text:
Liverpool 800 - Culture, Character and History
Edited by John Belchem
Liverpool University Press
Reviewed by Ritchie Hunter
I OWN I am shocked at the purchase of slaves,
And fear those who buy them and sell them are knaves;
What I hear of their hardships, their tortures and groans,
Is almost enough to drive pity from stones.
I pity them greatly, but I must be mum,
For how could we do without sugar and rum? (1)
2007 is not only eight hundred years of the city, but also two hundred years since the Abolition of the Slave Trade bill was passed through Parliament. In 1999 the leader of Liverpool City Council, Mike Storey apologised for Liverpool's part in the slave trade. He failed to mention that rich Liverpool families still owned slaves in British colonies until after 1833. (2) John Belchem mentions it, but tells us that:
"Liverpool placed itself at the very forefront of the subsequent campaign (which achieved success in 1833) to abolish slavery itself within the British colonies" (p15)
No evidence is given to support this statement, and if we are to believe this version of history then Liverpool merchants must have had a 'road to Damascus' experience after 1807! This version of Liverpool's role in slavery is nothing new. Historians have consistently shirked from telling the full tale.
I don't want to criticise all the authors of this large book. It is laid out in sections, contains a lot of interesting information, and has reference pages that are a resource for anyone studying history. My comments are mostly about its major failures. Slavery played such a large part in Liverpool's wealth, both before and after 1807, and how the leaders of the city were tied in to this should be brought out in full. The justification for slavery was a racism that went deep into British society and has lasted to the present day.
In 1814 a petition was sent to Parliament registering Liverpool's opposition to slave trading. (3) But Napoleon had just been defeated and France was being allowed to resume its own slave trade. (4) Liverpool traders must have been outraged that French ships could carry slaves when theirs couldn't.
Anyway, contrast this one petition with the 64 petitions Liverpool Council sent against the abolition of the slave trade during the Parliamentary debates of 1787-1807, and the fact that Liverpool Corporation paid for a delegation to remain in London to put their case to Parliament throughout this time! (5)
Jane Longmore in her section of the book about Civic Liverpool from 1680-1800 tells us that a leading slave merchant, George Case, chaired the Council Finance Committee for thirty-eight years from 1775 (p140). And Peter Fryer in Staying Power writes how all the 'grand old Liverpool families' were 'more or less steeped' in slavery, either trading or owning or both. (6)
John Belchem would do Liverpool history a service if his book listed these family names and their involvement in making a profit out of human flesh; take the Gladstones for instance.
John Gladstone was an MP from 1818 to 1827. He owned more than 1000 slaves in Demerara, now Guyana. In 1823 a revolt of slaves in the colony was put down by the governor, with 250 slaves slaughtered (7). Gladstone went on to help procure the West Indies planters a grant of £20 million (about £1.6 billion today) in 1833 by way of compensation for the loss of their slaves (the slaves got nothing!).
His son, William Ewart Gladstone, who later became Prime Minister, devoted his first substantial speech in the Commons in 1832 to a defence of slavery.
John Belchem doesn't tell us of this and his book doesn't mention such an important event in Liverpool's history as the massacre on the slaver Zong, owned by the Liverpool banker and slave trader William Gregson and his partners.
In 1781 this ship was bound for Jamaica with a crew of seventeen and the human cargo of about 470 slaves, when seven of the crew and 60 of the slaves died of disease. It looked likely that more would die, so the captain had 133 slaves thrown alive into the sea. The owners of the Zong claimed from the insurers the full cost of the murdered slaves. This was the single most important incident in bringing public opinion behind the anti-slavery campaign (8).
After its abolition Liverpool merchants continued to profit from slavery through imports such as cotton (9). During the American Civil War of 1861-65, Confederate war ships were secretly built on the Mersey (10). This could only be done with the support of leading Liverpool merchants and the bribery of officials. One of these ships, the Alabama, went on to destroy sixty-eight Union ships! Compensation had to be paid to the US after the war.
The thing that strikes you most when looking at history is how much is repeated; and this book has plenty of examples of this, from immigration (p383) to the building boom of the early 1800s, which was fuelled by speculation (p514), just like today! And the first public housing in the country, St Martin's, had rents set too high for the poor and homeless to afford!
One section in the book, about cosmopolitan Liverpool, co-authored by John Belchem and Donald M. MacRaild, gives us the fact that Liverpool is one of the least ethnically diverse cities in Britain. So much for the Capital of Culture slogan: 'The world in one city'. Also in this section is the fascinating information about how the influx of different immigrant groups into Liverpool shaped our life and culture, and how Irish fighters for independence had a strong base here.
What I find strage is that, even though John Belchem is an authority on Chartism, there is no mention of Chartism in the book. The link here between Irish nationalism is surely significant, considering that Liverpool occupied the largest single file in the Home Office Disturbance Papers for 1848, the year of the charter, and revolution in Europe.
Other important events and personalities from Liverpool's past are missed in this book (11). And why does the Liverpool Trades Council only appear in the 1950s, when it was actually formed in 1868? No mention either of the Socialist Hall built in Lord Nelson Street in 1840.
"In this hall black lecturers, some of whom were ex-slaves, put on educational programmes illustrated by panoramas of slave life and accounts of slave escapes." (12)
Jon Murden, in his section on Liverpool since 1945, seems to suggest that the Militant led every labour and community struggle of the 50/60/70s and 80s. Looking at the references you can see where this distortion of history comes from. Jon Murden has relied heavily on The City That Dared to Fight by Tony Mulhean and Peter Taffe, a one sided, self-publicising view of events.
What of the Croxteth School Occupation of 1983? Surely a 'historic' event in education? The first school occupation where lessons were taught, and official exams were taken. And still open! But it doesn't even rate a by-line in this history of Liverpool (13).
History is being made around us. Media reports are biased, leaving out important events and slanting others to fit the establishment view of the world, everyone knows this. Academic historians have the chance to redress this imbalance. They are in a privileged position. They have ready access to information that the layperson has difficulty in obtaining. They can get the funding and they have time. There is a responsibility on them not to abuse this position by leaving out significant parts of history or slanting it to a point of view (14).
Liverpool 800 - Culture, Character and History is available at News From Nowhere, Bold Street for £14.95.
William Cowper, 'Pity for Poor Africans' (1788)
Slaves in the colonies did not actually become free in 1833. This didn't happen until 1838 as they were indentured for five years as apprentices to the slave owners.
A History of Race and Racism in Liverpool 1660-1850 p16. Compiled by Ian Law, edited by June Henfrey (1981)
Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery, (2005), p316 (the Treaty of Paris, 30 May, 1814). France abolished slavery in 1794, but it was restored by Napoleon.
Bill Hunter, Forgotten Hero, The Life and Times of Edward Rushton. (2002)
The corporation even commissioned a Reverend Raymond Harris to produce a pamphlet in which he stressed slavery's "…conformity with the principles of natural and revealed religion delineated in the sacred writings of the word of God." Not surprising when the Church of England was the largest single owner of slaves in the West Indies!
Peter Fryer in Staying Power, The History of Black People in Britain (1984).
Adam Hochschild, p330.
Of course it was mass action, which is the main factor in bringing about any change in society. Letter writing campaigns and abolitionist propaganda played a role in getting slavery abolished, but the main reason was the activity of the slaves themselves. Uprisings such as the 1791 rebellion in Santo Domingo had the effect of stimulating anti-slavery feeling in Britain, and France, where slavery was abolished in 1794. Another factor was the conditions of seamen on the slave ships. According to Adam Hochschild, p94, the death rate for seamen in the triangle trade was an average of 20%! Workers in Britain could identify with both these groups because they were little more than slaves themselves. Then there was the economic effect of the falling price of sugar. CLR James in The Black Jacobins (1980) says:
Those that see in abolition the gradual awakening conscience of mankind should spend a few minutes asking themselves why it is man's conscience, which slept peacefully for so many centuries, should awake just at the time that men began to see the unprofitableness of slavery as a method of production in the West Indian colonies.
The United States dominated Liverpool's imports of cotton, averaging 75%of the Britain's total, and rose from around a quarter of a million bales to well over a million bales in a thirty-three year period from 1820. In 1837 it was 90%. Taken from D.M.Williams, Liverpool Merchants and the Cotton Trade 1820-1850, in Liverpool and Merseyside: Essays in the Economic and Social History of the Port and its Hinterland, edited by J.R.Harris, (1969).
Tony Barley, Myths of the Slave Power, Confederate Slavery, Lancashire Workers and the Alabama (1992), p48. An interesting statistic is that between 1832 and 1862 the number of slaves in America had somehow doubled.
For instance Mary Bamber, George Garrett the Garston Riots etc. See Nerve 9.
A History of Race and Racism in Liverpool 1660-1850, p18.
See Nerve 4.
In researching for this review I had problems following up some of the references given because they are in university archives and the public doesn't have access.
Liverpool slave trading mayors:
1700 Richard Norris
1714 Richard Gildart
1716 Foster Cunliffe
1721 Bryan Blundell
1727 John Hughes
1733 William Pole
1738 Robert Armitage
1742 Edward Trafford
1746 Joseph Bird
1750 James Gildart
1753 James Crosbie
1754 Charles Goore
1756 Richard Hughes
1758 Robert Cunliffe
1760 John Blackburn
1761 John Williamson
1762 William Gregson
1763 George Campbell
1764 John Tarleton
1769 Ralph Earle
1785 Charles Pole
1787 Thomas Earle
1795 Peter Baker
1797 Thomas Staniforth
1798 Thomas Leyland
1812 Samuel Staniforth
Slave merchants:
Bold family
John Bolton
Robert Bostock
Richard Bullin
Thomas Crowder & Co
Sir Ellis Cunliffe
Robert Cunliffe
John Dawson
Edward Forbes
William Forbes
Edward Phillip Grayson
Comment left by Mike Brian on 25th January, 2007 at 0:46
Re Footnote 5 (second part) Raymond Harris was in fact a Spaniard, real name Hermosa or Ormaza, an R C Jesuit, serving at the mission of St Mary's, Liverpool. Some time after the publication of his pamphlet, the Town Council awarded him an annual Honorarium. See Burke, T Catholic History of Liverpool, Tinling, Liverpool, 1910 p14 ff
Comment left by shelley bethel on 7th September, 2007 at 13:16
Iam trying to research the bold family. Thomas bold licensed victualler (age 50 on 1861 census) trying to make a connection with joanus bold ect, any information or guidence would be great. Thank you for your time, shelley.
Comment left by Terry W on 18th October, 2007 at 16:36
I am saddened that Liverpool is becoming capital of culture whilst it is well known of the racism that still exists not just in the communities but in the establishments. It is criminal that the city council which boasts such second to none policies on race equality does nothing to protect racially harassed employees like myself. It is my belief that for Liverpool to truly be a capital of culture, the Liverpool city council needs to wake up and be true to the policies they have written. The struggle continues for most of us in the minorities but how we pray that our children and grandchildren do not have to write the same stories we do.
Comment left by dml on 15th November, 2007 at 4:17
i am looking for images, pictures, paintings of slave ships, esp. those belonging to cunliffe and gildart. any leads rec'd with appreciation.- dml
Comment left by Alan on 25th April, 2008 at 20:19
I am looking for any information, relating to the Gildart family. For example, images, pictures, paintings and ships. Any information greatly received.
Comment left by marie o'brien on 24th August, 2009 at 14:08
can you tell me where John Blackburn was born please. thanks marie xx
Comment left by carla murch on 16th July, 2010 at 11:07
This is a comment for Marie o Brien. I am researching my family tree and believe one of my great great great parents father was born on John Blackburns Plantation in the West Indies if I uncover any more info im willing to exchange any with you.


Last week, the World Bank updated its commodity database, which tracks the price of commodities going back to 1960. Over the last 55 years, the world's population has increased by 143 percent. Over the same time period, real average annual per capita income in the world rose by 163 percent. What happened to the price of commodities?
Out of the 15 indexes measured by the World Bank, 10 fell below their 1960 levels. The indexes that experienced absolute decline included the entire non-energy commodity group (-20 percent), agricultural index (-26 percent), beverages (-32 percent), food (-22 percent), oils and minerals (-32 percent), grains or cereals (-32 percent), raw materials (-32 percent), "other" raw materials (-56 percent), metals and minerals (-4 percent) and base metals (-3 percent).
Five indexes rose in price between 1960 and 2015. However, only two indexes, energy and precious metals, increased more than income, appreciating 451 percent and 402 percent respectively. Three indexes increased less than income. They included "other" food (7 percent), timber (7 percent) and fertilizers (38 percent).
Taken together, commodities rose by 43 percent.
If energy and precious metals are excluded, they declined by 16 percent.
Assuming that an average inhabitant of the world spent exactly the same fraction of her income on the World Bank's list of commodities in 1960 and in 2015, she would be better off under either scenario, since her income rose by 163 percent over the same time period.
This course of events was predicted by the contrarian economist Julian Simon some 35 years ago. In The Ultimate Resource, Simon noted that humans are intelligent animals, who innovate their way out of scarcity. In some cases, we have become more parsimonious in using natural resources. An aluminum can, for example, weighed about 3 ounces in 1959. Today, it weighs less than half an ounce. In other cases, we have replaced scarce resources with others. Instead of killing whales for lamp oil, for instance, we burn coal, oil and gas.
I will have a paper on this subject soon. In the meantime, please visit HumanProgress.org.


A name that brings water to every mouth, be it your kiddo or his granny or you. It is definitely one of the most popular foods in the world. We just keep devouring delicacy day after day but actually know a little about the history of this food.. Making pizza at home is fun, especially when kids are around you, just keep ready pizza base with you, tell your kids to do rest of the things…spared pizza sauce, pour cheese and throw topping…then bake.. isn't it funny and easy.
Whether you are using ready made pizza base or homemade, one thing is very important, that is pizza sauce. Why to buy pizza sauce from stores when you can make it at home . it is quick and easy. It can be prepared within the rasing time of your pizza dough. Let's learn how to make it at home.
Rinse and chop tomatoes into small pieces.
Chop onion , garlic and bell pepper into tiny pieces.
Heat oil, add a little chilli flakes then saute garlic for 10 seconds.
Add onion and fry till they turn translucent.
Add bell peppers ,tomatoes and salt.
Cook covered till the tomatoes get cooked and mussy.
The process may take 20-25 minutes ,keep the flame low.
Add all the dry seasoning when there is a little water left ..
When water completely dries up , add sugar , mix well and turn off the gas.
Cool it and blend this using a hand blender or a mixie.


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text:
Home»Baseball»Major leaguer Earl Averill Jr. (1931-2015)
Major leaguer Earl Averill Jr. (1931-2015)
By SPNW Staff May 14, 2015 1 Comment2 Mins Read
Earl Averill Jr., who made his major league debut with Cleveland in 1956, looks over a scrapbook containing photographs of his famous father. / David Eskenazi Collection
Earl Averill Jr., whose father is enshrined in the Baseball Hall of Fame and who had a lengthy major league career of his own, died Wednesday night at St. Joseph's Hospital in Tacoma at 84. Averill was a catcher for the Chicago Cubs, Chicago White Sox, Los Angeles Angels, Philadelphia Phillies and Cleveland Indians from 1956-63.
No cause of death has been disclosed, nor have any funeral arrangements been announced. The Mariners plan a moment of silence Thursday night prior to their game with the Boston Red Sox at Safeco Field.
Born Sept. 9, 1931 in Cleveland, where Earl Sr. — "The Earl of Snohomish" — starred for the Indians from 1929-39 prior to his election to the Hall of Fame in 1975, Averill attended the University of Oregon, becoming the school's first baseball All-America in 1953.
He made his major league debut April 19, 1956 for the Indians. Averill had his best year in 1961 with the Angels. In 115 games, he had a .266 batting average and 21 home runs. The following year, Averill set an MLB record that he shares with Piggy Ward. He had the most consecutive plate appearances reaching a base with 17, which he did from June 3-10, 1962.
During his seven major league seasons, Averill appeared in 449 games and compiled a .242 batting average. He hit 44 home runs with 159 RBIs. He hit a career-high two home runs for the Angels Aug. 20, 1961 against the Minnesota Twins, and produced a career-high four hits twice, May 12, 1959 against Milwaukee and July 22, 1959 against the Los Angeles Dodgers.
Averill also played for the 1964-65 Seattle Rainiers near the end of his career.
If Huskies fans thought the Apple Cup was bad, don't look now
RadioGuy on May 14, 2015 10:50 pm
Sorry to see Earl Jr.'s passing. A solid player in his own right.
FWIW: Three generations of Averill men played at Sicks' Stadium over the years…Earl Sr. wrapped up his career with the PCL champion Rainiers in 1941, Earl Jr. spent two years in Seattle before retiring after the 1965 season and Mike played a number of games against the NWL Rainiers for New Westminster in 1974 (also his last year in pro ball at 21).

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Twitter ads, while not as extensive in features as Facebook, are still a great way to get your brand out there. With 336 million monthly active users (MAU), there are more than enough potential audiences!
Awareness and tweet engagements campaigns optimise your content to reach people. While awareness focuses on reaching as many as possible, engagement tries to get retweets, likes and replies to get your audience talking and interacting with your account and content.
Follower campaigns promote and grow your account.
Website clicks and App Installs both encourage your audience to go off platform and perform an action. It drives traffic to your website, or app store to download your app. Twitter also allows you to target your existing app users through the app re-engagement campaign, to drive them back to the app.
Targeting options on Twitter are pretty simple. You have the basics such as gender, age, location, language and which device they are using to access the app. Once you have those down, you can further target your audience through the audience features option. Here, your targeting types include: keywords, events, interests, behaviours, and follower-lookalikes. Similarly to Facebook, you can type your own or use the drop down menu to choose pre-selected options.
You can also upload your own database as a list, which can be used to target your existing customers. Like the Facebook Pixel, Twitter gives you the option to set up a Universal Website Tag. Working in a similar fashion to the pixel, the code can be embedded into your website to track the actions and conversations on your website. You can then set this up as a tailored web audience when choosing your targeting on Twitter.
Promoted tweets will appear in the audience timeline. The less like an ad it looks the more efficiently it blends in with the user's existing timeline, and the better it performs.
Follower campaigns can take the shape of promoted accounts, where instead of on the timeline, the account and bio will appear on the side as suggested accounts for the user to follow.
Promoted trends are the final and most expensive form of placement. These are the hashtags that appear on the left side of the timeline which appear alongside organically trending topics.
Twitter ads have a similar bidding system to Facebook, but in a much simpler hands-off way. You can select either a daily or total budget and once you've selected that, Twitter gives you the option of either an automatic or maximum bid. The Automatic bid works to optimise your bid to get you the lowest price for the best results. While the maximum bid helps your ad display more often as long as you have bid high. The average cost of a promoted tweet can range between £0.40 – £3. Whereas a promoted trend can reach £150,000 per day, so it can be a more costly campaign.
Another way for you to promote on Twitter is through their Promote Mode. This is an automated version of advertising, and currently costs £75 ($99) per month. Instead of having to manage your ads yourself, Twitter promotes your tweets and account themselves. They run the tweets through their quality filter to ensure only the best are being promoted and all you have to do is select your audience.
Twitter ads are a great way to get your brand out there in real time, and can work well for reactive advertising. Keep in mind the quick pace of the platform – an ad that may have been relevant now, may not be in a day's time. Unsure of how to start advertising on Twitter? Then get in touch with us!


text:
Q: Link to another apps from my android app The idea is to make a sponsored area on my app every link on this area will point to the app link on google playstore.
My question:
is this method is forbidden by Google Guidelines or will not cause my app suspension ?
Thanks

A: Opening other apps on playstore is perfectly fine since there is a tutorial to it in the official documentation https://developer.android.com/distribute/marketing-tools/linking-to-google-play#java
Therefore it is not forbidden and permited by google to do this.

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I was lucky enough to direct a clip featuring the amazing Amanda Palmer and Brendan Maclean for their cover of Bat For Lashes' "Laura", produced by Paul Mac. And it was officially released today!
The live footage is synched to a studio recording they did later, so I hope you'll forgive the imperfections. But I'm really proud of it and so excited to see it finally get an official release. The footage was filmed back in 2014 during Palmer's Sydney Festival residency.
Thanks to the festival, to Amanda and Brendan, and to Johnny Au for his handy camera work.


text:
New update released for original Doom and Doom II
Written by Jennifer Allen
Tags: #doom #doom-1993 #doom-ii
Companies: #bethesda
In a surprising turn of events, the original Doom has benefited from a fairly substantial patch which throws in some useful extra features.
Just to remind you, we're talking about the nearly 30 year old version of Doom that was re-released last year, not the 2016 reboot. The update allows you to now play Doom along with its sequel Doom II, at 60fps rather than the previous maximum of 35fps. Because how else do you want to show off your PC's prowess than with an ageing classic?
In addition, there's now the ability to use quick saves for both games, improved options for making it quicker and easier to switch between weapons, and the choice to play in the 4:3 aspect ratio. Rather interestingly, there's also support for community-made add-ons which will be free from now on.
The latter suggests we should see a lot more free content for the classic games - something that hasn't happened in a while. At least, not in this guise. Bethesda has referred to it as 'some of the best professionally made and community content created for those games over the last 25+ years' which suggests curated content that will save you time on avidly googling for Doom WADs and mods, although the list may include some content you've experienced before.
Bethesda mentions this includes TNT: Evilution and The Plutonia Experiment, two map packs that formed part of the retail Final Doom release. For the uninitiated, that means over 60 new levels of content. There's also Sigil, a campaign for Doom that was created by John Romero, and Doom II has No Rest for the Living - a map pack that formed part of the original XBLA release.
So basically, this is a collection of the best memories you've experienced through years of playing Doom, with a few bits and pieces you may not have come across before.
The update applies to every version of Doom and Doom II from recent times. That includes the Xbox One, Playstation 4, Nintendo Switch, iOS, Android and, of course, the PC. Bad news though - PC owners will have to use the Bethesda.net game launcher to enjoy the benefits. Still, if you want the 'ultimate' version of the classic game, this is almost certainly the place to go.
Doom Eternal minimum and recommended specs have been announced
They're pretty forgiving
A new Doom Eternal trailer has been released
A classic battle across heaven and hell
Bethesda blames error for Doom mandatory log-in issue
Fans unimpressed.


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The event will be considering what the future holds for the towns located around the M60 motorway in Greater Manchester. That questions is particularly poignant this year given the upcoming Greater Manchester Mayoral election, and the proposed new Greater Manchester Spatial Framework which will guide development in the region until 2035.
In his capacity as a member of the Housing the Powerhouse campaign, Paul will be focusing on the importance of new housing development and the role it has to play in both enabling economic growth and helping address social inequality.
Councillor Richard Farnell, the leader of Rochdale Council and the lead member for Greater Manchester on planning and housing.
Councillor Sean Anstee, the leader of Trafford Council and the Conservative Party candidate for Greater Manchester mayor.
Caroline Simpson, the corporate director for place at Stockport Council.
Philip Collins, Times Newspaper columnist.
Tickets are £50 + VAT and can be booked via the Place North West website.


text:
The Wills of Women in 16th century North Craven
Charlotte Moody
North Craven
As an historical source, wills are useful in understanding complex social trends such as kinship, inheritance and religion [1]. Nevertheless, some historians, including Nigel Goose and Nesta Evans, have argued that the usefulness of wills is diminished because they only survive for a portion of the population [2]. The factors affecting who could write a will have been separated into age, social class and gender. Although such concerns are valid, wills are nonetheless a vital source for understanding the lives of individuals who did not leave behind any other form of written record, yet were in a position to compose a list of wishes relating to the objects and people they felt were most important. It would be irresponsible to disregard wills as a source entirely because there is important information that can be drawn from them in spite of the partial record of society that they provide. Accordingly, this article aims to demonstrate that contrary to the claim of Goose and Evans, gender was not a clear-cut impediment to the making of a will and that wills, in particular those by women, are worthy of study.
The research presented in this article is based on a study of the wills of women from four parishes in the North Craven area, namely Clapham, the Ancient parish of Giggleswick, Horton-in-Ribblesdale and Ingleton. It will look at the data from each parish individually and comparatively in order to identify differences between the parishes and to use them as an indicator of general trends in North West England. The choice of data has been limited to those wills from the Elizabethan period of 1558 to 1603 to reduce the number of wills to analyse. This period has been chosen as Elizabeth's reign marks a stretch of relative stability following the short and tumultuous reigns of previous Tudor monarchs; as Smith has stated, the "strong Elizabethan governmental system" differed clearly from the "weak rule of Edward VI and Mary" [3]. There is an awareness among academics that 'Elizabethan' has its limitations as an all-encompassing term for the whole of England, in a society which varied according to year and geography [4]. This article will use the term solely to refer to the time period.
Specifically, this project will look at wills by women, due to the insight they give into the female position within society during the period in question. The focus of the analysis will be on the beneficiaries and executors chosen by the female testators, as an indication of which people women viewed as the most important and influential in their lives. It will also seek to prove an active independence of the testator in making her own legal decisions. Considering other historians' analyses will allow a link to be made between the priorities of women in rural areas and those in urban centres, as well as identifying any unusual trends or anomalies in the group of wills from North Craven.
Wills as an historical source
According to Coster, wills hold an unrivalled position among historical sources [5]. As a group, they are the only personal document surviving in significant quantities concerned with a wide range of members of society. The high number of wills can be linked to religious motives: there was a belief by early modern society that making a will was a key part of the spiritual preparation for death [6]. This can be seen in the involvement of the clergy in the will-making process, and the religious overtones of the language within the wills themselves. Although few testators wrote their own wills, all wills are important in understanding the beliefs and attitudes of individuals.
Naturally, as with any source, there are some limitations to wills. They are a form of legal document, which means they were framed by common law at the time and often followed a specific rubric [7]. It could be argued that this reduces the importance of wills as individual documents. However, it is possible to look beyond the set phrases of a will to the contents, to gather an idea of the priorities of a certain person. It is true that wills were not always necessary as people could choose to follow the laws of inheritance to the letter or enter into joint tenancies with their children before their deaths [8]. Nevertheless, the wills that were created and survive to this day are worthy of study as evidence of social trends found throughout England.
The wills of women
The 1540 Statute of Wills was a key landmark in 16th-century legislation. The Act determined that the majority of freehold land was to be devised by will, but it also contained a clause explicitly forbidding married women from making a will in their own names; instead, a wife could only make a will with her husband's permission [9]. Despite this legislation, Erickson has estimated that between the mid-16th century and the end of the 18th century, out of two million wills, around a fifth of those were made by women [10]. Of these 400,000 women's wills, around 80% were made by widows, and around 20% were made by single women or spinsters; married women make up less than 1% [11]. It is clear from these estimates that a relatively large proportion of women in the 16th and 17th centuries left wills. Thus, these wills can offer a considerable amount of information about the way of life of a wide range of early modern women [12]. Wills were not only made by the wealthy, and the age span of those women making wills is considerably wider than one might assume, with maidens, newly widowed mothers and elderly widows among the testators.
The Church had a clear stance on will-making, namely that everyone had a responsibility to make a will, regardless of gender. Indeed, the Church insisted that testaments made by married women were valid even if they had been made without the consent of the husband [13]. This challenged the legal system of 16th-century England, which argued that such wills were not legitimate. However, canon law did not regard the law of succession as an inherently spiritual manner; ecclesiastical jurisdiction over probate was seen as a matter of English custom rather than canonical principle [14]. Consequently, the Church could not actively support the rights of married women to bequeath property as they saw fit.
In cases where married women were able to leave a will, Davis has claimed that such documents were framed by "authoritative, masculine speech acts of consent, permission and bequest", derived from a common law system in England which greatly restricted the rights of women [15]. Upon marriage, a woman's property was deemed to have moved into the hands of her husband, and as such, wives were not seen as having any property to leave in a will. A married woman's will may contain the husband's signature as a mark of consent or name the husband as an executor or witness, which implies consent. However, after the woman's death, the husband could still withdraw consent to the will [16].
In spite of the restrictions on which women could make a will, the choice of beneficiaries and executors indicates an active independence of the testator, with her decision made on her own terms and for her own reasons. It has been found in most case studies, as this article will discuss later, that women, in particular widows and single women, tended to favour female legatees, for example daughters, granddaughters, nieces, relatives outside of the nuclear family, and friends; this suggests an awareness on their part of women's susceptibility to poverty as well as a desire to remedy the economic sanctions on their gender [17]. Men generally followed the rule of primogeniture, leaving their property (including the property that the wife had brought into the marriage) to their sons. Daughters tended to be ignored by their fathers as it was believed that any property left to them would leave the family upon their marriage. In some cases, a widow's will has been interpreted as an effort to reverse their late husband's wishes, in order to equalise their daughter's inheritance portions compared to that of their sons [18]. Amussen has argued that women shaped their wills according to the experience and competence of other women, as her study of the bequests of the wills has shown [19]. She has concluded that a mother was far more accepting of the capabilities of their daughters, which their fathers were more likely to doubt. Thus, a woman's will not only marks her own independence, but often transfers that independence onto her female beneficiaries.
Choice of data
The wills for Clapham, Giggleswick and Horton have been transcribed by members of the North Craven Heritage Trust, which are fully accessible in digital form at the website of the Yorkshire Dales Community Archives [20]. Those for Ingleton were transcribed by members of Ingleborough Archaeology Group and are available in book form [21]. The research informing this article comprised of four stages. Firstly, one must identify the relevant wills, in terms of gender and date, from a large group of wills dated from the late 14th century to the mid-18th century. Secondly, one must extract the raw data from those relevant wills, namely the marital status of the female testator as well as the beneficiaries and executors of each will. This information is put into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, as working with that program allows the data to be sorted electronically, for example by year or by name. Once this stage is complete, the results can be summarised in table form, changing the data to percentages where appropriate. This allows for the identification of any trends or patterns over the time period in question. Having analysed the data, one can reach certain conclusions about the priorities of Elizabethan women.
For the period 1558 to 1603, there are 428 wills in total across the four parishes, as demonstrated in Table 1. There are also inventories for two of the parishes, but this article will focus solely on the wills both to ensure that the project treats each parish equally and because inventories do not offer an insight into the relationships of the testators. The 428 wills can be separated by parish as such: 107 for Clapham, 172 for Giggleswick, 87 for Horton-in-Ribblesdale and 62 for Ingleton. The differences in the number of wills for each parish can be attributed to a difference in population size or to the proportion of wills that have survived to this day through careful preservation. Of those 428 wills, fifty were by female testators, which equates to around 12%. These wills include twelve from Clapham, fifteen from Giggleswick, twelve from Horton-in-Ribblesdale and eleven from Ingleton. As the number of wills varies considerably between parishes, to view each parish fairly, one must look at the percentage of women's wills rather than the raw numbers. Women's wills account for 11% of Clapham wills, 9% of Giggleswick wills, 14% of Horton-in-Ribblesdale wills and 18% of Ingleton wills. The figure of 12% for the four parishes combined is less than Erickson's suggestion of 20% of all wills nationally in the early modern period being by female testators. However, this can be attributed to a smaller sample group as well as the rural nature of North Craven, which means that records are likely not to have been kept as diligently as its urban counterparts.
Female testators are generally separated by marital status, into widows, spinsters and, on some occasions, wives. Where the will does not explicitly state the marital status of the testator, this project will follow the example set by Biggs: "one must assume, through an analysis of bequests, that those wills containing bequests to children were married, but likely because of the legal restrictions on married women, to be widows (especially if no husband is mentioned)" [22]. Likewise, if no children are mentioned as beneficiaries or as executors, one must assume the woman was a spinster. In this sample group, none of the wills are stated to have been written by a married woman. As Table 3 shows, widows account for twenty-seven of the fifty wills, while 'assumed' widows account for seven more, representing 68% of women's wills in total. The other 32% is separated into two named spinsters or single-women, and fourteen 'assumed' spinsters. With regards to each parish individually: Clapham has ten widows (83%) and two spinsters (17%); Giggleswick has eight widows (53%) and seven spinsters (47%); Horton-in-Ribblesdale has ten widows (83%) and two spinsters (17%); and Ingleton has six widows (55%) and five spinsters (45%).
As well as the reasons mentioned above, this article is specifically focussed on the Elizabethan period because of the data it provides. Restricting the time period in question reduces the size of the source material, but there are still a number of women's wills for each parish. It is a long enough period with enough data to be able to come to a worthwhile conclusion, whilst also coming under a single monarch or government. Furthermore, as shown in Table 2, the women's wills are spread out fairly evenly across the forty-five years. It is important to consider that the first and last decades do not completely fit within stated time parameters, so the data can be viewed as only a portion of the true figure. With this in mind, there is a clear increase in the number of women's wills as the period progresses, from four wills in the 1560s or 8% of the total number, to eighteen wills in the 1590s (36%). This trend can generally be seen in each parish individually, although there are naturally some anomalies. For example, the highest number of women's wills in Ingleton comes in the 1570s, while Clapham has a relatively high number in the last two years of the 1550s.
Analysis of data
The focus of the analysis of these data will be on the executors and beneficiaries of these women's wills. These individuals were the people that the testator trusted most with their wishes and property. Of the fifty wills, the majority have a single executor (60%), as Table 4 shows, while 24% have two executors, 6% have three executors, and four of the wills do not specify an executor. All four parishes have a similar pattern to each other, although there are a few inconsistencies. Clapham has six wills with a single executor, accounting for 50% of the sample, with four (33%) having two executors. Furthermore, Ingleton has a high percentage with a single executor at 73%, with only 9% including two executors. In the cases where an executor is not named, it is possible that this is due to these wills being less well preserved, potentially resulting in the last section of the will being destroyed. Alternatively, the testator may have assumed that executorship of the will would automatically fall to the beneficiary.
Relating the choice of executor to the marital status of the testator reveals some clear trends, as Table 5 demonstrates. The majority of widows in the sample group (48%) chose their children as the sole executor or one of the executors of their will, whereas spinsters favoured their siblings (18%). Only two of the thirty-four widows chose any of their siblings as their executors. The choice by single women to pick their siblings as their executors is understandable, as brothers and sisters would have been their most immediate family members. With regards to executors who were not children or siblings, the marital status of the testator is largely irrelevant. One spinster from Giggleswick chose her mother and step father as executors, which could be explained by the testator and any siblings being underage and the parents being alive at the time of writing. Two widows, one each from Giggleswick and Horton-in-Ribblesdale, chose other family members as executors, a granddaughter and a grandson respectively. Eight of the women's wills had non-family members as executors, split equally between four widows and four spinsters.
There are naturally more beneficiaries to a will on average than executors. The majority of the women's wills in this sample have five or more beneficiaries at 36%, as shown in Table 6. However, 14% of the wills have a sole beneficiary, 12% have two beneficiaries, 18% have three beneficiaries and 20% have four beneficiaries. Horton-in-Ribblesdale is the only parish without a will with a sole beneficiary, while Clapham does not have a will with two beneficiaries. Furthermore, Ingleton is the only parish which has more wills with one beneficiary, than wills with two, three, four or five or more beneficiaries. The beneficiaries and executors of a will can be linked. Where there is a sole beneficiary, that person is also the sole executor of that will.
As with executors, there is a clear link between the marital status of the testator and the beneficiaries chosen, with widows favouring children and spinsters favouring siblings (Table 7). Thirty of the wills made by widows bequeath items to their children, which accounts for 88% of widow's wills. Six widows, or 18%, left items to their siblings; the same number left items to other family members such as grandchildren, nieces and nephews. The beneficiaries of twenty-one widow's wills (62%) include non-family members, which can be seen as indicative of the wider social network that came with marriage. Two widows from Clapham, one widow from Giggleswick and one widow from Horton-in-Ribblesdale did not leave anything to any children; this may be because they were childless or because their children had predeceased them. None of the widows of Ingleton left anything to any siblings or family members that were not their children. With regards to spinsters, eleven, or 69%, left items to their siblings in their wills, while seven (44%) left items to other family members, primarily nieces and nephews. Half of the spinsters' wills include bequests to non-family members, a lower percentage than widows, which can be linked to a smaller social circle. One of the two spinster's wills in Clapham did not leave anything to family members that were not siblings.
Other case studies
There have been a number of case studies using early modern women's wills done by other historians. These include Barron's study of London, Becker's study of Suffolk, Cross' study of Leeds and Hull, and Helt's study of Essex. To place the data from North Craven into a wider historical context, this article will consider three case studies in particular which are similar to the criteria of this sample group: Amussen's study of Norfolk, Bigg's study of Northamptonshire and Froide's study of parishes across England. These three historians have chosen a selection of parishes to investigate, considering the role of marital status, beneficiaries and executors, within the early modern period. The time parameters are not an exact match to this article, but observations on general trends can be made. The similarities between this research and the other projects allows a direct comparison between the area of North Craven and other locations.
Amussen has looked at five villages in Norfolk, namely Cawston, Winfarthing, Shelfanger, Stow Bardolph and Wimbotsham, in the period between 1590 and 1750. Within this period, there are 471 wills from the five parishes combined, accounting for ninety-one women's wills or 19% [23]. These women's wills have been divided by marital status into single women at 15%, married women at 3% and widows at 82%. Amussen has concluded that women were far more likely to choose their daughters as the beneficiaries to their wills and were less likely than the men of the parishes to leave land to only one son where there were multiple surviving children [24]. Women were also more likely to leave land solely to their daughters rather than solely to their sons. Amussen has interpreted these patterns as men believing that land and property left to their daughters left the family when they married, whereas women saw property as an important means of independence; by ensuring a daughter owned property in her own right, she had a sense of security if she was widowed unexpectedly or her husband did not have much in the way of wealth [25]. With regards to executors, the women of these five parishes were likely to choose daughters to execute their wills [26]. This is a direct contrast to the male testators who rarely picked any female executors, with the exception of their wives. Amussen has noted that women were more likely to pick sons over daughters as executors if they had the option, suggesting that although women felt a duty to pass items onto other women, they felt men had more authority in carrying out their wishes.
The first difference to be noted between the wills from North Craven and Amussen's work is that the sample from these five parishes has some married women's wills, which North Craven does not. In North Craven, 38% of female testators left something to their daughters, whereas only 30% left something to their sons; this supports Amussen's thesis that women chose their daughters over their sons, but the figures are not distinctive. Equally, four of the wills left everything to their daughters, compared to two which had sons as the sole beneficiary; this supports Amussen's claims but is not conclusive. With regards to executors, 20% of women chose their sons as sole executors, and 18% chose their daughters. This reinforces the claim that women chose their sons over their daughters where possible.
Biggs has looked at three parishes, Blakesley, Kingsthorpe and Castor, which lie close to each other in the county of Northamptonshire. For the period 1543-1709, there were seventy-six female testators, accounting for 19% of the total wills [27]. These can be separated into fifty-seven widows (75%), eight single women (11%) and eleven wills where the marital status is unspecified (14%). According to Biggs's analysis, female testators generally recognised a smaller range of kin than male testators, but they spread their bequests further than the nuclear family, which men tended to focus on [28]. Of the seventy-six wills, sixty-one or 80% had a single executor, while fifteen or 20% had two executors [29]. In this sample group, female testators clearly preferred to pick their children as the executors of their wills. Biggs has argued that the increase in women's wills towards the end of the early modern period can be attributed to wills becoming more common in urban areas, where the mortality rate was higher in comparison with rural England [30].
The figures for widows are similar to the North Craven sample, and the difference in the number of spinster's wills may be explained by those 'unspecified' in marital status. The North Craven women's wills have a wider range in the number of executors; they have a lower proportion with a single executor in comparison to Biggs's sample, but higher percentages of two or three executors. The choice of executor is similar however, with a majority choosing their children. Biggs's argument that the number of women's wills increases throughout the early modern period is supported by the women's wills of North Craven, which demonstrate an increase in number into the late 16th century.
Finally, Froide has used samples of singlewomen's wills from Bristol, Oxford, York, Southampton and a selection of parishes in Hampshire from the 1500s to the 1700s [31]. According to Froide's work, single female testators were the most women-identified testators in the early modern era as a whole [32]. Singlewomen's social relationships were significantly female-centred, which accounts for the majority of legacies going to other women. More than half of the single female testators from Southampton and Hampshire remembered more women than men in their wills, a figure which rises to 60% in Bristol and York, and 70% in Oxford [33]. Siblings were the most prominent relatives in all of these five samples, more specifically sisters over brothers. In Southampton and Hampshire, 66% remembered sisters compared with 45% in Bristol, Oxford and York; by comparison, 27.5% in Oxford, 40% in Southampton and 35% in Bristol, York and Hampshire involved brothers [34]. Between 79% and 86% of single women in Bristol, Hampshire and Southampton recognised either a sibling or a sibling's child as their heir, while 50% in York and 61% in Oxford did so. These women especially favoured their female kin, and sisters were overwhelmingly the primary beneficiaries in all five samples [35]. However, while the majority of beneficiaries were female, the majority of the executors were male; sisters were the most common group to be chosen, but if not, the next groups were brothers, male friends, kinsmen, brothers in law and nephews [36]. Froide has noted that in these samples, executors were less likely to be related to the female testator.
Although this work focuses on a specific group of women's wills, the conclusions can be viewed alongside the data from North Craven. In the wills of spinsters from North Craven, 56% left items to more women than men, which supports Froide's conclusions. Furthermore, a higher percentage of spinsters left items to sisters at 56% than to brothers at 50%; these figures are not striking however and cannot be considered decisive. Of the sixteen singlewoman's wills of North Craven, thirteen or 81% left items to either their siblings or their siblings' children, which supports the conclusions of Froide's data. With regards to executors, the data from North Craven backs up the idea that most singlewomen chose men to execute their will. 56% of spinsters chose a man or men to be executor, whereas only 12.5% chose a woman or women. On the other hand, these men were more likely to be brothers of the woman rather than unrelated.
This article has examined the patterns of Elizabethan female testators in their choice of executors and beneficiaries of their wills. It should be remembered that usually only widows and spinsters made wills. Although a relatively small sample group, the wills of North Craven offer an insight into who these women viewed as the most important in their lives. The comparison of the women's wills of North Craven with other case studies of England has shown that even geographically remote areas exhibit similar patterns in terms of beneficiaries and executors chosen by female testators. Although not definitive, there is clearly an argument to be made for the wills of rural areas being as important as the wills of urban centres. It is clear that women tended to leave items to other women in their lives, specifically daughters for widows and usually sisters or nieces for spinsters. This can be interpreted as women deciding of their own accord to pass their independence onto their female relatives and friends, to combat the propensity of men to leave their property to other males. The study of the wills of the women of North Craven has proved that, contrary to the claims of Goose and Evans, gender was clearly not a full impediment to the making of a will. Through making a will, the early modern woman made a statement of intent to the rest of society.
This project was carried out as part of an MA degree at the University of Lancaster with the support of a Bursary granted by the North Craven Heritage Trust.
Thanks are due to the members of the North Craven Heritage Trust and Ingleborough Archaeology Group who have transcribed the wills of Clapham, Giggleswick, Horton-in-Ribblesdale and Ingleton, namely Elga Balmford, Chrissie Bell, Sheila Gordon, Kathy Hall, Nigel Harrison, Carol Howard, David Johnson, Susan Manson, Isobel Palmer, Brenda Pearce, Ken Pearce, Jeff Price, Geraldine Reardon, Philip Robinson, Helen Sergeant, Mary Slater, Michael Slater and Jill Sykes. The wills can be found at: http://www.dalescommunityarchives.org.uk/content/catalogue_item/north-craven-wills-inventories.
Carmel Biggs, 'Women, Kinship, and Inheritance: Northamptonshire 1543-1709', Journal of Family History, 32: 2 (2007), p.108.
Nigel Goose and Nesta Evans, 'Wills as an Historical Source', in T. Arkell, N. Evans and N. Goose (eds.), When Death Do Us Part: Understanding and Interpreting the Probate Records of Early Modern England (Oxford: Leopard's Head Press, 2000), p.38.
Alan G. R. Smith, The Government of Elizabethan England (London: Edward Arnold, 1975), p.109.
A. G. Dickens, Reformation Studies (London: The Hambledon Press, 1982), p.159.
W. Coster, Kinship and Inheritance in Early Modern England: Three Yorkshire Parishes (York: Borthwick Institute of Historical Research, 1993), p.1.
Lucinda M. Becker, Death and the Early Modern Englishwoman (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2003), p.155
Susan Dwyer Amussen, An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), p.77.
Amussen, An Ordered Society, p.77.
Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England 1550-1720 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), p.38.
Amy Louise Erickson, Women and Property in Early Modern England (London and New York: Routledge, 1993), p.204.
Erickson, Women and Property, p.204.
Claire Cross, 'Northern Women in the Early Modern Period: The Female Testators of Hull and Leeds 1520-1650', The Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 59 (1987), p.83.
Caroline M. Barron, 'The "Golden Age" of Women in Medieval London', Reading Medieval Studies, 15 (1989), p.37.
Richard H. Helmholz, 'Married Women's Wills in Later Medieval England', in S. S. Walker (ed.), Wife and Widow in Medieval England (USA: University of Michigan Press, 1993), p.175.
Lloyd Davis, 'Women's Wills in Early Modern England', in N. E. Wright, M. W. Ferguson and A. R. Buck (eds.), Women, Property, and the Letters of the Law in Early Modern England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), p.221.
Mary Prior, 'Wives and wills 1558-1700', in J. Chartres and D. Hey (eds.), English Rural Society 1500-1800: Essays in honour of Joan Thirsk (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p.203.
Pamela Hammons, 'Rethinking Women and Property in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England', Literature Compass, 3: 6 (2006), p.1392.
Amy Louise Erickson, 'Possession—and the other one-tenth of the law: assessing women's ownership and economic roles in early modern England', Women's History Review, 16: 3 (2007), p.373.
North Craven Wills and Inventories, http://www.dalescommunityarchives.org.uk/content/catalogue_item/north-craven-wills-inventories [accessed 18th April 2018]
Howard, C. and Gordon, S., 2015. Voices from the Past. Inventories and wills from the parish of Ingleton 1548 to 1700. Ingleborough Archaeology Group.
Biggs, 'Women, Kinship and Inheritance', p.110.
Amy M. Froide, Never Married: Singlewomen in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), p.45.
Froide, Never Married, p.48.
Table 1 Number of Wills, 1558-1603
Number of Wills Number of Women's Wills Percentage of Women's Wills
Clapham 107 12 11%
Giggleswick 172 15 9%
Horton 87 12 14%
Ingleton 62 11 18%
428 50 12%
Table 2 Marital Status of Female Testators
Widows Assumed Widows Spinsters Assumed spinsters
Clapham 10 0 0 2
Giggleswick 7 1 2 5
Horton 6 4 0 2
Ingleton 4 2 0 5
Table 3 Female Wills by Decade
1558-9 1560-9 1570-9 1580-9 1590-9 1600-3
Clapham 3 1 1 2 2 3
Giggleswick 0 2 2 3 6 2
Horton 0 0 1 2 9 0
Ingleton 2 1 4 2 1 1
5 4 8 9 18 6
Table 4 Number of Executors of Women's Wills
One Executor Two Executors Three Executors Unknown
Clapham 6 50% 5 42% 1 8% 0 0%
Giggleswick 9 60% 5 33% 0 0% 1 7%
Horton 7 58% 2 17% 1 8% 2 17%
Ingleton 8 73% 1 9% 1 9% 1 9%
30 60% 13 26% 3 6% 4 8%
Table 5 Relationship of Executors to Female Testators
Status Children Siblings Parents Other
Members Non-
Family Unknown
Clapham Widows 7 1 0 0 2 0
Spinsters 0 0 0 0 2 0
Giggleswick Widows 5 1 0 1 1 0
Horton Widows 6 0 0 1 1 2
Ingleton Widows 6 0 0 0 0 0
Total 24 11 1 2 8 4
Table 6 Number of Beneficiaries to Women's Wills
beneficiary Two
beneficiaries Three
beneficiaries Four
beneficiaries Five or more
Clapham 2 17% 0 0% 2 17% 2 17% 6 49%
Giggleswick 2 13% 3 21% 2 13% 2 13% 6 40%
Horton 0 0% 1 9% 3 25% 4 33% 4 33%
Ingleton 3 28% 2 18% 2 18% 2 18% 2 18%
7 14% 6 12% 9 18% 10 20% 18 36%
Table 7 Relationships of Beneficiaries to Female Testators
Status Children Siblings Other Family
Members Non-Family
Clapham Widows 8 4 3 5
Spinsters 0 1 0 2
Giggleswick Widows 7 1 1 5
Horton Widows 9 1 2 7
Ingleton Widows 6 0 0 4
Amussen, Susan Dwyer, An Ordered Society: Gender and Class in Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993)
Becker, Lucinda M., Death and the Early Modern Englishwoman (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2003)
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Dickens, A. G., Reformation Studies (London: The Hambledon Press, 1982)
Eales, Jacqueline, Women in Early Modern England 1500-1700 (London and New York: Routledge, 2003)
Erickson, Amy Louise, Women and Property in Early Modern England (London and New York: Routledge, 1993)
Froide, Amy M., Never Married: Singlewomen in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005)
Goody, Jack, Joan Thirsk and E.P. Thompson (eds.), Family and Inheritance: Rural Society in Western Europe, 1200-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976)
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Chapters in Edited Collections
Brodsky, Vivien, 'Widows in Late Elizabethan London', in L. Bonfield, R. M. Smith and K. Wrightson (eds.), The World We Have Gained (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), pp. 122-154.
Davis, Lloyd, 'Women's Wills in Early Modern England', in N. E. Wright, M. W. Ferguson and A. R. Buck (eds.), Women, Property, and the Letters of the Law in Early Modern England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), pp. 219-236.
Evans, Nesta, 'Inheritance, Women, Religion and Education in Early Modern Society as Revealed by Wills', in P. Riden (ed.), Probate Records and the Local Community (Gloucester: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1985), pp. 53-70.
Goose, Nigel, and Nesta Evans, 'Wills as an Historical Source', in T. Arkell, N. Evans and N. Goose (eds.), When Death Do Us Part: Understanding and Interpreting the Probate Records of Early Modern England (Oxford: Leopard's Head Press, 2000), pp. 38-71.
Helmholz, Richard H., 'Married Women's Wills in Later Medieval England', in S. S. Walker (ed.), Wife and Widow in Medieval England (USA: University of Michigan Press, 1993), pp. 165-182.
Helt, J. S. W., 'Women, memory and will-making in Elizabethan England', in B. Gordon and P. Marshall (eds.), The Place of the Dead: Death and Remembrance in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 188-205.
Murray, Mary, 'Primogeniture, Patrilineage, and the Displacement of Women', in N. E. Wright, M. W. Ferguson and A. R. Buck (eds.), Women, Property, and the Letters of the Law in Early Modern England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), pp. 121-136.
Prior, Mary, 'Wives and wills 1558-1700', in J. Chartres and D. Hey (eds.), English Rural Society 1500-1800: Essays in honour of Joan Thirsk (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), pp. 201-225.
Barron, Caroline M., 'The "Golden Age" of Women in Medieval London', Reading Medieval Studies, 15 (1989): 35-58.
Biggs, Carmel, 'Women, Kinship, and Inheritance: Northamptonshire 1543-1709', Journal of Family History, 32: 2 (2007): 107-132.
Brand, Paul, '"Deserving" and "Undeserving" Wives: Earning and Forfeiting Dower in Medieval England', Journal of Legal History, 22: 1 (2001): 1-20.
Capern, Amanda L., 'The Landed Woman in Early Modern England', Parergon, 19: 1 (2002): 185-214.
Churches, Christine, 'Women and property in early modern England: A case−study', Social History, 23: 2 (1998): 165-180.
Cross, Claire, 'Northern Women in the Early Modern Period: The Female Testators of Hull and Leeds 1520-1650', The Yorkshire Archaeological Journal, 59 (1987): 83-94.
Erickson, Amy Louise, 'Possession—and the other one-tenth of the law: assessing women's ownership and economic roles in early modern England', Women's History Review, 16: 3 (2007): 369-385.
Gomme, G. Laurence, 'Widowhood in Manorial Law', Archaeological Review, 2: 3 (1888): 184-197.
Hammons, Pamela, 'Rethinking Women and Property in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century England', Literature Compass, 3: 6 (2006): 1386-1407.
Prest, W. R., 'Law and Women's Rights in Early Modern England', The Seventeenth Century, 6: 2 (1991): 169-187.
Richardson, R. C., 'Wills and Will-makers in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: some Lancashire evidence', Local Population Studies, 9 (1972): 33-42.


The Fontis Australia extension adds functionality to Magento stores running in Australia. This includes postage rates which are sourced from the Auspost API. Recently, Auspost changed the URL for their API which affects older versions of the extension. For those Magento installations which are running an older version of Fontis Australia, you will need to make changes to the extension in order to facilitate the new Auspost API. This article steps you through the changes that you need to make.
How to repair USB ports when your system does not recognise a USB device when you plug it in to your system.
Sometimes when you print a document it sits in the print queue and nothing happens. This may be because the print queue is frozen. You can remedy this by clearing the printer spool.
If you are having problems starting a laptop, the problem could be a buildup of static electricity, or your system might need a good clean. This article explains how these issues may be resolved.
If you need to reformat your Dell laptop and your system did not come with restore disks, you have the option of restoring to original factory setup using files stored on a partition on the system, or you can reformat using a standard windows disk. This article explains how to reformat a Dell laptop when the system did not come with restore disks.
When you receive an error in VB stating 'There is no editor available for "C:\Documents and Settings\Steven\Local Settings\Application Data\Temporary Projects\WindowsApplication1\Form1.vb" Make sure the application for the file type (.vb) is installed', you will need to enter a command at the command prompt to fix this error.
DotNetNuke is an ASP.net framework similar to PHPNuke. As with all development, there are issues that arise which take a bit of searching for the answer. This page contains a list of problems faced when developing with the DNN framework.
You may receive the Magento error: 'Please check for sufficient write file permissions. Your Magento folder does not have sufficient write permissions, which this web based downloader requires.'. This error does not explain which files have the incorrect permissions, and you can spend a while puddling around trying to get the right permissions set on the right folders. This article lists the folders and permissions that need to be set.
When you try to open Microsoft Outlook you may start getting the error "Cannot start Microsoft Office Outlook. Cannot open the Outlook window". This may only be happening under one profile; if you log into another profile, you may find that Outlook works fine.
Magento will append a SID (session ID) to URLs if the url does not match what is set in admin. Thus, if you access the site without the WWW when the Magento config stipulates that WWW is used, you will see this SID. This article explains how to remove the SID from Magento URLs programatically.
By default, the iPad 2 gives you the ability to print to any AirPrint-enabled printers on your WiFi network. However, if you already have a printer on your network that is not AirPrint-enabled, you can still print to that printer by setting up your Windows computer to run AirPrint. This article shows you how to print to any printer on the local network from an iPad2 that is not AirPrint enabled.


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Ein Sprungschalter oder Schnappschalter ist ein elektrischer Schalter, dessen Kraft-Weg-Charakteristik eine ausgeprägte Hysterese zeigt. Die Haptik ist dabei ähnlich wie bei dem Kinderspielzeug Knackfrosch.

Kraft-Weg-Kennlinie

Zu Beginn der Betätigung steigt die notwendige Kraft mehr oder weniger stark an. Bei Erreichen des Schaltpunkts schnappt das mechanische System im Inneren des Schalters schlagartig in die andere Schaltstellung, und die Betätigungskraft fällt entsprechend ab. Im anschließenden Überhub oder Durchdruck oder Nachlaufweg steigt die Betätigungskraft normalerweise wieder an, da der typische Sprungschalter eine Rückstellfeder enthält, die bei Wegnahme der Belastung den Schalter wieder in die Ausgangsstellung bringt. Bei der Rückstellung erfolgt ein genauso schlagartiges Umschnappen, wobei der Rückschaltpunkt auf der Wegkoordinate vor dem "Hin"-Schaltpunkt liegt (Rückschalten erfolgt nach Überstreichen des "Hin"-Schaltpunkts)!

Verwendung

Durch die hysteretische Charakteristik eignet sich der Sprungschalter gut zur Verwendung in Zwei-Punkt-Regelkreisen (wie z. B. Temperaturschalter): Nach jedem Umschalten ist die neue Schaltstellung relativ stabil, die Betätigungskraft muss erst eine deutliche Änderung erfahren, damit die Mechanik in die andere Schaltstellung schnappen kann.

In jeder Position der Betätigers kann eine ausreichende Mindest-Kontaktkraft gewährleistet werden.

Bauformen

Bekannteste und am weitesten verbreitete Bauform ist der schnappende Mikroschalter, der als Massenware produziert wird und als Standardelement in vielen Konstruktionen zum Einsatz kommt. Beispielsweise im Mikrowellenofen, um den Zustand der Türe zu erkennen (offen/geschlossen), oder in digitalen Computerjoysticks wie dem Competition Pro.

Siehe auch

 Temperaturschalter – Beispiel eines Sprungschalters, in dem die Rückstellfeder gleichzeitig das Umschnappen bewirkt
 Marquardt-Gruppe – Erster Hersteller von Schnappschaltern in Deutschland
 Competition Pro – Beliebter Joystick mit schnappenden Mikroschaltern aus der C-64-Ära

Schalter

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Q: What is mockito-inline and how does it work to mock final methods? Javadocs in Mockito says - "Starting with version 2.7.6, we offer the 'mockito-inline' artifact that enables inline mock making without configuring the MockMaker extension file". What does this mean? How does mockito-inline works ? Why a separate artifact for mockito-inline?

A: I stumbled upon this too and the answer is buried quite deep in the docs, so here it is.
Mockito optionally offers advanced mocking features like mocking final classes. For this to work, they use a different mechanism ("mock maker") that is considered experimental and therefore turned off by default. But:

As a convenience, the Mockito team provides an artifact where this mock maker is preconfigured. Instead of using the mockito-core artifact, include the mockito-inline artifact in your project.


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Cherianella narayani är en stekelart som beskrevs av T.C. Narendran 1994. Cherianella narayani ingår i släktet Cherianella och familjen Eucharitidae.

Artens utbredningsområde är Sri Lanka. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

Källor

Glanssteklar
narayani


I had a need to verify a new puppet configuration and wanted my own puppet master and client server to do this. And, I wanted to be able to work on this when I was mobile.
Solution: Run a debian XEN host and two Virtual Machines on the ASUS X54C laptop. Here are my notes for making this work.
The ASUS X54C laptop is our go-to machine when we are mobile. Our earlier article described how we made it dual boot Windows 7 and Debian Linux.
The ASUS comes with a RaLink Device 5390 wireless card and support for that card is not included in Debian Linux.
Read more for my notes on getting this laptop to connect to my wireless network under Debian linux.
The ASUS X54C laptop is a recent but key piece of gear at prokopyshen.com. It was purchased to be a dual boot Windows 7 and Linux workstation and these are my notes on how I got it going.
Linux and laptops dont always come together for a variety of reasons, but this one came together pretty easily.
Read more for my notes on the issues I found and resolved.
The ASUS X54C laptop is no longer listed at the asus.com website, but is available from retailers like microcenter.
I paid $259 for mine and I can tell you I am very impressed with the amount of computer I got for this price.
Read more for my perspective on this notebook computer.


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Why We Need to Tax Resources
During the recent State Duma election campaign, our opponents repeatedly accused my colleagues and me of demagogy.
The Future's Bigger Under Matviyenko
Jokes during St. Petersburg's gubernatorial election that Valentina Matviyenko's term in office could be as long as Leonid Brezhnev's may not be funny at all, if a union between St. Petersburg and Leningrad region, proposed last week, goes through.
Where U.S. Translates as Freedom
I found the cure. I found the cure to anti-Americanism: Come to Poland.
Caspian OPEC? MOSCOW (Bloomberg) -- Oil-producing states near the Caspian Sea should set up a regional oil organization similar to OPEC, Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev told Interfax. Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan are among the countries that have large oil deposits in the region and Iran is the only member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries to border the Caspian Sea. ""World experts confirm that, by and large, the reason why Arab countries and OPEC are nervous is not so much the scale of Caspian deposits as the fact that the states in the region are not members of the cartel,"" Nazarbayev said in an interview with Interfax in Astana. Caspian states ""should set up their own organization before it is too late,"" he said. Iran, which borders the Caspian Sea, is one of the 11 members of OPEC, which was founded in 1960. Russia and Kazakhstan have sometimes attended OPEC conferences as observers.
Retailers Slash Prices as Sales Tax Ends
Russia's largest retail chains said they will lower their prices 5 percent in response to the government's decision to drop the sales tax starting next year.
Report: Senator Safin in Hunt for Man U
Taking his cue from Chelsea soccer team owner Roman Abramovich, Russian oil mogul Ralif Safin is reported to be eyeing the world's richest sports club, Manchester United, a British daily reported.
Deposit Insurance Bill Signed
President Vladimir Putin has signed into law a milestone deposit insurance bill expected to help private banks attract billions of dollars Russians keep under their mattresses, the Kremlin said Monday.
Torus Plans $89M Fund For Russian Real Estate
Torus Investment Managers, a money management firm that targets British investors looking to tap the Russian market, plans to raise ?50 million ($89 million) for a fund investing in real estate in the country.
China Buys Russian Oil Producer
China National Petroleum Corp., or CNPC, has won a bid to buy about 60 percent of Russian energy firm Stimul in what would be China's first foray into Russia's energy sector, market sources said Monday.
Evraz Looking for Asian Steel Plant
Evrazholding Group, the nation's biggest steelmaker, is shifting sales to the local market and plans to buy an Asian steel-processing plant to avoid import quotas and tariffs on crude steel it faces in countries from the America to China.
All the Weird of 2003
With giant attack pumpkins, contract hits on police cats and Jesus and marijuana appearing on local flags, 2003 was a typical year in terms of Russian news.
All Missiles Removed MOSCOW (AP) -- The Russian military has removed all Soviet-built anti-aircraft missiles from its vast arms depots in the Transdnester province of Moldova to prevent them from falling into the hands of terrorists, officials said Monday. The missiles were brought from Transdnester to the Chkalovsky military air base near Moscow on Saturday by two heavylift Il-76 military cargo planes, the Defense Ministry said in a statement. A spokesman for the ministry, who asked not be named, would not say how many weapons were evacuated, but he said that no anti-aircraft missiles are left in Transdnester. About 2,000 Russian troops remain in Transdnester, guarding giant Soviet-era ammunition depots and acting as peacekeepers. Ingush Shooting VLADIKAVKAZ, North Ossetia (AP) -- Ingush authorities on Monday were investigating allegations that federal troops were responsible for killing a senior police official.
Khodorkovsky's New Civilization
Outside, Arctic darkness envelops the mountains, but inside, a video of bikini-clad Beyonce blasts on a big screen in this northern mining town, and members of the New Civilization youth movement are discussing their latest project.
Deputies Past and Present Get Ready to Party
State Duma deputies have decided to forget about politics, at least for one night.
New Year's Fireworks And Magic in the Park
Staying in Moscow for New Year's and looking for a boisterous alternative to house parties or overpriced nightclubs?
Methodists Forced Out Of Church
A group of private guards broke into a Methodist church in northern Moscow, awoke sleeping church members and forcefully evicted them from the building and onto the freezing street, church officials said.
Speaker Gryzlov Has 300 Duma Seats
Deputies, many of them smiling and hugging one another, gathered for the first session of the new State Duma on Wednesday and picked United Russia leader Boris Gryzlov as speaker.
Kremlin Reloading After Shot At Yukos
News of the October arrest of Mikhail Khodorkovsky was greeted with shock and horror in Washington, which had come to regard the Yukos billionaire as its most influential agent in Moscow -- a position previously held by Anatoly Chubais, the man chiefly responsible for Khodorkovsky's vast wealth.
Danilov Acquitted by a Jury
In a major setback for the Federal Security Service, a Krasnoyarsk jury on Monday acquitted physicist Valentin Danilov on charges of spying for China while working on a commercial contract.


This is a 15 minute documentary that gives voice to educators, parents, students, and community members. These people address a matter of obvious importance to them: the state of their schools. A special thanks to Sharla Steever, South Dakota's 2011-2012 Teaching Ambassador Fellow whose vision led to this project.


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Nappily in Bloom (Nappily, Bk. 5)
by Thomas, Trisha R.
Airic and his famous televangelist wife, Trevelle Doval, make the evening news when Airic is accused of domestic battery and his life is suddenly turned upside down. But when Venus and Jake try to suspend Airic's visitation rights with Mya, they discover that Airic isn't willing to go down without a fight.
Meanwhile, Jake's best friend, Legend, turns up on his doorstep with trouble not far behind. The past is back with a vengeance, including blackmail, murder and enemies who are looking for payback. But everything takes a dangerous new turn when Venus goes missing. For Jake it's now a race against time to save the woman he loves.
Publisher: St. Martin's Griffin


Bursting with the fresh taste of organically-grown lemon, this infused sea salt has eye-catching color, vibrant personality and a delicious flavor. This authentic Hawaiian sea salt is harvested from the pristine ocean waters surrounding the island of Molokai and blended with only the finest ingredients, resulting in exquisite taste and an unmatched mineral content. 4 oz.


It ought to be over running water. We'll just imagine this path is running water.
I'll repeat the oath first.
Not as unyielding as Oliver Twist and not as cloying as Cinderella or Snow White, Anne of Green Gables: Part I, starring Ali Ewoldt as Anne, is as Ingenious and chirpy as Peter Pan flying through Neverland, but employing the devoted passionate ambition of Harry Potter. She is easily believable and eager for adventure as she struggles to find a home, family, and place to belong.
In this age of chicanery, the innocence of this story is a breath of fresh air offering a respite from the dark clouds that daily darken our landscape. Published over 110 years ago, it's an early 20th-century picture of innocence and characters devoid of devious ulterior motives. Did a world like this really exist, or is it just the indomitable imagination of Anne's? Or maybe it's a picture an elder remembers looking back through rose-colored glasses, as the gauzed memory quality of the set and dancers seem to hint at?
Anne is accompanied in this telling by four wonderful dancers (Brooke Averi, Nichole Forde, Kara Menendez, and Stephanie Young) subtly mirroring her emotions while incorporating and lending fluid movement to her actions. The ever-present projections incorporated in the set design also add a mood enhancement that reflects the inner and outer quality of Anne's being.
This could actually be called a theatrical/dance piece, but please don't let that deter you if the description blasts warning signs in your brain. The dancers bring a magic quality to the telling of an easy story in a simple time.
On Prince Edward Island, Canada, the unmarried middle-aged siblings, Marilla and Matthew Cuthbert, decide to adopt a boy in his tweens to help on the farm. Mrs. Phillips of the orphanage "accidentally" sends Anne Shirley to Green Gables. When Matthew goes to the train station to retrieve the boy and finds an 11-year old girl, he cannot just leave her there and returns home with Anne. "No boy! But there must have been a boy, insisted Marilla." Though Anne was told different, she becomes aware that she was not requested from this family. Having moments of regression, feeling disliked, rejected and shunned because she is a girl, with red hair and freckles, Anne rises herself and begins to float on the clouds of creativity and fun her imagination comes up with in the names and colors she finds in the natural world she discovers all around her.
Instead of maintaining a grudge against the Cuthberts, Anne strives to perform obediently and begs and persuades to remain at Green Gables, as the alternative of returning to the orphanage would be tantamount to emotional death.
Presented by Royal Family Productions, 145 West 46th Street, scheduled to run through February 11.


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Weekend Reads – A Little Bit of Romance
The Book of Two Ways, Jodi Picoult
The #1 New York Times bestselling author of A Spark of Light returns with a thought-provoking and otherworldly new novel about the fates that we choose for ourselves and what happens when we have the chance to choose again.
Dawn Edelstein knows everything there is to know about dying. She specialises in helping her clients make peace with the end of their lives. But as she's flying home from her latest case, she is forced to confront her own mortality for the first time.
Instead of seeing her brilliant quantum physicist husband and their beloved daughter flash before her eyes in what she assumes are her last moments, only one face is shockingly clear: Wyatt Armstrong.
Safely on the ground, Dawn now faces a desperate decision. Should she return to Boston, her family and the life she knows, or journey back to an Egyptian archaeological site she left over a decade earlier, reconnect with Wyatt, and finally finish her abandoned magnum opus, The Book of Two Ways?
As the story unfolds, Dawn must confront the questions she's never truly answered: What does a life well-lived look like? When we depart this earth, what do we leave behind of ourselves? And who would you be if you hadn't turned out to be the person you are right now?
Just Like You, Nick Hornby
From the million-copy bestselling author comes a brutally funny novel about finding love when you least expect it
The person you are with is just like you: same background, same age, same interests. The perfect match. And it is a disaster.
Then, when and where you least expect it, you meet someone new. You seem to have nothing in common and yet, somehow, it feels totally right.
Nick Hornby's brilliantly observed, tender but also brutally funny new novel gets to the heart of what it means to fall surprisingly and headlong in love with the best possible person – someone who is not just like you at all.
Us Three, Ruth Jones
The new novel from Ruth Jones, co-writer of Gavin & Stacey and author of the smash-hit, number one bestselling debut, NeverGreener.
The new novel from Ruth Jones, author of the smash-hit, number one bestselling debut, NeverGreener.
Meet Lana, Judith and Catrin. Best friends since primary school when they swore an oath on a Curly Wurly wrapper that they would always be there for each other, come what may.
After the trip of a lifetime, the three girls are closer than ever. But an unexpected turn of events shakes the foundation of their friendship to its core, leaving their future in doubt – there's simply too much to forgive, let alone forget. An innocent childhood promise they once made now seems impossible to keep . . .Packed with all the heart and empathy that made Ruth's name as a screenwriter and now author, Us Three is a funny, moving and uplifting novel about life's complications, the power of friendship and how it defines us all. Prepare to meet characters you'll feel you've known all your life – prepare to meet Us Three.
The Morbids, Ewa Ramsey
Heart-wrenching, heartwarming and ultimately uplifting–a story about the power of a little kindness
A story of friendship, love and what it means to truly live when, sometimes, it may seem easier not to.
Caitlin is convinced she's going to die.
Two years ago, she was a normal twenty-something with a blossoming career and a plan to go travelling with her best friend, until a car accident left her with a deep, unshakable understanding that she's only alive by mistake.
Caitlin deals with these thoughts by throwing herself into work, self-medicating with alcohol, and attending a support group for people with death-related anxiety, informally known as the Morbids.
But when her best friend announces she's getting married in Bali, and she meets a handsome doctor named Tom, Caitlin must overcome her fear of death and learn to start living again.
Beautiful, funny, and universally relatable this story of hidden loneliness and the power of compassion and companionship reminds us that life is an adventure truly worth living.
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IT'S PEANUT BUTTER JELLY TIME
Lewis Road Creamery has made the American dream even dreamier with the release of their new Peanut Butter Jelly Ice Cream. The perfect collision…


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This month in brief
Many operations are ill-served by their on-ranch accounting systems, writes Market Advisor economist Harlan Hughes. They're great for income tax-reporting purposes, but don't offer the necessary important managerial information. In his second of a four-part series on page 8, Hughes reveals what a on-farm accounting system should provide its user. We want to ensure the ag community as a whole doesn't
Many operations are ill-served by their on-ranch accounting systems, writes "Market Advisor" economist Harlan Hughes. They're great for income tax-reporting purposes, but don't offer the necessary important managerial information. In his second of a four-part series on page 8, Hughes reveals what a "good" on-farm accounting system should provide its user.
"We want to ensure the ag community as a whole doesn't have to take an unequal part in the coming deficit-reduction effort," John Queen tells Joe Roybal in "Southern Comfort" on page 14. The third-generation cattleman from North Carolina assumes the reins of the National Cattlemen's Beef Association in early February. Queen provides his take on the year ahead.
Restaurants are tinkering with every aspect of the traditional hamburger, devising all sorts of new twists in toppings, flavorings and breads, writes Diana Barto. In "Reinventing The Burger" on page 20, the former BEEF Senior Associate Editor details how specialty burgers with distinctive names are popping up alongside the traditional burgers in retail chains all over the country.
Kentucky boasts 1.1 million beef cows, but the state's average herd size is just 29 head. BEEF Managing Editor Alaina Burt tells how an enterprising group of Bluegrass State producers came to pool their cattle, labor and resources, and reaped the benefits of the better prices possible with large groups of uniform cattle. Read "The Positives Of Pooling" on page 40.
Investors and rural America are salivating over the fortunes possible in converting corn into ethanol. But the competition for corn for energy purposes is putting the squeeze on livestock production. Larry Stalcup details in "Ethanol Fallout" on page 52 what some experts are saying could be the long-term effects on the beef industry of a nation energy-crazy for corn.
The BEEF magazine-sponsored BEEF Quality Summit, held in Oklahoma City in November, attracted more than 200 participants to hear 23 speakers deliver their ideas on how to become a player in the new beef-value chain. This month, Senior Editor Clint Peck kicks off our ongoing coverage of that event with "Global Competition" on page 58.


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Portland Police Historical Society
Portland Rose Society
Rasika Society for Arts of India
Restore Oregon
Restore Oregon is the only state-wide preservation non-profit dedicated to preserving, re-using, and passing forward the historic places that create livable, sustainable communities. We work hand in hand with community members to preserve Oregon's Most Endangered Places, provide educational…
Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks & Minerals
The Rice Northwest Museum of Rocks and Minerals houses a world-class collection recognized as the finest in the Pacific Northwest and one of the best in the nation.…
Rocky Butte Preservation Society
Rogue Valley Genealogical Society/Library
Sandy Historical Society
We have been the collector and guardian of the history of the Sandy area since 1926. Our current home opened in 2007 with focus on the Barlow Road,…
ScienceWorks Hands-On Museum
ScienceWorks Hands-On Museum is an interactive science museum located in Ashland, Oregon and serves explorers of all ages throughout Southern Oregon and Northern California. Founded in 2002 as…
Scio Historical Society
Seaside Museum & Historical Society
The Seaside Museum & Historical Society of Oregon is a non-profit educational institution incorporated by the State of Oregon to collect, preserve and interpret materials illustrative of the…


Sling TV is relatively new for the Xbox One, but it's not been without its problems. It seems that events in which large groups of people tune into watch suffer from poor quality, buffering issues, and outright crashes for the app. Subscribers that tried to watch the Final Four over the weekend can attest to the issues that Sling TV has had on Xbox One thus far.
However, it looks like Sling TV is looking to reduce server load with back-end tweaks, as well as an update to the guide functionality. A move that should hopefully allow more concurrent users to experience the streaming television service. It's going to be necessary. Ahead of the Game of Thrones premiere this Sunday, Sling TV will offer HBO as a premium channel.
Access to HBO on Sling TV will cost an additional $15 on top of the $20 monthly fee. But if the experience is anything like users saw over the past weekend, there will be plenty of viewers that leave disappointed.
Sling TV launched last month on the Xbox One as an alternative to cable subscriptions.


Location, Location, Location ! SELLER MOTIVATED! Home ready to move in. This immaculate four bedroom, two and a half bath newly renovated will impress the most exigent buyers. The perfectly designed gourmet kitchen features 42" cabinets, granite counters, stainless steel appliances, crown molding, tile back splash. Kitchen is open to the large family room with outdoor views and access to lanai and pool area with a wonderful view of the oversize sitting area in the outdoors, step out back to your own paradise. Formal living and dinning rooms. The open floor plan allows for hosting and entertaining all family and friends at once. Features large loft /bonus area, office space. Oversize master with an oversize walking closet, dual vanities shower, garden bath top separate from shower. Gorgeous Title and laminate floors run throughout the first floor, laminate run throughout the second floor. Screened enclosure , fenced all around it , water softener. Garage opener. The backyard overlooks a private conservation area.Oversize driveway. This gated subdivision features community pool and playground with plenty space for the family. Home is were the heart can bloom! Do not delay it wont last.!