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QUEST: The Donation Point
"TAP & GO" DONATION POINT:
The opportunity is now available for parishioners and visitors to donate to St. Patrick's Parish using a credit or debit card. The majority of parishes in the Diocese now have this facility. Following advice from both the Parish Pastoral Council and the Finance Committee to install this new donation point, it will be available for use at the weekend Masses, at least initially. The donation is
pre-programmed for $5.00 per tap of the card over the tap symbol. If you wish to donate more than $5.00, tap again. It takes a few seconds to record your donation. The Diocese's encouragement to use this facility is a response to the trend where most people carry little if any cash these days. Also, in these COVID-19 safe times, there is no handling of cash. The donation point does not take the place of the First and Second collections or the weekly envelope offerings which will, until COVID-19 restrictions are relaxed, still be in the bowls placed on the organ at the front of the Church. St. Patrick's is very grateful for your donations, however you wish to make them. ~ Fr. Peter Blayney
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Q: Prove that $\{ww^R\#ww^R\}$ is not context free I need to prove that $L = \{ww^R\#ww^R \; | \; w \text{ is in } \{a,b\}^*\}$ is not context free.
I have tried using the pumping lemma for this.
For $w=a^pb^pb^pa^p\#a^pb^pb^pa^p$.
I have two cases for $w=uvxyw$:
(1) $v$ and $y$ are both before the $\#$ or both after the $\#$. Obviously $w^2$ is not in $L$, contradiction.
(2) $v$ is before $\#$ and $y$ is after $\#$. I separated the word $w$ to four parts:
$w = AB\#CD$
Therefore $A=B^R$ and $C=D^R$.
If $v$ is homogeneous or $y$ is homogeneous, we can show that $A$ does not equal $B^R$ or $C$ does not equal $D^R$. But here is where I got stuck - if $v$ and $y$ are heterogeneous, how do I get the contradiction?
Thanks in advance.

A: Remember that $|vxy|\le p$. If $vxy$ includes the $\#$, obviously the $\#$ must be in $x$, so $v=a^k$ and $y=a^\ell$ for some $k$ and $\ell$ such that $1\le k+\ell\le p-1$. But then clearly $uxw\notin L$.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


This section to be completed by the Fellowship applicant. Please be sure to carefully read the application information page before completing this form. This form contains some questions about your Fellowship year project. While we do not expect you to have a specific digital inclusion project planned out (and in fact, much of Orientation is focused on helping you develop one), we do want to encourage you to have some initial ideas for what you'd like to accomplish during the Fellowship year. For examples of projects from previous cohorts, please take a look at our Fact Sheets. You cannot save this form, so be sure to complete and submit the form before closing the tab or navigating away from this page. You can download a Microsoft Word version of the form on the application information page in order to prepare your answers.
Your application is not complete until your supervisor completes the supervisor support form. Does your supervisor need convincing? Check out our tips and sample letter for making the case for digital inclusion.
Unless otherwise noted, please answer each question below in 900 characters or less.
Please check each box below to acknowledge that you agree to fulfill each of these obligations.
I understand that this is a year-long professional development Fellowship.
I understand I will be required to participate in monthly online trainings. The time commitment for these trainings will range from 1 to 2.5 hours per month, depending on the format of the training.
I understand I will be required to participate in monthly cohort calls with all the other Fellows. These calls will require 1 hour per month. I also commit to being an active participant in the cohort message board.
I agree to participate in a monthly 1-on-1 check-in with Digital Inclusion Fellowship staff to discuss plans, progress, challenges, etc. These calls may be 15 to 60 minutes long.
I understand my application is not complete until my supervisor submits the "Supervisor Support" form.


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Billie Eilish, When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?, review: navel-gazing sadness with a burning sense of purpose
Billie Eilish: When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go? (Polydor)
Neil McCormick, Music Critic
29 March 2019 • 10:14am
Billie Eilish is young enough to make millennials feel old. At 17, she has had two-and-a-half years of being hailed as the next big thing, notching up millions of streams across YouTube and SoundCloud. Her debut album, When We All Fall Asleep, Where Do We Go?, confirms what most teenagers already know: Eilish is something special, a pop avatar of a Generation Z mood of sensitive disaffection.
Her oeuvre absorbs genres with a blithe disregard for boundaries, operating between the distant poles of goth inflected synth pop and jazzy showtunes. Hints of hip-hop, R'n'B and traditional singer-songwriter angst are sinuously laced through beautifully crafted songs, disparate elements united by an understated digital production presumably aimed at mobile consumption rather than bigger speakers. It sounds modern and old fashioned at the same time, infused with an adolescant self-absorption that is at once depressive, funny and wise beyond its years.
The Californian prodigy hails from a family of actors and musicians. Eilish's closest collaborator, co-writer and producer is her elder brother, Finneas O'Connell, who had a recurring role in the TV series Glee and was involved in the LA band scene. At 21, he may only be four years her senior but boasts multi-instrumental skills and has clearly been a guiding hand behind Eilish's apparently preternatural development, composing his sister's 2016 viral debut, Ocean Eyes.
Eilish's personality, though, is pushed to the fore, with a soft vocal style that can shift from coquettish to threatening, playfully ironic to emotionally sincere in a breath. Her close-to-the-mic singing is enhanced by layers of ethereal harmonies without swamping a sense of intimacy.
Given how up-to-the-minute it all sounds, many tracks include chord progressions and structure that wouldn't sound out of place in a Broadway musical – albeit you would probably have older members of the audience heckling Eilish to "sing up!"
What really keeps Eilish contemporary is her lyrical sensibility, peppering tell-all tales with references to prescription drugs (Xanny) and sexual fluidity (Wish You Were Gay). All the Good Girls go to Hell dabbles in the political by positing a deity rejecting mankind, with Eilish singing the role of "God herself": "Your cover-up is caving in / Man is such a fool, why are we saving him? / Poisoning themselves now/ Begging for our help, wow / Hills burn in California / My time to ignore ya / Don't say I didn't warn ya."
It is smart stuff, laced with a vein of laugh-or-you'd-cry humour. Some of the skittishness risks becoming irritating, and parents may worry about the depressive singer's constant references to death, which go as far as embracing suicide on the tremulously touching Listen Before I Go. But even the underlying navel-gazing sadness is redeemed by Eilish's burning sense of purpose. There is confidence in her own uniqueness; Eilish is a genuine pop stylist.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


They Bleed Pixels remix - "CLAWSHANK REDEMPTION"
2. ready for review They Bleed Pixels remix - "CLAWSHANK REDEMPTION"
By COEURLAMARI, November 4, 2018 in Post Your Game ReMixes!
I've got it in a state I would consider as "finished" in that I'm happy with it and it has a coherent start-to-finish, but I would like to try getting it ready for submission soon and would like some feedback. I'll disclose that this will be my first time attempting to do so and, while I'm not especially experienced making music yet or have very sophisticated tools, I do understand a lot of the tenets of production quality and as long as you're clear explaining any problems or flaws you might be hearing, I'll do my best to fix them. Thanks in advance.
If you would prefer I use a different platform than SC to post this, please let me know.


GreenPad Concepts helps rural girls stay in school during their menstrual period by providing access to biodegradable and affordable sanitary pads that are locally produced from agricultural byproducts. During their menstrual period each month, girls in rural Nigeria have no choice but to miss school. Without the means to purchase feminine hygiene products and without access to toilets and running water, girls are subject to shame and embarrassment, which can be compounded by cultural taboos surrounding menstruation. According to UNICEF, one out of ten adolescent girls in Africa miss school during their menstruation and eventually drop out. GreenPad Concepts has developed an affordable, highly absorbent, and biodegradable sanitary pad made from banana plant fiber, a plentiful and inexpensive agricultural byproduct in Nigeria. Made by Nigerian women for Nigerian women, GreenPad's product costs 50% less than currently available commercial pads. While commercial pads take 500-800 years to biodegrade, GreenPads return to the environment in only 6 months. The product will be distributed through channels that target girls in schools so that they remain in school and complete their educations.


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Hagley regularly arranges talks by authors of recent books that draw on or relate to Hagley research collections and that will be of interest to the general public. With topics ranging broadly in the areas of business, culture, and history, these author talks provide a captivating way to learn more about the stories contained in Hagley's collections.
Author talks begin promptly at 7 p.m. and are held in Hagley's Soda House building. The talk is followed by an opportunity for audience discussion and purchases of the author's book. Light refreshments are provided. The event ends by 8:15 p.m.
Use Hagley's Buck Road East entrance off Route 100 in Wilmington, Delaware. RSVPs encouraged, walk-ins welcome. Please RSVP to Carol Lockman, 302-658-2400 ext. 243 or email clockman@Hagley.org.
Upcoming Author Talks
2019 - 2020 Series
February 27, 2020: Bess Williamson. Accessible America: A History of Disability & Design
Accessible America: A History of Disability and Design traces the history of design responses to disability rights from 1945 to recent times. This project shows how the concept of "access" emerged as a value in design in this period. Chapters highlight the ways that prosthetics research led to expanded accessibility in the American home; how medical experts pushed for access while also putting much of the pressure on individual patients to navigate their home and work lives; and how civil rights language reshaped arguments around technology and infrastructure.
Past Author Talks
2019 - 2020 Series -- View Series PDF
Susan Murray. Bright Signals: A History of Color Television (October 10, 2019)
Joshua Clark Davis. The Rise and Fall of Activist Entrepreneurs: How the 1960s Changed Business (May 9, 2019)
Hasia Diner. Julius Rosenwald: From Sears Executive to Passionate Philanthropist (March 7, 2019)
Sarah Igo. Invasions of Privacy: An American History (November 8, 2018)
Benjamin Gross. The TVs of Tomorrow: RCA and the Invention of the Flat Screen Television (October 4, 2018) Recorded
Courtney Fullilove. The Profit of Earth: The Global Seeds of American Agriculture (May 10, 2018) Recorded
Francesca Russello Ammon. How the Bulldozer Remade Postwar America (March 1, 2018) Recorded
Edward J. Balleisen. Fraud: An American History from Barnum to Madoff (December 7, 2017)
Clayton J. Ruminski. Ohio's Iron Valley and the Making of Industrial America (November 2, 2017)
Alan Meyer. Private Pilots and the Rise of Civil Aviation (October 26, 2017) Recorded
Mary Pilon. The Monopolists (May 4, 2017)
Danielle Shapiro. Industrial Design for Modern Life: John Vassos and RCA (March 16, 2017) Recorded
Mark Wilson. Destructive Creation in World War II (November 17, 2016)
Roger Horowitz. Kosher USA (September 22, 2016)
Vicki Howard. From Main Street to Mall (May 4, 2016)
Brett Gadsden. Between North and South: Delaware, Desegregation, and the Myth of American Sectionalism (March 16, 2016)
Phyllis Lambert. Building Seagram (October 21, 2015)
Hasia Diner. Peddlers and the Great Jewish Migration to the New World (October 1, 2015) Recorded
Amy Bentley. Inventing Baby Food (May 7, 2015)
Benjamin Waterhouse. Lobbying: The Business of Politics and the Politics of Business in America (November 20, 2014) Recorded
Barbara B. Oberg. Decidedly of a Rare Order: Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, Eleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours, and Thomas Jefferson (November 5, 2014) Recorded
Janneken Smucker. The Amish Quilt Craze: Art, Business, and Authenticity (September 18, 2014) Recorded
Richard R. John. Telegraphs for the 1 Percent, Telephones for the People: How America Became a Network Nation (April 23, 2014) Recorded
Margaret Mulrooney. Black Powder, White Lace - The du Pont Irish and Cultural Identity in Nineteenth Century America (March 27, 2014) Recorded
David Farber. John J. Raskob: Pierre S. du Pont's Right-Hand Man and Capitalist Extraordinaire (November 7, 2013) Recorded
Regina Blaszcyk. The Color Revolution (September 12, 2013) Recorded
Catherine Fisk and Paul Duguid. Historicizing Intellectual Property: A Symposium (May 16, 2013) Recorded
Adam Rome. The Genius of Earth Day: How a 1970 Teach-In Unexpectedly Made the First Green Generation (April 25, 2013) Recorded
Albert Churella. The Unique Railroad of the World: Why the Pennsylvania Railroad was Different from all of the Others (November 15, 2012) Recorded
Roger Horowitz. I Wish I Was an Oscar Mayer Wiener: Innovation and the Hot Dog in America (October 17, 2012) Recorded


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Opening Windows within Walls – Teaching Peace in the ELCJHL
Although the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land was officially recognized as an autonomous church in 1959, it traces its history to German mission work in the mid-nineteenth century.
Although the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan and the Holy Land was officially recognized as an autonomous church in 1959, it traces its history to German mission work in the mid-nineteenth century. The schools founded at that time were the first to provide education to Christian and Muslim boys and girls on an equal basis.
Today the Church sees its educational ministry as more important than ever before, especially in light of the present state of life for Palestinians. Israeli military occupation and travel restrictions make it increasingly difficult for families to choose good schools for their children. In addition, the economic conditions resulting from the political situation have limited parents' incomes and their ability to pay school costs. Operation and development of school programs are serious problems in such a situation, but committed sponsors and partners overseas provide much needed support and funding to alleviate this dire situation.
Approximately 2100 students from pre-school through Grade 12 receive education at four campuses: Dar Al-Kalima Lutheran School in Bethlehem, the Evangelical Lutheran School in Beit Sahour, Talitha Kumi Lutheran School in Beit Jala, and the Lutheran School of Hope in Ramallah. The Church also supports four educational programs: a preschool and kindergarten program at Augusta Victoria Hospital in East Jerusalem, the Martin Luther Community Development Center in Jerusalem's Old City, a boys' home, and the Environmental Education Center, both in Beit Jala. All the schools and programs are located within a twenty mile area of occupied Palestine.
The students in our schools come from varied backgrounds. Some families have long histories in their towns; others are political refugees from the Palestine-Israel area now living in UN-administered refugee camps in the Bethlehem and Ramallah areas. Most of our students receive financial aid to cover their tuition fees, but none is refused because of inability to pay. All the teachers and administrators except one are Palestinian.
Life here grows more difficult as each day passes. Since 2000 the area has experienced increased political restrictions and growing economic hardship. Explained briefly, the "prevailing conditions", a euphemism Palestinians use to describe their stressful existence, include an increasing Israeli military presence, tighter restrictions on movement and residence, and lack of jobs because of difficulty receiving permits to cross into Jerusalem for work.
Israel plans to complete its construction of the Separation Wall within two year, which you see here in red. The towns that have ELCJHL ministries are marked. The black line marks the 1949 Armistice Line (known as the Green Line) which marks what was Palestinian land and has now been occupied since then. Most of the land between those two lines, then, has been confiscated for illegal settlements or to build the Separation Wall. This complex installation of twenty-foot concrete walls, electric fences, barriers, access-limited roads, and de facto borders, heavily guarded by the Israeli military, isolates West Bank towns and communities from each other and from Israel and Jerusalem. Ostensibly built in the name of Israeli national security, its eventual route will absorb 40 percent of Palestinian-controlled lands and isolate Palestinians not only from Jerusalem and Israel, but also from nearby communities in the West Bank itself. Trips that once took fifteen minutes can now take hours. New roads connecting the illegal Israeli settlements in the Occupied Territories are off-limits to Palestinians who cannot use them or even cross them to access their farms.
Consequently, many Palestinians are no longer able to work in Jerusalem and other areas of Israel. Many are cut off from their former farmlands and work places. Others are scrambling to find appropriate housing because of threatened zoning, road closures, changing boundaries, and encroaching illegal Israeli settlements in Palestinian territory. Bethlehemites, for example, describe their town as a six- square mile wide prison. Unemployment and poverty levels are growing at alarming rates and in certain areas of the West Bank may soon reach 70 percent. The most recent socioeconomic crisis occurred after the Palestinian elections in January, 2006. International reactions to the democratically chosen Hamas Party majority in the Palestinian legislature have placed the economy in even greater jeopardy. Because of fund cut-offs, the government's ability to pay salaries and health insurance is drastically restricted. Consequently, basic necessities for one million Palestinians no longer include assured access to health care, police or fire protection, or education.
These facts, distressing from a distance, become family nightmares lived out daily in the Lutheran Schools. Students and staff, whose permission to cross checkpoints is refused or delayed without explanation or advance notice, miss classes and school events. The schools' director, delayed at a checkpoint for three hours, was unable to speak or distribute diplomas at a high school graduation last year. A deacon of a Lutheran congregation and his wife, both teachers in our schools, risk losing their home because it is too close to an illegal settlement built after their house was constructed in compliance with municipality permits. Some school administrators sadly note they are the single members of their extended family still living here after ten years of increasing emigration because of the "prevailing conditions." Teenaged daughters of a Lutheran pastor in the West Bank have never seen the holy sites in Jerusalem, six miles away; their father is often denied travel permits to Jerusalem and outside the country, supposedly for security reasons. Congregations contain married couples who may no longer live together with their children because of permit restriction changes.
Episodes of violence are part of the group memories of local schools and congregations. Teachers and students in Ramallah and Bethlehem still remember the vandalism, thefts, and needless destruction of property that occurred in their classrooms and offices when Israeli soldiers shot their way into their school, "looking for terrorists," during a curfew. They used the Lutheran pastors there as human shields during their armed searches of their churches. An American pastor residing in Jerusalem describes such incidents of stress and violence with which Palestinians live as "death by a thousand cuts" that slowly but repeatedly deplete their life blood and energy.
However, despite the grim reality of life for families in the West Bank, visitors to the Lutherans schools often express their surprise at the friendliness and joy they find among the students and staff. Hospitality is a hallmark of Palestinian culture, but the attitudes of the students and staff of the Schools of the ELCJHL indicate also the commitment to dialogue, peaceful coexistence, and bridge-building fostered by the church and its educational ministry.
In the face of social, political and financial challenges, the Schools and Educational programs of the ELCJHL struggle to provide quality education through various means. First, the Lutheran Schools offer an alternative to the traditional regional system of memorization and lecture. Modern educational concepts which emphasize participation and creative thinking are the heart of a holistic approach. Teachers and administrators see their pupils as individuals with needs and gifts, not simply academic performers valued only for grades and test scores. Through interactive class instruction, class research and study projects, the Lutheran Schools strive to prepare their students with the necessary tools to resolve conflicts and solve problems creatively, effectively, and peacefully.
Exposing students to the larger world is also essential in such a politically restrictive climate. The Schools encourage cooperation and communication with international groups and partner churches to expose students to a wider world view than isolation and military occupation allow. Pen pal correspondences and joint study projects with international schools, twinning programs, pupil and teacher exchanges and visits exemplify deliberate efforts to open windows within walls. Believing that lack of knowledge about the other creates mistrust, tension, and often violence, those charged with the educational ministry of the ELCJHL encourage communication with the outside world and view dialogue among people of different cultures and traditions as essential.
The staff and teachers respect the varied religious backgrounds of their students and do not aim to convert anyone; they do offer, however, an environment in which the Christian core values of non-violence and forgiveness are promoted and encouraged inside and outside the classroom. Children are taught to accept each other, regardless of religious, social, and ethnic differences. Extracurricular activities encourage students to channel their energy and emotions in positive outlets like sports, music, dance, and environmental awareness. Student councils at each school are learning responsibility and leadership. School counseling programs attempt to address the needs of a school population marked by life in a stressful and violent atmosphere; daily assemblies led by students, staff, and local pastors offer ethical and spiritual guidance.
"Teaching peace" occurs both indirectly through daily interaction among Christian and Muslim students and staff and also in specifically planned school activities and programs. Students and staff participate regularly in conflict resolution training that teaches nonviolent and constructive dialogue. Joint religion classes led by Christian and Muslim teachers meet twice a month to discuss common values and traditions. Lectures, summer camps, and workshops sponsored by the Arab Educational Institute (AEI) promote mutual respect for ethnic and religious differences.
The ELCJHL believes that peace and justice can prevail only through constructive dialogue and nonviolent action. We believe and teach that, as written in one of our schools, "Violence is the tool of incompetence."
The vision for the Lutheran Schools in the Holy Land is to produce leaders who are open-minded and capable of engaging in constructive planning for the future of Palestinian society. As we promote the Lutheran value of education, we are shaping the Palestinian Christian identity of future generations in love and strength. We see education as a direct mission of this church, giving hope in a hopeless situation. The future is at present a fragile dream, but Palestinian Christians, like their beloved olive trees, have maintained their presence here for thousands of years, and it is hope which sustains them. Both the people and the olive trees of Palestine have suffered great pain and loss, but they also bear witness to the will to survive in hard living conditions. Salaam Bannoura in her graduation speech at Beit Sahour Evangelical Lutheran School in June, 2005, said it well.
Fadi Hanna	2007-05-04T00:00:00+00:00	May 4th, 2007|Categories: News|


This growing trend of using a remote workforce to get things done has many benefits but also presents unique challenges. To truly understand the issues of managing a workforce composed of individuals you won't be seeing in-person every day, take note of these key benefits and challenges.
Companies that choose to implement remote working or telecommuting strategies stand to gain immense benefits in the areas of productivity, employee morale and overall efficiency. It's no surprise that technology plays a huge role in this. In addition, critical tools like personal computers and internet connectivity, customized software, hardware and collaboration platforms work together to help ensure you have a fully optimized remote workforce. Some companies are even going so far as using hologram technology to make the remote working experience as seamless for the employee as it is for the employer.
Benefits of an empowered and optimized virtual workforce include increased transparency in daily operations, trackable accountability of team members, improved project management capabilities, and better communication through platforms like Slack, Trello and Basecamp. Remember that not every employee needs to be working in a 100% virtual capacity. In many cases, it can make more sense to provide a hybrid approach to telecommuting, giving employees the option to work remotely in order to achieve the optimal work/life balance for them.
Is it Difficult to Manage Remote Employees?
Many employers view remote workers as more difficult to manage due to them not being as accessible or physically available for impromptu meetings or matters of urgent importance. This concern is easily dealt with, however, when you take into consideration the many employee productivity tracking tools that are available. Often, Professional Employer Organizations, or PEOs, will offer employee management and productivity solutions that are developed with effective employee management in mind, putting to bed the worries of whether or not a virtual employee is doing his or her job. Tracking productivity against established Key Performance Indicators, or KPIs, can also help with this.
A notable risk that seems inherent in the function of remote employees relates to cyber security. It stands to reason that the more of your sensitive information that is passed over the internet, the higher the chances are of that information being intercepted by individuals with criminal intentions. As tight as your IT security protocols might be, a large virtual workforce is going to necessarily increase your risk profile for potentially catastrophic events like data breaches or system hacking. We are only human, after all, and it only takes one slip-up for a data thief to create a serious problem for your enterprise.
Another important challenge to consider is the quality and retention of any job-specific training that you plan on sending your virtual workers through prior to them starting their job. What we know about adult learners in particular is that some of them respond better to Instructor-Led Training versus training that is conducted online through a personal computer or tablet. This isn't to say that e-learning or Virtual Instructor-Led Training doesn't have its place in the workforce; rather, the ideal scenario would allow for both to be available to your new virtual workers, so they can use what works best for them. If you're going to rely 100% on an e-learning platform to tackle the challenge of training during the early employment phase, then plan in advance for a slightly longer onboarding process and the potential for a longer ramp up in terms of near-term productivity from new hires.
Remember that without clear definitions of what an employee's role is, what their productivity expectations are, and when they are expected to be available, it's only going to be a matter of time before team performance starts to struggle. That's why to ensure the success of any remote workforce, it's absolutely critical that every remote worker understands what is being asked and expected of them, and that they are held accountable for their contributions on a daily, weekly and monthly basis. An unfortunate but understandable reality of remote employee management - especially for new hires - is meticulous tracking of tasks and activities. Many workers might view this as a kind of 'micromanaging', when the truth is that there simply is no other way to ensure that performance metrics are being achieved and that progress is being made.
Regardless of the product or service your company sells or what industry you operate in, taking advantage of the new era of remote workers can seriously improve multiple areas of your business. Know what you're getting into first, and you'll be much more primed for success in the long run.


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More outbreaks if we keep exploiting wildlife
By Ethan Taylor on July 7, 2020
Image copyright Reuters
Bats had been in all probability the supply of the present coronavirus pandemic, epidemiologists says
Zoonotic illnesses – which leap from animals to people – are rising and can proceed to take action with out motion to guard wildlife and protect the setting, UN specialists have warned.
They blame the rise in illnesses comparable to Covid-19 on excessive demand for animal protein, unsustainable agricultural practices and local weather change.
Neglected zoonotic illnesses kill two million folks a yr, they are saying.
Covid-19 is about to price the worldwide financial system $9tn (£7.2tn) over two years.
Why are we catching extra illnesses from animals?
Ebola, West Nile virus and Sars are additionally all zoonotic illnesses: they began in animals, and made the leap to people.
What did the report say?
But that leap isn't automated. It is pushed, in accordance with the report by the United Nations Environment Programme and the International Livestock Research Institute, by the degradation of our pure setting – for instance by way of land degradation, wildlife exploitation, useful resource extraction and local weather change. This alters the way in which animals and people work together.
A lone man and a cow are seen by a submerged home after a dam collapse in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Photo: January 2019
"In the last century we have seen at least six major outbreaks of novel coronaviruses," mentioned Inger Andersen, under-secretary common and government director of the UN Environment Programme.
"Over the last two decades and before Covid-19, zoonotic diseases caused economic damage of $100bn (£80bn)."
She mentioned that "two million people in low- and middle-income countries die each year from neglected endemic zoonotic diseases – such as anthrax, bovine tuberculosis and rabies".
"These are often communities with complex development problems, high dependence on livestock and proximity to wildlife."
Meat manufacturing, for instance, has elevated by 260% within the final 50 years, Ms Andersen mentioned.
"We have intensified agriculture, expanded infrastructure and extracted resources at the expense of our wild spaces," she defined.
"Dams, irrigation and factory farms are linked to 25% of infectious diseases in humans. Travel, transport and food supply chains have erased borders and distances. Climate change has contributed to the spread of pathogens."
Media playback is unsupported in your system
Media captionLengana is a plant generally utilized in conventional medication in Southern Africa
The report affords governments methods on the way to stop future outbreaks, comparable to incentivizing sustainable land administration, enhancing biodiversity and investing in scientific analysis.
"The science is clear that if we keep exploiting wildlife and destroying our ecosystems, then we can expect to see a steady stream of these diseases jumping from animals to humans in the years ahead," Ms Andersen mentioned.
"To prevent future outbreaks, we must become much more deliberate about protecting our natural environment."
Published in Health
exploiting
Ethan Taylor was names as the best author in Guru Online News. His father is preschool teacher and mother is housewife. He writes news related to Agriculture, Social Media and technology. Now he is working as an author for Guru Online News.
More from HealthMore posts in Health »
Stephen Hahn and the terrible, horrible, no good, very bad FDA weekend
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Probe Software maintains close ties with JEOL and Cameca to be able to offer what users of their instruments expect: seamless, rock solid integration with all instrument functions.
On modern instruments using TCP/IP communication (click here for JEOL 8900/8200/8500 and click here for JEOL 8230/8530 and Cameca SX100/SXFIVE), both the OEM software and the Probe Software system can talk to the instrument from their respective computers without cable or configuration changes. This insures that when you upgrade to Probe Software you don't lose anything- you gain everything.
All versions of Probe for EPMA and Probe Image integrate seamlessly with state-of-the-art SDD EDS systems from Bruker (Esprit) and Thermo (NSS) for full spectrum EDS acquisition and quantitative analysis. Integration with other EDS vendors is available upon request.
We also partner with Bruker Nano and Thermo Scientific (click here for our "Hyper-Imaging" flyer) to provide robust integration of full spectrum EDS and WDS acquisition using automated standards based k-ratio quantification for every data point.
In addition we work with Golden Software to customize their Surfer and Grapher products for our presentation and display graphics for microscopy and microanalysis.
In short, Probe Software is a growing group of EPMA users and companies that work together to create professional, practical and yet cutting edge electron microprobe software which provides a community platform for implementing new and creative ideas from our user base.
Our beta testers and collaborators come from a wide range of academic, government and industry labs and include Julien Allaz (University of Colorado, ETH Zurich), Michael Jercinovic (University of Massachusetts), Paul Carpenter (Washington University), John Fournelle (University of Wisconsin), Douglass Meier and Nicholas Ritchie (NIST), Chi Ma (California Institute of Technology), Ben Buse (University of Bristol), Heather Lowers and David Adams (USGS), Daniel Ruscitto and Dave Wark (GE Global), Benjamin Wade (University of Adelaide), Malcolm Roberts (University of Western Australia), Benjamin Hanson (Corning Glass), Philipp Poeml (ITU), Philippe Pinard (University of Aachen), Gareth Hatton (Johnson-Matthey), Ying Yu (The University of Queensland), Glenn Poirier (University of Ottawa), Changkun Park (Korea Polar Research Instritute) and many others too numerous to mention.
For installation and training of all our products, Probe Software contracts with a number of nationally and internationally recognized microprobe experts who provide professional, customized installation and training at your instrument site. See here for details.


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The history of the metric system began during the Age of Enlightenment with measures of length and weight derived from nature, along with their decimal multiples and fractions. The system became the standard of France and Europe within half a century.  Other measures with unity ratios were added, and the system went on to be adopted across the world.

The first practical realisation of the metric system came in 1799, during the French Revolution, after the existing system of measures had become impractical for trade, and was replaced by a decimal system based on the kilogram and the metre.  The basic units were taken from the natural world. The unit of length, the metre, was based on the dimensions of the Earth, and the unit of mass, the kilogram, was based on the mass of a volume of water of one litre (a cubic decimetre). Reference copies for both units were manufactured in platinum and remained the standards of measure for the next 90 years. After a period of reversion to the mesures usuelles due to unpopularity of the metric system, the metrication of France and much of Europe was complete by the 1850s.

In the middle of the 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell conceived a coherent system where a small number of units of measure were defined as base units, and all other units of measure, called derived units, were defined in terms of the base units. Maxwell proposed three base units for length, mass and time. Advances in electromagnetism in the 19th century necessitated additional units to be defined, and multiple incompatible systems of such units came into use; none could be reconciled with the existing dimensional system. The impasse was resolved by Giovanni Giorgi, who in 1901 proved that a coherent system that incorporated electromagnetic units required a fourth base unit, of electromagnetism.

The seminal 1875 Treaty of the Metre resulted in the fashioning and distribution of metre and kilogram artefacts, the standards of the future coherent system that became the SI, and the creation of an international body Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM to oversee systems of weights and measures based on them.

In 1960, the CGPM launched the International System of Units (in French the Système international d'unités or SI) with six "base units": the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin (subsequently renamed the "kelvin") and candela, plus 16 more units derived from the base units. A seventh base unit, the mole, and six other derived units were added later in the 20th century. During this period, the metre was redefined in terms of the speed of light, and the second was redefined based on the microwave frequency of a caesium atomic clock.

Due to the instability of the international prototype of the kilogram, a series of initiatives were undertaken, starting in the late 20th century, to redefine the ampere, kilogram, mole and kelvin in terms of invariant constants of physics, ultimately resulting in the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units, which finally eliminated the need for any physical reference artefacts—notably, this enabled the retirement of the standard kilogram.

A fleeting hint of an ancient decimal or metric system may be found in the Mohenjo-Daro ruler, which uses a base length of  and is very precisely divided with decimal markings. Bricks from that period are consistent with this unit, but this usage appears not to have survived, as later systems in India are non-metric, employing divisions into eighths, twelfths, and sixteenths.

Age of Enlightenment
Foundational aspects of mathematics, together with an increased understanding of the natural world during the Enlightenment, set the stage for the emergence in the late 18th century of a system of measurement with rationally related units and rules for combining them.

Preamble
In the early ninth century, when much of what later became France was part of the Holy Roman Empire, units of measure had been standardised by the Emperor Charlemagne. He had introduced standard units of measure for length and for mass throughout his empire. As the empire disintegrated into separate nations, including France, these standards diverged. In England, Magna Carta (1215) had stipulated that "There shall be standard measures of wine, ale, and corn (the London quarter), throughout the kingdom. There shall also be a standard width of dyed cloth, russet, and haberject, namely two ells within the selvedges. Weights are to be standardised similarly."

During the early medieval era, Roman numerals were used in Europe to represent numbers, but the Arabs represented numbers using the Hindu numeral system, a positional notation that used ten symbols. In about 1202, Fibonacci published his book Liber Abaci (Book of Calculation) which introduced the concept of positional notation into Europe. These symbols evolved into the numerals "0", "1", "2" etc. At that time, there was dispute regarding the difference between rational numbers and irrational numbers and there was no consistency in the way in which decimal fractions were represented.

Simon Stevin is credited with introducing the decimal system into general use in Europe. In 1586, he published a small pamphlet called De Thiende ("the tenth") which historians credit as being the basis of modern notation for decimal fractions. Stevin felt that this innovation was so significant that he declared the universal introduction of decimal coinage, measures, and weights to be merely a question of time.

Body measures and artifacts
Since the time of Charlemagne, the standard of length had been a measure of the body, that from fingertip to fingertip of the outstretched arms of a large man, from a family of body measures called fathoms, originally used among other things, to measure the depth of water. An artifact to represent the standard was cast in the most durable substance available in the Middle Ages, an iron bar . The problems of a non-reproducible artefact became apparent over the ages: it rusted, was stolen, beaten into a mortised wall until it bent, and was, at times, lost. When a new royal standard had to be cast, it was a different standard than the old one, so replicas of old ones and new ones came into existence and use. The artefact existed through the 18th century, and was called a teise or later, a toise (from Latin tense: outstretched (arms)). This would lead to a search in the 18th century for a reproducible standard based on some invariant measure of the natural world.

Clocks and pendulums
In 1656, Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens invented the pendulum clock, with its pendulum marking the seconds. This gave rise to proposals to use its length as a standard unit. But it became apparent that the pendulum lengths of calibrated clocks in different locations varied (due to local variations in the acceleration due to gravity), and this was not a good solution. A more uniform standard was needed.

In 1670, Gabriel Mouton, a French abbot and astronomer, published the book Observationes diametrorum solis et lunae apparentium ("Observations of the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon") in which he proposed a decimal system of measurement of length for use by scientists in international communication, to be based on the dimensions of the Earth. The milliare would be defined as a minute of arc along a meridian and would be divided into 10 centuria, the centuria into 10 decuria and so on, successive units being the virga, virgula, decima, centesima, and the millesima. Mouton used Riccioli's estimate that one degree of arc was 321,185 Bolognese feet, and his own experiments showed that a pendulum of length one virgula would beat 3959.2 times in half an hour. He believed that, with this information, scientists in a foreign country would be able to construct a copy of the virgula for their own use. Mouton's ideas attracted interest at the time; Picard in his work Mesure de la Terre (1671) and Huygens in his work Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum ("Of oscillating clocks, or concerning the motion of pendulums", 1673) both proposing that a standard unit of length be tied to the beat frequency of a pendulum.

The shape and size of the Earth

Since at least the Middle Ages, the Earth had been perceived as eternal, unchanging, and of symmetrical shape (close to a sphere), so it was natural that some fractional measure of its surface should be proposed as a standard of length. But first, scientific information about the shape and size of the Earth had to be obtained.

In 1669, Jean Picard, a French astronomer, was the first person to measure the Earth accurately. In a survey spanning one degree of latitude, he erred by only 0.44% (Picard's arc measurement).

In Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1686), Isaac Newton gave a theoretical explanation for the "bulging equator", which also explained the differences found in the lengths of the "second pendulums", theories that were confirmed by the French Geodesic Mission to Peru undertaken by the French Academy of Sciences in 1735.

Late 18th century: conflict and lassitude

By the mid-18th century, it had become apparent that it was necessary to standardise of weights and measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other. Spain, for example, had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England. In 1783, the British inventor James Watt, who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists, called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system, proposing a system which used the density of water to link length and mass, and, in 1788, the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders (a [French] pound and decimal subdivisions thereof) for his experimental work.

In 1790, a proposal floated by the French to Britain and the United States, to establish a uniform measure of length, a metre based on the period of a pendulum with a beat of one second, was defeated in the British Parliament and United States Congress. The underlying issue was failure to agree on the latitude for the definition, since gravitational acceleration, and, therefore, the length of the pendulum, varies (inter alia) with latitude: each party wanted a definition according to a major latitude passing through their own country. The direct consequences of the failure were the French unilateral development and deployment of the metric system and its spread by trade to the continent; the British adoption of the Imperial System of Measures throughout the realm in 1824; and the United States' retention of the British common system of measures in place at the time of the independence of the colonies. This was the position that continued for nearly the next 200 years.

Implementation in Revolutionary France

Weights and measures of the Ancien Régime

It has been estimated that, on the eve of the Revolution in 1789, the eight hundred or so units of measure in use in France had up to a quarter of a million different definitions because the quantity associated with each unit could differ from town to town, and even from trade to trade. Although certain standards, such as the pied du roi (the King's foot) had a degree of pre-eminence and were used by scientists, many traders chose to use their own measuring devices, giving scope for fraud and hindering commerce and industry. These variations were promoted by local vested interests, but hindered trade and taxation.

The units of weight and length

In 1790, a panel of five leading French scientists was appointed by the Académie des sciences to investigate weights and measures. They were Jean-Charles de Borda, Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Pierre-Simon Laplace, Gaspard Monge, and Nicolas de Condorcet.
Over the following year, the panel, after studying various alternatives, made a series of recommendations regarding a new system of weights and measures, including that it should have a decimal radix, that the unit of length should be based on a fractional arc of a quadrant of the Earth's meridian, and that the unit of weight should be that of a cube of water whose dimension was a decimal fraction of the unit of length. The proposals were accepted by the French Assembly on 30 March 1791.

Following acceptance, the Académie des sciences was instructed to implement the proposals. The Académie broke the tasks into five operations, allocating each part to a separate working group:
Measuring the difference in latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona and triangulating between them
Measuring the baselines used for the survey
Verifying the length of the second pendulum at 45° latitude.
Verifying the weight in a vacuum of a given volume of distilled water.
Publishing conversion tables relating the new units of measure to the existing units of measure.

The panel decided that the new measure of length should be equal to one ten-millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator (Earth quadrant), measured along the Paris meridian.

Using Jean Picard's survey of 1670 and Jacques Cassini's survey of 1718, a provisional value of 443.44 lignes was assigned to the metre which, in turn, defined the other units of measure.

While Méchain and Delambre were completing their survey, the commission had ordered a series of platinum bars to be made based on the provisional metre. When the final result was known, the bar whose length was closest to the meridional definition of the metre would be selected.

After 1792, the name of the original defined unit of mass, "gramme", which was too small to serve as a practical realisation for many purposes, was adopted, the new prefix "kilo" was added to it to form the name "kilogramme". Consequently, the kilogram is the only SI base unit that has an SI prefix as part of its unit name.
A provisional kilogram standard was made and work was commissioned to determine the precise mass of a cubic decimetre (later to be defined as equal to one litre) of water.
The regulation of trade and commerce required a "practical realisation": a single-piece, metallic reference standard that was one thousand times more massive that would be known as the grave. This mass unit defined by Lavoisier and René Just Haüy had been in use since 1793. This new, practical realisation would ultimately become the base unit of mass. On 7 April 1795, the gramme, upon which the kilogram is based, was decreed to be equal to "the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a metre, and at the temperature of the melting ice". Although the definition of the kilogramme specified water at 0 °C—a highly stable temperature point—it was replaced with the temperature at which water reaches maximum density. This temperature, about 4 °C, was not accurately known, but one of the advantages of the new definition was that the precise Celsius value of the temperature was not actually important. The final conclusion was that one cubic decimetre of water at its maximum density was equal to 99.92072% of the mass of the provisional kilogram.

On 7 April 1795, the metric system was formally defined in French law. It defined six new decimal units:
The mètre, for length—defined as one ten-millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the Equator through Paris
The are (100 m2) for area [of land]
The stère (1 m3) for volume of firewood
The litre (1 dm3) for volumes of liquid
The gramme, for mass—defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water
The franc, for currency.Historical note: only the metre and (kilo)gramme defined here went on to become part of later metric systems. Litres and to a lesser extent hectares (100 ares, or 1 hm2) are still in use, but are not official SI units.Decimal multiples of these units were defined by Greek prefixes: "myria-" (10,000), "kilo-" (1000), "hecto-" (100), and  "deka-" (10) and submultiples were defined by the Latin prefixes "deci-" (0.1), "centi-" (0.01), and "milli-" (0.001).

The 1795 draft definitions enabled provisional copies of the kilograms and metres to be constructed.

Meridional survey

The task of surveying the meridian arc, which was estimated to take two years, fell to Pierre Méchain and Jean-Baptiste Delambre. The task eventually took more than six years (1792–1798) with delays caused not only by unforeseen technical difficulties but also by the convulsed period of the aftermath of the Revolution. Apart from the obvious nationalistic considerations, the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for practical scientific reasons: a portion of the quadrant from Dunkirk to Barcelona (about 1000 km, or one-tenth of the total) could be surveyed with start- and end-points at sea level, and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant, where the effects of the Earth's oblateness were expected to be the largest.

The project was split into two parts—the northern section of 742.7 km from the Belfry, Dunkirk to Rodez Cathedral which was surveyed by Delambre and the southern section of 333.0 km from Rodez to the Montjuïc Fortress, Barcelona which was surveyed by Méchain.

Delambre used a baseline of about 10 km in length along a straight road, located close to Melun. In an operation taking six weeks, the baseline was accurately measured using four platinum rods, each of length two toises (about 3.9 m). Thereafter he used, where possible, the triangulation points used by Cassini in his 1744 survey of France. Méchain's baseline, of a similar length, and also on a straight section of road was in the Perpignan area. Although Méchain's sector was half the length of Delambre, it included the Pyrenees and hitherto unsurveyed parts of Spain. After the two surveyors met, each computed the other's baseline in order to cross-check their results and they then recomputed the metre as 443.296 lignes,All values in lignes are referred to the toise de Pérou, not to the later value in mesures usuelles. 1 toise = 6 pieds; 1 pied = 12 pouces; 1 pouce = 12 lignes; so 1 toise = 864 lignes. notably shorter than the 1795 provisional value of 443.44 lignes. On 15 November 1798, Delambre and Méchain returned to Paris with their data, having completed the survey. The final value of the mètre was defined in 1799 as the computed value from the survey.Historical note: It soon became apparent that Méchain and Delambre's result (443.296 lignes) was slightly too short for the meridional definition of the metre. Méchain had made a small error measuring the latitude of Barcelona, so he remeasured it, but kept the second set of measurements secret.

The French metric system
In June 1799, platinum prototypes were fabricated according to the measured quantities, the mètre des archives defined to be a length of 443.296 lignes, and the kilogramme des archives defined to be a weight of 18827.15 grains of the livre poids de marc, and entered into the French National Archives. In December of that year, the metric system based on them became by law the sole system of weights and measures in France from 1801 until 1812.

Despite the law, the populace continued to use the old measures. In 1812, Napoleon revoked the law and issued one called the mesures usuelles, restoring the names and quantities of the customary measures but redefined as round multiples of the metric units, so it was a kind of hybrid system. In 1837, after the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire, the new Assembly reimposed the metric system defined by the laws of 1795 and 1799, to take effect in 1840. The metrication of France took until about 1858 to be completed. Some of the old unit names, especially the livre, originally a unit of mass derived from the Roman libra (as was the English pound), but now meaning 500 grams, are still in use today.

Development of non-coherent metric systems
At the start of the nineteenth century, the French Academy of Sciences' artefacts for length and mass were the only nascent units of the metric system that were defined in terms of formal standards.  Other units based on them, except the litre, proved to be short-lived. Pendulum clocks that could keep time in seconds had been in use for about 150 years, but their geometries were local to both latitude and altitude, so there was no standard of timekeeping. Nor had a unit of time been recognised as an essential base unit for the derivation of things like force and acceleration. Some quantities of electricity, like charge and potential, had been identified, but names and interrelationships of units were not yet established. Both Fahrenheit (~1724) and Celsius (~1742) scales of temperature existed, and varied instruments for measuring units or degrees of them. The base/derived unit model had not yet been elaborated, nor was it known how many physical quantities might be interrelated.

A model of interrelated units was first proposed in 1861 by the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) based on what came to be called the "mechanical" units (length, mass, and time). Over the following decades, this foundation enabled mechanical, electrical, and thermal units to be correlated.

Time

In 1832, German mathematician Carl-Friedrich Gauss made the first absolute measurements of the Earth's magnetic field using a decimal system based on the use of the millimetre, milligram, and second as the base unit of time. Gauss' second was based on astronomical observations of the rotation of the Earth, and was the sexagesimal second of the ancients: a partitioning of the solar day into two cycles of 12 periods, and each period divided into 60 intervals, and each interval so divided again, so that a second was 1/86,400th of the day. This effectively established a time dimension as a necessary constituent of any useful system of measures, and the astronomical second as the base unit.

Work and energy

In a paper published in 1843, James Prescott Joule first demonstrated a means of measuring the energy transferred between different systems when work is done thereby relating Nicolas Clément's calorie, defined in 1824 as "the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water from 0 to 1 °C at 1 atmosphere of pressure" to mechanical work. Energy became the unifying concept of nineteenth century science, initially by bringing thermodynamics and mechanics together and later adding electrical technology.

The first structured metric system: CGS
In 1861, a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) including William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin), James Clerk Maxwell, and James Prescott Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the "Standards of Electrical Resistance". In their first report (1862), they laid the ground rules for their work—the metric system was to be used, measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy, and two sets of electromagnetic units would have to be derived—an electromagnetic system and an electrostatic system. In the second report (1863), they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length, mass, and time were identified as "fundamental units" (now known as base units). All other units of measure could be derived (hence derived units) from these base units. The metre, gram, and second were chosen as base units.

In 1861, before a meeting of the BAAS, Charles Bright and Latimer Clark proposed the names of ohm, volt, and farad in honour of Georg Ohm, Alessandro Volta, and Michael Faraday respectively for the practical units based on the CGS absolute system. This was supported by Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The concept of naming units of measure after noteworthy scientists was subsequently used for other units.

In 1873, another committee of the BAAS (which also included Maxwell and Thomson) tasked with "the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units" recommended using the cgs system of units. The committee also recommended the names of "dyne" and "erg" for the cgs units of force and energy. The cgs system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years.

The reports recognised two centimetre–gram–second based systems for electrical units: the Electromagnetic (or absolute) system of units (EMU) and the Electrostatic system of units (ESU).

Electrical units

In the 1820s, Georg Ohm formulated Ohm's Law, which can be extended to relate power to current, electric potential (voltage), and resistance. During the following decades, the realisation of a coherent system of units that incorporated the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena and Ohm's law was beset with problems—several different systems of units were devised.

In the three CGS systems, the constants  and  and consequently  and  were dimensionless, and thus did not require any units to define them.

The electrical units of measure did not easily fit into the coherent system of mechanical units defined by the BAAS. Using dimensional analysis, the dimensions of voltage  in the ESU system were identical to the dimensions of current in the EMU system, while resistance had dimensions of velocity in the EMU system, but the inverse of velocity in the ESU system.

Electromagnetic (absolute) system of units (EMU)
The Electromagnetic system of units (EMU) was developed from André-Marie Ampère's discovery in the 1820s of a relationship between currents in two conductors and the force between them now known as Ampere's law:

 where  (SI units)

In 1833, Gauss pointed out the possibility of equating this force with its mechanical equivalent. This proposal received further support from Wilhelm Weber in 1851. In this system, current is defined by setting the magnetic force constant  to unity and electric potential is defined in such a way as to ensure the unit of power calculated by the relation  is an erg/second. The electromagnetic units of measure were known as the abampere, abvolt, and so on. These units were later scaled for use in the International System.

Electrostatic system of units (ESU)
The Electrostatic system of units (ESU) was based on Coulomb's quantification in 1783 of the force acting between two charged bodies. This relationship, now known as Coulomb's law, can be written
 where  (SI units)

In this system, the unit for charge is defined by setting the Coulomb force constant () to unity and the unit for electric potential was defined to ensure the unit of energy calculated by the relation  is one erg. The electrostatic units of measure were the statampere, statvolt, and so on.

Gaussian system of units
The Gaussian system of units was based on Heinrich Hertz's realisation, while verifying Maxwell's equations in 1888, that the electromagnetic and electrostatic units were related by:

Using this relationship, he proposed merging the EMU and the ESU systems into one system using the EMU units for magnetic quantities (subsequently named the gauss and maxwell) and ESU units elsewhere. He named this combined set of units "Gaussian units". This set of units has been recognised as being particularly useful in theoretical physics.

 Quadrant–eleventhgram–second (QES) or International system of units
The CGS units of measure used in scientific work were not practical for engineering, leading to the development of a more applicable system of electric units especially for telegraphy. The unit of length was 107 m (the hebdometre, nominally the Earth quadrant), the unit of mass was an unnamed unit equal to 10−11 g and the unit of time was the second. The units of mass and length were scaled incongruously to yield more consistent and usable electric units in terms of mechanical measures. Informally called the "practical" system, it was properly termed the quadrant–eleventhgram–second (QES) system of units according to convention.

The definitions of electrical units incorporated the magnetic constant like the EMU system, and the names of the units were carried over from that system, but scaled according to the defined mechanical units. The system was formalised as the International system late in the 19th century and its units later designated the "international ampere", "international volt", etc.

Heaviside–Lorentz system of units
The factor  that occurs in Maxwell's equations in the gaussian system (and the other CGS systems) comes from the  steradians surrounding a point, such as a point electric charge. This factor could be eliminated from contexts that do not involve spherical coordinates by incorporating the factor into the definitions of the quantities involved. The system was proposed by Oliver Heaviside in 1883 and is also known as the "rationalised Gaussian system of units". The SI later adopted rationalised units based on Heaviside's rationalisation scheme.

Thermodynamics
Maxwell and Boltzmann had produced theories describing the interrelationship of temperature, pressure, and volume of a gas on a microscopic scale but otherwise, in 1900, there was no understanding of the microscopic nature of temperature.

By the end of the nineteenth century, the fundamental macroscopic laws of thermodynamics had been formulated and, although techniques existed to measure temperature using empirical techniques, the scientific understanding of the nature of temperature was minimal.

Convention of the metre

With increasing international adoption of the metre, the shortcomings of the mètre des Archives as a standard became ever more apparent. Countries which adopted the metre as a legal measure purchased standard metre bars that were intended to be equal in length to the mètre des Archives, but there was no systematic way of ensuring that the countries were actually working to the same standard. The meridional definition, which had been intended to ensure international reproducibility, quickly proved so impractical that it was all but abandoned in favour of the artefact standards, but the mètre des Archives (and most of its copies) were "end standards": such standards (bars which are exactly one metre in length) are prone to wear with use, and different standard bars could be expected to wear at different rates.

In 1867, it was proposed that a new international standard metre be created, and the length was taken to be that of the mètre des Archives "in the state in which it shall be found". The International Conference on Geodesy in 1867 called for the creation of a new international prototype of the metre and of a system by which national standards could be compared with it. The international prototype would also be a "line standard", that is the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar, so avoiding the wear problems of end standards. The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission, which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries.

On 20 May 1875, an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre (Metre Convention) was signed by 17 states.Text of the treaty:  This treaty established the following organisations to conduct international activities relating to a uniform system for measurements:Conférence générale des poids et mesures (CGPM or General Conference on Weights and Measures), an intergovernmental conference of official delegates of member nations and the supreme authority for all actions;Comité international des poids et mesures (CIPM or International Committee for Weights and Measures), consisting of selected scientists and metrologists, which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures;Bureau international des poids et mesures (BIPM or International Bureau of Weights and Measures), a permanent laboratory and world centre of scientific metrology, the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities, maintenance of the international prototype standards, and oversight of regular comparisons between the international prototype and the various national standards.

The international prototype of the metre and international prototype of the kilogram were both made from a 90% platinum, 10% iridium alloy which is exceptionally hard and which has good electrical and thermal conductivity properties. The prototype had a special X-shaped (Tresca) cross section to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length comparisons and the prototype kilograms were cylindrical in shape. The London firm Johnson Matthey delivered 30 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms. At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889, bar No. 6 and cylinder No. X were accepted as the international prototypes. The remainder were either kept as BIPM working copies or distributed to member states as national prototypes.

Following the Convention of the Metre, in 1889, the BIPM had custody of two artefacts—one to define length and the other to define mass. Other units of measure which did not rely on specific artefacts were controlled by other bodies.

Although the definition of the kilogram remained unchanged throughout the 20th century, the 3rd CGPM in 1901 clarified that the kilogram was a unit of mass, not of weight. The original batch of 40 prototypes (adopted in 1889) were supplemented from time to time with further prototypes for use by new signatories to the Metre Convention.

In 1921, the Treaty of the Metre was extended to cover electrical units, with the CGPM merging its work with that of the IEC.

Measurement systems before World War II

The 20th century history of measurement is marked by five periods: the 1901 definition of the coherent MKS system; the intervening 50 years of coexistence of the MKS, cgs and common systems of measures; the 1948 Practical system of units prototype of the SI; the introduction of the SI in 1960; and the evolution of the SI in the latter half century.

A coherent system
The need for an independent electromagnetic dimension to resolve the difficulties related to defining such units in terms of length, mass, and time was identified by Giorgi in 1901. This led to Giorgi presenting a paper in October 1901 to the congress of the Associazione Elettrotecnica Italiana (A.E.I.) in which he showed that a coherent electro-mechanical system of units could be obtained by adding a fourth base unit of an electrical nature (e.g., ampere, volt, or ohm) to the three base units proposed in the 1861 BAAS report. This gave physical dimensions to the constants ke and km and hence also to the electro-mechanical quantities ε0 (permittivity of free space) and μ0 (permeability of free space). His work also recognised the relevance of energy in the establishment of a coherent, rational system of units, with the joule as the unit of energy, and the electrical units in the International System of Units remaining unchanged. However, it took more than thirty years before Giorgi's work was accepted in practice by the IEC.

Systems of measurement in the industrial era

As industry developed around the world, the cgs system of units as adopted by the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1873 with its plethora of electrical units continued to be the dominant system of measurement, and remained so for at least the next 60 years. The advantages were several: it had a comprehensive set of derived units which, while not quite coherent, were at least homologous; the MKS system lacked a defined unit of electromagnetism at all; the MKS units were inconveniently large for the sciences; customary systems of measures held sway in the United States, Britain, and the British empire, and even to some extent in France, the birthplace of the metric system, which inhibited adoption of any competing system. Finally, war, nationalism, and other political forces inhibited development of the science favouring a coherent system of units.

At the 8th CGPM in 1933, the need to replace the "international" electrical units with "absolute" units was raised. The IEC proposal that Giorgi's 'system', denoted informally as MKSX, be adopted was accepted, but no decision was made as to which electrical unit should be the fourth base unit. In 1935, J. E. Sears proposed that this should be the ampere, but World War II prevented this being formalised until 1946. The first (and only) follow-up comparison of the national standards with the international prototype of the metre was carried out between 1921 and 1936, and indicated that the definition of the metre was preserved to within 0.2 µm. During this follow-up comparison, the way in which the prototype metre should be measured was more clearly defined—the 1889 definition had defined the metre as being the length of the prototype at the temperature of melting ice, but, in 1927, the 7th CGPM extended this definition to specify that the prototype metre shall be "supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter, symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm from each other". The choice of 571 mm represents the Airy points of the prototype—the points at which the bending or droop of the bar is minimised.

Working draft of SI: Practical system of units
The 9th CGPM met in 1948, fifteen years after the 8th CGPM. In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French government to establish a practical system of units of measure, the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention. The CIPM's draft proposal was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions, symbols, and terminology based on the MKS system of units.

Following astronomical observations, the second was set as a fraction of the year 1900. The electromagnetic base unit, as required by Giorgi, was accepted as the ampere. After negotiations with the CIS and IUPAP, two additional units—the degree kelvin and the candela—were also proposed as base units. For the first time, the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units. At the same time, the CGPM adopted conventions for the writing and printing of unit symbols and numbers and catalogued the symbols for the most important MKS and CGS units of measure.

Time
Until the advent of the atomic clock, the most reliable timekeeper available to humanity was the Earth's rotation. It was natural, therefore, that the astronomers under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) took the lead in maintaining the standards relating to time. During the 20th century, it became apparent that the Earth's rotation was slowing down, resulting in days becoming 1.4 milliseconds longer each century—this was verified by comparing the calculated timings of eclipses of the Sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC. In 1956, the 10th CGPM instructed the CIPM to prepare a definition of the second; in 1958, the definition was published stating that the second (called an ephemeris second) would be calculated by extrapolation using Earth's rotational speed in 1900.

 Electrical unit
Per Giorgi's proposals of 1901, the CIPM also recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical units would be derived. The definitions for the ohm and volt that had previously been in use were discarded, and these units became derived units based on the ampere. In 1946, the CIPM formally adopted a definition of the ampere based on the original EMU definition and redefined the ohm in terms of other base units. The definitions for the absolute electrical system, based on the ampere, were formalised in 1948. The draft proposed units with these names are very close, but not identical, to the international units.

Temperature

In the Celsius scale from the 18th century, temperature was expressed in degrees Celsius with the definition that ice melted at 0 °C and (at standard atmospheric pressure) water boiled at 100 °C. A series of lookup tables defined temperature in terms of interrelated empirical measurements made using various devices. In 1948, definitions relating to temperature had to be clarified. (The degree, as an angular measure, was adopted for general use in many countries, so, in 1948, the General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) recommended that the degree Celsius, as used for the measurement of temperature, be renamed the degree Celsius.)

At the 9th CGPM, the Celsius temperature scale was renamed the Celsius scale, and the scale itself was fixed by defining the triple point of water as 0.01 °C, though the CGPM left the formal definition of absolute zero until the 10th CGPM when the name "Kelvin" was assigned to the absolute temperature scale, and the triple point of water was defined as being 273.16 °K.

Luminosity

Before 1937, the International Commission on Illumination (CIE from its French title, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage), in conjunction with the CIPM, produced a standard for luminous intensity to replace the various national standards. This standard, the candela (cd), which was defined as "the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre", was ratified by the CGPM in 1948.

Derived units

The newly accepted definition of the ampere allowed practical and useful coherent definitions of a set of electromagnetic derived units, including farad, henry, watt, tesla, weber, volt, ohm, and coulomb. Two derived units, lux and lumen, were based on the new candela, and one, degree Celsius, equivalent to the degree Kelvin. Five other miscellaneous derived units completed the draft proposal: radian, steradian, hertz, joule, and newton.

International System of Units (SI)

In 1952, the CIPM proposed the use of wavelength of a specific light source as the standard for defining length, and, in 1960, the CGPM accepted this proposal using radiation corresponding to a transition between specified energy levels of the krypton 86 atom as the new standard for the metre. The standard metre artefact was retired.

In 1960, Giorgi's proposals were adopted as the basis of the Système International d'Unités (International System of Units), the SI. This initial definition of the SI included six base units, the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, degree Kelvin, and candela, and sixteen coherent derived units.

Evolution of the modern SI
The evolution of the SI after its publication in 1960 has seen the addition of a seventh base unit, the mole, and six more derived units, the pascal for pressure, the gray, sievert, and becquerel for radiation, the siemens for electrical conductance, and katal for catalytic (enzymatic) activity. Several units have also been redefined in terms of physical constants.

New base and derived units
Over the ensuing years, the BIPM developed and maintained cross-correlations relating various measuring devices such as thermocouples, light spectra, and the like to the equivalent temperatures.

The mole was originally known as a gram-atom or a gram-molecule—the amount of a substance measured in grams divided by its atomic weight. Originally chemists and physicists had differing views regarding the definition of the atomic weight—both assigned a value of 16 atomic mass units (amu) to oxygen, but physicists defined oxygen in terms of the 16O isotope whereas chemists assigned 16 amu to 16O, 17O and 18O isotopes mixed in the proportion that they occur in nature. Finally, an agreement between the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) brought this duality to an end in 1959/60, both parties agreeing to define the atomic weight of 12C as being exactly 12 amu. This agreement was confirmed by ISO and in 1969 the CIPM recommended its inclusion in SI as a base unit. This was done in 1971 at the 14th CGPM.

Start of migration to constant definitions
The second major trend in the post-modern SI was the migration of unit definitions in terms of physical constants of nature.

In 1967, at the 13th CGPM, the degree Kelvin (°K) was renamed the "kelvin" (K).

Astronomers from the US Naval Observatory (USNO) and the National Physical Laboratory determined a relationship between the frequency of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom and the estimated rate of rotation of the earth in 1900. Their atomic definition of the second was adopted in 1968 by the 13th CGPM.

By 1975, when the second had been defined in terms of a physical phenomenon rather than the earth's rotation, the CGPM authorised the CIPM to investigate the use of the speed of light as the basis for the definition of the metre. This proposal was accepted in 1983.

The candela definition proved difficult to implement so, in 1979, the definition was revised and the reference to the radiation source was replaced by defining the candela in terms of the power of a specified frequency of monochromatic yellowish-green visible light, which is close to the frequency where the human eye, when adapted to bright conditions, has greatest sensitivity.

Kilogram artefact instability

After the metre was redefined in 1960, the kilogram remained the only SI base defined by a physical artefact. During the years that followed, the definitions of the base units and particularly the mise en pratique to realise these definitions have been refined.

The third periodic recalibration in 1988–1989 revealed that the average difference between the IPK and adjusted baseline for the national prototypes was 50 μg—in 1889, the baseline of the national prototypes had been adjusted so that the difference was zero. As the IPK is the definitive kilogram, there is no way of telling whether the IPK had been losing mass or the national prototypes had been gaining mass.

During the course of the century, the various national prototypes of the kilogram were recalibrated against the international prototype of the kilogram (IPK) and, therefore, against each other. The initial 1889 starting-value offsets of the national prototypes relative to the IPK were nulled, with any subsequent mass changes being relative to the IPK.

 Proposed replacements for the IPK

A number of replacements were proposed for the IPK.

From the early 1990s, the International Avogadro Project worked on creating a 1 kg, 94 mm, sphere made of a uniform silicon-28 crystal, with the intention of being able replace the IPK with a physical object which would be precisely reproducible from an exact specification. Due to its precise construction, the Avogadro Project's sphere is likely to be the most precisely spherical object ever created by humans.

Other groups worked on concepts such as creating a reference mass via precise electrodeposition of gold or bismuth atoms, and defining the kilogram in terms of the ampere by relating it to forces generated by electromagnetic repulsion of electric currents.

Eventually, the choices were narrowed down to the use of the Watt balance and the International Avogadro Project sphere.

Ultimately, a decision was made not to create any physical replacement for the IPK, but instead to define all SI units in terms of assigning precise values to a number of physical constants which had previously been measured in terms of the earlier unit definitions.

Redefinition in terms of fundamental constants

At its 23rd meeting (2007), the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use.

The following year, this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading, United Kingdom, in September 2010, a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed in principle. The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that "the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met. For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time". The CIPM, however, presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM (17–21 October 2011) to agree to the new definitions in principle, but not to implement them until the details had been finalised.

In the redefinition, four of the seven SI base units—the kilogram, ampere, kelvin, and mole—were redefined by setting exact numerical values for the Planck constant (), the elementary electric charge (''), the Boltzmann constant (), and the Avogadro constant (), respectively. The second, metre, and candela were already defined by physical constants and were subject to correction to their definitions. The new definitions aimed to improve the SI without changing the value of any units, ensuring continuity with existing measurements.

This resolution was accepted by the conference, and, in addition, the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014. At the 25th meeting on 18 to 20 November 2014, it was found that "despite [progress in the necessary requirements] the data do not yet appear to be sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting", thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018.

Measurements accurate enough to meet the conditions were available in 2017 and the redefinition was adopted at the 26th CGPM (13–16 November 2018), with the changes finally coming into force in 2019, creating a system of definitions which is intended to be stable for the long term.

See also
History of the metre

Notes

References

External links

Metrication
History of science
History of measurement

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Eleven of 27 Amendments Proposed for Magnuson Reauthorization Bill HR 200 Could Go to House Vote
Susan Chambers, Seafood News
June 28, 2018 — SEAFOOD NEWS — An anticipated House of Representatives floor vote on H.R. 200, the Strengthening Fishing Communities and Increasing Flexibility in Fisheries Management Act, was delayed Tuesday. More than 25 amendments were proposed for the bill reauthorizing the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act. It went to the Rules Committee instead.
The Rules Committee held a hearing Monday night and passed a rule to provide a structured amendment process for floor consideration. The rule included 11 of the 27 amendments.
H.R. 200, sponsored by Rep. Don Young, R-Alaska, was the primary bill proposed to re-authorize the Magnuson-Stevens Act. It garnered both strong support and strong opposition.
Opponents blanketed Capitol Hill offices and committees with reasons why the bill should not pass. At the same time, many Democratic lawmakers proposed amendments or changes, some that could fundamentally change Young's original bill.
Outside supporters and lawmakers were also busy lining up votes and proposing amendments to the bill.
By Monday night, 27 amendments had been submitted: 16 from Democrats and 7 from Republicans; four were bi-partisan. Five were revised amendments and four were submitted late, after the 10 a.m. Monday deadline.
California Democrat Jared Huffman led the opposition to H.R. 200. Both he and Young were the invited witnesses to the Rules Committee hearing Monday evening.
Young, one of the creators of the first Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, said he recognizes the successes this bill and subsequent reauthorizations have made over the years and that he, better than anyone, understands what else is needed to protect fish stocks while helping communities. "This legislation is dear to my heart," Young said during the Rules Committee hearing.
Young also referred to recent lawmakers proposing changes to the bill as "Johnny-come-latelys" who don't understand the fundamentals of the language that protects the stocks while balancing communities' needs. The proposed bill was made with the suggestions from regional Councils and scientists, Young said.
Huffman countered that several provisions in the bill would roll back fish stock protections and the current language doesn't prevent overfishing. He also noted that all previous bills reauthorizing the Fishery Conservation and Management Act were bipartisan; this one isn't he said. It passed out of committee on party lines, Huffman added.
To that end, Huffman proposed four amendments, one considered a substitution for the entire bill. That particular amendment was not included in the committee's final rule
By the end of the hearing, the Rules Committee passed a rule that included 11 of the 27 amendments — also along party lines. If that rule also passes the House, only those 11 amendments can be considered when H.R. 200 comes up for a floor vote again.
Those amendments, in order, include:
1. A revised manager's amendment by Young and Rep. Garret Graves, R-La. It revises some sections and adds a new section regarding the Western Alaska Community Development Quota Program;
2. An amendment to create an industry-based pilot trawl survey for the New England and Mid-Atlantic Fishery Management Council regions (Reps. Joe Courtney, D-Conn. and Lee Zeldin, R-NY);
3. A provision for a voting representative from Rhode Island on the MAFMC (Reps. Jim Langevin and David Cicilline, D-RI);
4. An amendment ensuring rebuilding plans are successful in rebuilding overfished fish stocks (Reps. Jared Huffman, D-Calif., and Alcee Hastings, D-Fla.);
5. Waiving compensatory mitigation requirements for maintenance dredging projects in certain waterways (Reps. Lois Frankel, D-Fla., and Daniel Webster, R-Fla.);
6. Requiring the Comptroller General to report to Congress on the resource rent of Limited Access Privilege Programs in the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Council areas (Rep. Garret Graves, R-La.);
7. A plan to establish fully operational electronic monitoring and reporting procedures for the Northeast Multispecies Fishery (Rep. William Keating, D-Ma.);
8. A requirement for NOAA to conduct a study on all fees it charges the lobster industry and report those findings to Congress (Rep. Bruce Poliquin, R-Maine);
9. Lifting the ban on striped bass fishing in the Block Island transit zone between Montauk, NY and Block Island, RI (Rep. Zeldin, R-NY);
10. Directing the Secretary of Commerce to use funds collected from penalties and fines for monitoring, in addition to traditional enforcement activities (Rep. Keating); and
11. Rewarding the elimination of lionfish from US. waters by allowing individuals to exchange lionfish for tags authorizing fishing for certain species in addition to the number of such species otherwise authorized to be taken by such individuals (Rep. Matt Gaetz, R-Fla.)
Some of the amendments that didn't pass muster in the Rules Committee included refinancing a Pacific Coast groundfish buyback loan; two amendments related to sharks and shark finning; a prohibition on offshore drilling In essential fish habitat areas on Atlantic and Pacific coasts; additional funding for stock assessments; two amendments related to aquaculture; and more.
The earliest the committee's rule and H.R. 200, with the 11 amendments, is likely come up on the House floor for a vote is the week of July 11. However, it may be delayed again if appropriations bills are ready in the next week and a half.
This story originally appeared on SeafoodNews.com, a subscription site. It is reprinted with permission.
Categories: Washington Tags: Don Young, Garret Graves, Jared Huffman, Lee Zeldin, Magnuson-Stevens Act, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA


Deprecated means of specifying the collection type of a collection property. Do not use.
This keyword has been replaced by the "As" syntax, described in "Working with Collections" in Using Caché Objects.
If an older class definition includes this keyword, you can import the XML form of the class definition in Studio, as described in the Import Local and Import Remote entries in the table in the "Tools Menu" section of the "Studio Menu Reference" chapter of Using Studio.