Method and system for generating electrical energy from a volume of water.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/023,313, filed Jan. 24, 2008, expressly incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
This invention was made with Government support under Contract No. AT-002362 and AR-44813 awarded by the National Institutes for Health and under Contract No. N00014-05-1-0773 awarded by the Office of Naval Research. The Government has certain rights in the invention.
Satisfying the world's energy needs is a demanding endeavor. Presently, fossil fuels are responsible for supplying the bulk of these worldwide needs. However, fossil fuel supplies are finite, their consumption often has adverse environmental effects, their cost widely variable and somewhat unpredictable, and independence from them is long considered to be politically advantageous.
Alternative energy sources are being actively sought and developed. Solar and wind energy are attractive alternatives to fossil fuels. Wind farms have been developed and energy from them complements conventional energy supply. The promise of efficient and cost effective solar energy has yet to be realized, although considered to be a future solution to the worldwide energy problem.
Solar radiation, at its maximum produces about 1000 Watts/m2. Solar cells can operate up to 30% efficiency, but typical values of efficiency for the most economical units are about 15-20%. Hence, typical output is about 200 watts/m2, or about 20,000 μW/cm2 at full solar radiation. Under more typical lighting conditions, the output would be an order of magnitude lower, about 2,000 μW/cm2. Typical photovoltaic output value is about 12,000 μW/cm2 at full sun at the equator during the vernal equinox at midday, which is the absolute peak. More typical values, but still under bright conditions, would be an order of magnitude lower, perhaps 1,200 μW/cm2. The benchmark for commercial photovoltaic cells in fairly bright light is from about 1,000 to about 2,000 μW/cm2.
Despite the advances made in harnessing energy from the sun, a need exists to develop solar energy systems that provide electrical energy in an efficient and cost effective manner. The present invention seeks to fulfill this need and to provide further related advantages.
The present invention provides a method and system for generating electrical energy from a volume of water.
In one aspect, the invention provides a method for generating electrical energy from a volume of water. In one embodiment, the method includes contacting a volume of water with a hydrophilic surface and applying energy to the volume of water to provide an exclusion zone in the volume of water at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water, and a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone; providing a first electrode in the exclusion zone and a second electrode in the bulk zone; and extracting electrical energy from the volume of water by connecting a load across the electrodes.
The applied energy can be radiant energy from the sun or infrared radiant energy from a local environment.
The method for providing electrical energy from a volume of water includes comprising connecting a load across first and second electrodes in contact with a volume of charge-separated water, wherein the volume of water is in contact with a hydrophilic surface in liquid communication with the water defining an exclusion zone at an interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water, and a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone, wherein the first electrode is in the exclusion zone, and wherein the second electrode is in the bulk zone.
In another aspect of the invention, a system for generating electrical energy from a volume of water is provided. The system includes a hydrophilic material having a hydrophilic surface; a vessel for receiving the hydrophilic material and a volume of water; a first electrode positioned in the vessel proximate to the hydrophilic surface; and a second electrode positioned in the vessel distal to the hydrophilic surface.
FIG. 15 is a graph corresponding to FIG. 14 showing current (amperes) over time.
The present invention provides a method and system for generating electrical energy from a volume of water. In the method, electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water that is subject to or has been subject to applied energy, such a radiant energy from the sun or the local environment.
In one aspect, the invention provides a method for generating electrical energy from a volume of water. In one embodiment of the method, a volume of water is contacted with a hydrophilic surface and subjected to the application of energy to provide an exclusion zone at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water. A bulk zone in the volume of water is formed outside of the exclusion zone. Charge separation is induced in the volume of water by applying energy to the volume of water. Electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water by providing a first electrode in the exclusion zone and a second electrode in the bulk zone, and connecting a load across the electrodes.
As used herein, the term "exclusion zone" refers to a region of the volume of water created at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water where solutes and particles are excluded. The term "bulk zone" refers to the region of the volume of water outside the exclusion zone. The exclusion zone results from the application of energy (e.g., radiant energy) to the volume of water. The exclusion zone builds with increasing applied energy.
Application of energy to the volume of water in contact with the hydrophilic surface results in the formation of the exclusion zone. In the process, charge separation is induced in the volume of water. As used herein, the term "charge separation" refers to the physical separation of negative charges (e.g., solutes, particles, ions) from positive charges (e.g., solutes, particles, ions) in the volume of water. In general, the exclusion zone is a region of negative charge and the bulk zone is a region of positive charge (e.g., hydronium ions, free protons).
The size and shape of the exclusion zone formed in the method of the invention varies greatly depending on the nature of the hydrophilic surface, its size and shape, the nature of the volume of water, and the energy applied. The size of the exclusion zone is variable and dependent on the applied energy: the greater the applied energy, the greater the size of the exclusion zone. The exclusion zone can extend up to a meter or more from the hydrophilic surface. The exclusion zone can therefore extend from the hydrophilic surface any distance from about 1 nm to a meter or more. In certain embodiments, the exclusion zone can extend a distance of from one to two millimeters from the hydrophilic surface. In other embodiments, the exclusion zone can extend a distance of from about 200 μm to about 700 μm from the hydrophilic surface. The shape of the exclusion zone is also variable. For example, when the hydrophilic surface is a sheet positioned against a wall of the vessel containing the volume of water, the exclusion zone extends into the volume of water away from the surface of the hydrophilic surface. When a sheet of material having two hydrophilic surfaces is placed in a volume of water, the exclusion zone extends into the volume of water away from each surface. For a sphere of hydrophilic material having a hydrophilic surface, the exclusion zone extends radially into the volume of water away from the sphere (e.g., shell). In other embodiments, the exclusion zone extends into the volume of water non-uniformly. For examples, the exclusion zone can have the form of a cone narrowing into the volume of water. Exclusion zones having a plurality of cones extending into the volume of water have also been observed. Schematic illustration of the volume of water having exclusion and bulk zones is shown in FIG. 1.
Exclusion zones were not observed with materials having hydrophobic surfaces, such as silicon rubber, nylon, carbon, quartz, and PARAFILM®. In general, the materials having surfaces that are highly charged (e.g., NAFION® 117 polymer, polyacrylic acid gels) exhibit the largest exclusion zones, while those that are least charged (e.g., polyvinyl alcohol gels) exhibit the smallest exclusion zones. In all cases, the region beyond the exclusion zone had net positive charge, confirmed by measurements of pH, which showed low pH and therefore high hydrogen ion concentration. In some experiments the pH was as much as four units lower than the original water pH. However, the situation is reversed in the case of positively charged surfaces. These included positively functionalized polystyrene gel beads, and positively functionalized SELEMION® (Asahi). In such cases the potential was 100-200 mV positive at the surface, declining to zero at the edge of the exclusion zone. The bulk water beyond had high pH instead of low pH. In these cases of positively charged surfaces, the exclusion zones were found to be smaller and somewhat more ephemeral than those next to the negatively charged surfaces.
The volume of water required for the method of the invention is not critical. The method is applicable to nanoscale volumes of water and to expansive volumes of water (e.g., lakes and oceans). The pH of the volume of water can vary (e.g., from about 2 to about 11). It has been observed that relatively more electrical energy can be obtained by the method at low pH (e.g., pH >about 4). The volume of water can include solutes such as salts. Suitable salts include potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Other salts, such as those used in chemical batteries can also be used. The ionic strength of the volume of water can also vary. Ionic strengths up to about 5 M have provided reasonable output. Electrical energy has been extracted from volumes of water having ionic strength up to about 5 M, and optimal energy has been obtained at ionic strengths from about 100 mM to about 2 M.
In the method, the exclusion zone is formed adjacent to the hydrophilic surface. As used herein, the term "hydrophilic surface" refers to a surface of a material having a contact angle less than 90 degrees for water. The hydrophilic surfaces may be charged or uncharged. The charged hydrophilic surfaces may be mixed charge surfaces. The charged hydrophilic surfaces may have a net positive charge or a net negative charge.
Suitable materials having hydrophilic surfaces include hydrophilic gels (e.g., polyacrylic acid gels, polyvinyl alcohol gels, polyacrylamide gels, polyHEMA gels, collagen gels, actin gels, and agarose gels), biological materials (e.g., muscle tissue, vascular endothelium, xylem, oxtail tendon, seaweed, and plant root), self-assembled monolayers including carboxyl group-containing monolayers and polyethylene glycol-containing monolayers (e.g., supported on metal surfaces such as gold), polymeric surfaces (e.g., ionomer surfaces) including sulfonic acid-containing polymer surfaces (e.g., sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene copolymer surface also known as NAFION®), inorganic surfaces (e.g., surfaces containing titanium dioxide, silicon, zinc, lead, tungsten, aluminum, tin, and mica), and ion exchange resins and materials.
As noted above, suitable materials having hydrophilic surfaces may have a variety of shapes. In one embodiment, the hydrophilic material is a sheet having a rectangular hydrophilic surface. In another embodiment, the hydrophilic material is a particle (e.g., microsphere or nanosphere). In other embodiments, the hydrophilic material includes a plurality of hydrophilic beads (e.g., mixed charged beads, negatively charged beads, positively charged beads).
In one embodiment, the hydrophilic material is ice.
Exclusions zones have been observed for each of the hydrophilic materials noted above.
As noted above, in the method, a volume of water is contacted with a hydrophilic surface and subjected to the application of energy. Application of energy increases the size of the exclusion zone. In one embodiment, applying energy includes irradiating the volume of water with electromagnetic radiation. Suitable electromagnetic radiation includes radiation absorbed by the volume of water (e.g., wavelengths in the range from about 200 nm to about 10,000 nm). In the method, infrared wavelengths are the most effective wavelengths. In one embodiment, the radiant energy has a wavelength of about 3 μm.
The applied energy can be radiant energy from the environment such as solar energy (e.g., ultraviolet, visible, near infrared, and infrared radiation) and heat from the local environment (infrared radiation).
Although radiant energy is the source of energy applied to the volume of water, in one embodiment of the method, the size of the exclusion zone can be increased by applying a voltage across the electrodes.
In the method, electrical energy is extracted from the charge-separated volume of water by connecting a load across the first and second electrodes. The nature of the electrodes is not particularly critical. Suitable electrodes include platinum, zinc, aluminum, stainless steel, and copper electrodes. The first and second electrodes may the same or different.
The load can be connected after a predetermined period of time after inducing charge separation (i.e., after applying energy to the volume of water). Alternatively, the load can be connected during application of energy (e.g., applying radiant energy to the volume of water) in which case electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water at the same time that energy is applied to the volume of water.
Thus, in one embodiment of the method, electrical energy is extracted from a volume of water by connecting a load across first and second electrodes in contact with a volume of charge-separated water, wherein the volume of water comprises a hydrophilic surface in liquid communication with the water defining an exclusion zone at an interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water, and a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone, wherein the first electrode is in the exclusion zone, and wherein the second electrode is in the bulk zone. As noted above, "charge-separated water" refers to water in contact with a hydrophilic surface that initiates the formation of the exclusion zone having a net charge opposite that of the bulk zone.
In another aspect of the invention, a system for extracting electrical energy from a volume of water is provided. In one embodiment, the system includes a hydrophilic material having a hydrophilic surface, a vessel for receiving a hydrophilic surface and a volume of water; a first electrode positioned proximate to the hydrophilic surface; and a second electrode positioned distal to the hydrophilic surface. When the vessel has received a volume of water and energy has been applied to the volume of water, the first electrode is positioned in an exclusion zone formed at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water, and the second electrode is positioned in a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone.
In one embodiment, the system includes only those components described above (i.e., the system consists of the noted components). In another embodiment, the system includes those components described above and other components that do not alter the characteristics of the system (i.e., the system consists essentially of the noted components). Components that are excluded from this embodiment include components and conditions used in methods for the electrolysis of water, methods for analyzing water samples, and electrochemical analytical and synthetic methods carried out in water.
FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a representative system for carrying out the method of the invention. Referring to FIG. 1, system 100 includes vessel 10 that contains volume of water 12 and hydrophilic material 14 having hydrophilic surface 16. On application of energy (e.g., radiant energy), exclusion zone 20 and bulk zone 22 form in volume of water 12. Electrode 32 is positioned in the exclusion zone and electrode 34 is positioned in the bulk zone. Electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water by applying a load 40 across electrodes 32 and 34. Absent continued application of applied energy, the exclusion zone contracts. Application of energy during the application of a load allows for maintenance of the exclusion zone (i.e., charge separation) and simultaneous extraction of electrical energy.
The following provides a further describes the method of the invention.
Unexpected phenomenon was observed in water next to hydrophilic surfaces. In a zone up to several hundred micrometers from the hydrophilic surface, solutes were excluded. Subsequent studies showed that the solute-excluding region was physico-chemically different from ordinary water, and probably liquid crystalline. Qualitative differences between this vicinal water and the bulk water farther from the hydrophilic surface were demonstrated using NMR, infrared radiation, and UV-Vis optical absorption. An additional unexpected result was also observed: the excluding region was negatively charged. The potential difference between the vicinal water and water remote was approximately 200 mV, decreasing exponentially with distance from the surface, toward zero potential difference at the end of the exclusion zone.
The results indicate a loss of positive charge from otherwise neutral water. This lost positive charge was determined to reside in the aqueous zone beyond the exclusion zone. Methods showed a large proton concentration in this bulk region. In dynamic experiments with pH probes, a wave of protons was detected flowing away from the vicinal water and toward the more distant bulk water, as the exclusion zone was growing. The result is charge separation in the water.
When an entity whose surface is hydrophilic is placed into water, ordering of water molecules next to the surface immediately begins. The ordered entity is negative. As this zone builds, the quantity of negative charge builds. Meanwhile, the complementary positive charges build in the zone beyond this ordered zone to provide charge separation. The charge separation is sustained. In the method of the invention, electrical current is drawn and thereby useful work obtained from charge-separated water.
In the method of the invention, the buildup of water structure, and hence the separation of charge, is powered by incident radiant energy (i.e., photons). In an experiment, a chamber lined on one side with a hydrophilic surface (i.e., NAFION®) was filled with an aqueous suspension of polystyrene microspheres. Within several minutes the microspheres moved away from the surface leaving an exclusion zone. This zone generally remained stable for hours. When light was added the exclusion zone immediately began growing, and within five minutes it had grown substantially. When the light source was extinguished, the exclusion zone returned to its initial size. The effect of incident light is reversible.
Growth of the exclusion zone was wavelength sensitive. FIGS. 2A and 2B are graphs comparing exclusion zone expansion ratio (defined as the ratio of the exclusion zone width after application of energy to the control state, which is the width of the exclusion zone prior to the application of energy) as a function of wavelength (2A UV-Vis and 2B IR). Throughout the ultraviolet-visible range the intensity was maintained constant; and, the same throughout the infrared range (on the order of 100 μW). In the latter series, intensities were lower than in the former series. All wavelengths increased the size of the negative zone, and the increase was wavelength sensitive. The most powerful effect occurred at a wavelength of 3 μm. With modest intensity (271 μW) at 3 in five minutes the exclusion zone (EZ) increased by almost a factor of three.
It is noteworthy that 3 μm is the wavelength most strongly absorbed by water, and it causes heating. The temperature increase was measured at various points in the chamber. During the five-minute exposure, in no instance did the temperature increase exceed 1° C. demonstrating that any effect of heating must have been secondary. The major impact of these photons appears to be non-thermal, although the exact mechanism (i.e., how the photonic energy brings about ordering of exclusion zone water and charge separation) remains unclear.
The following experiments determined that electrical power can be drawn from the charge-separated water. The setup included a NAFION® sheet, secured within a sandwich of plastic sheets each containing a large open window, so that the NAFION® sheet was exposed to water. A stainless steel-mesh electrode was placed immediately adjacent to the exposed NAFION® sheet on one side. This served as the negative electrode. The positive electrode, another stainless steel mesh, was placed some distance from the sheet, either on the same, or the opposite side as the negative electrode. The second electrode was positioned so as to lie beyond the exclusion zone. The entire assembly was immersed in water. The two electrodes were either left open circuited, for potential difference measurements, or connected by a load resistor, arbitrarily chosen at 10 Kohms, through which current could flow.
A potential difference on the order of 100-200 mV was typically recorded. The voltage was high at first, but generally declined with time, depending on whether the load resistor was or was not attached. Importantly, the voltage never fell to zero. A fraction of the initial voltage persisted indefinitely, implying that energy was consistently flowing into the system to recharge the system (infrared energy was continuously available to power the system). FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating voltage decrease over time in an open circuit with no infrared irradiation. FIG. 4 is a graph illustrating current over time in a closed circuit with a 10K resistor.
Experiments were then undertaken to demonstrate that incident infrared illumination increases power output in the system. FIG. 5 is a graph illustrating voltage over time in an open circuit with infrared irradiation. This data was obtained after the voltage had already diminished considerably from an initial value. Turning on the light caused an immediate (within several minutes) return to the initial (200 mV) voltage, which was sustained even for some time after the light had been turned off.
Lowering the pH of the volume of water tended to increase power as indicated in FIG. 6. Adding salt to the volume of water induces a substantial positive effect on power production, probably because of the increased conductivity of the solution.
Potassium chloride and sodium chloride exert similar effects. In the concentration range 0.1 M to 1 M, power output increased to 150 microwatts. Considering the electrode-surface areas of approximately 3 cm2, this increase amounts to about 50 μW/cm2.
Examples of exclusion zones are illustrated in FIGS. 7A and 7B. Referring to FIGS. 7A and 7B, the exclusion zones are adjacent nucleating surfaces and are denoted by the absence of microspheres. As noted above, the exclusion zone is distinct from bulk water. A series of measurements including UV-Vis absorption spectra, infrared and NMR imaging, and electrical polarization showed that water in the exclusion zone was less mobile and more ordered than bulk water, and that it was charged. Water is known to have a strong absorption peak at a wavelength 3.05˜3.10 μm, corresponding to a symmetric OH stretch. A light source, LED31-PR, which has peak output at 3.1 μm and full width at half maximum (FWHM) of 0.55 μm, was used to irradiate water in contact with a hydrophilic surface. NAFION® tubing (TT-050, 0.042 in. diam., Perma Pure) was suffused with a 1-μm carboxylate-microsphere suspension (2.65% solids-latex, Polysciences Inc.) with a 1:500 volume fraction, to a depth of about 1 mm. The chamber was made using a thin cover glass adhered to the bottom of a 1-mm thick cover slide with a 9-mm circular hole cut in the center, and was placed on the stage of a microscope (Zeiss Axiovert-35, with camera CFW-1310C). A pinhole (Edmund Optics), 50 μm in diameter and 0.25 mm thick, was used to obtain an incident beam of restricted diameter. A fabricated holder integrated the pinhole and LED into a single unit with the LED mounted close to the pinhole. The LED-pinhole axis was vertically oriented.
When the exclusion zone reached an apparent equilibrium state, the incident radiation was turned on. Optical power output was 33 μW, and the estimated power received through the pinhole was about 2.4 nW. After five minutes, the LED assembly was removed and the exclusion zone was photographed through the microscope. Referring to FIGS. 7A and 7B, it is apparent that even with modest IR exposure, the exclusion zone (7B) grew to approximately three times its control size (7B).
Exclusion zone width was also tracked over time. This was carried out not only with the 3.1-μm source, but also with 2.0-μm and 1.75-μm sources (FWHM=0.16 μm and 0.18 μm, respectively). For the latter two sources, intensities were maintained at approximately 190 μW; but for the 3.1-μm source, power was kept at the maximally attainable value, 33 μW.
During the 10 min exposure at all three wavelengths, exclusion zones continued to expand approximately linearly (FIG. 8A). The largest effect was seen at 3.1 μm, despite lower incident power. To determine whether the EZ continues to expand beyond the 10-min exposure, the 3.1-μm source was left on at the same intensity as above for up to one hour. The ratios increased from 3.7±0.10 (10 min) to 4.7±0.12 (30 min) and 6.1±0.17 (1 hr) respectively. Hence, the exclusion zone continued to expand for up to at least one-hour of exposure.
Post-illumination exclusion zone size dynamics were examined. When the infrared light was turned off after 5 minutes exposure, exclusion zone width remained roughly constant with fluctuations for about 30 min. Then, the size of the exclusion zone began decreasing noticeably and continued to decrease for approximately one hour.
To determine the effect of beam intensity on exclusion zone expansion, the 2-μm source was employed at three power levels, 0.21, 0.34, and 1.20 mW. The rate of EZ expansion increased with an increase of incident power (FIG. 8B).
The results demonstrate that exclusion zone expansion is a function of both time and intensity. Exclusion zone growth depends on the cumulative amount of incident energy.
To test whether the expansion arises out of some unanticipated interaction between the incident radiation and the particular type of microsphere probe, microspheres of different size and composition were tested. For carboxylate microspheres of diameters 0.5 μm, 1 μm, 2 μm, and 4.5 μm at the same volume concentrations (1:500), mean expansion ratios for 5-min exposure of 3.1-μm radiation were: 2.41, 2.97, 3.08, and 3.34, respectively (n=6). For varied 1-μm microspheres made of carboxylate, sulfate (2.65% solids-latex, Polysciences Inc.), and silica (SiO2, Polysciences Inc.) under conditions the same as above, expansion ratios were 2.97, 3.10 and 1.50. Some material-based and size-based variations were noted; the latter arising possibly because of different numbers of particles per unit volume; but, appreciable radiation-induced expansion was nevertheless seen under all circumstances and with all materials. The presence of the expansion effect is not material specific.
The effect of illuminating with IR at different positions relative to the NAFION®/water interface was compared. For these measurements, a sheet of NAFION® 117 film (0.007 in. thick, Aldrich), approximately 6 mm long and 1.5 mm high, was held by a micro-clip (0.75×4-mm jaws, World Precision Instruments) and positioned in the vertical plane near the middle of the chamber, which was made from a rectangular glass block, length 7 cm, width 2.5 cm and height 1.5 mm with a rectangular hole, length 3.15 cm and width 1.2 cm, cut through from top to bottom and a 1-mm-thick glass slide sealing from beneath. The film's upper edge was positioned at the solution surface. The vertical scale was carefully calibrated using a 1-mm-thick glass slide with face markings; one millimeter corresponded to 634 divisions on the focus knob. A 50-μm pinhole was placed immediately above the specimen in order to restrict incident spot size. To estimate spot diameter at different solution depths, a visible source (microscope light with green filter, λ=550 nm) was substituted for the LED. Beam diameters increased approximately linearly from 160 μm at the solution surface, to 240 μm at 1.5 mm below the surface (these values are only approximate, as diameters will change with wavelength). For periods of observation and data collection, where some illumination was required, intensity was minimized by use of this same filter.
With the beam first positioned in the middle of the exclusion zone, the expansion ratios were measured at different depths. FIG. 9A shows that maximum expansion occurred at a depth of approximately 450 μm from the solution surface, and was detectable well beyond 1 mm. The fact that the maximum expansion occurred well below the surface is surprising given the limited IR penetration ordinarily expected in water.
With the same setup as above, the spot was then positioned at varying distances from the NAFION®-water interface. Results are shown in FIG. 9B. Expansion was largest when light was focused in the center of the exclusion zone, and fell off on either side, although not appreciably. At deeper positions, the near-NAFION® expansion peak tended to broaden somewhat, possibly because of incident-beam broadening; but, the trend was essentially similar at all depths. The most notable finding was that even when the beam was positioned far from the NAFION® surface, the expansion effect was appreciable.
Infrared absorption in water causes a temperature elevation. To measure local temperatures, an OMEGAETTE™ datalogger thermometer HH306 was used, with stainless-steel-sheathed, compact transition ground-junction probe (TJC36 series), small enough (250 μm) to fit within the exclusion zone. With the incident beam positioned to elicit the maximum expansion, i.e., centered 175 μm from the NAFION® surface, the measured temperature increases are shown in Table 1.
Radiation-induced temperature increases were modest at all positions and fairly uniform over the chamber. Slight temperature variation was found with depth, implying that the thermal mass of the probe itself, immersed by varying extents for measurements at varying depths, did not introduce any serious artifact.
Dynamics of temperature rise were observed. The temperature increase occurred steadily, reaching a plateau of about 1° C. at 10-15 min after turn-on. This plateau was attained at a time that the exclusion zone continued to expand (see FIG. 8A). Not only was the temperature increase modest, but also the time course of temperature rise and exclusion zone expansion were not correlated.
Infrared effects were seen at depths on the millimeter scale, whereas infrared penetration into water is anticipated to extend down only on the micrometer scale. One possible explanation is that penetration through the exclusion zone is deeper than through bulk water.
The exclusion zone expansion's spectral sensitivity was determined. The experimental setup was similar to that described above. The about 200-μm wide light beam emerging from the pinhole was directed to the middle of exclusion zone, and expansion was measured 300 μm below solution surface. For the UV and visible sources, maintaining consistent optical power output at all wavelengths was achievable within +/−10% by adjusting the driver current. IR sources were considerably weaker and output power was maintained at a lower level, three orders of magnitude lower than in the UV-visible ranges.
For ultraviolet and visible ranges all incident wavelengths brought appreciable expansion (FIG. 2A). The degree of expansion increased with increasing wavelength, the exception being the data point at 270 nm, which was higher than the local minimum at 300 nm. The higher absorption may reflect the signature absorption peak at 270 nm characteristic of the exclusion zone. Clear wavelength sensitivity was also found in the infrared region, the most profound expansion occurring at 3.1 μm (FIG. 2B). Recognizing that the optical power available for use in the IR region was 1/600 of that in the visible and UV regions, one can assume that with comparable power, the IR curve would shift considerably upward continuing the upward trend evident in FIG. 2A. The most profound effect is in the IR region, particularly at 3.1 μm.
Interestingly, the overall spectral sensitivity of expansion follows closely the spectral sensitivity of water absorption. In both cases, there is an overall minimum in the near-UV, plus a local maximum at 2.0 μm and a peak at 3.1 μm. If not by coincidence, then a connection is implied between JR absorption and EZ expansion, although the linkage is apparently not through temperature increase, which was both modest and temporally uncorrelated. Furthermore, increasing the bath temperature actually diminishes exclusion zone size. Evidence that the effect is apparently nonthermal.
FIGS. 10A and 10B present evidence that negative charge buildup next to NAFION® is associated with proton buildup in the bulk water beyond. FIG. 10A shows the bulk-water pH transient that occurs during exclusion zone buildup, while FIG. 10B shows the pH distribution in the bulk measured after the exclusion zone had formed. Whereas the exclusion zone is negatively charged, both results, using independent techniques, confirm that the region beyond contains an abundance of protons. Indeed, electrodes placed in the respective zones are able to deliver substantial current to a load confirming charge separation between the exclusion zone and the bulk zone beyond.
FIG. 11 is a graph comparing potential (mV) measured as a function of distance from the surface of representative hydrophilic materials (NAFION® and poly(acrylic acid) gel) useful in the method of the invention; the substances are depicted as "inside" and water is "outside." Similar negative potentials have been observed with ion-exchange beads composed of crosslinked polystyrene divinylbenzene backbones functionalized with sulfonic acid groups.
The following is a description of the methods used in the experiments described above.
Sample Preparation. NAFION® surfaces, sheets or tubes, were used for creating exclusion zones. NAFION® was immersed in ultrapure water (NANOpure® Diamond ρ=18.2 MΩ-cm) to which microspheres were added for delineating the exclusion zone boundary. To supply incident energy, a series of LEDs were used. All experiments were carried out at room temperature in a darkened room.
Light Sources and Calibration. The LEDs used for infrared illumination (Gistopics) came in TO-18 packages with parabolic reflectors for reducing beam-divergence angle. For the visible range, the LED Φ5 series (Nichia) was used. For illumination in the UV region, LED NSHU590 (Nichia) emitting at 365 nm, and LEDs UVTOP® 265 and UVTOP® 295 (Sensor Electronic Technology) encapsulated in metal-glass TO-39 packages with UV-transparent hemispherical lens optical windows, emitting, respectively, at 270 nm and 300 nm, were used. All LEDs were driven at 2 kHz by a Model D-31 LED driver (Gistoptics). Output power was regulated for consistency using a Newport 1815-C optical power meter with Newport 818-UV, 818-SL and 818-IR probes.
In another aspect, the invention provides a method for generating electrical energy from a volume of water through the formation of an exclusion zone at the interface of air and water. In one embodiment of the method, energy is applied to a volume of water contained in a vessel to provide an exclusion zone in the volume of water at the air-water interface and a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone; a first electrode is provided in the exclusion zone and a second electrode in the bulk zone; and electrical energy is extracted from the volume of water by connecting a load across the electrodes.
Exclusion zones have been observed not only next to hydrophilic surfaces as described above, but also at the air-water interface of volumes of water contained in vessel having a surface (upper surface) exposed to air. These exclusion zones (i.e., top layer of water on the order of 1 mm) appear to be solute free. In several chamber-geometrical variants, microspheres were consistently excluded from this zone and measurements showed that the zone had a negative potential.
It is possible that the air is not per se that was responsible for the presence of the exclusion zone and that the exclusion zone was due to the glass surfaces at the chamber's edge. At the glass-water interface the meniscus rise was commonly solute-free, implying the presence of structure. This structure apparently propagates along the water-air interface, covering the water surface. In narrow chambers this cover was commonly 1-2 mm thick, whereas in wider chambers, where the menisci are more widely separated, the structure was thinner. However, replacing air with nitrogen, but not oxygen, diminishes the exclusion zone implying that oxygen may be playing an important role.
An array of thin glass sheets, positioned parallel to one another and spaced about 1 mm apart, was constructed. The surfaces were oriented perpendicular to the air-water interface, and the top of the array lay immediately beneath the water surface. The negative electrode consisted initially of platinum wires running along the top edge of each member of the glass array, situated just at the air-water interface. The positive electrode, placed at a selectable distance beneath the array, was a platinum mesh.
Electrical power was extracted from these conditions, just as in the presence of hydrophilic surfaces described above. The drop of voltage, from the initial value to the plateau, was typically only 30-35%, a more modest drop than the situation with immersed hydrophilic surface. Thus, ambient energy could apparently better sustain the power delivery. Absolute power levels were higher. With hydrophilic surface (e.g., NAFION®) systems, 1 μA currents with 10K resistor were obtained, while in this aspect, even with the higher resistance 200K resistor used for these experiments, currents on the order of several μA to 10 μA were obtainable, giving power levels in the range roughly 1 μW/cm2 of surface (i.e., surface parallel to the air-water interface).
The effect of incident IR was found to be more consistent albeit less dramatic than in the hydrophilic surface (e.g., NAFION®) systems. When IR light was applied from the onset, the drop-off of voltage was slowed by about five or six times; and, the plateau level remained somewhat higher. When the IR was turned on sometime during the plateau, the effect was smaller, sometimes being insignificant, other times causing a slight increase.
Several experimental variants were evaluated including the use of different types of electrode materials instead of platinum and the addition of salts into the pure water.
Regarding electrode materials, various combinations of platinum, zinc, aluminum and copper were explored. Depending on the combination, the voltages were either higher or lower than with platinum-platinum. In one advantageous embodiment, the electrode combination was platinum (negative) and zinc (positive), which gave an initial potential difference on the order of about 1 V.
FIGS. 12-15 are graphs demonstrating the effectiveness of generating electrical energy from an air-water interface as described above. FIG. 12 is a graph of voltage (V) over time using a platinum cathode and zinc electrode. FIG. 13 is a graph corresponding to FIG. 12 showing current (amperes) over time. FIG. 14 is a graph of voltage (V) over time using a platinum cathode and zinc electrode using glass slides that are twice (2×) larger than those used to obtain the record shown in FIG. 12 (note voltage increase). FIG. 15 is a graph corresponding to FIG. 14 showing current (amperes) over time. When using electrodes of two different metals, rather than the same metals for each electrode, some difference of output power may be due to the metals' electrochemical surface potentials.
Regarding the addition of salt, modest amounts of salt caused the potential difference to increase. To check the effect, the salt was added in low concentration during the voltage falloff. Voltage magnitude immediately increased, followed by a less steep falloff than in the absence of salt, by 0.2 to 0.3V.
(c) extracting electrical energy from the volume of water by connecting a load across the electrodes.
2. The method of claim 1, wherein applying energy comprises irradiating the volume of water with electromagnetic radiation.
3. The method of claim 2, wherein the electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength in the range from about 200 nm to about 10,000 nm.
4. The method of claim 2, wherein the electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength of about 3 μm.
5. The method of claim 2, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is radiant energy from the sun.
6. The method of claim 2, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is radiant energy from a local environment.
7. The method of claim 1, wherein the exclusion zone extends from about 1 nm to about 1 m from the hydrophilic surface.
8. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a net negatively charged surface.
9. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a net positively charged surface.
10. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a hydrophilic gel.
11. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a biological material.
12. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a self-assembled monolayer.
13. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is a polymeric surface.
14. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is an inorganic surface.
15. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface comprises a plurality of hydrophilic beads.
16. The method of claim 1, wherein the hydrophilic surface is ice.
17. The method of claim 1, wherein the water has a pH of from about 2 to about 11.
18. The method of claim 1, wherein the water further comprises a salt.
19. The method of claim 1 further comprising applying energy to the volume of water by applying a voltage across the electrodes.
wherein the second electrode is in the bulk zone.
(c) a second electrode positioned in the vessel distal to the hydrophilic surface.
22. The system of claim 21 further comprising a volume of water.
23. The system of claim 21, wherein the first electrode is positioned in an exclusion zone formed at the interface of the hydrophilic surface and the water.
24. The system of claim 23, wherein the second electrode is positioned in a bulk zone in the volume of water outside of the exclusion zone.
ES2363813T3 (en) 2011-08-17 photovoltaic device with increased light collection.


text:
Pilot > Aircraft > Flight Tests
Flight test: Sherwood Kub
Published: 1:39 PM October 16, 2019
Sherwood Kub - Credit: Keith Wilson
This sporty single-seater microlight is available as a factory-built or in kit form, as a trike or taildragger. It comes with folding wings ? and 'attitude' | Words: Dave Unwin - Photos: Keith Wilson
As I turn onto final James Milnes's voice crackles in my headset: "Golf Uniform Bravo - Golf Alpha Kilo, don't forget it's a tailwheel today!" The reason for James's timely reminder is that when I'd flown the same aircraft a few weeks previously it had been configured as a trike, but today it's a taildragger!
Like most things in life, sport flying isn't getting any cheaper. Hangarage, insurance, maintenance, and fuel are all becoming more expensive. But what if you had an aeroplane that lived on a road-legal trailer and fitted in your garage?
One you could fly from practically any friendly farmer's field while burning only eight litres of mogas an hour, and that you could do all the maintenance on? I give you the Sherwood Kub.
Built by The Light Aircraft Company at Little Snoring Airfield in Norfolk, the Kub is a high-wing, single-seater which falls into the snappily-titled Single Seat Deregulated category, or SSDR.
As the name implies, an SSDR aircraft may have only a single seat, and in the UK it must stall at less than 35kt and have a MAUW (maximum all up weight) no greater than 300kg (some countries alternatively specify an empty weight of either 115 or 120kg). And 'deregulated'?
Well, in the UK not only can you do all the maintenance yourself, but there isn't even a requirement for a Permit to Fly.
1 Flight test: Comco Ikarus C42C
2 Flight test: Globe Super Swift
7 Flight Test: Vans RV-4 G-BZPH
9 Flight test: DHC-1 Chipmunk T.10
10 Coventry meeting set for 11 January
Before going flying, a look around the TLAC facility reveals quite a few Kubs in various stages of construction, and the large lift (which wouldn't look entirely out of place on an aircraft carrier) that conveys completed aircraft from the production line on the first floor down to the ground.
Unlike some of the SSDRs that I've tested over the years, the Kub looks very well made, and also quite robust. TLAC boss Paul Hendry-Smith explains that although SSDR aircraft don't need specific approvals from a national aviation authority or administration, as the Kub is descended from the Reality Aircraft Kid, it is built to British Civil Airworthiness Requirements, uses aircraft-quality materials and is "a proper aeroplane".
Sherwood Kub - Credit: NA
Looking at the test machine reveals an interesting anomaly; unlike any other aircraft I've ever flown, 'Golf Oscar Kilo Uniform Bravo' appears to have both a nosewheel and a tailwheel!
TLAC's Chief Pilot James Milne explains that the Kub shares several similar features with its big brother the Scout, including being offered with different engine options, having quick-folding wings and being easily reconfigured with either a nosewheel or tailwheel undercarriage. "The mainwheels are set up for a nosewheel," he explains, "but we thought we'd leave the tailwheel on for a laugh?see if you'd notice!"
Currently offered by TLAC as either a basic kit, 'Fast-Build' kit or as a ready to fly factory-built SSDR microlight, the Kub is of classic 'rag 'n' tube' design. Construction is primarily of TIG-welded aircraft grade 4130 steel tube, powder-coated for corrosion protection.
The fuselage has a triangular cross-section aft of the cockpit (in this respect resembling an Aeronca Champ, rather than a Piper Cub - Ed), while the wings use Avid Flyer/Kitfox-style tubular aluminium spars and plywood ribs. Oratex UL600 covers the fuselage, wings and tail, with composites used for the cowling, which half-covers the Hirth F-23 engine.
The F-23 is an air-cooled horizontally-opposed two-stroke twin, which produces 50hp at 6,150rpm (TLAC says 6,150; Hirth says 6,500…) and turns its three-blade fixed-pitch prop via a wide Polyflex vee-belt drive with a reduction ratio of 2.2:1.
James explains that initially G-OKUB had been fitted with a Hirth F-33 single-cylinder two-stroke of only 33hp, but this was soon replaced with the F-23, which, he grins, "has transformed it!"
Now, I'm not a huge fan of two-stroke aero-engines. In fact, even my lawnmower's engine is a four-stroke, so I regard the F-23 with a slightly jaundiced air. It's quite an interesting, almost contradictory little engine as?despite Hirth having replaced the old-school magnetos with dual Capacitive Digital Ignition (CDI) units?you still must mix the two-stroke oil into the petrol by hand. I believe automatic oil injection is an option, but even my Yamaha RD400 motorcycle had the oil automatically injected as standard in 1978.
The Hirth does have an excellent power to weight ratio though?50hp from an aero-engine that only weighs 35kg (including the electric starter and twin expansion-chamber exhaust) is not to be sniffed at. It's fed from a pair of wing tanks with a combined capacity of 47 litres via a fuselage-mounted, four-litre header tank.
The main undercarriage is of the split-vee type fitted with chubby low-pressure tyres and heavily slotted Shimano cable-actuated disc brakes. Bungees are used for shock absorption. As both 'third wheels' were fitted for my benefit, it made this particular pre-flight unique, at least in my experience.
The large pneumatic nosewheel is carried by a welded steel-tube frame and free-castors, while the small solid tailwheel is suspended from a single leaf spring and steers via springs through the rudder pedals, up to about thirty degrees each way.
A mixture of struts and wires brace the tailplane, which carries separate elevators with a large trim tab set into the trailing edge of the starboard one. The big fin is pleasingly rounded and carries an equally large rudder.
The constant-chord wings are braced by vee-struts and fold aft using a similar system to the Scout's, but what really catch my eye are the large, single-slotted mechanically-actuated flaps. These have four positions, 0°, 10°, 25° and 40°?but are they really necessary?
This thing has a MAUW of only 300kg and with a wing area of 10.5sq m the wing loading is less than 28.57kg/sq m (6lb/sq ft), so why would it need flaps? It's obvious that without some sort of hinged trailing edge it wouldn't be possible to fold the wings, as they'd foul the fuselage. But do these sections really have to be lift-and-drag-producing aerodynamic flaps? Only one way to find out - fly it!
Access to the cockpit is via a split window/door on the starboard side. The door opens forward and is quite small, while the upward-opening window is big. Most Kubs also have an identical window to port.
Unsurprisingly, neither the seat nor pedals adjust, but luckily it fits me quite nicely so, once firmly strapped in with the well-made Willians four-point harness, I study the surprisingly large cockpit's controls and instruments. Quite predictably it's an exercise in minimalism.
The tall stick carries twin bicycle-type brake levers, while levers for the throttle, trim and flaps are on the port sidewall by your left knee, hip and elbow respectively. The panel continues the minimalist motif with a centrally-mounted MGL Stratomaster Xtreme EFIS as the primary instrument for both flight and engine information, with a back-up analogue altimeter and ASI below it, and a slip ball between them.
The ASI is in mph and somewhat optimistic (about a third of the scale is superfluous) and the altimeter not ideal, as it only has a single pointer.
There are only four circuit breakers and four toggle switches (for the master, avionics master and CDI units), plus a large button for the starter?and that's pretty well it for the electrical services, as the Icom transceiver doesn't count as installed equipment.
Now it's time for my mea culpa moment. James had turned on the master and avionics to brief me on the EFIS, and then said "off you go", so I set throttle and choke, shouted "clear prop" and pressed the starter. The propeller whirled most convincingly but the motor didn't even cough. Further attempts were equally unsatisfactory before realisation dawned on James and me simultaneously?maybe turning on the dual ignition systems might help? This was the first time I'd made this fundamental mistake on a test flight.
Lesson learned: if someone else has turned on some of the systems, it's always best to turn everything off and start again from the beginning. Incidentally, the choke isn't great but they're working on it.
It's spring-loaded to the 'off' position, and as there's no parking brake you run out of hands as you also need to press the starter and guard the throttle. Taxying out using the hand-operated differential brakes is quite easy, once I'd remembered that?as with all aircraft fitted with a castoring nosewheel?it's easier if you keep the speed up a bit.
As you may readily appreciate, the pre-takeoff checks continue the simple theme?and as the F-23 is a two-stroke it doesn't need warming up and you can't even check the oil temperature or pressure. Consequently, my generic single engine piston 'flow check' is quickly completed but?as always when flying a two-stroke?the small 'Master Caution' light in my brain flickers once or twice.
"Have I missed something?" So I wait until the cylinder head temperatures rise slightly then run through the pre-takeoff checks again. Finally convinced I really haven't forgotten anything, it's time to fly.
There's no need to taxi around to Runway 25 so I simply set the flaps to 10°, open the throttle, and take off from the taxiway. Ambient conditions are above ISA, with an airfield elevation of 196ft and an OAT of 20°C, while with both tanks full the Kub's still about 44kg below its 300kg MAUW.
There's a slight crosswind from port but the acceleration is so brisk that the Kub is up and away after roughly fifty metres ground roll. The climb rate is equally impressive, the Vy (best rate of climb speed) of 45kt producing over 1,000fpm.
The weather is no good for air-to-airs, so photographer Keith stays on the ground while I head off to the west to explore the general handling, control and stability. Initial impressions are all good. The handling is fine around all three axes, with low break-out forces and little 'stiction'. Predictably, slow flight is slow.
The strut-braced wing uses a relatively high-lift aerofoil and the loading is only 28.6kg/sq m, which may not sound that low. However, in old money it's less than 6lb/sq ft, or barely half that of a C152. Stalls?either power on or off?are very benign.
There is no artificial stall warner but adequate natural pre-stall buffet. Furthermore, as you approach the stall a reasonable amount of back pressure on the stick is required. Recovery is quick and easy?just release the back pressure. Flaps up, it stalls at around 28kt, and although with full flap and some power you can get it down to around 22, it's almost academic as a sensible approach speed is so far above the stall. The trim is quite precise, although it did seem to run out of aft trim at my weight.
Regarding stick-free stability, the Kub is stable around all three axes, being quite positive longitudinally, softly positive directionally, and just barely positive laterally. The roll rate is quite nippy, as you'd imagine, while the visibility in the turn (and most phases of flight) is quite good for a high-wing aircraft.
The cruise performance is also pretty much what you'd expect. A comfortable cruise speed is around 50-55kt, and although you can bump it up to sixty, the engine is buzzing quite frenetically and you'll be burning a lot more fuel. For example, at fifty knots you're only burning around ten litres per hour, so the full 51 litres provide a still-air range (including thirty minutes' reserve fuel) of around 225 nautical miles.
If you pull the power right back you can certainly improve the endurance?it's just that if there's any appreciable headwind at all then you won't actually be going anywhere! However, when flying an aircraft like a Kub, the journey is at least as important as the destination.
For my first landing I opt for Runway 25, which is wider, longer and directly into wind. This goes well. I can see that Keith has positioned himself by the mown grass strip (aka Runway 28) next to the taxiway to shoot some takeoff and landing shots, so I fly several.
This is great fun. The simple pleasure of a well-flown approach never diminishes, while the subtle and seamless transference of weight from wing to wheel and back again has never paled, especially if you've got an open cockpit (or large window open) and the runway is grass. As mentioned earlier the test aircraft had a third wheel at both ends and just for laughs (and with a bit of application) I even managed a three-pointer.
I typically use about 45kt on final. If it's flat calm you could probably safely shave off another five knots but I'd advise against it. The Kub has plenty of drag and not much inertia?the speed soon washes off. Plus, it sideslips superbly. Furthermore, when landing into just a stiff breeze the ground speed at touchdown is very low, possibly less than ten knots. The brakes are only for taxying.
I also examine the takeoff and landing performance with various flap settings and eventually try the ultimate test by inverting all normal procedures?taking off with full flap and then landing with no flap.
Conclusion: you don't need any flap at any time, except when folding the wings! My experiments had convinced me that the weight, cost, and complexity of the flap system's lever, cables, pulleys and bell cranks are unnecessary, and that (and particularly for the fifty-horse version) simple pip-pins could be used to hold the flaps in place when rigged for flight.
A few weeks later Keith and I return, and the weather is great. This time the Kub's lost the 'training wheel' and is configured purely as a taildragger?and looks a lot better for it. In fact, it looks a little bit like a single-seat miniature Aeronca Champ. Slightly chubby and cheeky-looking, it exudes fun.
Taxying out is, if anything (and unusually) easier in the taildragger than the trike. S-turning is unnecessary, as visibility over- and each side of the nose is good and the tailwheel steers through the rudder pedals, whereas the nosewheel castors and requires differential braking.
The best rate of climb is attained at 45kt, but as soon as I'm above 500ft I speed up to 55, as this not only improves the view over the nose but also gets me clear of the airfield and chasing the camera 152 a bit quicker.
The air-to-airs with the C152 carrying Keith and James are not easy, as the Kub has practically no 'overtake', so I have to use a lot of geometric cut-off for the rejoins.
With all the pictures in the can, I briefly repeated some of the items on the flight test card to see what, if any, changes in performance and handling have been produced by removing the nosewheel.
Unsurprisingly, directional stability is stronger (less keel area in front of the centre of pressure) but longitudinal stability weaker (more weight aft of the centre of gravity) alleviating the limited aft trim. The aeroplane also seems slightly faster (less drag) and is definitely better looking!
An absolute hoot
During my two test flights I had a lot of fun with the Kub?it's an absolute hoot! Even the two-stroke engine impressed me (it really does pull well) and the rate of climb is spectacular.
It was great fun to bumble about the Norfolk sky with my elbow out the open window. The handling is crisp, the roll rate nippy and it's just... well, fun?for there's something very special about flying rag 'n' tube taildraggers from grass, something that is difficult to explain and hard to resist.
In his classic book, Airymouse the great Harald Penrose wrote about his flights in 'a diminutive single seater aeroplane of insignificant horsepower'. Is the Kub the 21st century equivalent of Penrose's Curry Wot?
Possibly... I think he would've liked it, especially the tailwheel version with both windows down.
So, would a Kub work for you? Ultimately, the vital question you need to ask yourself is "Do I want go flying for sixty miles, or sixty minutes?"

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


As always, Julie and I want to thank you all for the huge success that the Link Up has received! We continue to receive so many nice comments regarding the Link Up and want to thank you immensely! We hope you'll continue to stick around for weeks to come and definitely help spread the word about this awesome Link Up!
Thanks so much for the feature!! I gave you a Shout Out on Google + and will also do so in my next post!!
Thanks for hosting and thanks again for featuring my Potting Bench!!
Thank you Julie for hosting another party :) Beautiful features!!
Thank you for the party Julie and for featuring my Watermelon Pie! Great way to start the week!
Hi Julie! All those foodie features are sure making me hungry! Thanks for hosting your fun party and have a great week.
Thanks for the lovely party, Julie :) I am so happy to be linking up today. Hugs!
Thanks for the party, Julie! :) I hope it's a great, summery week!
Love that potting bench. Thanks for hosting Julie!
Hi Julie, what a fun link party. All those treats look delicious and the potting bench is really awesome! So many talented people sharing their creations!
Julie, this is really nice to be a part of.
Thank you for hosting this fabulous link-up party, Julie! Have a great day!
Thanks for hosting ladies! Off to check out the other links!


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Home Cannabis News
What Does Trump AG Pick William Barr Mean for the Cannabis Industry?
Danny Reed
William Barr attorney general cannabis
WASHINGTON, D.C.- President Trump has announced that William Barr will be his nominee to replace Jeff Sessions as the U.S. Attorney General. Sessions voiced his opposition to legalized cannabis often and became a lightning rod for the cannabis industry.
Barr has already served in the role as U.S. Attorney from 1991-93 under President George H.W. Bush's administration. Barr's record will undoubtedly be examined by many as he plans to join an administration with potential legal troubles. The focus of the media and his critics may be on his views of presidential powers and the Russian investigation, but his views on The War on Drugs may leave many worried about the future of legal cannabis.
Barr pushed and succeeded in instituting harsher punishments for drug offenders in the early 90s. He also once said that it was "simply a myth" that there were "sympathetic people" and "hapless victims of the criminal justice system" in prisons, according to David Krajicek at Salon.
In a letter of support for a book released by his Justice Department in 1992, Barr claimed that "there is no better way to reduce crime than to identify, target, and incapacitate those hardened criminals who commit staggering numbers of violent crimes whenever they are on the streets."
While Jeff Sessions drew the ire of almost the entire cannabis industry, reactions to Barr have been a bit more muted, though some are expressing concern.
"Some of Barr's past work and statements are extremely troubling for criminal justice reform advocates, though it is hard to tell where he stands on federalism issues at this point," Morgan Fox, Media Relations Director at NCIA, a national cannabis trade association told mg.
"Hopefully he will look at the successful track record that has resulted from the DOJ not wasting money prosecuting cannabis businesses that are following state law, listen to the federal prosecutors in those states who wisely directed their limited resources elsewhere, and let the cannabis industry continue to divert money away from the unregulated illicit market," Fox continued.
NORML, the most widely recognized cannabis advocacy group also came out to voice their concerns over Barr.
"In 2018, five states legalized either the medicinal or adult-use of marijuana, making the total number of states out of compliance with the Controlled Substances Act now 47," NORML Political Director Justin Strekal said in a statement. "It would be utterly absurd for William Barr or any agent of the Department of Justice to take any action against these state-sanctioned and operational programs."
"In 2018, five states legalized either the medicinal or adult-use of marijuana, making the total number of states out of compliance with the Controlled Substances Act now 47. It would be utterly absurd for William Barr or any agent of the Department of Justice to take any action against these state-sanctioned and operational programs," Strekal continued.
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Researchers test mRNA technology for universal flu vaccine
An experimental vaccine provided broad protection against all 20 known influenza A and B virus subtypes in initial tests in mice and ferrets, potentially opening a pathway to a universal flu shot that might help prevent future pandemics, according to a U.S. study published on Thursday.
The two-dose vaccine employs the same messenger RNA (mRNA)technology used in the COVID-19 shots developed by Pfizer PFE.N with BioNTech 22UAy.DE, and by Moderna MRNA.O. It delivers tiny lipid particles containing mRNA instructions for cells to create replicas of so-called hemagglutinin proteins that appear on influenza virus surfaces.
A universal vaccine would not mean an end to flu seasons, but would replace the guess work that goes into developing annual shots months ahead of flu season each year.
"The idea here is to have a vaccine that will give people a baseline level of immune memory to diverse flu strains, so that there will be far less disease and death when the next flu pandemic occurs," study leader Scott Hensley of the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania said in a statement.
Unlike standard flu vaccines that deliver one or two versions of hemagglutinin, the experimental vaccine includes 20 different types in the hope of getting the immune system to recognize any flu virus it might encounter in the future.
In lab experiments, vaccinated animals' immune systems recognized the hemagglutinin proteins and defended against 18 different strains of influenza A and two strains of influenza B. Antibody levels induced by the vaccine remained unchanged for at least four months, according to a report published in the journal Science.
The vaccine reduced signs of illness and protected from death even when the ferrets were exposed to a different type of flu not in the vaccine, the researchers said.
Moderna and Pfizer both have mRNA flu vaccines in late-stage human trials, and GSK GSK.L and partner CureVac 5CV.DE are testing an mRNA flu vaccine in an early-stage safety trial in humans. These vaccines are designed to defend against only four recently-circulating influenza strains but could theoretically be changed up each year.
The universal flu vaccine, if successful in human trials, would not necessarily prevent infection. The goal is to provide durable protection against severe disease and death, Hensley said.
Questions remain regarding how to judge efficacy and potential regulatory requirements for a vaccine against possible future viruses that are not currently circulating, Alyson Kelvin and Darryl Falzarano of the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, wrote in a commentary published with the study.
While the promising results with the new vaccine "suggest a protective capacity against all subtypes of influenza viruses, we cannot be sure until clinical trials in volunteers are done," Adolfo García-Sastrem, director of the Institute for Global Health and Emerging Pathogens at Mount Sinai Hospital in New York, said in a statement.
Reporting by Nancy Lapid; Editing by Christine Soares and Bill Berkrot
Prime Minister Justin Trudeau called on his Liberal caucus to meet the moment on Friday, as Canadians deal with the high cost of living, a struggling health-care system and the effects of climate change.
LeBron James was announced Thursday as an NBA All-Star for the 19th time. James will be the captain of one of the teams for the Feb. 19 All-Star Game in Salt Lake City, while Eastern Conference voting leader Giannis Antetokounmpo of the Milwaukee Bucks will captain the other side.
Tesla said it intends to invest US$3.6 billion to expand manufacturing capabilities in Nevada and is confident growing software-related profits, reflected in record net income reported Wednesday for the fourth quarter of last year, will keep margins higher than any other automaker.


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Adrianus Johannus Anthonius (Adrie) van Eijkeren (Hansweert, 3 maart 1903 - aldaar, 17 december 2010) was, tot zijn overlijden op 107-jarige leeftijd, enige tijd de oudste nog levende Nederlandse veteraan.

Sergeant-majoor buiten dienst Van Eijkeren was voor en na de Tweede Wereldoorlog in dienst van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch-Indisch Leger (KNIL). Tijdens de oorlog nam hij in Nederland deel aan het verzet.

Voor zijn daden heeft Van Eijkeren diverse onderscheidingen gekregen, waaronder de Verguld Zilveren Medaille voor trouwe militaire dienst en het Ereteken voor Orde en Vrede.

Hij was van 15 augustus 2005 tot zijn dood ruim vijf jaar later de oudste man van de provincie Zeeland en sinds september 2008, oftewel meer dan twee jaar, de oudste ingezetene ervan.

Militair in het KNIL
Nederlands honderdplusser
Nederlands verzetsstrijder in de Tweede Wereldoorlog

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Certain dresses like the A-Line/Princess Sweetheart Asymmetrical Lace Bridesmaid Dress With Waistband would be great for any venue and any type of terrain, avoiding the longer length that might trip up an enthusiastic bridesmaid during her venture down the aisle. The dress is lace with a solid colour waistband as embellishment. It has a skirt that is asymmetrical and has a covered button back. This makes a great choice that can look formal enough for other occasions, if your bridesmaids are interested in a multi-function ensemble.
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At least two variations of the OnePlus 7 are anticipated to launch this yr, and a bunch of alleged particulars concerning the rumoured OnePlus 7 Pro have simply emerged on-line.
The phrase on the road is that the handset's show might be a giant step up from the OnePlus 6T's Full HD+ display screen, and the cellphone will apparently be unveiled in just below a month.
This all comes from tipster Ishan Agarwal (through Android Central). According to Igarwal, the OnePlus 7 Pro will function a Quad HD+ Super AMOLED show with a 90Hz refresh price − merely put, it needs to be very sharp and really clean, which is promising information for players particularly.
We've been hoping to see OnePlus enhance its show sport for a few years now, so this newest leak has bought us very excited certainly.
The Razer Phone 2, a cellphone we described as "perfect for PUBG sessions on the go", has an industry-leading 120Hz variable refresh-rate display screen. The OnePlus 7 Pro, it seems, received't be far behind.
Agarwal additionally claims that the OnePlus 7 Pro's show will provide improved haptic suggestions, because of a brand new vibration motor.
He says the handset can even be geared up with a 4000mAh battery with 30W Warp Charge, twin audio system, a triple rear digicam setup that includes a large angle lens and a telephoto lens, and USB three.1 connectivity.
Finally, he says the cellphone is more likely to launch on 14 May, with occasions apparently set to happen concurrently in New York, Bangalore and the UK (in all probability London). This isn't the primary time that exact date has popped up on the hearsay mill.
The Bangalore occasion will apparently kick off at eight:30pm native time, which is 4pm BST.
Of course, since none of this info has come direct from OnePlus, it must be taken with a hearty pinch of salt. Let's not get carried away but, tempting as it's.
What are you hoping to see from the OnePlus 7 and OnePlus 7 Pro? Let us know on Twitter @TrustedReviews.


If you want something to be good, it takes effort — and this doesn't just apply to writing an article.
What can I say — I'm a sucker for Apple's intuitive, visually pleasing designs, not to mention the brand's cultish appeal to tech-savvy 20-somethings.
I'm writing in response to the April 14 "Campus Chic" article in The Tartan. I take issue with a number of statements made in the article.
In a speech last week, Barack Obama commented on small towns in Pennsylvania.
Many Americans, both Democrat and Republican, took great interest in Senator John McCain's (R–Ariz.) speech last Tuesday in Wiegand Gymnasium.
Recent actions by Pope Benedict XVI have shown that the Catholic Church has the ability to branch out from the staunch Roman walls of the Vatican.
I want to spend my text quota this week talking about Adi and my term's actual accomplishments this year.
I had the opportunity to attend a video conference with Admiral Mike Mullen, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, last Monday.
I can't report, in good conscience, that Carnegie Mellon students support the campaigns of Senators Hillary Clinton and John McCain.


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Portsmouth Naval Base hosts Olympic Flame
Portsmouth took centre stage yesterday as the Olympic Flame continued its 70-day tour of the UK.
Colette Hayes was passed the Olympic Flame by Mazie Watson alongside HMS Victory as its route through Portsmouth took on a distinctive Navy flavour yesterday as it arrived in the city by sea from Gosport.
Royal Navy patrol vessel HMS Exploit and two Second World War motorboats escorted the Gosport Ferry as it brought the Flame across the harbour into Portsmouth Historic Dockyard.
Greeting the torch-bearing party as it stepped ashore were Captain of Portsmouth Naval Base, Captain Jeremy Rigby, Base Services Manager Commander David Hilton, and Chief Executive of Portsmouth Naval Base Property Trust, Peter Goodship.
Watched by hundreds of spectators, the Flame then made its way the short distance to HMS Victory's starboard arena where it changed hands again for the next leg of its journey through the city.
On hand to witness the exchange against the backdrop of HMS Victory were the Second Sea Lord, Vice Admiral Sir Charles Montgomery, and the Naval Base Commander, Commodore Tony Radakin.
They were accompanied by the Lord Mayor of Portsmouth, Councillor Frank Jonas, and other civic dignitaries.
Commodore Radakin said:
This has been an historic day for local families and a delight to host this with our local dignitaries. It was great to see so many people in the naval base supporting the water leg of the torch's journey and reflecting Portsmouth and the Royal Navy's importance as an island nation.
Jacquie Shaw, Acting Manager Director for Portsmouth Historic Dockyard, added:
Being the arrival location for the Olympic Torch into Portsmouth has been a hugely memorable event and a fantastic way to showcase our unique naval attractions, past and present, as well as highlighting the talent in our local community to a worldwide audience.
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Turicum is the Latin name of the city Zurich in Switzerland. Our family settled in Denmark WA after coming from Switzerland in 1982. Our first Chalet Heidi was built shortly after and named after my Aunt (my mums sister). The Chalets Ines and Rita were built in the early 90s and named after our swiss aupairs. Our plan is to slowely bring our chalets back to reperesenting our swiss heritage and ensure they are filled with elements that can be found in a cosy swiss alpine chalet.
We are family run with three generations living and working on the property. We are located 10km west of the town of Denmark and a few minutes drive from nearby beaches. The region offers many exciting activities such as wine tasting, swimming, snorkelling, surfing, fishing, bush walking, rock climbing and off road 4 wheel driving.
Our chalets are located on our 200 acre property which is also the home of Monkey Rock Winery. The chalets are next to our vineyard and within a bush setting.
We have five donkeys who love to be fed carrots if you have children who like animals. There are also many walking tracks on farm or the bibbulmun track runs past our farm.
We have three two-bedroom chalets on our farm. Detailed information can be found here.


The 86.92.231.0 IP address is associated with the country Netherlands and the city Oss whose postal code is 5344. The longitude and latitude of the 86.92.231.0 IP address is 5.5052 / 51.7531. The information provided on this IP address is free. To find out if your IP address is fixed or dynamic, it is recommended to ask your ISP. This information about IP addresses is exclusively for V4 IP addresses.


text:
June 2020 TV Releases
It is all a mixture of different TV shows I am wanting to watch this month from shows returning like How To Get Away with Murder to new exciting adaptations of books I loved when I was a child, I hope Alex Rider is good. To the show I am most excited for which is Perry Mason as it has Matthew Rhys in it and it is set in 1930s America which is one of my favourite parts of history so I literally can wait plus it also has the actor from Orphan Black in it Tatiana Maslany who is incredible. So lots of intriguing shows to watch, let me what you are excited to watch this month in the comments below.
4th – How To Get Away with Murder – Season 6 – Sky Witness – 10pm
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3205802/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0
Opinion: I love all shows from Shondaland plus it has Viola Davis in it.
9th – Betty – Season 1 – Sky Comedy – 9.35pm
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt10814438/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_6
Opinion: This looks really cool its about a group women who love to skateboard and some drama.
16th – Spides – Season 1 – SYFY UK – 9pm
Opinion: A super cool new SCI-FI German series about a drug that may not be human I am hooked already.
24th – APB – Season 1 – Fox UK – 9pm
Opinion: The main guy in this show is from Weeds, Justin Kirk which is a great and funny show. So I am intrigued to see him switch to the dramatic side.
1st – Snowpiercer – Season 1
Opinion: Everything has frozen and what is left of the human race is on a high speed train interesting. This is also is a new take Bong Joon Ho's film Snowpiercer.
4th – Can You Hear Me? – Season 1
Opinion: This looks like a beautiful French comedy about three friends who are going through difficult times in their lives.
10th – Curon – Season 1
Opinion: A new Italian horror series that is about a spooky bell tower and legends. Yes I can't wait to watch this.
12th – The Woods – Season 1
Opinion: This a Polish drama about four kids who went into the woods and only two bodies were found. I can't wait to find out what happens.
27th – Dark – Season 3
Opinion: An incredible German horror TV show that simply must watch it is one of my favourites.
Now TV/ Sky
1st – The Plastic Nile – Sky Documentaries
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt12467918/?ref_=fn_tt_tt_1
Opinion: This looks like a fascinating documentary that has some important messages for the world today.
8th – Succession – Season 1-2
Opinion: I have heard lots of good things about this show and one of the actors Brian Cox was on Jimmy Kimmel talking about it, so I am interested.
11th – The Brink – Sky Documentaries
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt9600932/?ref_=fn_tt_tt_3
Opinion: A documentary about Steve Bannon and his involvement in the Trump campaign.
22nd – Perry Mason – Season 1 – Sky Atlantic
Opinion: Simply going to be the drama of the year I just feel it in my bones and I hope I am not wrong.
4th – Alex Rider – Season 1
Opinion: Another adaptation of Anthony Horowitz's Alex Rider books hopefully this one will be more promising.
5th – El Presidente – Season 1
https://www.imdb.com/title/tt10091306/?ref_=vp_back
Opinion: This is a drama about a head of Chilean football club and scandal. The trailer looked intriguing.
18th – The Great – Season 1
Opinion: This looks like a hilarious look at Catherine the Great with Elle Fanning and Nicholas Hoult in a sort of The Favourite style.
Alex Rider, Amazon Prime, Anthony Horowitz, APB, Betty, Bong Joon Ho's, Brian Cox, Can You Hear Me?, Catherine the Great, Curon, Dark, El Presidente, Elle Fanning, EmilyLovesLondon, Fox UK, How To Get Away with Murder, IMDB, Jimmy Kimmel, June 2020 TV Releases, June TV Releases, Justin Kirk, matthew rhys, Netflix, Nicholas Hoult, Now TV, Orphan Black, Perry Mason, Shondaland, Sky, Sky Atlantic, Sky Comedy, Sky Documentaries, Sky Witness, Snowpiercer, Spides, Steve Bannon, Succession, SYFY UK, Tatiana Maslany, The Brink, The Favourite, The Great, The Plastic Nile, The Woods, TV Releases, TV Shows, Viola Davis, Weeds
All or Nothing NFL S1 Ep 5-8


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Sepsis identification: A race against time
FeaturesHome Page Recent Articles
By: Chun Chung Tse, MS, RN, CCRN
Nursing assessments and recognition of risk factors aid prompt recognition and treatment.
Sepsis is a life-threatening condition that occurs when the body's response to infection causes organ injury. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, it affects approximately 1.7 million adults each year in the United States and is a contributing factor to as many as one-third of all hospital deaths. Paoli and colleagues report that sepsis is the most expensive medical condition to treat in hospitalized patients, accounting for $24 billion in healthcare costs each year.
If overlooked or mistreated, sepsis can lead to septic shock, organ failure, and possibly death. Early recognition is crucial to halt its progression, improve patient outcomes, decrease mortality rates, and reduce healthcare costs. This article will review the latest definition of sepsis and how to recognize its early manifestations and identify resources available to help initiate timely treatment.
Defining sepsis
Sepsis isn't a specific disease but rather a collection of symptoms resulting from an infection. It evolves over time with worsening characteristics as the patient continues to decompensate. No specific tests are available to diagnose sepsis, so clinicians must piece together the evidence.
The Third International Consensus Definitions for Sepsis and Septic Shock (Sepsis-3) formally defines the condition as a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by a dysregulated host response to infection. This definition emphasizes the emergency at hand, rather symptoms. However, the clinical definition used in practice is two or more systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) symptoms accompanied by suspected or presumed infection.
Recognizing at-risk patients
The first step in recognizing sepsis is to identify those most at risk, including adults 65 years or older, people with weakened immune systems, and those with co-morbidities such as cancer, diabetes, lung disease, and kidney disease. Vaccination status also should be considered when determining risk. Because pneumonia is a common cause of sepsis, those who aren't vaccinated against Streptococcus pneumoniae and influenza are more vulnerable.
Patient environment is another contributing risk factor. Those residing in long-term care facilities or admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) are at increased risk for healthcare-acquired infections (HAIs).
When gathering pertinent patient information, be aware of these risk factors before starting your physical assessment.
Head-to-toe approach for sepsis detection
Your thorough patient assessment should include neurologic, respiratory, cardiovascular, GI, and genitourinary function. Also evaluate the patient's skin and any invasive catheters. (See Head-to-toe approach.)
Head-to-toe approach
Knowing risk factors and conducting a thorough assessment can help you identify sepsis quickly.
Age ≥65
High-risk environments (long-term care, ICU)
Immunocompromised
Not immunized
Change in mental status
Dyspnea, tachypnea (RR >20 breaths per minute)
Hypoxemia (PO2 <60 mmHg), cyanosis
Intubation duration (if applicable)
Sputum characteristics
Hypotension (systolic <90 mmHg; diastolic <60 mmHg)
MAP (<65 mmHg)
Tachycardia (HR >100 bpm)
Temperature (>100.4° F [>38°C] or <96.8° F [<36°C])
Abdominal distention, tenderness, pain
Bowel habits, stool characteristics
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Presence and duration of urinary catheter
Urination frequency, burning sensation
Urine color, clarity, odor
Urine output <30 mL/hour (late-stage sepsis)
Generalized warm to touch or cool and clammy
Localized erythema by itself
Mottled appearance (late sign of sepsis)
Surgical incision or open wounds
Presence and duration of central catheters
Redness or purulent discharge at insertion site
Labs and imaging
Arterial blood gas:
CO2 >45 mmHg and/or lactic level >2mmo/L
Basic metabolic panel: electrolytes, BUN/creatinine
Complete blood count: WBC
Specimen cultures: blood, urine, sputum, stool, urine, wound
X-rays, CT scan, ultrasounds
bpm = beats per minute, BUN = blood urea nitrogen, CT = computed tomography, HR = heart rate, ICU = intensive care unit, MAP = mean arterial pressure, RR = respiration rate, WBC = white blood count
Neurologic assessment
Acute brain dysfunction in sepsis is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. SIRS contributes to a decrease in micro-perfusion to the brain, which leads to tissue hypoxia and may cause irreversible brain damage if not addressed quickly. Although neurologic symptoms may be caused by myriad disease processes (seizures, stroke), a thorough neurologic assessment can help determine a patient's prognosis.
Start by assessing the patient's orientation and ability to follow commands. If friends or family members are at the bedside, ask about the patient's baseline functional and cognitive abilities before admission and note any discrepancies in your assessment. Assess the patient frequently. If the patient becomes more lethargic, confused, or restless, an underlying issue may require further investigation.
Respiratory assessment
The respiratory effects of sepsis may be vague, with initial symptoms such as tachypnea (>20 breaths per min) or dyspnea. During auscultation, you may hear crackles (suggesting fluid in the lungs) or rhonchi (indicating secretions). A patient with a weak productive cough may require assistance with expectoration via suctioning. Also assess the color, consistency, and frequency of sputum. As you monitor the patient for worsening conditions, such as respiratory failure, communicate your findings to the multidisciplinary team.
As sepsis worsens, respiratory failure may lead to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by inflamed bronchioles and purulent secretions that occlude the airway and collapse the alveoli. Alveolar collapse reduces gas exchange and causes hypercapnia (pCO2 >50 mmHg) and hypoxemia (pO2 <60 mmHg). Sepsis-induced ARDS is associated with high mortality and accounts for approximately 210,000 U.S. cases annually.
If a patient becomes hypercapnic and exhibits signs of altered mental status, dyspnea, or cyanosis, intensified oxygen delivery devices such as hi-flow nasal cannula, bilevel positive airway pressure, or (in worst-case scenarios) mechanical ventilation may be required.
For patients who are mechanically ventilated with an artificial airway, consider how long they've been intubated. Patients who've been intubated for 4 days or more are at risk for ventilator-associated events such as pneumonia and sepsis. Although no specific diagnostic criteria exist, an abnormal respiratory assessment may indicate the need for chest radiography.
Cardiovascular assessment
Cardiovascular assessment is the nurse's most objective tool to determine a patient's perfusion status. SIRS causes systemic vasodilation, which results in tachycardia (heart rate >100 beats per minute) and hypotension (systolic <90 mmHg, diastolic <60 mmHg). These cardinal signs of dedecompensation require immediate attention. Interventions such as passive leg raise or fluid challenges may indicate patient acuity and level of care needed. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) is another crucial indicator of perfusion status. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign created a treatment guideline for patients with sepsis and identified a MAP ≥65 mmHg to be adequate for supporting organ function.
Another critical factor is body temperature. A temperature >100.4° F (>38°C) or <96.8° F (<36°C) may indicate sepsis. Monitor the patient's temperature carefully, and report values that are out of range.
GI assessment
GI symptoms may be subtle and include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Depending on the origin of sepsis, the GI system may be more vulnerable to secondary complications such as superinfections or stress ulcers.
Carefully assess the patient's oral cavity for redness or lesions; then work your way down to the abdomen and inspect for distention, tenderness, or pain. Ask about changes in eating habits, bowel patterns, or stool characteristics. Review the patient's medication list for antibiotics, which may eliminate natural flora from the GI tract and allow opportunistic infections such as Clostridium difficile or Candida albicans to proliferate.
Genitourinary assessment
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common type of HAI and may progress to sepsis. In the hospital setting, approximately 75% of UTIs are associated with a urinary catheter. For patients with a urinary catheter, start your genitourinary assessment by determining how long the catheter has been in place, and reviewing its indication. Ensure that the catheter is properly secured to the patient's thigh and that the drainage bag is below the patient. Monitor urine output for a minimum of 30 mL/hr, which indicates adequate kidney perfusion.
For patients without a urinary catheter, ask if they're experiencing urinary frequency or burning sensations when voiding. Ask about urine color, clarity, and odor. Characteristics such as hematuria, cloudiness, or malodor may indicate infection. Next, palpate the patient's suprapubic region and flanks for tenderness, which may indicate bladder or kidney inflammation. Assess the patient's urine output; a decrease in frequency or amount may be a sign of acute kidney injury. Noting these abnormalities as an acute finding may trigger a diagnostic work up.
The skin is the largest system in the body and serves as a barrier to pathogens. A break on the skin surface may allow a localized infection to become systemic. Surgical incisions, pressure injuries, and venous or arterial stasis ulcers all have the potential to become infected and septic. Assess the patient's body thoroughly, look for openings, and monitor for discharge, which may indicate a festering wound. Measure the length, width, and depth of any wound you find, and take pictures per your organization's policy. If erythema is present from cellulitis, trace it with a marker to monitor its progress.
If the patient's skin is intact, early manifestations of sepsis will be subtle. As the body begins to compensate by shunting blood away from skin and into vital organs, the lack of perfusion may result in cool and clammy skin. As it evolves, patches of skin discoloration will develop as it transitions to a mottled appearance if perfusion isn't restored.
Invasive catheter assessment
Central venous devices (including central venous catheters, hemodialysis catheters, and implanted ports) can increase a patient's risk for a central line-associated bloodstream infection (CLABSI), a common HAI that accounts for approximately 250,000 cases annually, according to Haddadin and colleagues. Redness, swelling, pain, and purulent drainage may be localized at the insertion site.
In addition to your physical assessment, determine how long the catheter has been in place, the date of the last dressing change, and the indication for its use. If you suspect CLABSI, notify the provider and suggest catheter removal. A culture of the tip may be necessary to determine treatment options.
Imaging studies and laboratory tests
An x-ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography scan can detect infiltrates or inflammation, helping to screen patients for sepsis while ruling out other disease processes.
Laboratory tests are critical for putting together all of the information. Blood tests such as a complete blood count, basic metabolic panel (BMP), and arterial blood gas (ABG) will help clarify patient acuity. Although the Sepsis-3 committee has disputed using an abnormal white blood count (>12,000/mm3 or <4,000/mm3) to identify sepsis, it's still clinically significant to support an indirect sepsis diagnosis.
A BMP can identify fluid status, electrolyte imbalances, and kidney function. Sepsis affects fluid shifts and tissue perfusion, so values such as sodium, potassium, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine may be out of range. This signifies decompensation of the body as sepsis emerges.
An ABG is essential to determining the patient's respiratory status. It measures critical values such as carbon dioxide and lactate. Carbon dioxide >45 mmHg or lactate >2 mmol/L signifies an acid–base imbalance that implies a metabolic disease such as sepsis or organ dysfunction. Monitor these laboratory trends, and connect your physical findings to help you recognize sepsis.
One of the most important tests to follow-up are specimen cultures. Most healthcare organizations collect cultures as soon as sepsis is suspected. Although it may take 48 to 72 hours for results, a positive finding will determine the underlying pathogen and its susceptibility to anti-infectives. The results guide appropriate infection management and treatment. For example, a patient may require special isolation precautions, such as contact or droplet. In addition, specific pathogens may require mandatory reporting to the department of health or the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for statistical tracking. Monitoring specimen cultures will protect healthcare staff, visitors, and the community. (See Quick assessment.)
Win the race
Sepsis is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to reduce morbidity and mortality. Nurses and providers must race against time as the patient's body begins to decompensate. Your thorough assessment skills and clinical judgement are critical to early detection and prompt treatment. Incorporate all available data (blood tests, imagining studies, and cultures) to further support your suspicions. Consider using the qSOFA tool if you're concerned about poor patient outcomes and encourage your facility to integrate a sepsis algorithm into the electronic health record to help manage patient information more efficiently and effectively. (See Take advantage of the EHR.)
Taking steps when you suspect a patient is at high risk for sepsis can halt its progress. Ultimately, you'll improve patient outcomes, decrease length of stay, and reduce overall healthcare costs.
Chun Chung Tse is an assistant professor of nursing at Queensborough Community College, City University of New York in New York City.
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Haddadin Y, Annamaraju P, Regunath H. Central line associated blood stream infections. StatPearls. Updated December 14, 2020.
Jiang J, Yang J, Mei J, Jin Y, Lu Y. Head-to-head comparison of qSOFA and SIRS criteria in predicting the mortality of infected patients in the emergency department: A meta-analysis. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 2018;26(1):56. doi:10.1186/s13049-018-0527-9
Joynes E. More challenges around sepsis: Definitions and diagnosis. J Thorac Dis. 2016;8(11):E1467-9. doi:10.21037/jtd.2016.11.10
Levy MM, Evans LE, Rhodes A. The Surviving Sepsis Campaign Bundle: 2018 update. Intensive Care Med. 2018;44(6):925-8. doi:10.1007/s00134-018-5085-0
Novosad SA, Sapiano MRP, Grigg C, et al. Vital Signs: Epidemiology of sepsis: Prevalence of health care factors and opportunities for prevention. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2016;65(33):864-9. doi:10.15585/mmwr.mm6533e1
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Yazan H, Annamaraju P, Regunath H. Central line associated blood stream infections. StatPearls. August 11, 2021.
Faith Y. Peterson, RN, MSN
Serum Lactate or Lactic Acid levels are increasingly being used to identify / monitor impending sepsis. This is another key component to monitor for impending sepsis along with other labwork identified in the article.
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