My research uses oral history, ethnography, and archival research to study the way in which history and culture shape the perceptions of illness and treatment and thus illness behaviors and treatment practices. For example, chronic pain, a condition which cannot be defined by biological markers, has been framed and stigmatized in American society, through the interaction of religious beliefs, scientific theories, and the cultural valorization of energetic health. The image of a person with pain as weak and inadequate is threaded through the statements of patients and physicians. In other contexts, I have examined the social and economic negotiations between physicians, patients, drug regulators, and pharmaceutical marketers that define the efficacy of new drugs.
After getting my BA in History from the University of Minnesota in 1974, I earned an MBA in Health Care Management from Boston University and spent ten years as a hospital and health care manager. So, when I decided to return to academe at SUNY Stony Brook in the 1980s, the history of medicine and biology was a natural field of study. My interest in the problem of therapeutic evaluation led to a fascination with the understanding and management of pain and mental illness. As I have explored these problems at UCLA since receving my PhD in 1994, it's become clearer to me that the history of contemporary science and medicine will evaporate unless we try harder to save the resources that will inform scholars in the future. Thus, much of my time has been devoted to recording oral histories, preserving documents and building archives.
"The Ongoing Opioid Prescription Epidemic: Historical Perspective." American Journal of Public Health. Accepted for publication 2016.
"Implementation Status of Assisted Outpatient Treatment Programs: A National Survey." Marcia L. Meldrum, Erin Kelly, Ronald Calderon, John Brekke and Joel Braslow. Psychiatric Services 2016 Jun 1;67(6):630-5. doi: 10.1176/appi.ps.201500073. Epub 2016 Feb 1..
"Provider, Family, and Client Responses to Deinstitutionalization and its Aftermath in California." Howard Padwa, Jack Friedman, and Marcia Meldrum. Invited Book Chapter in Despo Kritsiakis, Matthew Smith, and Victoria Long, editors, Deinstutionalization and After. Forthcoming, Palgrave Macmillan, 2017.
"Perceived Sources of Stress and Resilience in Men in an African-American Community." Bowen Chung, Marcia Meldrum, Felica Jones, Anthony Brown, Rasudaan Daaood, and Loretta Jones. Forthcoming 2014, Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research Education and Action.
"Preserving the Child as a Respondent: Initiating Patient-Centered Interviews in a U.S Outpatient Tertiary Care Pediatric Pain Clinic." Ignasi Clemente, John Heritage, Marcia L. Meldrum, Jennie C.I.Tsao, and Lonnie K. Zeltzer. Communication and Medicine 2012; 9(3): 203–213.
"Women making contraceptive choices in 20th-century America." The Lancet 2012 July 14; 380 (9837): 102-103.
"'The Long Walk to the Counter': Opioid Pain-Relievers and the Prescription as Stigma." In Elizabeth Watkins and Jeremy Greene, editors, Prescribed: Writing, Filling, Using and Abusing the Prescription in Modern America. Johns Hopkins Press, 2012: 184-206.
"Associations between parent and child pain and functioning in a pediatric chronic pain sample: A mixed methods approach." Subhadra Evans, Marcia Meldrum, Jennie C.I. Tsao, Rebecca Fraynt and Lonnie K. Zeltzer. International Journal of Disability and Human Development 2010; 9 (1): 11-21.
"'I can't be what I want to be': Children's Narratives of Chronic Pain Experiences and Treatment Outcomes." Marcia L. Meldrum, Jennie C.I. Tsao and Lonnie K. Zeltzer. Pain Medicine 2009 Sep;10(6):1018-34.


Roasted nut oils are not "refined" therefore have better flavor. They are roasted in cast iron kettles before being expeller-pressed. The oil is lightly filtered and bottled. Roasted nut oils are very flavorful, rich in color and have more antioxidants than refined oils.


The best way to discover the Dolomites is to choose men and women born and raised on these paths - who know them like their own hands - as companions on your adventure. These are the Alpine Guides - Mountaineering Instructors of Trentino - 211 mountain professionals trained by a special Instructor Corps according to severe criteria, valid in 21 countries around the world, and dictated by the IFMGA (International federation of mountain guides associations). Choose the Tour (3 or 6/7 days) from below here. Enter and discover the holiday offers designed for you by the Alpine Guides of Trentino.


What? You know it'll do a lot more to change the mindset of players rather than just getting a two-month unpaid vacation.
Look, I know Ryan Braun deserves, and is going to get his day in arbitration to try and prove his ignorance (er, um, innocence. Whatever.) And the Milwaukee Brewers are right not to rush to judgement on the situation.
But this doesn't look good. The report in ESPN suggest that MLB handed this test extra-carefully, as they should. Braun's spokespeople say that they have some sort of proof that Braun is truly innocent. Short of an independently verified report that Milwaukee's Brewers (the beer-making ones) accidentally made a PED-flavored brew for Oktoberfest, I have no idea what kind of proof they could have. And we'll have to wait to see.


What a beautiful thing you did for the girls and for the dog.
I'm glad that Callie found a home and love that will come fast from those girls. My daughter and family just adopted a cattle dog that needed a home. He is becoming a wonderful part of their home, as your sweet new dog will be, too. Hugs Julie. Those girls will be thrilled.
Your thoughtful and caring action made the girls and the dog happy. This can not be measured in money or likes. Wonderful story.
Julie- Your slice made me cry. When I adopted my boys they were 7 and 9. I had a yellow lab, Maggie, who somehow understood what the boys needed and joyfully took on the role of therapy dog. She made a huge, huge difference in my boys' lives. Sending lots of hugs and prayers!


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Continental Resources - 12 Year Stock Split History | CLR
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NYSE:CLR Stock Price Today
Stock split history for Continental Resources since 2007. Prices shown are actual historical values and are not adjusted for either splits or dividends. Please see the "Historical Prices" tab for adjusted price values.
Continental Resources Annual Stock Splits
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Oils/Energy Oil & Gas - US Exploration and Production $14.139B $4.710B
CONTINENTAL RESOURCES is a crude-oil concentrated, independent oil and natural gas exploration and production company with operations in the Rocky Mountain, Mid-Continent and Gulf Coast regions of the United States. The Company focuses its operations in large new and developing plays where horizontal drilling, advanced fracture stimulation and enhanced recovery technologies provide the means to economically develop and produce oil and natural gas reserves from unconventional formations.
EOG Resources (EOG) United States $50.488B 15.68
Anadarko Petroleum (APC) United States $36.705B 32.19
Pioneer Natural Resources (PXD) United States $23.589B 21.58
Concho Resources (CXO) United States $19.819B 22.87
Cheniere Energy (LNG) United States $17.437B 68.42
Diamondback Energy (FANG) United States $17.144B 17.77
Devon Energy (DVN) United States $11.129B 18.74
Noble Energy (NBL) United States $10.091B 44.89
Cabot Oil & Gas (COG) United States $9.841B 14.62
Apache (APA) United States $9.488B 16.39
Parsley Energy (PE) United States $5.336B 12.39
Cimarex Energy Co (XEC) United States $5.227B 7.62
WPX Energy (WPX) United States $4.404B 52.15
Viper Energy Partners LP (VNOM) United States $4.115B 67.71
Murphy Oil (MUR) United States $3.933B 19.36
EQT (EQT) United States $3.863B 6.27
Chesapeake Energy (CHK) United States $2.892B 2.57
Magnolia Oil & Gas Corp (MGY) United States $2.712B 0.00
Matador Resources (MTDR) United States $2.166B 12.81
PDC Energy (PDCE) United States $1.986B 0.00
CENTENNIAL RES (CDEV) United States $1.822B 10.63
Jagged Peak Energy (JAG) United States $1.728B 13.50
QEP Resources (QEP) United States $1.547B 26.00
Oasis Petroleum (OAS) United States $1.539B 34.14
Antero Resources (AR) United States $1.521B 4.87
Whiting Petroleum (WLL) United States $1.418B 11.68
CNX Resources (CNX) United States $1.417B 5.18
Range Resources (RRC) United States $1.404B 5.43
Southwestern Energy (SWN) United States $1.375B 2.51
Callon Petroleum (CPE) United States $1.306B 7.44
Stone Energy (TALO) United States $1.289B 47.60
Noble Midstream Partners LP (NBLX) United States $1.286B 8.09
Sundance Energy Australia (SNDE) Australia $1.279B 0.00
SM Energy (SM) United States $1.112B 0.00
Geopark (GPRK) Chile $1.112B 13.85
Carrizo Oil & Gas (CRZO) United States $1.035B 4.05
Synergy Resources (SRCI) United States $0.990B 3.77
California Resources (CRC) United States $0.896B 10.93
Berry Petroleum (BRY) United States $0.852B 8.19
Laredo Petroleum (LPI) United States $0.705B 3.72
EXTRACTION O&G (XOG) United States $0.679B 0.00
Northern Oil And Gas (NOG) United States $0.676B 3.40
W&T Offshore (WTI) United States $0.675B 5.58
Gulfport Energy (GPOR) United States $0.645B 2.46
Comstock Resources (CRK) United States $0.617B 0.00
FTS (FTSI) United States $0.567B 2.93
Denbury Resources (DNR) United States $0.549B 2.59
Penn Virginia (PVAC) United States $0.457B 3.03
Bonanza Creek Energy (BCEI) United States $0.436B 4.45
Earthstone Energy (ESTE) United States $0.357B 5.51
HIGHPOINT RESOURCES CORP (HPR) United States $0.323B 0.00
PrimeEnergy (PNRG) United States $0.250B 51.23
Chaparral Energy (CHAP) United States $0.247B 0.00
Evolution Petroleum (EPM) United States $0.215B 12.98
Ring Energy (REI) United States $0.212B 6.52
Panhandle Royalty (PHX) United States $0.206B 25.88
Roan Resources (ROAN) United States $0.198B 0.00
Abraxas Petroleum (AXAS) United States $0.163B 8.80
Eclipse Resources (MR) United States $0.160B 4.98
SilverBow Resources (SBOW) United States $0.153B 1.87
Goodrich Petroleum (GDP) United States $0.141B 16.80
KLR Energy Acquisition (ROSE) United States $0.137B 0.51
Torchlight Energy Resources (TRCH) United States $0.123B 0.00
Amplify Energy (AMPY) United States $0.116B 9.83
VOC Energy Trust (VOC) United States $0.099B 7.75
SandRidge Permian Trust (PER) United States $0.092B 3.67
Lonestar Resources US (LONE) United States $0.066B 0.00
CARBON ENERGY CORP (CRBO) United States $0.061B 8.16
Contango Oil & Gas (MCF) United States $0.051B 0.00

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Home › Netflix News › Netflix Picks Up Season 1 of 'Capitani'; Renewed for Season 2
Netflix Picks Up Season 1 of 'Capitani'; Renewed for Season 2
Published on January 19th, 2021, 9:31 am EST
Netflix has acquired the streaming rights to the crime drama series from Luxembourg, Capitani which will arrive on Netflix in the majority of regions from February 2021.
The crime drama series follows a detective who heads up to the north of Luxembourg to a rural village where a teenage girl has gone missing. The detective, Luc Capitani has a big culture shock settling into the town and finds himself as an outsider.
Luc Schiltz, Sophie Mousel, Désirée Nosbusch, Stefan Weinert and Marc Limpach are among the cast for season 1.
Although only a handful of reviews are available on IMDb for the series, it currently holds an 8.6/10. The series first aired on RTL in 2019.
Thierry Faber who served as the showrunner for season one said about Netflix picking up the series:
"Seeing our work go live on a global entertainment service of this scale is obviously a source of immense joy and pride. I am curious how audiences around the world will be perceiving our show and I can't wait to get some feedback. It's a motivation to keep working and we will certainly continue to develop interesting projects. In the meantime, I'm wishing Luc Capitani good luck on his world tour."
The first season consists of 12 episodes and is set to debut on Netflix on February 11th, 2021 in full. You can find it listed in our US preview for what's coming to Netflix throughout February 2021. We've also seen the series scheduled for release in the UK and Australia too. The show should be showing up in the coming soon section of the Netflix application.
Will season two of Capitani be coming to Netflix?
Season two of the show has been commissioned according to a newsletter release from Samsa Film that states the filming for season 2 is currently in prep and aims to start shooting in the middle of March 2021.
Although it wasn't confirmed that Netflix would get season two, it is expected to receive it. Assuming the series second season airs in Luxembourg in 2022 we can expect to see the series come to Netflix relatively soon after but we'll keep you posted as and when we learn more on this front.
Are you looking forward to another international crime drama coming to Netflix? Let us know in the comments.
When will 'Good Girls' Season 3 be on Netflix?
Netflix Originals Coming to Netflix in February 2021


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The purpose of such rituals is to exercise some influence over these vital forces. However, there are many different views on what it takes to be good at improvisation. It's so hard to see. You are currently viewing our boards as a guest which gives you limited access to view most discussions and access our other features. She has everything society has told her she should want, but still feels unfulfilled. I can fix it as soon as I finish hanging up these clothes? Alternative Title: Classical tragedy Tragedy, branch of that treats in a serious and dignified style the sorrowful or terrible events encountered or caused by a heroic individual.
Suitable for senior year levels. He takes on more responsibility than he should reasonably have to—teens aren't usually expected to keep the world safe from evil, after all—and remains brave even when he knows he faces certain death. Examples of innocent archetypes in literature: There are several examples of characters fitting the innocent archetype in literature both old and new. Parson and Dennis, functionalist sociologists argue that the functions that would have usually been performed by the family have now, in the modern society been removed from the family. Which of the following statements is the best drama definition? Miller wrote the drama of The Crucible to make audiences realize the horrors that can occur when people start to buy into mass hysteria. They believe that these functions have now been transferred to other specialised institutions.
However, seeing the character take responsibility and retain his goodness through everything he suffers, often causes relief in audiences. Although accounts of this period are inadequate, it appears that the poet Thespis developed a new musical form in which he impersonated a single character and engaged a chorus of singer-dancers in dialogue. Any script is written, including their themes and genre, in the attempt to draw on and display our surrounding world to ultimately impact audiences. The dialect chosen helps drive the play and shapes the background of individual characters. Many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number never performed any at all.
Such a setting adds gravitas and drama to the story. We can once again see the modern focus on common people. Four plays which have been selected from Greek, Elizabethan. There are so many different kinds of poems that it is very difficult to define the word. To share the character's thoughts, the playwright might use one of several dramatic devices.
The first play was staged in Japan from an adaptation of Lin Shu's translation of Uncle Tom's Cabin. Famous early playwrights include , famous for , , and , famous for , , , and famous for , , and. Tolkien's all come to mind as classic villain archetypes. Collapsing the events of the play into the moments before and after Oedipus's realization, Sophocles catches and heightens the drama. Though not everyone is familiar with Sir Gawain, I think it's fair to assume that most people have heard of. Things bubbled at the surface and then vanished.
When answering I am presuming this means, What are the techniques of contemporary dance? The best known Japanese Haiku is a poem by Basho called old pond which translates to: old pond. If you are using super natural elements you might want to make sure what genre you are writing in. In modern tragedies, the protagonist is usually a common person, which reflects the more democratic lifestyle and culture of the times. Time does fly which is why everyone should take advantage of it before time runs out. It is expressed in theatre through the use of symbolism, character development, stage setting and storyline and is exemplified in plays such as Henrik Ibsen's A Doll's House and Anton Chekhov's The Three Sisters.
What Are The 5 Characteristics Of Drama?
Williams made an even more collaborative experience of drama than what came before him. Remember the old saying, mighty Vikram! Nervous system with the functions throughout the body. These character archetypes aren't stupid: they're just so morally good that the badness of others cannot seem to mar them. The brain and its functions; the connections to the nervous system. N,Kaushal, Shameem Hanfi, Jameel Shaidayi, etc.
A speaker was later introduced into the , in all likelihood as an extension of the role of the priest, and was established between him and the dancers, who became the in the Athenian drama. Gandalf's magical powers seem almost inseparable from his knowledge. He's definitely someone you want to have on your side when you're in a tough spot. Kuchh Ishq kiya Kuchh Kaam is another play written by Danish which is basically a Celebration of 's poetry, featuring events from the early part of his life, particularly the events and incidents of pre-partition days which shaped his life and ideals. Finally, they would be asked to re-write the story in their own words. The theatre used to be and alter, where a statue used.


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TangoLab
Research and manufacturing in the microgravity environment – from design to implementation.
We build research and manufacturing systems into compact smart containers, called CubeLabs™. Installed in our hubs on the International Space Station, CubeLabs run autonomously and provide near real-time data and monitoring capabilities. The microgravity environment is a new frontier for discovery and innovation. By exploring it with industries of all kinds, we can improve life on Earth.
Beginning in the labs of Kentucky Space, Twyman Clements, a graduate student at the time, partnered with the then Kentucky Science and Technology Corporation CEO Kris Kimel, to understand and simplify the complexities of ISS-based research to become leaders in a new frontier.
Founded in 2014 by Clements and Kimel as a commercial spinoff of Kentucky Space and based in the heart of Lexington, Kentucky; Space Tango facilitates research and manufacturing in the microgravity environment from design to implementation expanding opportunities for biomedical and technology applications.
Our focus is not necessarily the six people in orbit, but the 7 billion people on Earth.
-Clements
At Space Tango, we streamline the process of designing, integrating and operating experiments in microgravity to develop new products that improve life on Earth. Coupled with our expertise in technology and scientific consulting, we allow our customers to truly focus on their science. Catering to a diverse client base consisting of fortune 500 companies, leading academic universities, research foundations and educational partners , Space Tango has consistently excelled in a providing efficient and cost-effective product development cycles and rapid delivery of configurable systems.
The microgravity environment is a new frontier for discovery and innovation. Space Tango envisions a future where the next important breakthroughs in healthcare and technology will occur off the planet creating a new global market 250 miles up in low Earth Orbit. We are developing an entire pipeline of products to increase the variety, volume, and accessibility of microgravity. By exploring it with industries of all kinds, we can improve life on Earth and inspire the next generation to continue to expand the horizon of this new frontier.
Twyman Clements
CEO, President, Co-Founder
Twyman Clements is the Co-Founder and CEO of Space Tango. With two of Space Tango's TangoLab facilities on the International Space Station, Twyman has been recognized by the Kentucky Entrepreneur Hall of Fame and also ranked #25 on Fast Company's list of 100 Most Creative People in Business.
Prior to Space Tango, Twyman served as a senior space system engineer at Kentucky Space working with a multidisciplinary team of universities and companies on high altitude balloons, CubeSats and other ISS hardware. Twyman received his Bachelor's and Master's degrees in mechanical engineering from the University of Kentucky. At Space Tango, he continues to lead the companies product design efforts, work with multidisciplinary teams provide expertise in technology and scientific consulting related to working in microgravity through configurable platforms.
Kris Kimel
Co-Founder and Chairman
Kris Kimel is the Co-Founder and Chairman of Space Tango. He is also the former President of the Kentucky Science and Technology Corporation (KSTC), an independent non-profit company focused initiatives in science, technology, entrepreneurship and disruptive innovation.
Kimel also founded the IdeaFestival an international event centering on innovation, discovery and creative thinking across different disciplines (science, the humanities, design etc,). He is originally from Miami, Florida and holds Bachelor and Masters degrees from the University of Kentucky and was the 1974 recipient of the University of Kentucky's Sullivan Medallion.
Gentry Barnett
TangoLab Program Manager
Gentry Barnett is the TangoLab Program Manager for Space Tango. In this role, Barnett designs and manages custom research payloads for the Space Tango's facilities aboard the International Space Station. With the aspiration of expanding advancements in the field of medicine past the boundaries of Earth, she additionally researches and develops various Exomedicine experiments for evaluation within the TangoLab facility.
Barnett earned a Bachelor of Science degree in Electrical Engineering and a Master of Science degree in Biomedical Engineering from the University of Kentucky. Prior to her current appointment, she designed injury prevention and rehabilitation devices for the sports medicine and spinal cord injury populations.
Stacey Dries
Flight and Ground Operations Manager
Stacey Dries is the Flight and Ground Operations Manager for Space Tango. Stacey provides support to the both program and engineering teams at Space Tango in relation to all integration work with NASA. She is the main integrator with NASA's ISS teams supporting all required systems engineering inputs and reviews for launching, operating and returning science from ISS.
Stacey delivers inputs to and leads meetings with the Safety, Visiting Vehicle, Operations, Engineering and Launch/Return Integration teams at NASA to gain endorsement for Space Tango flight hardware on each mission. Her role has her located at the Space Tango offices near the Johnson Space Center in Houston TX. Stacey received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from Texas A&M University.
Paul Kuehl
Mechanical and Space Manufacturing Engineer
Paul Kuehl is the Mechanical and Space Manufacturing Engineer for Space Tango. Paul is responsible for the mechanical design of Space Tango's hardware ensuring that Space Tango's platforms and each custom payload meets the stringent requirements of space grade hardware.
With previous experience in manufacturing and automotive industries, Paul is also researching and developing platforms for manufacturing in space. Paul earned a bachelor's degree in Engineering Physics from Taylor University and worked in product development and production engineering before joining Space Tango.
Mandy Cady
Director of Space Station Services
Mandy Cady is the Director of Space Station Services for Space Tango. Her key responsibilities include project management for a conditioned stowage product line, assisting in building Space Tango's presence within the NASA community, and expanding the Space Station Services business vertical. She also supports the Flight and Ground Operations Manager with daily integration efforts for each mission. Mandy's role has her located at the Space Tango offices near the Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. She received a Bachelor of Arts degree from Texas A&M University and has over a decade's worth of experience in ISS Payload Integration.
Jana Stoudemire
Commercial Innovation Officer
As the Director of Commercial Innovation at Space Tango, Jana leads the development of commercial market creation in Low Earth Orbit for biomedical and technology research and manufacturing applications. Jana has worked in the biotechnology, pharmaceutical and medical device industries for over two decades and has a strong understanding of the needs and challenges faced by companies working within a regulated industry.
Jana has a career history marked by successful identification of new business opportunities for private and public healthcare companies, along with product development and commercialization of some of the most innovative healthcare technologies. Jana received her Bachelor's degree in biology/physics from Wells College and her Master's degree in biology from Harvard University.
Danielle Rosales
Marketing and Sales Associate
After working as a Marketing and Communication intern for a year, Danielle is now the Marketing and Sales associate at Space Tango. Danielle is responsible for branding, advertising, and promotional collateral while launching robust initiatives in public and media relations. In addition, Danielle uses her experience in graphic design to develop eye-catching digital and print content that illustrates the company's milestones in the microgravity frontier.
With a Bachelor of Science in Communication from Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Danielle aims to use her experience to fuel a dialogue on space commercialization and the impact microgravity research can have on Earth.
Drew Diddle
CubeLab Engineer - Biological Systems
Drew Diddle is a CubeLab Engineer for Biological Systems here at Space Tango. In this role Drew coordinates the design and implementation of biological procedures, experiments, and systems for life science payloads. He is also the biology lab supervisor at headquarters in Lexington, KY.
Drew obtained a Bachelor of Science degree in Biology—Cellular Physiology from the University of Louisville and a Master of Science degree in Space Systems Engineering from Morehead State University.
Mary-Jane Hendrickson
Business Operations Administrator
Mary Jane is the Business Operations Administrator for Space Tango. She takes care of the everyday functions at headquarters in Lexington, Kentucky. Her responsibilities include bookkeeping, Human Resources, and purchasing to name a few. Mary Jane comes from a creative background, working previously in the office of a florist and before that as pastry chef, and finds the science and engineering aspects of Space Tango endlessly fascinating.
B.S. Electrical Engineering
Kaleb Lay-Estwick
B.S. Aerospace Engineering
Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, Daytona Beach
Malik Moville
B.S. Mechanical Engineering
Mrudang Savsani
Launch Integration
Wallops Island, Virginia
Space Commercialization
Space Act Agreement through Kentucky Space, LLC
Space Tango is founded
TangoLab™-1 Launch: SpaceX CRS-9
First Operational Launch (with Customers): SpaceX CRS-10
Space Tango's Space Act Agreement
TangoLab™-2 Launch: SpaceX CRS-12
Partnership with Airbus Defence and Space
Extend the Lab testing of TangoLab™ facility within Cygnus spacecraft
Partnership with The Quest Institute
info@spacetango.com
611 Winchester Rd. Lexington, KY 40505
2020 Space Tango All Rights Reserved


Disclaimer: NES(R) is a registered trademark of National Evaluation Series, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
Each section of the test has a comprehensive review created by Test Prep Books that goes into detail to cover all of the content likely to appear on the NES test.
The Test Prep Books NES practice test questions are each followed by detailed answer explanations. If you miss a question, it's important that you are able to understand the nature of your mistake and how to avoid making it again in the future. The answer explanations will help you to learn from your mistakes and overcome them.
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Multilinguals have to control their languages constantly to produce accurate verbal output. They have to inhibit possible lexical competitors not only from the target language, but also from non-target languages. Bilinguals' training in inhibiting incongruent or irrelevant information has been used to endorse the so-called bilingual advantage in executive functions, assuming a transfer effect from language inhibition to domain-general inhibitory skills. Recent studies have suggested that language control may rely on language-specific inhibitory control mechanisms. In the present study, unbalanced highly proficient bilinguals completed a rapid naming multi-inhibitory task in two languages. The task assessed three types of inhibitory processes: inhibition of the non-target language, inhibition of lexical competitors, and inhibition of erroneous auditory feedback. The results showed an interaction between lexical competition and erroneous auditory feedback, but no interactions with the inhibition of the non-target language. The results suggested that different subcomponents of language inhibition are involved during bilingual language production.
Multilinguals have to manage different languages to control verbal speech on an everyday basis. They have to select the language that is needed at every specific moment and suppress interference from the situationally irrelevant languages. This mechanism is commonly referred to as language control and it has been associated with the use of a complex set of inhibitory control mechanisms (see Green, 1998; Kroll et al., 2008; Declerck and Philipp, 2015). Broadly speaking, inhibitory control refers to the suppression of interfering information or prepotent responses. In the influential framework published by Miyake et al. (2000), inhibition was proposed to be one of three separable components of executive functions (together with updating and shifting). However, a more recent framework (Miyake and Friedman, 2012) suggests that inhibition may not be a subcomponent but instead correlates perfectly with a "common executive function," defined as the ability to maintain and use task goals and goal-related information.
Research has shown that language inhibition may be required during bilingual speech production (e.g., Rodriguez-Fornells et al., 2005; de Bruin et al., 2014) and comprehension (e.g., Macizo et al., 2010; Durlik et al., 2016), with the results from the former group of studies being more consistent than those from the latter. However, the mechanisms underlying language inhibition during bilingual speech production are not well understood yet, despite the importance of these inhibitory mechanisms in the debate on the so-called bilingual advantage in executive functions (see, among many others, Duñabeitia et al., 2014; Paap and Sawi, 2014; Bialystok, 2015; Duñabeitia and Carreiras, 2015; Sorge et al., 2017; see Lehtonen et al., 2018, for a recent review). In this respect, one important question is whether bilingual language inhibition is accomplished using the same mechanisms that are also used in non-linguistic inhibition tasks (i.e., a domain-general inhibitory mechanism; Jackson et al., 2001; Bialystok et al., 2008; Colzato et al., 2008; Linck et al., 2012; de Bruin et al., 2014) or whether mechanisms specific to linguistic inhibition are applied (Calabria et al., 2015; Branzi et al., 2016).
Furthermore, even within bilingual speech production, multiple types of linguistic conflict may be present that may be governed by different forms of inhibitory control mechanisms. The current study therefore assessed whether different types of interfering linguistic information are suppressed through a general inhibitory control mechanism or distinct mechanisms. To this end, we asked a group of highly proficient yet unbalanced Spanish-Basque bilinguals to complete a verbal production task either in their native language (Spanish) or in their non-native language (Basque), while parametrically manipulating other additional inhibitory demands (i.e., lexical inhibition and erroneous auditory feedback inhibition). While these three manipulations differ in many ways, they share one important component: the presence of interfering information that needs to be suppressed in order to correctly complete the task. In the current study, we explored the possible additive or interactive nature of the different types of interfering information in the context of a Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) task (see Denckla and Rudel, 1974) in which we included several manipulations. The RAN task provides a unique opportunity to explore language-related interference at multiple levels, given that it taps into a fusion of linguistic, articulatory and attentional processes (see Cummine et al., 2014). In this line, it has been argued that over and above the obvious articulatory, motor and perceptual processes involved in the RAN, additional attentional, conceptual and phonological processes are required for successful performance (see Wolf and Bowers, 1999).
The first task manipulation concerned the use of the first or second language. It is widely assumed that multilingual speakers have to inhibit phonological and lexical competitors from the non-target language during speech production, so that speaking in one language requires non-target language inhibition. Green (1998) proposed an inhibitory control model in which multilinguals solve the conflict between languages through suppression of the representations from the non-target languages, while the representations from the target language are activated. Furthermore, the amount of inhibition needed to suppress the non-target language is argued to be related to language proficiency. In the case of a strong first language (L1) and weaker second language (L2), a relatively high level of inhibition of L1 is needed when speaking in L2. In contrast, when speaking in the stronger L1, less inhibition of the weaker L2 may be needed (although even in these circumstances, non-target language inhibition may be needed).
But over and above inhibiting the non-target language, both monolingual and bilingual speech production require a series of processes related with lexical inhibition. According to Levelt's model of word production (Levelt et al., 1999), a series of automatic steps have to take place before a speaker voluntarily generates any word. First, she must identify a concept in the imagery system and activate the associated lexical representation(s). Then, she must select a suitable lexical item and inhibit the ones that share semantic, lexical, and syntactic properties with the target word. Finally, she must inhibit morphological and phonological competitors in order to retrieve the articulatory representation of the intended word. Hence, speakers have to inhibit possible lexical competitors in order to correctly produce the intended word (see Grainger and Jacobs, 1993; Abutalebi and Green, 2008; Philipp and Koch, 2009; Righi et al., 2010), and these lexical inhibitory mechanisms are qualitatively different from the non-target language inhibitory mechanisms insofar that the latter focus on the whole language system, while the former concentrate on the neighboring lexical representations.
But speech production does not exclusively rely on these two types of inhibitory mechanisms. During speech production, a speaker not only has to inhibit competitors at different levels of processing within the target and non-target languages, but she also has to trust her own auditory feedback to online monitor and control the articulatory output (Lee, 1950). Auditory feedback is a mechanism that helps to verify whether the current speech production is in agreement with the intention. In cases in which a mismatch in perceived, a correction mechanism operates at the level of production (see Burnett et al., 1998).
One interesting manipulation regarding speech monitoring is delayed auditory feedback (DAF), a technique that was initially developed to explore the importance of auditory feedback in speech production. The DAF is a technique in which speakers hear their own speech production through headphones, but with a short and artificially inserted lag between the actual production and its reproduction. Speech is normally inhibited using auditory feedback inhibition, which occurs online, with a very short delay. When the perception of speech is delayed – in this case artificially by playing back the sound with a delay – this auditory feedback inhibition becomes more costly and less efficient. Therefore, the auditory perceptual lag disturbs speech production, leading to disfluent utterances. The DAF technique facilitates understanding how production is achieved by exploring erroneous auditory feedback inhibition when such feedback is delayed and thus unreliable and even disturbing. In order to efficiently continue producing speech under DAF, speakers need to monitor the auditory feedback and inhibit the incorrectly timed input, while adjusting their utterances to the circumstances.
Some previous studies have suggested a relationship between auditory feedback and domain-general control processes. Adaptation to altered auditory feedback can be modulated by attentional load (e.g., Tumber et al., 2014; Scheerer et al., 2016) and networks mediating domain-general cognitive control may also be involved in feedback monitoring (Schiffer et al., 2015). Other studies, however, did not observe such a link between altered auditory feedback and domain-general inhibitory control (Martin et al., 2018) and have suggested that feedback control may rely on perceptual acuity to compensate for this perturbation during speech production (Villacorta et al., 2005; Martin et al., 2018). Yet, as auditory feedback is linguistic, a relationship may exist with language control, and we tested this idea in the current study.
The precise way in which language proficiency impacts speech production under DAF is still a matter of debate. It is assumed that until a certain proficiency level is acquired in a non-native language (L2), the impact of the DAF technique is larger in that language than in the native one (L1). Several studies have shown an interaction between language dominance and erroneous auditory feedback inhibition, reporting longer speech latencies in L2 than in L1 (e.g., Lee, 1950; Mackay, 1970; Van Borsel et al., 2005). These results are consistent with the idea that bilinguals need more inhibitory resources when using their weaker L2 because they have to suppress the dominant L1 (Green, 1998). However, once multilingual speakers acquire a higher level of proficiency in L2, erroneous auditory feedback inhibition seems to occur similarly for native and non-native languages, suggesting the control of incorrect auditory feedback is not exclusively related to nativeness in a language (e.g., Siegel et al., 1984; Kvavik et al., 1991; Fabbro and Darò, 1995). The participants in our study were highly proficient in both languages, but still unbalanced with a higher proficiency level in L1 than in L2. As such, our participants could follow the pattern of previous studies showing similar erroneous auditory feedback inhibition for L1 and L2 in bilinguals with a high proficiency level. Alternatively, the unbalanced proficiency levels may still lead to an interaction between auditory feedback and language.
In the current study, DAF was used to assess whether the demands of inhibiting the delayed feedback could cause a processing bottleneck for other inhibitory demands during speech production in the context of a RAN task. The RAN task was originally designed to assess reading competence by naming pictures as fast as possible (see Denckla and Cutting, 1999, for a review). This task requires not only lexical access, but also the inhibition of the competitors flanking the target image (i.e., the neighboring representations sharing some properties with the target item). In cases when the matrices are made of pictorial elements referring to the same semantic category (e.g., a picture of an animal flanked by other animals of different species), the inhibitory demands increase, making lexical access slower and costlier (see Oppenheim et al., 2010; Mahon and Caramazza, 2011; Runnqvist et al., 2012). Thus, the RAN task seems to be a perfect test scenario to explore how multiple levels of linguistic inhibitory demands could interact with each other during language production.
We created a multilingual RAN-like picture naming task where three types of language inhibition mechanisms could be required across conditions: non-target language inhibition, lexical inhibition of the preponderant responses and the competitors, and erroneous auditory feedback inhibition. We conceived an experimental design that allowed for observing how the system performs as a whole and whether these three variants of inhibitory processes at play during multilinguals' speech production interact with each other. Firstly, highly proficient bilingual participants were asked to name the pictures of the RAN either in their native language (Spanish) or in their non-native language (Basque), thus requiring non-target language inhibition to complete the different trials of the RAN scenario.
Furthermore, an additional artificial inhibitory demand was included in the experimental design, aimed at mimicking some of the lexical inhibitory processes that need to be carried out by multilinguals while producing speech. Multilinguals and language learners have to inhibit preponderant words from the native language that may interfere with the correct utterance in the non-native language (e.g., a Spanish-English bilingual would have to inhibit the translation equivalent "casa" to produce the word "house"). This is an everyday, constant demand for bilinguals, and in the context of the current experiment, we artificially created a similar demand with the aim of recreating a natural aspect of bilinguals' day-to-day interactions. We asked participants to substitute the name of certain pictures for that of some digits (e.g., say the word "two" when seeing the picture of a frog) in increasing order of difficulty, parametrically varying the number of to-be-replaced elements. Finally, auditory feedback demands were manipulated by including trials in which participants perceived their own speech without or with an artificial delay (DAF).
Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate how language inhibition works in multilingual speakers, particularly assessing whether distinct linguistic inhibitory processes that are at play during speech production interact with each other. By means of our multi-layered picture naming RAN-like task, we intended to tax the system and to evoke the use of large amounts of inhibitory resources, highlighting their independent effects and the interdependent interactions between them. The results of the current study will help us elucidating the extent to which language control mechanisms in multilingual speech production rely on a general mechanism of language control, or alternatively, on different subcomponents of language control. If the three types of inhibitory mechanisms interact with each other, this would suggest that language control relies at least partly on a shared inhibitory control mechanism. On the other hand, and in line with Sternberg's Additive Factors Method Sternberg's (1969, 1998, 2011), we argue that if the three types of interference manipulations show main effects that do no interact with each other, this would support the existence of independently operating processes. We would interpret a lack of interaction along the claims of the Additive Factors Method that has been successfully applied to visual object naming (see Sternberg, 1998), which endorses a view of additivity for functionally distinct processes that are separately modifiable (Sternberg, 2013). Thus, if we observe no interaction between non-target language inhibition (namely, the effect of naming items in L1 vs. in L2), erroneous auditory feedback inhibition (immediate feedback vs. delayed feedback), and lexical inhibition of competing representations, this would speak for a relative independence of the inhibitory components, in line with the idea of different inhibitory mechanisms underpinning language control (e.g., Calabria et al., 2012; Branzi et al., 2016). If it is the case that the systems work separately, our results should also shed new light on specific inhibitory processes applied within the language-related inhibitory system.
Fifty-sixunbalanced Spanish-Basque bilingual young adults from the University of the Basque Country took part in this experiment (highest degree obtained was high school for 12 participants, professional training for 8, university degree for 31, and postgraduate degree for 2 participants). Three participants were excluded from analyses due to a high error rate (more than 35% errors in each matrix). All participants (M age = 23 years, SD = 3 years; 33 females) were native Spanish speakers, who acquired Basque early in life (see Table 1) and were more exposed to Spanish than to Basque in their daily life (see Table 1). Their language proficiency was assessed using two tests (see de Bruin et al., 2017, for further details): a picture naming task in which they were asked to name 65 common objects in each of the two languages (see Table 1), and a personal interview with a native bilingual linguist who rated them on a 1-to-5 scale (5: native-like competence; 1: basic/no knowledge; see Table 1). In addition, participants were asked to rate their competence (in terms of reading, speaking, writing, and understanding) on a scale from 0 to 10 (see Table 1). All participants were right-handed and none were diagnosed with language disorders, learning disabilities, or auditory impairments. After the experiment, they were reimbursed for their time. This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the international ethical guidelines approved by the BCBL Ethics Committee with written informed consent from all subjects. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the BCBL Ethics Committee.
TABLE 1. Table showing the participants' language profile.
Pictures of concepts from two different semantic categories (animals and body parts) were used to create different matrices for the rapid naming task. The images were taken from the MultiPic database (Duñabeitia et al., 2018). While non-target language activation has often been studied with words that are similar between two languages (e.g., cognates), studies using non-cognates have also observed activation and inhibition of the non-target language (e.g., de Bruin et al., 2014). To avoid effects of cognate status, we explicitly avoided the use of concepts associated with cognate words, and all the items selected for the two categories had names that were non-cognates between Spanish and Basque, lacking substantial orthographic or phonological overlap between languages. The picture names were matched on syllable length, number of phonemes, and frequency of use between languages (see Table 2).
TABLE 2. Means (M) and standard deviations (SD) of the number of syllables, phonemes and of the frequency of use (in number of appearances per million) of the common names used in the task, as obtained from the E-Hitz (Perea et al., 2006) and B-Pal (Davis and Perea, 2005) databases.
The structure of the experiment and the order of conditions were as follows. Each participant completed eight blocks. Four blocks were completed in Spanish and four in Basque. Furthermore, two of the four blocks were completed without DAF and the other two with DAF (i.e., two of the four blocks) for each language. Each semantic category occurred once in each of these conditions, so that each participant completed the same semantic category twice in each language, once with and once without DAF (see Figure 1). The blocks were distributed over the experiment so that in the first half of the experiment, some participants completed all body part blocks in Spanish (both with DAF and without DAF) and all animal blocks in Basque. In the second half of the experiment, these participants would then complete all animal blocks in Spanish and all body part blocks in Basque. For other participants, this order was reversed so that the language in which each semantic category was named first was counterbalanced. Within each half of the experiment, the order of languages and DAF condition was randomized so that some participants started in Spanish and some in Basque.
FIGURE 1. Overview of the eight different blocks completed by each participant. Language block order (Basque/Spanish) was counterbalanced across participants, and the order of presentation of the rest of conditions within each language block was randomized.
Furthermore, each block was composed of 4 matrices that were always completed in the language of that block. Each matrix included 24 pictures (i.e., each of the 6 individual items was repeated four times; see Appendix 1) aligned in columns and rows and arranged at random. Participants were asked to name the pictures of the first matrices of each block normally. Then, in the subsequent 3 matrices, participants were asked to replace the name of certain items with the name of some numbers. In the second matrix of each block, the name of one item (i.e., one animal or one body part) had to be consistently replaced throughout the completion of the matrix with the name of the first cardinal number (e.g., replace the word "frog" with the word "one"). In the third matrix, the names of two pictures had to be substituted by the names of two digits. Finally, in the fourth matrix of each block, participants were asked to replace the names of three different items with those of three digits. The specific rules for the replacements in each matrix were presented to the participants at the beginning of each trial. The blocks were counterbalanced for language and the presence or absence of DAF, but lexical substitutions were always presented in the same order following an increasing order of difficulty from 0 to 3.
Participants were tested individually in a soundproof room. They were seated at a distance of about 45 cm from a laptop with a 13-inch screen, where all the stimuli were presented using Experiment Builder (SR-Research, Ontario, Canada). The same software was also used to collect the verbal responses, which were recorded from the onset of the presentation of each matrix to the moment in which the participant pressed the space bar to indicate that she had finished naming the items. Participants wore a headset throughout the experiment and they were instructed to name the items of each matrix as if they were reading a text (left to right, top to bottom), as fast as they could and trying not to make errors. Delayed auditory feedback time was set to 200 ms for the DAF condition in accordance with previous studies (Stuart et al., 2002; Hashimoto and Sakai, 2003) and to 0 ms for the immediate (no-DAF) condition. To this end, a SmallTalk device (Casa Futura Technologies, Colorado, United States) set at 80 dB was used.
Each matrix in each block was preceded by a screen specifying the instructions and conditions about the auditory feedback (delayed vs. immediate), the assigned language (L1 vs. L2), and the number of lexical substitutions that they had to do (0, 1, 2, or 3). Participants were instructed whether there would be a delay in auditory feedback to avoid the disruptive effect of the delay being larger at the beginning of the task due it being a surprise. Participants were familiarized with the pictures' names before performing the rapid naming task in the two languages and they practiced the lexical substitution with fruit matrices before the experiment started.
Data were analyzed in two ways. Firstly, we performed a three way ANOVA testing the effects of Language (L1| L2), Auditory Feedback (immediate| delayed), and Lexical Replacements (namely, the number of substitutions: 0| 1| 2| 3) on the naming latencies. As we aimed to examine whether different types of linguistic conflict interacted or not, we furthermore analyzed the data using Bayesian analysis. In the case of a null effect, a p-value can only say that there was no evidence for an effect, but it does not support the absence of an effect. By reporting Bayes Factors (BF), we show the ratio of the probability that the data were observed under the null hypothesis (e.g., "no interaction between auditory feedback and language") vs. the probability of observing the data under the alternative hypothesis (e.g., "an interaction between auditory feedback and language"). For instance, a BF01 of 5 indicates that the observed data were five times more likely to have occurred under the null than alternative hypothesis. Bayesian analyses were conducted with JASP 0.8.5 using Bayesian repeated measures ANOVA with 100,000 samples. As we were interested in the interactions between the three different manipulations, we compared the model with the three main effects of Language, Auditory Feedback, and Lexical Replacements to a model including those three main effects plus, (a) the interaction between Language and Auditory Feedback; (b) the interaction between Language and Lexical replacements; and (c) the interaction between Auditory Feedback and Lexical Replacements.
We exclusively focused on the naming latencies given that the average number of errors was fairly low (M = 1.05 errors per matrix, SD = 1.30; range: 0.17–2.17). Besides, it is likely that any effects of production errors are also observable in the naming latencies since participants corrected themselves when making a mistake, thus requiring more time to complete the matrix.
The three main effects were significant. For the effect of Language, blocks that were named in Basque (L2, non-native language) yielded longer reaction times (M = 23.61 s, SD = 5.20) than blocks completed in Spanish (L1, native language; M = 22.67 s, SD = 4.93), F(1, 52) = 9.30, p < 0.004, ηp2 = 0.1521. Regarding the effect of Auditory Feedback, blocks that had to be named under the DAF condition required more time (M = 24.18 s, SD = 5.19) than blocks that did not include any DAF (M = 22.10 s, SD = 4.95, F(1, 52) = 57.26, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.524. Finally, the main effect of Lexical Replacements showed an increase in the naming latencies as a function of the number of words that had to be substituted, F(3, 156) = 38.73, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.427, ranging from trials requiring no replacements (M = 21.88 s, SD = 4.60 to trials requiring 3 substitutions (M = 24.87 s, SD = 5.91) (see Table 3 and Figure 2 for details). There was a significant interaction between Auditory Feedback and Lexical Replacements, F(3, 156) = 3.67, p = 0.014, ηp2 = 0.066, such that the effect of the DAF diminished as the number of replacements increased (see Figure 2). Nonetheless, and in spite of the decreasing magnitudes of the effect of the auditory feedback with the increased lexical replacement demands, this effect was always significant [No substitutions: t(52) = 5.28, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.726; 1 substitution: t(52) = 6.95, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.956; 2 substitutions: t(52) = 6.76, p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 0.929; 3 substitutions: t(52) = 2.83, p < 0.006, Cohen's d = 0.390). Importantly, there was no interaction between Language and Auditory Feedback, F(1, 52) = 0.20, p = 0.653, ηp2 = 0.004 (see Figure 3), or between Language and Lexical Replacements, F(3, 156) = 1.32, p = 0.270, ηp2 = 0.025 (see Figure 4), nor was there a three-way interaction between all the factors, F(3, 156) = 0.41, p = 0.750, ηp2 = 0.008.
TABLE 3. Descriptive statisticsof the mean naming latencies (in seconds) across participants in each condition.
FIGURE 2. Mean naming times (in seconds) as a function of the number of lexical replacements (0, 1, 2 or 3) and the auditory feedback conditions (immediate vs. delayed). Error bars refer to the standard error (SE) of each mean.
FIGURE 3. Mean naming times (in seconds) as a function of the language (Spanish and Basque) and the auditory feedback conditions (immediate and delayed). Errors bars refer to the standard error (SE) of each mean.
FIGURE 4. Mean naming times (in seconds) as a function of the language (Spanish and Basque) and the lexical replacements (0, 1, 2, or 3). Errors bars refer to the standard error (SE) of each mean.
We then conducted Bayesian analyses in which we compared models including the main effects only to the model including the main effects plus the interaction of interest. For the model including the interaction between Language and Lexical Replacements, the BF01 was 37.85 (± 2.65%), suggesting that model without an interaction fits the data around 38 times better than a model with this interaction term included. Similarly, for the model including the Language × Auditory Feedback interaction, the BF01 was 8.76 (± 1.71%), suggesting that the model without such interaction accounts for the data nearly 9 times better than the model with the interaction. Thus, both analyses suggested that there was no interaction between Language and Auditory Feedback or Lexical Replacements. Regarding the interaction between Lexical Replacements and Auditory Feedback, while the p-value showed a significant interaction, the Bayes Factor analysis showed some evidence against an interaction with a BF01 of 4.25 (± 4.18%).
The aim of the study was to explore how distinct types of language inhibition that are typically needed by multilingual speakers to efficiently produce speech (namely, non-target language inhibition, inhibition of lexical competitors, and inhibition of erroneous auditory feedback) interact with each other during completion of a rapid naming task. Our main interest was to examine whether these different processes rely on the same linguistic inhibitory system or whether, alternatively, several types of different and independent linguistic inhibitory mechanisms underlie each of the distinct processes. To this end, we designed a highly demanding rapid naming task to allow us to observe how the inhibitory system(s) work(s) while multitasking.
In accordance with previous findings and as predicted, our results revealed main effects in all the three variables of interest. Firstly, participants exhibited longer naming times overall in L2 (Basque) as compared to L1 (Spanish), in line with the bulk of preceding evidence at this regard (e.g., Meuter and Allport, 1999; Costa and Santesteban, 2004). Second, longer naming latencies were also observed under DAF conditions as compared to immediate feedback conditions (see Lee, 1950; Mackay, 1970; Van Borsel et al., 2005). Finally, regarding the effect of replacing a preponderant response with a different lexical label according to newly learned rules, we found that naming times increased as a function of the number of replacements that were required. These effects suggest that the current test scenario readily tapped into a set of inhibitory mechanisms whose role and degree of implication were more prominent as the task demands increased (see Wickens, 2002).
Interestingly, only two of the constructs associated with different inhibitory demands interacted with each other in the classic factorial analysis of variance (although the Bayes Factor actually provided some evidence against this interaction). The negative impact of the DAF partially decreased as the lexical competition increased (namely, as the need for controlling and inhibiting a preponderant response increased), potentially suggesting that both may tap into similar inhibitory resources. This interaction could also be understood in terms of a plateau effect in the three-replacement condition when the maximal taxation of cognitive resources is reached. However, none of these effects significantly interacted with the language at use (native vs. non-native), and the relative independence of this effect speaks for a certain degree of separation or autonomy of the different types of inhibitory mechanisms that multilinguals may use and require.
Crucially, the language (L1 or L2) did not interact with either lexical competition or auditory feedback alteration. This suggests that inhibitory mechanisms used to suppress the non-target language are not identical to the inhibition mechanisms used to accomplish suppression of erroneous auditory feedback or lexical competitors. The latter manipulation may also have introduced an increase in working memory load, which could explain the main effect of lexical competitors that was observed. However, beyond the working memory component related to remembering which replacement to use, the task also required inhibition of the word that could not be used (or resistance to the interference created by this salient representation). Thus, if the inhibitory component of lexical competition is related to the type of control used in language inhibition, we should have observed an interaction. Instead, and in line with Sternberg's Additive Factors Method Sternberg's (1998; 2013), the additive nature of these effects and the demonstration that they are independently modifiable, support the idea of a functional difference between them.
Previous studies have already suggested that language inhibition may be based on its own specific and independent resources (see Abutalebi and Green, 2008; Calabria et al., 2012; Blanco-Elorrieta and Pylkkänen, 2016; Branzi et al., 2016). Our results are in line with this view, suggesting that the inhibition of the non-target language is likely to be managed through a set of inhibitory resources that are not shared or required by other tasks. These results follow what Shell et al. (2015) showed in a similar study manipulating inhibitory control demands in a picture-word interference task that also involved a language-switching paradigm. No interaction between the effects of the lexical competitors and the effects of the language at use was found in this study either, suggesting that the underlying processes may not require overlapping or shared inhibitory mechanisms, ultimately suggesting that multilingual language control could use a highly specific and independent inhibitory mechanism for non-target language inhibition.
On the other hand, our data are less compatible with previous studies suggesting that language inhibition is at least partly related to the inhibition mechanisms used in other (non-verbal) tasks (e.g., Linck et al., 2012; de Bruin et al., 2014). However, these studies have typically used a language switching paradigm, which may place additional demands on language inhibition and/or may require a different form of inhibition. For instance, while our task required more global, proactive inhibition of the non-target language, language switching may make additional use of local, reactive inhibition mechanisms (Green, 1998). Considering the design of the current experiment, it was not possible to examine more short-lived effects of inhibition at the level of individual items. Future experiments will need to examine whether different tasks eliciting stronger and/or more local effects of language inhibition show connections between different types of language inhibition.
The absence of an interaction between inhibition of the delayed, erroneous auditory feedback and inhibition of the non-target language is line with a previous study (Martin et al., 2018) showing that the type of inhibition applied to compensate for the presence of altered feedback does not correlate with other types of inhibitory processes. It is furthermore worth noting that while some preceding studies have shown an interaction between the effects of DAF and those of language dominance (see Lee, 1950; Mackay, 1970; Van Borsel et al., 2005), such an interaction has not been found in samples of highly proficient bilinguals. For instance, Fabbro and Darò (1995) conducted a study with highly proficient interpreters performing under DAF conditions and found no interaction between the critical variables of interest. The participants in our study were highly proficient in both languages. In line with preceding evidence showing that highly proficient bilinguals rely on different language-selection mechanisms than low proficient bilinguals (e.g., Costa and Santesteban, 2004; Costa et al., 2006), increased proficiency in the non-native language could make the reliance on erroneous auditory feedback more similar to that of the native language. If so, the set of inhibitory mechanisms that are used to partial out the negative effect of incorrect (altered or delayed) auditory feedback could be similar in L1 and L2. This is precisely what we found in the current study, suggesting that in highly proficient bilinguals, the underlying processes responsible to monitor erroneous auditory feedback and inhibit the potentially disturbing incorrect feedback may not be linguistic in essence, and that it may instead correspond to a specific type of mechanisms that are linked to perceptual acuity.
This study suggests that multilinguals do not rely on one unique inhibitory system to produce speech in one of the known languages, but rather that they rely on a set of different mechanisms that operate separately. As said, the interpretation that additive factors can reflect independent processes is in line with Sternberg's Additive Factors Method Sternberg (1998). This approach has been used frequently to study the independence of and similarities between different processes involved in inhibitory control (e.g., Los, 2004; van den Wildenberg and van der Molen, 2004). However, other studies have questioned the reliability of inferring underlying processes from patterns seen in response time data. Stafford and Gurney (2011) showed that both models with discrete stages and continuous models with simultaneously run, interacting processes could mimic additive factors. Any inference with respect to distinct vs. interacting processes based on additive factors should thus be interpreted with caution. In line with Sternberg (2013) response to Stafford and Gurney, we therefore interpret our data as supporting rather than unequivocally implying distinct inhibitory control processes.
The three manipulations used in our study were not only tapping into inhibitory control, but are also likely to recruit other forms of cognitive control (e.g., working memory or rule learning, in the case of the manipulation involving lexical replacements). While it is perfectly possible that the three manipulations were different enough not to recruit a shared inhibitory control mechanism, it should be considered that the three of them required the inhibition of interfering information (in the form of another language, lexical items, or erroneous auditory feedback). We believe that if different types of inhibitory control are governed by a common inhibitory control mechanism, these three specific forms of resistance to linguistic interference would be expected to tap into this general mechanism.
Our results open up the possibility to think about how the inhibitory system is further divided into domain-specific sub-mechanisms that do not necessarily work at par. These distinct mechanisms should be explored in more detail in order to better understand how they work and relate to each other in an interactive fashion, and specifically, how they are used by multilinguals to efficiently face the highly demanding communicative scenarios they encounter in their daily life. Furthermore, brain imaging techniques could be used to shed more light on the possible differences between or overlap in the spatial and temporal characteristics of different types of inhibitory control. We tentatively propose that the debate on the generality or specificity of the language-related inhibitory mechanisms should be moved to a new arena, leaving aside the simplistic dichotomy between language-specific inhibition and domain-general inhibition. The current study suggests that the different inhibitory processes that mediate multilingual speech production are somewhat independent from each other, probably referring to diverse inhibitory modules. Some of these mechanisms, such as the inhibitory control of erroneous auditory feedback and the inhibition of competing lexical representations, could tap into similar inhibitory resources. However, other mechanisms, such as the set of inhibitory processes applied to control for the interference from the non-target language, seem to be independent. Together, these results make us think of a series of inhibitory modules that go beyond a unitary conception of language-specific inhibitory mechanisms.
In sum, these findings demonstrate that some of the mechanisms related to language control require allocating particular and independent inhibitory resources that remain unaffected by the concurrent requirement of other inhibitory mechanisms. This suggests that multilingual language control builds on a set of specific inhibitory mechanisms that are not shared by other cognitive or even other language processes. Future studies will help us elucidating the precise nature and role of these seemingly independent inhibitory processes, and the way in which they are acquired, developed and trained in multilingual contexts.
MB, CM, and JD designed the study. MB and JD created the materials and experimental protocols. MB collected the data, analyzed the data under the supervision of all the authors, and drafted the manuscript. All authors provided critical comments on the manuscript before submission.
This research has been partially funded by grants PSI2015-65689-P, PSI2014-54500, PSI2017-82941-P, and SEV-2015-0490 from the Spanish Government, PI-2015-1-25 from the Basque Government and AThEME-613465 from the European Union.
^ To further examine the role of non-target language inhibition in L1 vs. L2, we examined effects of language order. If L1 is inhibited strongly during L2 production, L1 responses should be relatively slow after an L2 task compared to L2 after L1. Participants always named one semantic category in one language in the first half of the experiment and in the other language in the other half. There was a significant effect of task half [F(1, 52) = 8.77, p = 0.005, ηp2 = 0.144], reflecting that responses were faster in the first half (M = 22.70 s, SD = 4.30) than in the second half (M = 23.58 s, SD = 4.50) of the experiment. However, while the difference between task half was numerically larger for Spanish (M = 1.23; SD = 2.62) than Basque (M = 0.53; SD = 3.95), task half did not interact significantly with language [F(1, 52) = 1.00, p = 0.321, ηp2 = 0.019].
Shell, A., Linck, J., and Slevc, L. R. (2015). "Examining the role of inhibitory control in bilingual language switching," in Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society, ed. P. P. Magli (Austin, TX: Cognitive Science Society).
Sternberg, S. (1998). "Discovering mental processing stages: The method of additive factors," in An Invitation to Cognitive Science. Methods, Models, and Conceptual Issues: An Invitation to Cognitive Science, , Vol. Vol. 4, eds D. Scarborough and S. Sternberg (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press), 703–863.
Examples of matrices from the two different categories (animals and body parts) used in the experiment, together with the expected names to be said in Spanish and Basque (the English translations are as follows: toro, bull; rana, frog; oveja, sheep; caballo, horse; cerdo, pig; pájaro, bird; ojo, eye; mano, hand; boca, mouth; pie, foot; nariz, nose; oreja, ear) under the no replacement condition.
Copyright © 2018 Borragan, Martin, de Bruin and Duñabeitia. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


New York, (IANS) Scientists have developed a new wearable ultrasound patch that non-invasively monitors blood pressure in arteries deep beneath the skin and could help people detect cardiovascular problems earlier on and with greater precision.
The new soft, stretchy ultrasound patch uses ultrasound waves to continuously record the diameter of a pulsing blood vessel located as deep as four centimeters (more than one inch) below the skin.
It can be worn on the skin and provides accurate, precise readings of central blood pressure each time, even while the user is moving. And it can still get a good reading through fatty tissue.
"By integrating ultrasound technology into wearables, we can start to capture a whole lot of other signals, biological events and activities going on way below the surface in a non-invasive manner," said Sheng Xu, Professor at the University of California San Diego.
Physicians involved with the study, reported in the journal Nature Biomedical Engineering, say the technology would be useful in various inpatient procedures.
"This has the potential to be a great addition to cardiovascular medicine," said Brady Huang, co-author and radiologist at the varsity.
"In the operating room, especially in complex cardiopulmonary procedures, accurate real-time assessment of central blood pressure is needed -- this is where this device has the potential to supplant traditional methods," he noted.
Central blood pressure is the pressure in the central blood vessels, which send blood directly from the heart to other major organs throughout the body.
Medical experts consider central blood pressure more accurate than peripheral blood pressure -- measured with an inflatable cuff strapped around the upper arm, --and also say it's better at predicting heart disease.
The patch was tested on a male subject, who wore it on the forearm, wrist, neck and foot. Tests were performed both while the subject was stationary and doing exercise.


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Commencement Speaker
Karen Korematsu, founder and executive director of the Fred T. Korematsu Institute and daughter of the late Fred Korematsu, will be the Commencement speaker at Saint Michael's College on May 12 at 10 a.m. in the Ross Sports Center.
Korematsu is a civil rights advocate, public speaker, and public educator whose civil liberties work is motivated by the experiences of her father in a World-War-II-era incarceration camp for Japanese Americans and his subsequent civil rights activism.
Korematsu shares her passion for social justice and education at K-12 public and private schools, colleges and universities, law schools, teachers' conferences, and organizations across the country. Her work and her father's legacy extend to advocating for civil liberties for all communities, and she addresses current issues that draw lessons from the past.
In addition to being the 2019 Saint Michael's Commencement speaker, she will be presented an Honorary Doctorate, as is customary.
Also receiving Honorary Doctorates from Saint Michael's College at the May 12 Commencement will be William Gallagher, former chairman and longtime member of the Saint Michael's Board of Trustees, and David LaMarche '60, a member of the College's business faculty for many years who served in administrative posts.
For more information about Korematsu and Commencement 2019, click here.


Thanks for your interest in the Star Wars Celebration Cosplay Competition. The submission period is now closed.
Both veteran and amateur cosplayers alike will join the most exciting Cosplay Competition in the galaxy at Star Wars Celebration Chicago! It is more than just a competition – it's a fun filled celebration of the very best Star Wars cosplayers that want to share their talent, skill and determination with the universe.
The Star Wars Celebration Cosplay Competition will be taking place on stage in Chicago on Saturday, April 13 from 3:30 PM - 4:30 PM on the Galaxy Stage.
All entries must represent a character or element from the Star Wars universe.
Participation in the competition is free, but all participants must have a valid entry badge for Saturday of Celebration in order to compete.
Each entrant will submit an application to be reviewed by the Star Wars Celebration team. Entrants may only enter one costume into the competition.
If approved, accepted contestants will be contacted by the Star Wars Celebration Team and will advance on to the stage portion of the Star Wars Celebration Cosplay Competition.
Contestants will be judged on the quality and craftsmanship of their costumes. 60% of the costume must be made by the wearer. In addition, costumes must be at least 75% complete by the time of application.
Applications are now open! Make sure you read our full rules before applying. Details about how the competition works, what each round entails, and what exactly will take place are contained in our full rules. Submissions will close on Friday, March 1, 2019 at 11:59PM CT.


Families who have outgrown their home often turn to Storage Facilities Connecticut to find more space. This is a convenient, affordable and temporary solution. Storage lockers are the perfect place to store seasonable sports equipment and clothing. Teens leave home faster than anyone can imagine. When that happens, the parents won't be living in a home that's too large for them. If they no longer need the extra space, they simply stop renting their storage locker.
Storage facilities have a variety of sizes of storage lockers. The smallest are about the size of a large walk-in closet. The largest are the size of a two-car garage. Some have climate control features. People can organize their storage pace with temporary shelving units and portable clothing racks. This will make it easier for people to access their belongings. Before signing any rental agreement, people should make sure that the facility is open when they need to access it. Some storage facilities have a staff person on the site 24 hours a day. Others limit access with keys and install security cameras. People should determine the level of security that they are comfortable with.
Collectors often find the additional security available at storage facilities attractive. They have the space for their collectibles and they don't have to worry about burglars breaking into their home. They can set up display cases and go visit their collections whenever they like. If they have seasonal collections, they can bring them home at Christmas or other holidays. If they sell their collectibles online, they won't have their inventory spilling into their living space. They can set up a table in the storage unit where they can pack it for shipping.
It's also important to determine the type of access they have to their storage unit. People who are storing large or heavy items will find units with exterior doors more convenient. They will be able to drive their vehicles directly to the unit. However, most Storage Facilities Connecticut have easy-to-use carts that make it easy for people to transport items to interior units.
Augliera Moving And Storage is one of the companies that provides storage solutions in Connecticut. They are clean and climate controlled. People can call them for more information.


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Business 03/05/2021
Covid aid prevents sinking of housing market
Furlough and loans for companies avoid an avalanche of supply, according to Amat Immobiliaris
Xavier Grau del Cerro
A new real estate development in Badalona's Gorg neighbourhood Manolo García
Government aid on the occasion of the pandemic, such as furlough (ERTE) or state-backed loans for companies (ICO credits), have prevented an avalanche of supply in the housing market that would have sunk prices, according to Guifré Homedes, director general of Amat Real Estate. The company has presented this Monday its real estate report for 2020 and data for the first quarter of 2021.
According to Homedes, sales "have even been strengthened by the crisis", a trend that has continued during the first quarter. The general manager of Amat has highlighted that "the seller who was expected to need to sell because of a need for liquidity is not coming to the market", which he attributes to the aid handed out by governments to deal with the economic consequences of the pandemic. Another key that has prevented a very sharp fall in prices is that developers, unlike in the financial crisis of 2008, have little debt. "People expected a drop in prices" in the new construction market, but this has not happened because these developers, unlike in the previous crisis, can resist.
In spite of everything, Homedes foresees an increase in supply of newly built flats. "The market will have newly finished flats, which until now did not happen." However, he believes this will be temporary, because the building new developments is increasingly difficult due to limitations such as Barcelona's allocation of 30% to social housing, as well as the time it takes to find new land and the delays in building permits. In this sense, he has given as an example two of his own cases in which the getting permission to build on land has taken nine years in one case and more than twenty years in the other, while the processing of licenses, depending on the council, takes between 18 and 24 months. "This means that from the time a project is started until it goes on sale, several real estate cycles pass".
In the case of the rental market, Homedes has indicated that due to the pandemic bargaining power has shifted from owners to tenants because of increasing supply and lower demand. Even so, he has explained that many tourist apartments have been incorporated into the supply not rented under the regime of the law of urban leases (LAU), but as seasonal apartments. The general manager of Amat has been very critical of the Catalan legislation, which limits rental prices, and constant legislative changes.
Evolution of Amat's business
Regarding the business of his company, Homedes has indicated that flats are sold on average 13% below the price of the published offer, which reflects the bargaining power of buyers. As he said, the company has recorded 18% fewer sales operations in 2020, but only a 6% decrease in turnover. This shows that the price of flats sold has increased. In this sense, he has indicated that the luxury housing division increases the level of operations, especially in the range between one and two million. This is because of the trend - partly caused by the pandemic - of leaving the city to live on the outskirts, and the fact that buyers want a house to occupy immediately and, therefore, opt for a house which is already built and not a plot to on which to build their own, which would mean they would have to wait two years. As for rental contracts, they have increased by 2%, partly because of the increase in housing supply, which is 15% higher than the figures for 2018 and 2019 in the case of Barcelona.
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Increase in prices accelerates in August
Business | 14/09/2022
Brussels stays out of Midcat debate and leaves it in the hands of Spain and France
Catalan Government estimates Catalonia's fiscal deficit to be almost €20.2bn
Sánchez to reduce gas VAT from 21% to 5% starting in October
real estate rental price


One of the excellent methods of sharing things on Facebook is by posting pictures of events, scenes or typically anything that fascinates or entertains you as you deal with your day. As most individuals currently have smartphones this has actually become increasingly simple - How To Post A Picture On Facebook Page.
There are a number of methods to do this however we will consider publishing them from your computer as well as this overview will certainly reveal you how.
1. Most likely to Facebook's website. Do so by getting in https://www.facebook.com/ into your browser's LINK bar. This will take you to your Facebook News Feed if you're visited.
2. Navigate to the page on which you intend to post the picture(s). If you simply want to post pictures to your very own page, you can remain on the News Feed page.
-To visit a friend's page, either enter their name right into the search bar then click their name, or find their name in the News Feed and click it.
4. Select photos to post. If you're posting multiple pictures, hold Ctrl (or ⌘ Command on a Mac) while clicking to select every one you click.
-If your computer system does not open your default Photo folder, you'll first have to pick it from the left-hand pane.
5. Click Open. It remains in the bottom-right corner of the home window. Doing so will certainly submit your pictures to a post draft.
6. Modify your post. You can include even more pictures by clicking the square with a + in it that's near the top of the post home window, or you can include message to the article by inputting in the "Say something about this photo" (or "these photos") box.
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7. Click Post. It's in the bottom-right corner of the post home window. Doing so will certainly submit your photo(s) to your picked Facebook page.


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Division of Labor > Manufactured Housing > Board of MH Information
The West Virginia Board of Manufactured Housing Construction & Safety consists of six (6) members and the Commissioner of Labor, who shall be chairman. At least two (2) of the six (6) members of the said board shall represent and be consumers who are not related or employed in the manufactured housing and construction industry. The six (6) members shall be appointed by the Governor by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. No more than three (3) of the members so appointed may be of the same political party. (ref. §21-9 of the WV State Code)
Members of the board shall be appointed for overlapping terms of six (6) years, except that of the original appointments, two (2) members shall be appointed for a term of two (2) years, two (2) members shall be appointed for a term of four (4) years and two (2) members shall be appointed for a term of six (6) years, and in every instance until their respective successors have been appointed and qualified.
Currently serving on the Board are:
Thomas Belasco (Bridgeport)
Johnnie Brown (Charleston)
Richard Casto (Madison)
George Gunnell (Hurricane)
David Shaw (Fairmont)
Steven Solomon (Monongalia)
Board Meetings are held at least once a quarter each year. In these meetings, the Board shall conduct hearings at which time they may levy fines or reprimands. The Board approves or disapproves license applications submitted by manufacturers, dealers, distributors and contractors. The board also approves payments from the State Manufactured Housing Recovery Fund.


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Napa in Newport Raises $1.5M for CureDuchenne at 7th Annual Event
by Mary Chapman | November 16, 2021
The seventh annual Napa in Newport wine auction, an event that brings together acclaimed Napa Valley vintners, raised more than $1.5 million for CureDuchenne.
The nonprofit will use those proceeds to support people with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD), the most common form of MD, and to find a cure for the disease.
Held at the Waldorf Astoria Monarch Beach Resort & Club, in Dana Point, California, the recent affair was hosted by CureDuchenne and vintner chair the Bryant Estate. Since its first event in 2015, Napa in Newport has raised more than $7.5 million for CureDuchenne, a global leader in DMD research and patient care.
Some 450 of the region's top business leaders, entrepreneurs, philanthropists, and wine connoisseurs were treated to a sampling of about 45 producers' top wine vintages. The Napa Valley region is renowned for its hillside vineyards.
June 22, 2021 News by Marta Figueiredo PhD
CureDuchenne Link Invites MD Patients, Carriers to Help in Research
"We're so thrilled with the outcome of this year's Napa in Newport gala, connecting passion and purpose to help improve the lives of everyone affected by Duchenne and accelerate a cure for my son and all the individuals living with Duchenne around the world," Debra Miller, CureDuchenne CEO, said in a press release.
Miller is the mother of Muscular Dystrophy News features writer and columnist Hawken Miller, who has DMD.
As part of the event's wine tasting, guests were treated to vintner-hosted dining tables, with a dinner menu crafted by celebrity chef Chris Shepherd, a James Beard Award winner. There also were chances to participate in a live auction that featured wines, trips, and what CureDuchenne called "once-in-a-lifetime experiences."
"Napa in Newport was such a wonderful opportunity for the Napa Valley community to come together and support an important cause," added Bettina Bryant of Bryant Estate. "It was an absolute privilege to serve as the Vintner Chair this year to raise awareness for this devastating disease and help impact the lives of individuals with Duchenne muscular dystrophy."
Tickets for this year's gala ranged from $1,000 for individuals to $18,000 for a VIP vintner-hosted table.
The revenues topped last year's event, which raised more than $1 million to support CureDuchenne.
To date, CureDuchenne has raised more than $50 million for DMD research, education, and care, funding a dozen projects that have advanced to clinical study. The organization was an early funder of the development of Exondys 51 (eteplirsen, by Sarepta Therapeutics), the first DMD treatment approved in the United States.
Mary Chapman Mary M. Chapman began her professional career at United Press International, running both print and broadcast desks. She then became a Michigan correspondent for what is now Bloomberg BNA, where she mainly covered the automotive industry plus legal, tax and regulatory issues. A member of the Automotive Press Association and one of a relatively small number of women on the car beat, Chapman has discussed the automotive industry multiple times of National Public Radio, and in 2014 was selected as an honorary judge at the prestigious Cobble Beach Concours d'Elegance. She has written for numerous national outlets including Time, People, Al-Jazeera America, Fortune, Daily Beast, MSN.com, Newsweek, The Detroit News and Detroit Free Press. The winner of the Society of Professional Journalists award for outstanding reporting, Chapman has had dozens of articles in The New York Times, including two on the coveted front page. She has completed a manuscript about centenarian car enthusiast Margaret Dunning, titled "Belle of the Concours."
Chris Shepherd, CureDuchenne, Exondys 51, Fundraiser, hawken miller, Napa in Newport, Sarepta Therapeutics
Alzheimer's-like Brain Features Found in Mouse Model of Severe DMD
How I Overcome Constant Worry About Life With Duchenne
3 Reasons I Love Having 3 Sons With DMD
Phase 1/2 Trial Set to Test RGX-202, Gene Therapy for Duchenne MD
SRP-9001 Benefits Duchenne Patients Originally Given Placebo in Trial
I Outlived My Life Expectancy by Focusing on Health and Purpose
What I've Learned About Adaptive Skiing and Duchenne
December 30, 2021 News by Mary Chapman
July 29, 2021 News by Patricia Inacio PhD
Free DMD Newborn Screening Now Offered at Boston Hospital


growing up. Girl, it means your soon to be even cooler than you are now. You have so many things to look forward to like…. .your going to be in middle school! You'll have your own locker. Your age will soon end in "teen." You can start wearing make-up. Get your braces off. Get to babysit!
I can remember having a crush on this older boy that lived next door. I was still too young and he was in high school. He didn't know I existed. But I sort of liked to admire him from afar you can say. I would see him everyday and would melt when he would wave to me.You know those butterfly's you feel all over and its fun to think about him and write his name over and over on your notebook.
I didn't tell anybody because it would be super embarrassing if somebody found out and then if they would tell somebody at school, I would just want to crawl away and hide. You know what I mean? Imagine you write a note in class and pass it to your friend and your teacher takes it away and reads it out loud to the whole class. Ugh! you get the picture.
So maybe you might not even know this boy. He might be someone you seen on TV or in a magazine. Maybe he's a friend that your older brother or sister hangs out with and brought home. Maybe he's your teacher, or the box boy that works at the market, or your coach.
Sometimes we imagine if they like us and how your date would be so fun. Maybe that you would be so popular among all your friends cause you dated an older guy. Maybe you would get to drive in their car. Maybe he will walk you home or text you.
One thing we need to remember is if you are a young girl and an a older guy is flirting with you is that its a danger sign. Why? First of all he's way older. The problem is you may look older but emotionally you are younger and immature.
Friend don't let your guy crushes take over being boy crazy and that's all your thinking about. Be wise don't put yourselves in situations that you could possibly be taken advantage of.
Enjoy being a cool kid, do something nice for somebody, have a sleepover with your girlfriends, pray for someone, learn how to do something new (like play an instrument), join a sports team, help out at home, take a dance class, go on a camping trip, read your Bible, bake, and enjoy being a tween and growing up.


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Nerukku ner audio song download. Nerrukku Ner ( English: Face to Face) is a 1997 Tamil language comedy thriller film written directed by Vasanth produced by Mani Ratnam. Raghuvaran Shanthi Krishna, while Deva , Manivannan , Vivek, Prakash Raj form the ensemble cast, Karan K. Nandha ( Tamil: நந் தா ) ( English: It' s Me) is a Indian Tamil action drama film written Saravanan , while Rajkiran, directed by Bala, starring Suriya , Laila in the leading roles Rajshree play other supporting roles.
The film also marked the debut of comedian Karunas. Anand handled the film' s soundtrack and cinematography respectively.
The score was by Yuvan Shankar Raja and cinematography by R. The film features Vijay Simran , Suriya Kausalya in lead roles.