-1e's unique bistablity given its location at the edge of the fast and Rhines rotator regimes \citep{haqq-misra_demarcating_2018, sergeev_bistability_2022}.

Significant temporal variability is expected in the climates of tidally-locked planets with rotation periods similar to TRAPPIST-1e, although its mechanism may be difficult to identify, and is likely related to planetary-scale wave propagation \citep{pierrehumbert_atmospheric_2019, song_asymmetry_2021, cohen_traveling_2022}. Additionally, a longitudinally-asymmetric stratospheric oscillation (LASO), analogous to Earth's quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) and caused by vertical propagation of gravity waves,
emerges in GCMs of Proxima Centauri b, an intermediate-rotating tidally locked rocky planet \citep{cohen_longitudinally_2021}.
As such, there may be a
temporal variation in the stratospheric temperature and humidity the resulting cloud cover, which could amplify the expected variability in transmission signal strength at the limb. However, any east-west limb asymmetry is likely small and undetectable with JWST \citep{song_asymmetry_2021}.

For tidally locked planets exhibiting temporal variability, it is key to study the three-dimensional circulation; water vapor, cloud formation, and horizontal heat transport all require a three-dimensional model to properly simulate \citep{Joshi:1997,pierrehumbert_palette_2011,fauchez_impact_2019,may_water_2021}. Likewise, for simulating transmission spectra of tidally locked planets, limb conditions are particularly important, which can only be consistently predicted along with dayside and nightside properties using a 3D GCM. Rotation rate of the planet also dictates the circulation regime \citep{Noda:2017aa, krissansen-totton_detectability_2018} and cloud transport \citep{showman_atmospheric_2013-1}, which cannot be sufficiently modeled in one dimension. As such, our motivation in this work requires use of a GCM rather than a one-dimensional model.

This work follows this structure: in Section \ref{sec:method}, we discuss our GCM simulations and parameters used, as well as the post-processing through the NASA Planetary Spectrum Generator and subsequent analysis. In Section \ref{sec:results}, we discuss transmission spectrum results for the 10\textsuperscript{-2} bar pCO\textsubscript{2} case, their dependence on atmospheric climatology, and overarching trends across our full set of atmospheric cases with varying pCO$_2$ and including/excluding CH$_4$. In Section \ref{sec:discussion}, we discuss the implications of our findings on biosignature detectability with JWST and their limitations. Finally, in Section \ref{sec:conclusion}, we summarize our results and their significance for future transmission spectroscopy of TRAPPIST-1e with JWST.

\begin{figure*}[]
    \centering
    \hspace*{-0.33cm}
    \includegraphics[width=185mm]{Figure1_PandExo_and_AllSpec.png}
    \caption{Transmission spectra for a full year of the 1, $10^{-1}$, $10^{-2}$, $10^{-3}$, and $10^{-4}$ bar pCO\textsubscript{2} cases (left), and a resulting PandExo noise output example (right). Black lines represent the methane case, while blue lines represent the methane-free case for each pCO\textsubscript{2}. Higher carbon dioxide cases tend to have larger features but also a higher continuum floor, which masks smaller features like those of CH\textsubscript{4}, as seen in the 1 bar case; note that the $10^{-3}$ and $10^{-4}$ bar cases are shown on a smaller vertical scale to emphasize spectral features. The bottom right panel shows the time-averaged continuum floor of all 360 spectra with (solid line) and without (dashed line) methane, for each of the five pCO\textsubscript{2} cases. The height of continuum floors and the difference between the methane-inclusive and exclusive continuum floors for each case both increase dramatically with increasing pCO\textsubscript{2}. The four varied noise floors (0 through 50 ppm) are shown in the right plot for a standard $10^{-2}$ bar pCO$_2$ spectrum, with the residuals plotted below. Higher noise floors correspond to larger residuals, and the sub-$1$ $\mu$m region has larger uncertainties than the $1-5$ $\mu$m region for all noise floors.}
    \label{fig:spectratotal}
\end{figure*}

\section{Methods} \label{sec:method}
\subsection{Atmospheric Model} \label{sec:model}
Building upon previous modeling work by \cite{may_water_2021}, we simulate the climate dynamics of TRAPPIST-1e using the \verb|ExoCAM| GCM\footnote{\url{https://github.com/storyofthewolf/ExoCAM}} \citep{wolf_exocam_2022}. \verb|ExoCAM| utilizes the \verb|ExoRT|\footnote{\url{https://github.com/storyofthewolf/ExoRT}} correlated-k radiative transfer scheme, which uses the \verb|HITRAN| absorption database and the \verb|HELIOS-K| opacity calculator \citep{rothman_hitran_2005, grimm_helios-k_2015, malik_helios_2017, grimm_helios-k_2021}.
We use a $4^{\circ} \times 5^{\circ}$ horizontal GCM resolution with 40 atmospheric layers and 28 correlated-k bins in the radiative transfer model.
We simulate a grid of atmospheric compositions, composed of 1 bar of background N\textsubscript{2} and CO\textsubscript{2} partial pressure ranging from 10\textsuperscript{-4} to 1 bar logarithmically, both with and without an additional modern Earth-like CH\textsubscript{4} partial pressure of $1.7$ $\mu$bar. In keeping with previous literature \citep{wolf_assessing_2017, turbet_modeling_2018, fauchez_trappist-1_2021, may_water_2021}, we do not vary the N$_2$ partial pressure and treat it as a background gas. However, we discuss the effect of different N$_2$ partial pressures on the results in section \ref{sec:limitations}.
The surface is assumed to be an aquaplanet with a slab ocean of uniform 50 meter depth, with the abundance of H\textsubscript{2}O determined by the saturation vapor pressure. The model includes sea ice and its resultant higher albedo, using the thermodynamic sea ice scheme from \citet{bitz_climate_2012}, which is standard for \texttt{ExoCAM} models. However, our sea ice scheme neglects ice drift, which has been demonstrated to affect climate and lower both surface temperature and liquid surface ocean area \citep{yang_transition_2020, yue_effect_2020}.

We use the derived planetary parameters of TRAPPIST-1e of $R_p = 5,988$ km and $g_p = 9.12$ ms$^{-2}$ from \cite{gillon_seven_2017}, and the updated stellar parameters of TRAPPIST-1 of $R_\star = 0.124 R_\odot$ and $T = 2516$ K from \cite{kane_impact_2018}. We assume TRAPPIST-1e to be spin-synchronized with an orbital and rotation period of 6.099 days, and further assume zero obliquity and zero eccentricity.
As in \cite{may_water_2021}, we use a model stellar spectrum
from \cite{allard_kh2_2007}, for an M dwarf with an effective temperature of 2600 K. The GCM was run until a steady state was reached in both net flux (incident stellar and thermal outwelling) and surface temperature, generally after 45$-$55 simulated Earth years.

\subsection{Spectrum Post-Processing}\label{sec:PSG}
We post-process our ExoCAM GCMs with the NASA Goddard Planetary Spectrum Generator (PSG) Global Emisson Spectra (GlobES) API\footnote{\url{https://psg.gsfc.nasa.gov/apps/globes.php}} \citep{villanueva_planetary_2018, villanueva_fundamentals_2022}, which reads in converted GCM files and uses a radiative transfer model to calculate transmission through the planetary atmosphere in each atmospheric layer.
We then calculate a latitudinally-averaged transmission spectrum along the entire limb of the planet.
The
transmission spectrum is simulated using the correlated-k \verb|PUMAS| model, with 20 bins, at the full limb at longitudes of $\pm90^{\circ}$ from the substellar point. We produce 360 transit spectra taken as averages of 1 Earth day intervals
from the last year of the GCM's temporal evolution for each atmospheric case, to investigate any effect of year-long temporal variability within the climate on variability in transmission spectra.

The spectrum is generated with an instrumental configuration analogous to that of JWST NIRSpec PRISM, with a wavelength range of 0.6$-$5.3 $\mu$m. We provide PSG with the same planetary and stellar parameters as the GCM (listed in \ref{sec:model}). In this model, limb-darkening is not considered. Atmospheric refraction is natively included, but is likely not important for TRAPPIST-1e due to the large angular size of TRAPPIST-1 \citep{Doshi:2022uu}. The full 360 transit spectra for each of the ten cases are shown in Figure \ref{fig:spectratotal}, along with the time-averaged continuum floor of each case.

To calculate the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of individual species, we bin our simulated PSG spectra to a resolution of $R=100$, and simulate noise for the PSG transit spectra using \verb|PandExo|\footnote{\url{https://natashabatalha.github.io/PandExo/}} \citep{batalha_pandexo_2017} for noise calculation with NIRSpec PRISM's resolution limits, as in \cite{may_water_2021}.
We vary the noise floor of NIRSpec across 0, 10, 30, and 50 ppm (as shown in Figure \ref{fig:spectratotal}), for a final set of 4 transmission spectra with varying noise floor (which supercedes the photon noise only when the photon noise is lower) from each model day in each of our 10 cases with varying pCO$_2$ and CH$_4$.

\subsection{Spectral Analysis}\label{sec:analysis}

For each atmospheric case, we individually analyze all 360 spectra to identify detectability, and its dependence on atmospheric variability. We also post-process identical GCM cases to each atmospheric case, but where molecular species are individually removed from the PSG atmospheric parameters, to produce an identical spectrum without the effects of one species. The signal-to-noise ratio of a single day for a given species is then calculated as:

\begin{equation}\label{eq:SNR}
\langle SNR \rangle = \sqrt{\sum_{\lambda} \left(\frac{m_1(\lambda) - m_2(\lambda)}{\sigma_1(\lambda)} \right)^2}
\end{equation}

Here $m_1$ is the signal strength for a single wavelength in the species-inclusive case, $m_2$ is the signal strength for the missing-species case (or the continuum), $\sigma_1$ is the noise from \verb|PandExo| at the given wavelength in the all-inclusive case, and $\sum_{\lambda}$ represents the sum over the wavelength range of the instrument \citep{lustig-yaeger_detectability_2019}. To determine the minimum number of transits for detection, 60 PSG transmission spectra separated in time by 6 days are run through \verb|PandExo|,in order to sample the time-varying climate of TRAPPIST-1e from orbit to orbit. Each spectrum is individually simulated and all 60 spectra are averaged to a mean yearly SNR, with a sequentially increasing number of transits until the mean yearly SNR surpasses $5.0$, which we consider a strong detection (99.9\% confidence), or a 50 transit limit is reached, in which case a strong detection may not be feasible.

NIRSpec PRISM's broad wavelength range of 0.6$-$5.3 $\mu$m \citep{jakobsen_near-infrared_2022} contains several notable spectral features of CO\textsubscript{2}, CH\textsubscript{4}, and H\textsubscript{2}O. Each species has a distinct footprint within TRAPPIST-1e's spectrum, as seen in Figure \ref{fig:spectraspecies}.

Note that retrieval models would provide a
more precise way of constraining atmospheric
properties of TRAPPIST-1e from transmission spectra \citep{krissansen-totton_detectability_2018,may_water_2021,mikal-evans_detecting_2021}. However, here we simplify our analyses in order to study the daily time-resolved output from the suite of ten GCM simulations conducted in order to assess the impact of climate on observable properties of TRAPPIST-1e.

\begin{figure}
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=85mm]{SpectraPeaks3.png}
    \caption{Spectral decomposition for the 32\textsuperscript{nd} day in the final year of the 10\textsuperscript{-2} bar pCO\textsubscript{2} CH\textsubscript{4}-inclusive case. The total transit spectrum with all species included is shown in black, with the decomposed

    spectrum without each
    species shown in orange. The three main peaks of CO$_2$ are visible, with the CH$_4$ features at 2.6 and 3.3 $\mu$m and the several water peaks also identifiable.}
    \label{fig:spectraspecies}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure*}[t]
    \centering
    \hspace*{-0.3cm}
    \includegraphics[width=185mm]{CloudTempEdited.png}
    \caption{Four days of ExoCAM GCM simulations of TRAPPIST-1e with a partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 0.01 bar, with temperature (top) and cloud water path (bottom) at a pressure of 780 mbar.
    There is significant cloud variability, and eastward motion of clouds due to equatorial winds which drive a hot spot offset, along with eddies on the  mid-latitude nightside.

    The substellar point (shown at the center of each plot, [0\textsuperscript{$\circ$}N, 180\textsuperscript{$\circ$}E]) is consistently cloudy and hot, but still undergoes variability in the local cloud water path.}
    \label{fig:tempcloud}
\end{figure*}

\section{Results} \label{sec:results}

\subsection{The 10\textsuperscript{-2} bar CO\textsubscript{2} Case}\label{sec:1e-2}

The 10\textsuperscript{-2} bar pCO\textsubscript{2} case has a temperate climate and we consider it as a baseline
model for the atmosphere of TRAPPIST-1e. In this section, we do a deeper dive into the analysis of this case, while noting general trends between different pCO\textsubscript{2} cases in Section \ref{sec:pco2}.

\subsubsection{Detectability of Species with JWST}\label{sec:detect}
For the methane-inclusive case, we find that only one to two transits are needed to significantly detect CO$_2$, while both H$_2$O and CH$_4$ are detectable in less than 13 transits for a noise floor of 0 or 10 ppm, although neither are detectable at noise floors of 30 ppm or higher (Table \ref{table:SNRs}). These are optimistic assumptions, as we assume a hazeless atmosphere, although, in an oxygen-free atmosphere, methane is expected to build up to higher partial pressures without oxidation into CO$_2$. However, note that we have conducted an equivalent band-by-band analysis to \cite{fauchez_impact_2019} and found good agreement, implying that haze assumptions do not greatly impact predicted feature SNR.

\begin{table*}[]
\centering
\hspace*{-4cm}
\begin{tabular}{|cc|cc|cc|cc|cc|cc|}
\hline
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\multirow{2}{*}{\textbf{Species}}} & \textbf{Noise} & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\textbf{10$^{0}$ bar pCO$_2$}}        & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\textbf{10$^{-1}$ bar pCO$_2$}}       & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\textbf{10$^{-2}$ bar pCO$_2$}}       & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\textbf{10$^{-3}$ bar pCO$_2$}}       & \multicolumn{2}{c|}{\textbf{10$^{-4}$ bar pCO$_2$}}       \\ \cline{3-12}
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & \textbf{Floor} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{CH$_4$}} & \textbf{No CH$_4$} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{CH$_4$}} & \textbf{No CH$_4$} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{CH$_4$}} & \textbf{No CH$_4$} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{CH$_4$}} & \textbf{No CH$_4$} & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{\textbf{CH$_4$}} & \textbf{No CH$_4$} \\ \hline
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\multirow{4}{*}{\textbf{CO$_2$}}}  & 0 ppm          & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{2}               & 2                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{4}               & 4                  \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 10 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{2}               & 2                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{4}               & 4                  \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 30 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{2}               & 2                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 50 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{1}               & 1                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{2}               & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 \\ \hline
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\multirow{4}{*}{\textbf{H$_2$O}}}  & 0 ppm          & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{3}               & 4                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{7}               & 7                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{9}               & 9                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{14}              & 11                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{14}              & 12                 \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 10 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{5}               & 4                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{7}               & 7                  & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{13}              & 12                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & 21                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & 35                 \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 30 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 50 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & --                 \\ \hline
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{\multirow{4}{*}{\textbf{CH$_4$}}}           & 0 ppm          & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{28}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{11}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{9}               & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{9}               & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{9}               & N/A                \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 10 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{13}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{10}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{10}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{9}               & N/A                \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 30 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                \\
\multicolumn{1}{|c|}{}                                  & 50 ppm         & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{--}              & N/A                \\ \hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\textbf{Max $\mathbf{T_{surf}}$ (K)}}                       & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{337.67}          & 338.67             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{302.59}          & 301.64             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{295.67}          & 295.69             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{293.96}          & 293.61             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{292.25}          & 290.10             \\ \hline
\multicolumn{2}{|c|}{\textbf{Min $\mathbf{T_{surf}}$ (K)}}                       & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{318.67}          & 318.33             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{226.09}          & 214.04             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{210.93}          & 211.07             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{203.23}          & 193.87             & \multicolumn{1}{c|}{191.57}          & 184.25             \\ \hline
\end{tabular}
\caption{A table showing the number of transits need to achieve an SNR $\ge5.0$ for each species in each pCO\textsubscript{2} case, averaged over 6 day sample periods for 360 days simulated. A ``--" result represents cases where the SNR asymptoted to a value below $5.0$ or required more than 50 transits. The bottom two rows indicate a single Earth month time-averaged maximum and minimum surface temperature of each model.}
\label{table:SNRs}
\end{table*}

Similarly, for the zero-methane case, we find that only one transit is needed to detect CO$_2$, although it falls just short of the SNR $=5$ threshold for a noise floor of 50 ppm, with an SNR asymptoting to $4.89$. H$_2$O is detectable in 9-12 transits for a noise floor of 10 ppm or less, but undetectable for noise floor of 30 ppm or higher.

When calculating transits needed for the SNR threshold, we include the random scatter from \verb|PandExo| to model instrumental noise. However, when the additional instrumental noise is ignored and atmospheric uncertainty due to climate variability is isolated (i.e. only the photon noise from the PSG calculations is considered),
the uncertainties within single-transit SNRs for each species ($\delta$) can be calculated as the standard deviation of the single-transit SNR across the entire year. These uncertainties are small enough that no molecule covers a range of more than $\pm1$ transits for detection between $\langle SNR \rangle_{avg} - \delta$ and $\langle SNR \rangle_{avg} + \delta$, implying that temporal variability in the $10^{-2}$ bar CO$_2$ atmosphere does not affect the detectability of species with JWST transmission spectra. This agrees with \cite{may_water_2021}, which found that temporal variability was not reflected in the detectability of species within their retrieval models with simulated NIRSpec PRISM data.

\subsubsection{Climatological Effects on Spectra}\label{sec:climatology}

In \verb|ExoCAM|, TRAPPIST-1e has many of the expected characteristics of a Rhines rotating tidally locked planet \citep{haqq-misra_demarcating_2018}; there is a constant cloudy hotspot near the substellar point, with an eastward equatorial superrotating jet.
There is significant variability in both the
eddies and jet, as well as cloud cover, as seen in Figure \ref{fig:tempcloud} for the $10^{-2}$ bar pCO$_2$ case. The water clouds follow a general pole-ward and eastward migration as parcels of air cool adiabatically during convection on the dayside and form clouds that are then transported by the jet to the eastern limb.
This makes the transit spectrum of the eastern limb (270$^\circ$) much cloudier and with more muted features than the western limb (90$^\circ$). While this doesn't present an issue for JWST observations, which
do not likely have the sensitivity to detect limb differences for terrestrial planets \citep{song_asymmetry_2021}, it is worth noting that observations of the western limb alone are more likely to have strong features of CO\textsubscript{2} and CH\textsubscript{4}.

\subsection{Dependence
on CO\textsubscript{2} Partial Pressure}\label{sec:pco2}

An increase in the pCO\textsubscript{2} leads to an increased greenhouse effect which
warms the deep atmosphere and surface, so higher pCO\textsubscript{2} cases are hotter and cloudier (note the higher continuum level for the $10^0$ bar case in Figure \ref{fig:spectratotal}).
This is reflected in the number of transits needed to detect H$_2$O and CH$_4$ (Table \ref{table:SNRs}). H$_2$O is detectable in fewer transits as higher CO$_2$ warms the deep atmosphere, leading to an increase in water vapor. However, CH$_4$ is muted by the cloudier atmospheres and stronger features from CO$_2$  and H$_2$O, and as such requires more transits for detection in higher pCO$_2$ cases.

While in all five cases CO\textsubscript{2} is detectable in as little as four transits for the optimistic noise floor of 0 ppm, water and methane each vary (Figure \ref{fig:snrtransits}). The number of transits needed for a $5\sigma$ detection of methane increases dramatically with pCO\textsubscript{2}, from a minimum of 9 transits in the $10^{-4}$ bar case to 28 in the $10^0$ bar case. The number of transits needed for H\textsubscript{2}O tends to decrease with increasing pCO\textsubscript{2} for the methane-inclusive case, falling from 14 transits in the $10^{-4}$ case, to 3 transits in the $10^0$ case. In all cases, as with the $10^{-2}$ bar case, there are relatively small SNR uncertainties, meaning temporal variance does not strongly affect detectability; however, the uncertainties grow with increasing pCO\textsubscript{2} (Figure \ref{fig:snrtransits}), so very hot planets may have stronger temporal variability that does regularly affect the transmission spectrum (also found by \citealp{may_water_2021}). There is also a nightside ocean ice layer in all cases, with all models except the 1 bar pCO$_2$ case also exhibiting an eyeball of ice-free ocean on the dayside, as in \citet{pierrehumbert_palette_2011}.

\begin{figure*}[]
    \centering
    \hspace*{-.25cm}
    \includegraphics[width=180mm]{SNRplot_final.png}
    \caption{A cross-case comparison of the single-transit SNR (top) of each species in the atmosphere, and the resulting number of transits needed for a $5\sigma$ detection (bottom), for the methane-inclusive cases. The $\langle SNR \rangle_1$ for CO\textsubscript{2} steadily increases with pCO\textsubscript{2}, while water increases at a lower rate due to the competition between a higher self-determined mixing ratio, which increases feature height, and increased cloud cover, which flattens the spectral features. $\langle SNR \rangle_1$ for CH\textsubscript{4} decreases as its features are suppressed by the stronger CO\textsubscript{2} features, due to its decreased mixing ratio in higher pCO\textsubscript{2} cases. Note that in many cases, the 0 ppm and 10 ppm noise floor results overlap, and that in some cases, a $5\sigma$ detection is unattainable (such as in the 30 and 50 ppm CH$_4$ and H$_2$O cases), in which case the value for transits are shown beyond the axes to represent a need for over 30 transits. The full list of transits needed for detection can be found in Table \ref{table:SNRs}.}
    \label{fig:snrtransits}
\end{figure*}

\section{Discussion} \label{sec:discussion}

\subsection{Feasibility of Biosignature Detection with JWST's Lifespan}

As shown in Section \ref{sec:results}, both CO\textsubscript{2} and CH\textsubscript{4} are able to be detected significantly in TRAPPIST-1e's atmosphere within 28 transits for our atmospheric cases with a noise floor of 10 ppm or less, which largely agrees with a similar analysis done by \cite{lin_differentiating_2021}. Although precisely constraining abundances would likely require further transits,
TRAPPIST-1e is visible by JWST for about 100 days per year, which equates to about $16$ transits per year. As such, within the 5.5 year mission, both methane and carbon dioxide may be detected with a $5\sigma$ confidence level, depending on the atmospheric composition of TRAPPIST-1e and performance of NIRSpec/PRISM.

\subsection{Limitations and Further Work}
\label{sec:limitations}
In order to better characterize JWST's spectroscropic capabilities, particularly in cases including methane, it is necessary to account for haze, which we neglect in this work in order to provide optimistic constraints on methane detectability. As such, further work should include a hazy case to compare to the haze-free case, as in \cite{fauchez_impact_2019,Pidhorodetska:2020to}. CH\textsubscript{4} is assumed to be uniformly mixed and not haze-forming in our work, as well as not depleted from photochemistry or equilibrium chemistry, all of which would drastically change the transmission signal strength of both CH\textsubscript{4} and other species in the atmosphere. Notably, organic haze in the upper atmosphere could limit spectral features of other species in transmission spectra, and is less likely to form in an oxygenated atmosphere, which is expected on aquaplanets orbiting M dwarfs \citep{tian_high_2014, luger_extreme_2015}. However, in an oxygen-free environment such as our model, CH$_4$ is expected to be longer-lived and at higher concentrations, and so a low Earth-like CH$_4$ partial pressure as used in this model can indirectly approximate the effects of haze on the detectability of CH$_4$.

It is also worth mentioning that, due to TRAPPIST-1e's position on the border between two different dominant rotation dynamics, there are fundamental differences between different GCM simulations in terms of atmospheric variability timescales \citep{fauchez_trappist-1_2021, turbet_trappist-1_2021} and even basic-state climate \citep{sergeev_bistability_2022}. These can lead to disagreements of up to 50\% on the number of transits needed to reach a 5$\sigma$ spectral detection \citep{fauchez_trappist-1_2021}. \cite{fauchez_trappist-1_2021} also found that \verb|ExoCAM| produced higher cloud decks that more strongly muted features compared to other GCMs, implying that our results may be more pessimistic than those calculated with a different GCM. The model did not account for the possibility of continents, which could affect limb transmission at certain latitudes and change the water vapor abundance and cloud deck height
\citep{Lewis:2018aa,Salazar:2020aa}. It also did not include any oxygen/ozone species within the atmosphere, both of which have spectroscopic features that may overlap with our recognized species in this work \citep{lustig-yaeger_detectability_2019}.

Similarly, to truly characterize the CO\textsubscript{2}-CH\textsubscript{4} biosignature pair as biotic, as mentioned in Section \ref{sec:intro}, the existence of abundant CO
must be ruled out. CO has two notable absorption bands in the NIRSpec PRISM range, at 4.67 $\mu$m and 2.34 $\mu$m \citep{k_n_liou_introduction_2002}, making it, or its absence, characterizable alongside CO\textsubscript{2} and CH\textsubscript{4}; the latter line would overlap with the 2.3 $\mu$m methane band, making the 4.67 $\mu$m feature imperative to carbon monoxide characterization. The
lack of a retrieval framework precludes our ability to characterize abundance constraints and resulting surface fluxes, which is imperative to identification of any disequilibrium in the CO\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} pair when looking for biosignatures. As such, future work should apply retrieval models to the simulated transmission spectra, similarly to \cite{may_water_2021} and \cite{lin_differentiating_2021}, to better constrain the abundances and identify whether the pair exists in disequilibrium.

In order to facilitate comparison with previous work \citep{wolf_assessing_2017, turbet_modeling_2018, fauchez_trappist-1_2021}, we assume a fixed 1 bar of background N$_2$. Although we do not vary the partial pressure of N$_2$ from 1 bar in this model, we expect that an increase in N$_2$ would result in broadening of the spectral line shapes of CO$_2$, H$_2$O, and CH$_4$ due to the overall increase in atmospheric pressure, as well as more prominent collision-induced absorption (CIA) lines (and likewise, that a reduction of the N$_2$ partial pressure would decrease both). Similarly, an increase in the total surface pressure would likely result in a hotter global average surface temperature \citep{charnay_exploring_2013, wolf_controls_2014, chemke_thermodynamic_2016}. Furthermore, TRAPPIST-1e is not expected to maintain more than $\sim$1 bar of N$_2$ if it is the only atmospheric species; it would also require some amount of CO$_2$ to maintain that atmosphere against stellar wind \citep{turbet_review_2020}.
\section{Conclusions} \label{sec:conclusion}

In this work, we explored the ability of JWST to detect possible biomarkers in the atmosphere of TRAPPIST-1e, a terrestrial planet within its star's habitable zone. To do so, we simulated a grid of model atmospheres of TRAPPIST-1e with the ExoCAM GCM, consisting of N\textsubscript{2}, CO\textsubscript{2}, H\textsubscript{2}O, and CH\textsubscript{4}. We then analyzed the detectability of the CO\textsubscript{2}$-$CH\textsubscript{4} pair by simulating transmission spectra of our models with the NASA Planetary Spectrum Generator, and calculating each species' signal-to-noise ratio with \verb|PandExo|.

We find that, with optimistic limited noise (see Section \ref{sec:discussion}), CO\textsubscript{2}, H\textsubscript{2}O, and CH\textsubscript{4} would all be detectable in TRAPPIST-1e's atmosphere in as little as 13 transits for a $1$ bar N\textsubscript{2}, $10^{-2}$ bar pCO\textsubscript{2} atmosphere, with transits needed to detect CH\textsubscript{4} increasing and transits needed for H\textsubscript{2}O and CO\textsubscript{2} decreasing with increaing pCO\textsubscript{2}. Temporal variability for these atmospheres exists, but was found not to strongly affect transmission spectra or the number of transits needed for a strong detection of any molecule. Follow-up work should focus on determining the impact of limiting factors such as atmospheric haze and astronomical noise on JWST transmission spectra.

The authors would like to thank Raymond Pierrehumbert for comments that considerably improved the manuscript. The authors also thank Eliza Kempton for helpful comments on an early draft of this manuscript, as well as Arjun Savel for help with the analysis. The authors also acknowledge the University of Maryland supercomputing resources (\url{http://hpcc.umd.edu}) and the NASA/GSFC Planetary Spectrum Generator resources (\url{https://psg.gsfc.nasa.gov/}) made available for conducting the research reported in this paper. This work was completed with resources provided by the University of Chicago Research Computing Center.

\subsubsection*{#1}}

\pagestyle{headings}
\markright{Reference sheet: \texttt{natbib}}

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\begin{center}{\bfseries\Large
    Reference sheet for \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ usage}\\
    \large(Describing version \fileversion\ from \filedate)
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\begin{quote}\slshape
For a more detailed description of the \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ package, \LaTeX\ the
source file \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\texttt{.dtx}.
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\head{Overview}
The \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ package is a reimplementation of the \LaTeX\ |\cite| command,
to work with both author--year and numerical citations. It is compatible with
the standard bibliographic style files, such as \texttt{plain.bst}, as well as
with those for \texttt{harvard}, \texttt{apalike}, \texttt{chicago},
\texttt{astron}, \texttt{authordate}, and of course \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}.

\head{Loading}
Load with |\usepackage[|\emph{options}|]{|\texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}|}|. See list of
\emph{options} at the end.

\head{Replacement bibliography styles}
I provide three new \texttt{.bst} files to replace the standard \LaTeX\
numerical ones:
\begin{quote}\ttfamily
 plainnat.bst \qquad abbrvnat.bst \qquad unsrtnat.bst
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\head{Basic commands}
The \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ package has two basic citation commands, |\citet| and
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There also exist the starred versions |\citet*| and |\citep*| that print
the full author list, and not just the abbreviated one.
All of these may take one or two optional arguments to add some text before
and after the citation.
\begin{quote}
\begin{tabular}{l@{\quad$\Rightarrow$\quad}l}
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  |\citep{jon90}| & (Jones et al., 1990)\\
  |\citep[chap.~2]{jon90}| & (Jones et al., 1990, chap.~2)\\
  |\citep[see][]{jon90}| & (see Jones et al., 1990)\\
  |\citep[see][chap.~2]{jon90}| & (see Jones et al., 1990, chap.~2)\\[0.5ex]
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Multiple citations may be made by including more than one
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\begin{quote}
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  |\citep{jon90,jam91}| & (Jones et al., 1990; James et al. 1991)\\
  |\citep{jon90,jon91}| & (Jones et al., 1990, 1991)\\
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\head{Numerical mode}
These examples are for author--year citation mode. In numerical mode, the
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As an alternative form of citation, |\citealt| is the same as |\citet| but
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  |\citealp{jon90,jam91}| & Jones et al., 1990; James et al., 1991\\
  |\citealp[pg.~32]{jon90}| & Jones et al., 1990, pg.~32\\
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The |\citetext| command
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In author--year schemes, it is sometimes desirable to be able to refer to
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If the first author's name contains a \textsl{von} part, such as ``della
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\begin{quote}
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These commands also exist in starred versions for full author names.

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Sometimes one wants to refer to a reference with a special designation,
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These citation commands function much like |\citet| and |\citep|: they may
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Redefine |\bibsection| to the desired sectioning command for introducing
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Define |\bibpreamble| to be any text that is to be printed after the heading but
before the actual list of references.

Define |\bibfont| to be a font declaration, e.g.\ |\small| to apply to
the list of references.

Define |\citenumfont| to be a font declaration or command like |\itshape|
or |\textit|.

Redefine |\bibnumfmt| as a command with an argument to format the numbers in
the list of references. The default definition is |[#1]|.

The indentation after the first line of each reference is given by
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The vertical spacing between references is set by |\bibsep|; change this with
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If one wishes to have the citations entered in the \texttt{.idx} indexing
file, it is only necessary to issue |\citeindextrue| at any point in the
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The \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ package is compatible with the \texttt{chapterbib} package
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The package makes use of the |\include| command, and each |\include|d file
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The order in which the \texttt{chapterbib} and \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ packages are loaded
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The \texttt{chapterbib} package provides an option \texttt{sectionbib}
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This option will not work when \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\ is also loaded; instead, add
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Every |\include|d file must contain its own
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files listed as arguments to this command can be different in each file,
of course. However, what is not so obvious, is that each file must also
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Do not use the \texttt{cite} package with \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}; rather use one of the
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These also work with author--year citations, making multiple citations appear
in their order in the reference list.

\head{Long author list on first citation}
Use option \texttt{longnamesfirst} to have first citation automatically give
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Suppress this for certain citations with |\shortcites{|\emph{key-list}|}|,
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\head{Local configuration}
Any local recoding or definitions can be put in \texttt{#1}\def\filedate{#2}\def\fileversion{#3}}\texttt{.cfg} which
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\head{Options that can be added to \texttt{\char`\\ usepackage}}
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Adriana Zuniga-Teran is a Scientist at the University of Arizona's Udall Center for Studies in Public Policy working on water security in the built environment of the arid Americas. Zuniga-Teran is also a Senior Lecturer for the Sustainable Built Environments degree program in the UA College of Architecture, Planning, and Landscape Architecture. With a background in architecture and an expertise in neighborhood design, Adriana combines knowledge-building and problem-solving of real-world challenges.
Adriana is originally from Monterrey, Mexico. She did her undergraduate studies on architecture at the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education (ITESM) in Monterrey. She worked as an architectural designer in Mexico for several years. She holds two advanced degrees from the University of Arizona: a master of architecture degree with a concentration in design and energy conservation, and a doctoral degree in arid lands resource sciences with a minor in global change.
International Water Security Network. This is a project funded by Lloyd's Register Foundation and led by scientists from the University of the West of England and in collaboration with Monash South Africa University. The UA team studies transboundary water security in the arid Americas.
AQUASEC Center of Excellence for Water Security. Under the AQUASEC umbrella, the Aguascapes project brings together scientists from the arid Americas to work together in water security challenges. Partners include scientists from Mexico, Brazil, Chile, and Argentina.
State of the Health of the Cienega watershed. This is a participatory effort to measure the state of the health of the Cienega Watershed, in which a set of 20 cross-jurisdictional indicators were selected. Her role in this project is to meet with stakeholders and collect readably-available data, analyze it when necessary, and present it in a way that communicates well to the general public. This is a baseline effort that is intended to continue over time in order to do long-term monitoring and manage the watershed in an adaptive way.
Tucson Verde para Todos. This project is funded by the Agnese Nelms Haury Program in Environmental and Social Justice. This study is aimed to engage low-income communities in Tucson in the design and development of green infrastructure. Seeking the active participation of the community in a pilot project is expected to serve as a model for other neighborhoods to adopt green infrastructure, and this way, reduce temperatures and floods while improving wellness, neighborhood aesthetics, and sense of community.
Zuniga-Teran, A.A. ; Orr, B.J.; Gimblett, R.H.; Chalfoun, N.V.; Guertin, D.P.; Marsh, S.E. (2017). Neighborhood design, physical activity, and wellbeing: Applying the Walkability Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14,76: doi:10.3390/ijerph14010076.
Zuniga-Teran, A.A. ; Orr, B.J.; Gimblett, R.H.; Chalfoun, N.V.; Marsh, S.E.; Guertin, D.P.; Going, S.B. (2017). Designing healthy communities: Testing the walkability model. Frontiers of Architectural Research. Vol. 6, No. 1. Pp. 63-73.
Varady R.G., Zuniga-Teran, A.A.; Garfin, G.M.; Martin, F.; Vicuña, S. (2016). Adaptive management and water security in global context: Definitions, concepts, and examples. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability special issue "Environmental Change and Assessment" edited by M. Wilder, G. Garfin, and R. Merideth. Vol. 21. Pp. 70-71.
Zuniga-Teran, A.A; Orr, B.J.; Gimblett, R.H.; Going, S.B.; Chalfoun, N.V.; Guertin, D.P.; Marsh, S.E. (2016). Designing healthy communities: A walkability analysis on LEED-ND. Frontiers in Architectural Research.
Varady, R.G.; Zuniga-Teran, A.A.; Gerlak, A.K.; Megdal, S.B. (2016). Modes and approaches of groundwater governance: A survey of lessons learned from selected cases across the globe. In special issue "Water Governance, Stakeholder Engagement, and Sustainable Water Resources management," ed. By S. Megdal, S. Eden, and E. Shamir. Water, 417 (24pp), DOI: 10.3390/w8100417.
Wilder, M., Aguilar Barajas, I., Pineda Pablos, N., Varady, R., Megdal, S., McEvoy, J., Merideth, R., Zuniga-Teran, A., Scott, C. (2016). Desalination and water security in the US-Mexico border region: Assessing the social, environmental, and political impacts. Water International, 41:5, 756-775, DOI: 10.1080/02508060.2016.1166416.
Megdal. S.B.; Zuniga-Teran, A.A.; Delano, N.; Varady. R.G.; Gerlak, A.K. (accepted). Groundwater governance in the United States: A Mosaic of priorities and approaches. Book chapter in Advances in Groundwater Governance, ed. by K. Villholth, E. Lopex-Gunn, J van Der Gun, K. Contu, and A. Garrido, CRC/Balkema.
Staddon, C.; De Vito, L.; Zuniga-Teran, A.A.; Schoeman, Y.; Hart, A.; Booth, G. (2017). "Contributions of green infrastructure to urban resilience." The resilience shift - Agenda setting scoping studies. Report elaborated by the consortium between the University of the West of England, University of Arizona, Monash South Africa University, Arcadis, University of Science and Technology, Beijing, China.
Zuniga-Teran, A.A. (accepted). Urban ecology and the ethics of human occupation and the suppression of ecological dynamics. Book chapter in "Environmental Ethics" by Schmidtz, D., Willott, E. (eds.). Third Edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Zuniga-Teran, A.A. (2017). Green infrastructure in walkable neighborhoods: A climate change adaptation strategy for cities in drylands. Book chapter in "Climate change sensitive cities: building capacities for urban resilience, sustainability, and equity" by Delgado Ramos, G.C. (Ed.). Mexico: PINCC, UNAM.
Pineda Pablos, N.; Zuniga-Teran, A.A. (2016). Planeación por escenarios para la seguridad hídrica. Agua y Saneamiento. No. 67. Pp. 60-61.
Zuniga-Teran, A. A., Diaz-Caravantes, R.E. (2015). La infrastructure verde: una estrategia de adaptación al cambio climático (Green infrastructure: a climate change adaptation strategy). Agua y Saneamiento. No. 63. Pp. 89-91.


Hi, I'm Josh and I am an Accredited Exercise Physiologist and Exercise Scientist registered with ESSA. I completed my studies here on the Gold Coast at Griffith University GC Campus. Through my years of study, I completed a Diploma in Health Sciences, a Bachelor's degree in Exercise Science and my Postgraduate Diploma in Exercise Physiology.
Throughout my experience, I had the opportunity to do a cadetship with the AFL Gold Coast Suns for a season in their strength and development program. Additionally, I was at the Ipswich CardioPulmonary outpatient clinic and I then have done further work in the private sector.
Specialist areas: Total knee replacement, total hip replacement and rehabilitation for sports-related injuries. esp. Soccer, football, surfing and golf.
Fun fact: I'm one of 9 children.
Hi, I'm Adina and I am an enthusiastic and passionate Physiotherapist with a passion for working with people who are looking to improve their performance – at any level!
I enjoy working collaboratively with people to obtain their goals, and to assist them to reach new achievements.
I completed my degree at the University of Queensland with a Bachelor of Physiotherapy (Honours), and then I started working in private practice in Brisbane, and at a private hospital on weekends. I was fortunate to also work with a Brisbane football club as their physiotherapist, and additionally, taught Pilates. After leaving Brisbane I moved to Spain, where I assisted a rugby union club as their rehab coordinator.
I look forward to assisting the Gold Coast community on their sport and health journey, wherever it may lead. Priding myself on accurate assessments, and a wide range of treatment techniques to suit all individual needs, I believe I can help to eliminate pain and enable function at all levels.
Hi, I'm Jay and I am a passionate Sports Physiotherapist with a special interest in sports injury and prevention, as well as complex, recurrent injuries.
I have undertaken further study, completing a Graduate Certificate in Sports Physiotherapy as a Masters in Sports Physiotherapy.
With this knowledge combined and the best currently available evidence, not only can I provide an accurate diagnosis, but a thorough rehabilitation plan to improve the injury, prevent recurrence and improve athletic performance long term.
My special interest areas are shoulder pathology, complex hip and groin injuries, tendon pathology, lower limb biomechanics and recurrent soft tissue injuries.
My goal is to continue to evolve my skills to enhance my experience in Physiotherapy to help others like you.
Specialist Areas: tendon pathology, complex shoulder injury, groin / hip pain, recurrent soft tissues.
Fun fact: never been to see a Physio!
Hi, I'm Renee and I am an incredibly passionate and enthusiastic Physiotherapist and I would love to help you!
I have over 10 years experience as a Physiotherapist and I have a wide range of experience from dry needling, pilates instruction (pre & postnatal), hydrotherapy, functional & strength programming, electrotherapy and rehabilitation.
I believe my strongest skill set is manual therapy, I have been a massage therapist since 1998.
I provide a relaxed atmosphere in which people feel supported and enjoy being provided with a complete medical and holistic care package.
Specialist areas: Headaches, dry needling, biomechanical imbalances, pre/ post natal, acute injuries, lower back, neck, pre/ post natal, biomechanical imbalances.
Fun Fact: I have never broken a bone!
Hi, I am Teonie, a passionate and caring Accredited Practicing Dietitian who would love to work with you to progress through your health journey! My passion lies with my love of food and I enjoy designing food and health strategies that work within your individual lifestyle.
I have a Bachelor of Nutrition and Dietetics from Griffith University. During my career, I have had the opportunity to work within specialist areas including; weight loss, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, irritable bowel syndrome, coeliac disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol, liver disease, kidney disease, gastrointestinal issues, malnutrition, allergies, eating disorders and paediatrics.
My goal at StudioXphys is to provide a comfortable and supportive environment for clients to achieve a healthier more positive life!
Specialist areas: diabetes, weight loss, allergies and intolerances, children's health.
Hi, I'm Corey & I am the founder of StudioXphys and an enthusiastic entrepreneur.
StudioXphys exists to restore your quality of life and I believe our world-class biomechanical equipment combined with the dedication of our expert team can unlock that change in you to improve your health, increase your function and ultimately live a healthier, fuller, happier life.


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TimeBridge fixes group scheduling
TimeBridge's upcoming Outlook plug-in aims to fix the meeting morass.
November 7, 2006 12:31 PM PST
From the Web 2.0 Conference:
Most of us waste a lot of time trying to find times for meetings. Inside a company, Microsoft Outlook users (on Exchange servers) can see the times their coworkers are free and busy. It's a good start, but when we want to schedule a meeting with multiple people or meet with people outside our company, everything can quickly fall apart. TimeBridge is trying to solve this problem, with a system that handles the negotiation of finding meeting times.
TimeBridge
Like the ultrasimple Doodle, TimeBridge lets you set up multiple options for a meeting, and it lets attendees select the times that work best for them. But TimeBridge also lets you do more complex setup. For example, if you have two meetings to set up with several people in each and four slots that could potentially work for you, TimeBridge will send out, on your behalf, the available times that make sense, and it will update available times for everybody as people respond (via a Web form). It also integrates into Outlook and automatically promotes meeting times from "tentative" to "confirmed" as people sign up. Like Plaxo, which updates contact books, a lot of the negotiation happens behind the scenes if the parties on both ends use the product.
One of the really cool things about TimeBridge is that you can offer the same tentative meeting slots to different people and different meetings, and TimeBridge will keep everybody up to date and broker the times to make sure you don't double-book.
The service also lets meeting organizers set up a shared work space for meetings: a place where attendees can store notes and talk about the meeting agenda. I think that's a superfluous feature (that's what e-mail is good for), but the rest of the technology is just what we need. I can't wait to try it out.
There will be a free version, and the company is also considering paid and enterprise programs. The bad news: It's in private beta now and won't be generally available until 2007.
Discuss: TimeBridge fixes group scheduling

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Fear Factory to hit Austria
Heavy metal legends Fear Factory will perform in Vienna this December, it has emerged.Arena concert hall bosses announced today (Thurs) that the four-member band from Los Angeles, USA, will give a concert at the venue on 9 December.Fear Factory, who have released eight full-length studio albums since 1992, are considered being one of the most […]
Tags albums, band, concert, factory, fear, Floyd, October, Pink, studio, Vienna
Boxing champ killer's 20-year term confirmed
Federal High Court judges dismissed appeals to lower the sentence of a man who stabbed a former boxing champion to death.Judge Brigitte Kunst, who headed the three-member senate in today's (Thurs) trial, said the Chechen defendant's 20-year sentence will not be lowered as requested by his lawyer Lennart Binder.Zaurbek Bersanov, 27, was found guilty of […]
Tags Bersanov, boxer's, champion, client, fear, Judges, lawyer, Sekowitsch, sentence, Serbian


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A Michelin-Star Chef's Guide to Dining in Tokyo
by Ana Experience | Apr 11, 2019 | Modern Culture & Dining
"Fearless" is one word that describes Tokyo's epicurean landscape. Just set aside its crown for having more Michelin stars than any other city, and consider how it earned that status in the first place: through a reverence for high-quality ingredients, boundless...
Ramen and More: Everything You Need to Know About Japanese Noodles
by Ana Experience | Apr 4, 2019 | Modern Culture & Dining
Though many contest its origins, historical credit for the noodle must be given to Asia, where in China, a 4,000-year-old bowl of noodles was found by Chinese scientists at the Lajia archaeological site over a decade ago. The modern-day culinary staple was only...
Eat Like a Local: Why These 5 Hotspots Will Give You a True Taste of Tokyo
by Ana Experience | Nov 2, 2017 | Modern Culture & Dining
With 160,000 restaurants and more Michelin stars than any other city in the world, Tokyo's dining scene can seem intimidating at first. Factor in secret locations and menus exclusively in Japanese and the faint-hearted traveler may wonder if they should've just stayed...


It seems that the food home delivery service is booming. I've come across a good number of new sites that now offer a new way to order in your dinner. To be honest, I've only ordered take away to my home a small number of times as I can always rustle up a plate of spaghetti, aglio e olio, but really take away food has never appealed. A stale pizza in a box or a low-quality burger? No ta. But I am really interested in restaurant food home delivery and this is where these sites come in handy. Great for the restaurants too as they can easily increase their client base without the hassle of organising drivers and logistics.
As a parent now, I remember those early baby days (weeks, hell...months even) of not really being able to get out to my favourite restaurants. This really is a lifeline for new parents (or anyone that can't get out) to get their fix of favourite food too. I'll be testing out a couple of these services in the next few weeks but first up is https://www.dinein.co.uk/.
DineIn is well established in London with some fantastic restaurants on the list, they have recently launched in Brighton. At the moment there are only a few places listed like MEATliqour, Regency, Coggings & Co., The Creperie as well as some pizza places and fast food outlets. Great news is that Curry Leaf Cafe will be available from the spring and hopefully more restaurants will join them. I'd already been for a menu tasting at MEATliquor this week (hard life) so tried out Chaula's, an established Indian restaurant in town.
As 50% of the experience is the booking here I thought I'd show you the site too. If I'm honest, the website design and UX is pretty basic. The navigation isn't that intuitive and feels clunky. You also need to click on an info button for dish description which is a tad tedious as some restaurants have a huge food list. Although I do like the clean nature of the design in theory, the branding and colours don't evoke a sense of food, warmth or deliciousness (it's a word!).
The ordering side is not too bad though and ran pretty smoothly but again, I think a better design, bigger buttons and a slicker interface would improve customer experience. You only need to register an account if you have to use a voucher or code. Later you can track your delivery which I did think was a useful touch and the restaurants are given a tablet and an app so they can be quite specific as to the stage of your delivery.
My delivery from Chaula's turned up right on time for my chosen slot and was really well presented in a branded poly-fabric bag. Ten points for first impressions and food-wise this was a no-frills great curry. We ordered a Hydrabadi Chicken and Lamb Jalfrezi and thoroughly enjoyed them too.
There was a generous amount of meat in both dishes which was also tender and lean. Nothing worse than mean, gristly or chewy chunks of meat. The saffron rice was gorgeously fragrant (not just dyed with turmeric, which is what I was testing for!).
Delivery charges are worked out on distance and credit cards are charged at an extra 3%. So yes, other than a few niggles with the site design and build, all in all a really good service, and hope more restaurants are made available soon. In time I would like to see how my favourite fish, steak or other non standard takeout food travels but the concept is great and as I said before, really will appeal to various demographics.
I was invited to review Dine In with a part paid voucher.


Whether you like the Gaslamp nightlife, trying a different restaurant daily, walks along the bay, or taking the kids to the New Children's Museum, Marina District has it all!
The Marina District in Downtown San Diego is thought to be the most exclusive and convenient location by most. Some of the iconic destinations encompassed in the Marina District's borders include The San Diego Convention Center, Seaport Village, The Headquarters, The Martin Luther King Promenade, Pantoja Park, and the New Children's Museum. This area is also home to Ralph's Grocery Store and is surrounded by Horton Plaza and The Gaslamp Quarters.
Some of the most luxurious highrise buildings can be found in the Marina District. There are 7 towers to choose from, all with very different personalities. The seven complexes in Marina District are Cityfront Terrace, Harbor Club, Horizons, Meridian, Park Place, Pinnacle, and Renaissance. There are also 11 midrise buildings to choose from, including Atria, Citywalk, Columbia Place, Marina Park and Watermark.


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About the Sawyer County Record
Community Leagues
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Hayward, WI (54843)
Snow showers. High near 20F. Winds SE at 10 to 15 mph. Chance of snow 80%. Snow accumulations less than one inch..
Snow likely. Low 19F. Winds SE at 10 to 20 mph. Chance of snow 90%. Snow accumulating 3 to 5 inches.
The Wisconsin Singers will perform their show "Hold on to Your Dream" in Hayward, Jan. 17-18. It features numbers from classic musicals including "West Side Story."
Wisconsin Singers perform here this weekend
The Wisconsin Singers return to Hayward with their 52nd season show, "Hold on to Your Dreams," with 7 p.m. performances Friday and Saturday, Jan. 17-18 at the Hayward High School Auditorium.
The production will feature the best of the past 40 years of pop music, with a concentration of big band sound, Broadway-caliber song and dance and the classic Badger spirit — featuring the top talents of the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
The audience will experience a tour around the USA in the "City of Dreams" medley and musical theater fans will recognize the "Broadway Dreams" medley, featuring songs from classic shows like "West Side Story" to current hits from "Newsies" and "Finding Neverland."
Kids will love and be entertained by the "Magical Memories" medley, with Disney songs from "Beauty and the Beast," "Frozen" and many more.
Tickets are $18 for general admission and $25 for reserved seating and are available from Marketplace Foods courtesy counter (general seating only); at Lori's Card & Gift on Dakota Street (general and reserved); or from Hayward High School Choral Director Ben DiSera by mailing a check (payable to Hayward High School Choir) or money order to Hayward High School, Attn. Ben DiSera, 15930 W 5th St. Hayward, WI 54843.
The box office opens at 6 p.m. the night of the performance. Doors open at 6:30 p.m. for reserved ticket holders and at 6:45 p.m. for general admission ticket holders.
For more information, contact DiSera at bdisera@hayward.k12.wi.us or (715) 638-9549.
Hayward High School
Wisconsin Singers
Broadway Classics
Four locals charged with trafficking food cards
Heroin seized, 4 arrested
Fabled Telemark Lodge to be sold – piece by piece – through online auction
Raymond Henry Robinson Dums
Hideout's natural history predates Al Capone...by billions of years
Eva June Wise
UPDATE: Men involved in fatal crash ID'd
Pizza Hut closes Hayward restaurant
LeRoy Martinson
Sawyer County Record
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