text:
Frelseren Kristus-Katedralen (russisk: Храм Христа Спасителя), i Moskva, Rusland, er den højeste ortodokse katedral i verden. Den ligger ved Moskvafloden.

Byggeperioden

Da den sidste af Napoleons soldater forlod Moskva, underskrev zar Alexander I den 25. december 1812 et manifest med intentionen om at der skulle bygges en katedral til ære for Kristus Frelseren "for at vise vores taknemmelighed til den guddommelige for at redde Rusland fra den undergang der truede hende" og som et mindesmærke til ære for det russiske folks lidelser.

Det tog et stykke tid inden byggeriet gik i gang. Det første arkitektforslag blev godkendt af Alexander I i 1817. Det var et flamboyant neoklassisk design fuld af frimurersymbolik. Bygningen blev påbegyndt på Spurvehøjene, det højeste punkt i Moskva, men stedet viste sig at være usikkert.

I mellemtiden blev Alexander I efterfulgt af sin bror Nikolaj. Som overbevist ortodoks og patriot kunne den nye zar ikke lide de neoklassiske og frimureriske elementer i det projekt der var blevet godkendt af hans bror. Han bad sin favoritarkitekt Konstantin Thon om at lave et nyt forslag med udgangspunkt i Hagia Sophia i Konstantinopel. Thons neobyzantinske design blev godkendt i 1832, og et nyt sted tættere på Kreml blev valgt af zaren i 1837. Bl.a. en kirke på stedet skulle flyttes, hvorfor grundstenen ikke lagt før 1839.

Konstruktion
Katedralen tog mange år at bygge og kom ikke frem fra sin afdækning før 1860; indretningen af det indvendige bl.a. med fresker malet af de bedste russiske malere fortsatte de næste tyve år. Katedralen blev indviet på den dag, hvor Alexander III blev kronet, den 26. maj 1883. Et år tidligere havde Pjotr Iljitj Tjajkovskijs "1812-ouverture" premiere her.

Nedrivning

Efter Den Russiske Revolution 1917 blev det prominente sted, hvor katedralen lå, valgt som stedet, hvor der skulle være et monument for socialismen, kendt som paladset for sovjetterne. Dette monoment skulle rejse sig med modernistiske støttepiller, der skulle understøtte en gigantisk statue af Lenin stående ovenpå en kuppel med sin arm hævet til velsignelse. Den 5. december 1931, ved Kaganovitj' ordre, blev Frelseren Kistus-Katedralen sprængt i luften og reduceret til brokker.

Bygningen af paladset for sovjetterne blev afbrudt af mangel på midler, problemer med oversvømmelse fra den nærliggende Moskvaflod og udbruddet af krig. Det oversvømmede fundamentshul eksisterede indtil det under Nikita Khrusjtjov blev omdannet til et stort offentligt svømmebassin.

Den nye katedral

Da sovjetæraen sluttede, modtog den russiske ortodokse kirke tilladelse til at genopbygge katedralen i februar 1990. En midlertidig grundsten blev lagt i slutningen af året.

En fond blev grundlagt i 1992, og fundamentet blev lagt i efteråret 1994. Den lavere kirke blev indviet i 1996, og den færdiggjorte Frelseren Kristus-Katedralen blev indviet den 19. august 2000.

Se også
 Monumentet til ære for Alexander II ved Frelseren Kristus-Katedralen
 Frelseren Kristus-Katedralen (Kaliningrad)

Eksterne links
 Officiel hjemmeside, med fulde detaljer om konstruktionen og dets historie.
 Google Maps satellitfoto
 Frelseren Kristus-katedralen i Moskva: En russisk allegori

Bygninger, konstruktioner og anlæg i Moskva
Domkirker
Kirker i Rusland

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd">

<title>Source code</title>
<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../../../../../stylesheet.css" title="Style">

001
002
005
006package org.jsimpledb.kv.util;
007
008import com.google.common.base.Preconditions;
009
010import java.io.EOFException;
011import java.io.IOException;
012import java.io.InputStream;
013import java.io.OutputStream;
014
015import org.jsimpledb.util.LongEncoder;
016import org.jsimpledb.util.UnsignedIntEncoder;
017
018/**
019 * Serializes a sequence of {@code byte[]} arrays, compressing common prefixes.
020 *
021 * <p>
022 * Keys are encoded in one of two forms:
023 *  <ul>
024 *  <li>{@code total-length bytes...}
025 *  <li>{@code -prefix-length suffix-length suffix-bytes ...}
026 *  </ul>
027 * The first length ({@code total-length} or negative {@code prefix-length}) is encoded using {@link LongEncoder}.
028 * The {@code suffix-length}, if present, is encoded using {@link UnsignedIntEncoder}.
029 */
030public final class KeyListEncoder {
031
032    private KeyListEncoder() {
033    }
034
035    /**
036     * Write the next key, compressing its common prefix with the previous key (if any).
037     *
038     * @param out output stream
039     * @param key key to write
040     * @param prev previous key, or null for none
041     * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs
042     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code out} or {@code key} is null
043     */
044    public static void write(OutputStream out, byte[] key, byte[] prev) throws IOException {
045        Preconditions.checkArgument(out != null, "null out");
046        Preconditions.checkArgument(key != null, "null key");
047        int prefixLength = 0;
048        if (prev != null) {
049            while (prefixLength < key.length && prefixLength < prev.length && key[prefixLength] == prev[prefixLength])
050                prefixLength++;
051        }
052        if (prefixLength > 1) {
053            final int suffixLength = key.length - prefixLength;
054            LongEncoder.write(out, ~(prefixLength - 2));
055            UnsignedIntEncoder.write(out, suffixLength);
056            out.write(key, prefixLength, suffixLength);
057        } else {
058            LongEncoder.write(out, key.length);
059            out.write(key);
060        }
061    }
062
063    /**
064     * Calculate the number of bytes that would be required to write the next key via {@link #write write()}.
065     *
066     * @param key key to write
067     * @param prev previous key, or null for none
068     * @return number of bytes to be written by {@link #write write(out, key, prev)}
069     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code key} is null
070     */
071    public static int writeLength(byte[] key, byte[] prev) {
072        Preconditions.checkArgument(key != null, "null key");
073        int prefixLength = 0;
074        if (prev != null) {
075            while (prefixLength < key.length && prefixLength < prev.length && key[prefixLength] == prev[prefixLength])
076                prefixLength++;
077        }
078        if (prefixLength > 1) {
079            final int suffixLength = key.length - prefixLength;
080            return LongEncoder.encodeLength(~(prefixLength - 2)) + UnsignedIntEncoder.encodeLength(suffixLength) + suffixLength;
081        } else
082            return LongEncoder.encodeLength(key.length) + key.length;
083    }
084
085    /**
086     * Read the next key.
087     *
088     * @param input input stream
089     * @param prev previous key, or null for none
090     * @return next key
091     * @throws IOException if an I/O error occurs
092     * @throws EOFException if an unexpected EOF is encountered
093     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code input} is null
094     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if {@code input} contains invalid data
095     */
096    public static byte[] read(InputStream input, byte[] prev) throws IOException {
097        Preconditions.checkArgument(input != null, "null input");
098
099        // Get encoded length of prefix
100        int keyLength = KeyListEncoder.readSignedInt(input);
101        final byte[] key;
102        int prefixLength;
103
104        // Decode prefix length and read prefix, if any
105        if (keyLength < 0) {
106            if (prev == null)
107                throw new IllegalArgumentException("null `prev' given but next key has " + -keyLength + " byte shared prefix");
108            prefixLength = ~keyLength + 2;
109            final int suffixLength = UnsignedIntEncoder.read(input);
110            keyLength = prefixLength + suffixLength;
111            if (keyLength < 0)
112                throw new IllegalArgumentException("invalid prefix length " + prefixLength + " plus suffix length " + suffixLength);
113            key = new byte[keyLength];
114            System.arraycopy(prev, 0, key, 0, prefixLength);
115        } else {
116            key = new byte[keyLength];
117            prefixLength = 0;
118        }
119
120        // Read suffix
121        while (prefixLength < key.length) {
122            final int num = input.read(key, prefixLength, key.length - prefixLength);
123            if (num == -1)
124                throw new EOFException();
125            prefixLength += num;
126        }
127
128        // Done
129        return key;
130    }
131
132    private static int readSignedInt(InputStream input) throws IOException {
133        final long longValue = LongEncoder.read(input);
134        final int intValue = (int)longValue;
135        Preconditions.checkArgument(intValue == (int)longValue, "read out-of-range encoded int value %s", longValue);
136        return intValue;
137    }
138}
139

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What You Need To Know About Net Neutrality
Genevieve Carlton
Updated September 23, 202116 items
Net neutrality. Like everything related to the internet, it's a relatively new concept. But what is net neutrality? And does it matter that the FCC repealed net neutrality in December 2017? If so, what are the forecasted effects of this repeal, as articulated by those both for and against net neutrality?
At its most basic, net neutrality is the idea that the providers of internet services should treat all internet traffic equally. As such, providers should not filter or block consumer access to internet content, charge consumers more to reach certain websites, or charge companies for internet "fast lanes." Alternatively – according to opponents of the idea – net neutrality means burdensome government regulations that stifle investment and innovation. The 2017 net neutrality vote in front of the Federal Communications Commission was a party-line split, with Democrats in favor of net neutrality and Republicans opposed.
FCC Chairman Ajit Pai has implied that net neutrality is a dangerous experiment that only dates back to 2015, but the concept's history is much longer. With the surge of net neutrality news before and in the wake of the December 2017 vote, it's time to look back at the history of net neutrality.
Photo: Camilo Sanchez / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
What, Exactly, Is Net Neutrality?
If you aren't entirely sure what "net neutrality" means, you aren't alone. So what, exactly, is it? It's the idea that the telecommunications companies that provide internet access must treat all internet traffic equally. Or, put another way, it keeps internet service providers (ISPs) like Time Warner and Verizon from discriminating against content. They can't block or throttle certain websites or charge extra for "fast lane" content to load faster. According to the ACLU, a vocal proponent of net neutrality, it means that "the folks delivering [internet] content can't play favorites because they disagree with the message being delivered or want to charge more money for faster delivery."
For over a decade, there has been an ongoing battle between Congress, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and the courts over the legal status of net neutrality. And major players, including presidents, telecoms, and internet users, have been loud voices in the debate. So what does it mean that the FCC repealed net neutrality on December 14, 2017? Opponents and supporters see the move in very different terms.
Photo: Charles Vercauteren / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-SA-3.0-migrated
The Major Players In The Net Neutrality Debate Are ISPs, Content Companies, And The Government
No one knows exactly how the December 2017 repeal of net neutrality will affect consumers, ISPs, and the internet. And net neutrality can be a complicated concept, especially for people who don't know an ISP from a VPN. The list of major net neutrality players starts with the ISPs, or internet service providers. ISPs give users access to the internet, typically for a monthly fee. This list includes cable companies like Comcast and Time Warner and wireless providers like Verizon and Sprint. For years, these telecoms have favored eliminating net neutrality rules.
Content companies from Google and Netflix to the less-visited corners of the Internet rely on ISPs to transport their content. And users need an ISP to shop online, check Twitter, or stream videos. For their part, internet titans like Google and Netflix have supported net neutrality regulations.
The third major player is the government, which has the power to regulate ISPs. The debate over net neutrality is really a debate over government regulation and what the internet even is. Does regulation protect consumers and content creators, or does it stifle innovation and corporate investment? Is the internet a public utility or a commodity that should be subject to the whims, demands, and constraints of the free market?
Photo: Federal Communications Commission / Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain
The Repeal Will Mean Faster, Better Access To The Internet, According To Some
Opponents of net neutrality argue that government regulations discourage investments in infrastructure. Telecoms will be less likely to pay for fiber optic networks, for example, if net neutrality harms the profits of ISPs. Tech analyst Ben Thompson worries that net neutrality risks "chilling investment through prophylactic regulation and the elimination of price signals that may spur infrastructure build-out." In other words, without net neutrality, telecom profits will be higher, which will mean better service.
Some so-called "opponents" of net neutrality, like Thompson, aren't actually opponents of the concept at all – or so they claim. It's the particulars of the 2015 Obama legislation that they take exception to. According to Thompson, writing on his blog Stratechery, "I am absolutely in favor of net neutrality... The question at hand, though, is what is the best way to achieve net neutrality? To believe that Chairman Pai is right is not to be against net neutrality; rather, it is to believe that the FCC's 2015 approach was mistaken." In his post "PRO-NEUTRALITY, ANTI-TITLE II," Thompson goes on to argue that what he sees as the heavy handedness and lack of vision of the Obama administration's 2015 decision have forestalled innovation and created unforeseen issues in their attempt at treating the internet as a public utility. He sees little reason to interfere with or regulate a system that had gone unchecked for decades (according to his line of thinking) in a manner that could restrict unknown futures for the internet. Thompson and others like him also believe that small ISPs don't stand a chance of succeeding under the current system, and that large, established ISPs have every incentive to support regulations because they give them continued control of the market.
For his part, FCC Chairman Ajit Pai promises the 2017 repeal will be good for consumers: "We are helping consumers and promoting competition. Broadband providers will have more incentive to build networks, especially to underserved areas." But supporters of net neutrality disagree.
Photo: Credo Action / Wikimedia Commons / CC-BY-2.0
Others Ask If Consumers Will Face Shake-Downs From ISPs And Wonder If Internet Will Be The New Cable
Consumers already hate their internet service providers. In fact, according to a 2017 survey by the American Customer Satisfaction Survey, of the 43 industries they asked about, ISPs tied for last place in customer satisfaction. And the repeal of net neutrality could make things even worse – this is the major argument of proponents of net neutrality. As Anna G. Eshoo, the Congresswoman representing Silicon Valley argued in a December 2017 USA Today opinion piece, the new rules mean that ISPs could charge consumers even more to access certain content. Just like consumers have to pay extra for premium cable channels, in the future, ISPs could potentially charge an extra $4.99 for the "Twitter-Facebook" package in one hypothetical scenario. Or maybe consumers will have to cough up an extra $9.99 to stream videos.
The same could happen on the other end: ISPs could increasingly charge content generators fees to get fast speeds. In fact, it's already happening under the name "peering connections," where massive content generators like Google, Facebook, and Netflix pair with ISPs to have dedicated computer servers to ensure strong connections.
In a post-net neutrality era, a major concern is that ISPs will prioritize paid content over everything else. That could make it much harder for small companies to reach consumers – and for consumers to access content not produced by major corporations.
Photo: United Nations / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain
Another Major Argument For Net Neutrality Is That It Protects Free Speech, Which Is Why The UN Declared Internet Access A Human Right In 2011
Proponents of net neutrality, like the ACLU, argue that the government regulations that keep the internet open and free to all have an inestimable benefit: the protection of free speech. In 2011, a United Nations report said that removing internet access is a human rights violation. The report was specifically aimed at governments that cut off internet access, particularly for political dissidents. The argument linked internet access to freedom of speech, since the internet is a major avenue for expression.
In 2016, the UN strengthened the claim by adding internet access to Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While the UN's declaration doesn't specifically apply to net neutrality, organizations like Human Rights Watch have argued that repealing net neutrality will limit people's freedom of expression and access to information.
Photo: Mredden / Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain
Fast Lanes And Tolls On The Internet Could Hurt Small Businesses And Consumers
We're all familiar with fast lanes and tolls on highways – but what does it mean for the internet? Supporters of net neutrality argue that the repeal will make it harder for small businesses, startups, and consumers to have their voices heard on the internet. The reason: telecoms can now charge companies extra to receive premium speeds and high quality service.
In the new post-net neutrality world, this means companies can pay extra for faster speeds. This is often called "paid prioritization," and it means that corporations could pay ISPs so that their content gets prioritized. In November of 2017, Comcast, the largest home internet provider in the US, dropped paid prioritization from their pledge not to throttle, block, or create fast lanes. Many read this as a hint that Comcast might be open to creating fast lanes and tolls for the companies that can afford it.

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