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Chemistry.of
CARL R. NOLLER
Prfessor of Chemistry, Stanford University
CHECKED 2000
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W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
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© 1957, BY W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY
Copyright 1951, by W. B. Saunders Company
Copyright under the International Copyright Union
Reprinted March, 1958
All rights reserved. This book is protected by copyright. No
part of it may be duplicated or reproduced in any manner
without written permission from the publisher. Made in the
United States of America. Press of W. B. Saunders Company.
LIBRARY Of CoNGRESS CATALOG CARD NUMBER: 57-7045
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The six years that have passed since the publication in 1951 of the first edition
of Chemistry of Organic Compounds have witnessed remarkable advances in
all aspects of organic chemistry. In this second edition much old material has
been revised and new material added. Conformation, trans annular reactions,
inclusion compounds, telomerization, oxidation mechanisms, ansa compounds
and cyclophanes, ferrocene, tropolones, ylides, sigma complexes, insulin and
oxytocin, tetracyclines, reserpine, aldosterone, lanosterol, natural acetylenic
compounds, polyisoprene and urethan rubbers, epoxy and polyester resins,
and syntheses from acrolein are only a few of the new topics and compounds
presented. To keep the size of the book in reasonable bounds, no detailed discussions of the chemistry of biological processes have been included, despite the
tremendous amount of pure organic chemical work that has been done in
following, by means of isotopic tracers, the course of biosynthesis and metabolism
of organic compounds.
The rapid application of infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance absorption
spectra to the determination of structure has made it desirable to acquaint the
beginning student with the basic principles involved. This material has been
combined with that on absorption in the ultraviolet and visible regions in a new
chapter dealing with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation in general.
Now that the mechanism of organic reactions has become a part of almost
every elementary course in organic chemistry, deferring its discussion until after
that of alkyl halides no longer seems desirable. Hence the material previously
included in a separate chapter on mechanism now is distributed through the
earlier chapters. Omission of any reference to the phenomenon of hyperconjugation is intentional. The author is of the opinion that this concept has been
used promiscuously and that it is unnecessary for most qualitative treatments of
mechanism. An introduction to cyclic hydrocarbons has been advanced to
Chapter 3 to permit a better understanding of the products of petroleum.
In response to numerous requests from instructors, a greater number and
wider variety of problems are provided. They have been separated from the
review questions to facilitate assignment. In certain problems the sections
labeled A, E, C, or D cover the same principles or types of reactions but differ in
specific examples. Thus an instructor may assign problems to several classes
without repeating. Parts labeled (a), (b), (c), and so on, illustrate different principles or reactions.
It has been a source of satisfaction that so many instructors and students have
been sufficiently interested in the first edition of this textbook to take the time to
report errors and to make suggestions for improvement. Their help is gratefully
acknowledged. It is hoped that this revision will justify their efforts and that
readers will continue to show their interest by reporting errors and expressing
their views.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Since 1860 the integrating theory behind the enormous mass of data that
has been accumulated concerning organic compounds has been the theory of
gross structure, that is, the theory correlating the reactions and physical properties of organic molecules with the kind of atoms present and with the order
in which the atoms are bonded to each other in the molecule. This theory has
been exceptionally fruitful and has led to the determination of the constitution
of very complicated molecules and to the synthesis in the laboratory of hundreds of thousands of new compounds, many of which have important practical
uses. It is these aspects of organic chemistry that are emphasized in this text.
Nevertheless the development of the theory of the eJecironjc siIllciure of
atoms artd molecules by mathematicians, physicists, and physical chemists
has provided a more detailed picture of the nature of the forces holding atoms
together, with the result that now it often is possible to give a reasonably
consistent interpretation of the behavior of organic molecules. Consequently
organic chemists are concerning themselves more and more with how organic
reactions take place, that is, with the mechanism of the reactions. The introduction of this material into basic organic textbooks, however, has been very
slow. The essential facts regarding the mechanism of the addition of hydrogen
cyanide to aldehydes, for example, were reported by Lapworth in 1903, and
the manner in which many other organic reactions take place is known now
with reasonable certainty. Yet most texts still pay little attention to current views
on mechanism.
As to bonding and electronic structure, textbooks now usually go beyond
the ideas introduced by G. N. Lewis in 1916, to the extent that resonance is
mentioned, but the discussion of resonance is based on the valence-bond treatment developed by Heitler and London, Pauling, and others since 1927. This
approach does not provide the nonmathematical mind with a physical picture
of the phenomenon and frequently leads to a misconception of the nature of
resonance. In contrast, the molecular orbital treatment developed since 1928
by Hund, Mulliken, Coulson, and others is particularly helpful for interpreting the source of bond energies, the nature of nlUltiple bonds, and resonance.
Once a physical picture has been obtained, Pauling's convenient symbolism for
resonance may be used with understanding. Hence the present trend among
organic chemists is to combine the molecular orbital picture of bonding and
resonance with the valence-bond symbolism.
It is appropriate that current ideas concerning the mechanism of organic
reactions and the forces which determine the chemical and physical properties
of organic compounds be incorporated in an elementary textbook. Too often
the student's criticism that the elementary course in organic chemistry merely is
memory work is justified. Although "memory is necessary for all the operations
of reason, " it also is true that theories which correlate facts are an aid to memory.
Moreover it is desirable that students majoring in chemistry and aBied sciences
become acquainted with the current ideas and language of chemistry. Therefore
in this text considerable emphasis is placed on the explanation of physical properties and on the mechanism of organic reactions. Where such material is given,
an effort has been made to keep the discussion as simple as possible even at the
risk of being quantitatively inaccurate, for "except ye utter by the tongue words
easy to be understood, how shall it be known what is spoken ?"
In the earlier chapters the student is introduced to the subject matter graduaBy.
No compound is used in the methods of preparation or in the reactions unless
its structure has been discussed previously. For example, when alkanes and
alkenes first are considered, no methods of synthesis are given. Instead, discussion
of these procedures is delayed until the student is familiar with the methods of
preparation and with the reactions of alcohols and alkyl halides. Reactions which
are pedagogicaBy bad, such as the halogenation of saturated hydrocarbons, are
not presented until the student is able to see them in their proper perspective.
Brief descriptions of experiments are given to make the reactions seem more real
to the student who has not progressed very far in laboratory work. In equations
iIIustrating the factual part of the text, the fuB formula for the usual reagent is
given: for example NaOH or Ca(OH)2 and not OH-; HCI or H 2S0 4 and not
H+ or H30+; Na 2Cr20 7 or KMn0 4 and not Cr20 7 = or Mn0 4-. In this way the
practical aspects of the subject are kept separate from the theoretical aspects,
and the student who thinks in terms of the materials with which he works rather
than in terms of more abstract ideas is not handicapped.
The uses of organic compounds are of great importance. It is a source of pride
to most organic chemists that the results of their investigations have led to
practical applications an.d that the organic chemical industry is important to the
economic life and weB-being of the individual and his nation. Moreover most of
the students majoring in chemistry are preparing themselves for industrial
positions. Hence the practical applications and economic aspects of organic
chemistry frequently are discussed in some detail.
For some years textbooks have been published which present aliphatic and
aromatic compounds simultaneously. There is some advantage in discussing as a
single unit all compounds having like functional groups. However, this treatment
requires consideration of the effect of the rest of the molecule on the properties
of the functional group and overloads the new student of organic chemistry with
more detail than he can assimilate readily. It is the author's opinion that it is
better first to cover all of the monofunctional aliphatic compounds, next to
consider both monofunctional and polyfunctional aromatic compounds, and
finally to return to polyfunctional aliphatic compounds. In the last portion,
aromatic compounds may be included wherever desired, because the student is
familiar with their behavior. This progression also permits the requirements of
different students to be met by the same course. Those students who do not need
a full year course can stop at the end of a term and still have a good introduction
to organic chemistry.
This book is designed for those who desire a text that is comprehensive at the
basic level, thus providing the better student with ample opportunity to acquire
as much knowledge as he is able to assimilate. It is realized that if too much
material is presented and if everything is given equal emphasis, the average
Preface to the First Ediaon
student may be overwhelmed. Hence only the physical properties, methods of
preparation, nomenclature, chemical reactions, and uses of organic compounds
are printed in the standard-sized type. Portions which deal with mechanism or
which are considered to be of a supplementary nature are printed in smaller type.
Since instructors will not be able to hold their students responsible for everything presented in the text, the material has been arranged and cross-indexed in
such a way that sections or whole chapters may be omitted, or the sequence of
chapters may be altered considerably without impairing the readability of the
text. For those teachers who wish to use a text containing an amount of material
that can be covered in ninety to one hundred lectures, attention is called to the
author's Textbook of Organic Chemistry.
Several tim(}-honored reactiorts have been omitted becaUie they were considered not sufficiently general in their application, or not important enough to
be included. The author hopes that he has been able also to correct a few misconceptions that have been handed down over the years, although he is certain
that he himself has committed many to print of which he is not aware. Furthermore it is likely that in his efforts to generalize or to explain reactions, he has
made stat~ents contrary to fact. Readers are urged to bring these errors to his
attention and to submit other suggestions or comments for improving the text.
Many persons have contributed directly or indirectly to the preparation of this
text, and the author gratefully acknowledges their assistance. He is indebted
especially to Richard H. Eastman and Charles D. Hurd, who have read the
entire manuscript; to Arthur L. Fox, Bernard S. Greensfelder, George W.
Hearne, J. Murray Luck, Harry S. Mosher, Richard A. Ogg, W. A. Peterson,
William T. Simpson, and William E. Vaughn, who have read one or more chapters;
to Mildred J. Hall, who typed the manuscript; to Anadel Smith Brown, who
prepared the illustrations; and to Edna Rasmussen Noller, his wife, who has
helped in the preparation of the manuscript and in the reading of proof.
NOLLER
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION..............................
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . • . . . . . . . . • • • . •
INTRODUCTION .......••..••••.••.......••••.•..••.........•.•
ALKANES.....................................................
3. ALKENES. CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS..............................
4. NATURAL GAS, PETROLEUM, AND DERIVED PRODUCTS.............
5. ALCOHOLS. ESTERS OF INORGANIC ACIDS. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . .
6. ALKYL HALIDES. GRIGNARD REAGENTS. . . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • • . . . . . •
SYNTHESIS OF ALKANES AND ALKENES. ALKYNES (ACETYLENES)......
8. ETHERS.....................................................
9. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. ORTHO ESTERS........
WAXES, FATS, AND OILS.......................................
11. ALDEHYDES AND KETONES............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ALIPHATIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS. . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . ..
13. ALIPHATIC SULFUR COMPOUNDS •........•....•..••••.••...... "
PROTEINS, AMINO ACIDS, AND PEPTIDES..................... ....
DERIVATIVES OF CARBONIC ACID AND THIOCARBONIC ACID.........
STEREOISOMERISM.............................................
17. CARBOHYDRATES.............................................
18. BENZENE AND ITS HOMOLOGS. SOURCES OF AROMATIC COMPOUNDS..
19. HALOGEN DERIVATIVES OF AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS.............
AROMATIC NITRO COMPOUNDS. MECHANISM OF AROMATIC
SUBSTITUTION ••......................•.•.......•••••••. "
21. AROMATIC SULFONIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES..............
22. AROMATIC AMINES . . • • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '" ., . . .. ..
23. DIAZONJUM SALTS AND DIAZO COMPOUNDS....... ..•............
24. PHENOLS, AMINOPHENOLS, AND QUINONES. . . . . • . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
25. AROMATIC ALCOHOLS, ARALKYLAMINES, ALDEHYDES AND KETONES.
STEREOCHEMISTRY OF THE OXIMES. . . .. . . . .. .. . ...... .... . . ..
26. AROMATIC CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES. .. .. .... .... ....
27. ARYLALKANES. FREE GROUPS. ARYLALKENES AND ARYLALKYNES.
BIPHENYL AND ITS DERIVATIVES ... , .. .. .. . .•. .... ...... ....
28. CONDENSED NUCLEAR HYDROCARBONS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES....
29. HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS. ALKALOIDS ...•..•..•........ , ......
30. VIBRATIONAL AND ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION SPECTRA. NUCLEARRESONANCE..........................
31. COLOR. DYES AND DYEING. ORGANIC PIGMENTS ............••.. ,.
32. DIENES. RUBBER AND SYNTHETIC RUBBERS......................
33. CHLORINATED AND FLUORINATED ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS......
ELECTRON-SPIN
34. UNSATURATED ALCOHOLS,
POLYHYDRIC ALCOHOLS, AND THEIR
DERIVATIVES. AMINO ALCOHOLS AND POLYAMINES.............
35. tIYDROXY, UNSATURATED, HALOGENATED, AND AMINO CARBONYL
COMPOUNDS. DICARBONYL COMPOUNDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . • . . . ..
36. HALOGENATED, HYDROXY, AMINO. AND UNSATURATED ACIDS......
)7. POLYCARBOXYLIC ACIDS... . . . .... .... .. .• .. . . . . .••.... .... ....
38. KETO ACIDS.................................................
39. ALICYCLIC COMPOUNDS. TERPENES AND STEROIDS.. .. ....•.••....•
40. ORGANIC PEROXIDES. AUTOXIDATION AND ANTIOXIDAKTS.. .••.....
41. ORGANOMETALLIC COMPOUNDS.................................
42. PHOSPHORUS AND SILICON COMPOUNDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • ..
INDEX " .. , ..... , ,. .. , . , . , ..... , . , . , .. , . , •. ,. , " , .. , , •... , , , .. , , , . • .
Most students beginning the study of organic chemistry already have some
idea of the material with which it deals, because courses in general chemistry
usually include a brief introduction to the subject. Not everyone, however, may
be aware of tne extent to which organic chemistry touches on everyday life.
Man's chief requirements are food, fuel, and clothing. Food consists mainly of
organic compounds, namely the fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. The digestion
and assimilation of food takes place by organic chemical reactions, and the
proper functioning of the animal organism requires other organic compounds
such as the vitamins and hormones. Fuel is chiefly coal, wood, natural gas, and
petroleum. Clothing is made from cotton, wool, silk, and synthetic fibers.
Organic chemistry is concerned with all of these substances.
The study of the chemical behavior of these products of biological origin
has enabled the organic chemist to convert them by chemical reactions into a
host of other accessory substances. Soaps, perfumes, flavors, dyestuffs, protective
coatings for wood and metal, plastics, photographic films and developers,
explosives, synthetic rubber, artificial leather, synthetic fibers, and many
medicinals, disinfectants, and insecticides add to man's comfort and pleasure.
Hence it readily can be understood that the investigation of the chemistry of
organic compounds has not merely extended chemical knowledge. It has
influenced profoundly the health of man, his daily life, and the development of
civilization. The study of organic chemistry may be considered to be a part of
cultural training, as well as necessary background for certain scientific professions.
Beginnings of Organic Chemistry
Organic chemistry, as a separate branch of science, dates from the early part
of the nineteenth century. Many compounds now referred to as organic must
have existed on earth before life began, but only in very recent times has much
progress been made in their study. The investigation of organic compounds
lagged considerably behind that of inorganic compounds, because the naturally
occurring organic compounds were more complex, their reactions were more
difficult to understand, and they usually occurred as mixtures that were more
difficult to separate than the mixtures of inorganic compounds.
Specific properties of a few organic compounds were known to the ancients.
Noah was familiar with the effect of fermented grape juice on the human system.
Acetic acid in the form of sour wine was well known; one of the proverbs of
Solomon refers to the action of vinegar on chalk. Acetic acid was, in fact, the
only acid known to the ancients. Indigo and alizarin have been identified as
dyestuffs used on Egyptian mummy cloth, and royal purple was extracted from
a Mediterranean mollusk by the Phoenicians.
The assignment of specific properties to individual compounds required the
development of methods for isolating the compounds in a pure state. The
Chemistry of Organic Compounds
Ch.l
process of distillation first was described in detail by the Alexandrians in the
beginning of the fifth century A.D., and was developed and used by their
successors, the Arabians, during the eighth century to concentrate acetic acid
and alcohol. However it remained for Lowitz 1 to prepare acetic acid sufficiently
pure to obtain it in crystalline form in 1789, and to obtain alcohol free of water
in 1796. Cane sugar had been obtained in crystalline form in northeastern India
about 300 A.D., but it did not become known until about 640 to the Arabians,
who introduced the growing of cane into Egypt and southern Europe. Tartar
from wine was known at an early date, and the older alchemists experimented
with it. Benzoic acid and succinic acid were prepared in the sixteenth century,
and methyl alcohol, grape sugar, and milk sugar were isolated during the
seventeenth century. Persistent attempts to isolate pure organic compounds came
only with the rise of chemistry during the latter half of the eighteenth century.
Scheele 2 was the first to isolate uric, oxalic, tartaric, lactic, citric, and malic
acids, acetaldehyde, and glycerol. As late as the beginning of the nineteenth
century, however, the view was held that acetic acid was the only vegetable
acid, and that all others consisted of some combined form of acetic acid.
Along with the work on isolation, some chemical transformations were
discovered. It was known as early as the thirteenth century that sulfuric acid
reacts with ethyl alcohol, and later a mixture of ether and alcohol prepared by
this reaction was used in medicine. It was not until 1730 that the properties of
a relatively pure ether, incompletely miscible with water, were described, and
not until 1800 that the absence of sulfur was proved, thus showing that the
sulfuric acid was not incorporated into the ether molecule. Acetone was prepared
by the thermal decomposition of lead acetate, and ethyl chloride was prepared
from ethyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid during the seventeenth century. Ethyl
acetate, formate, oxalate, and benzoate were prepared during the latter half of
the eighteenth century. Scheele obtained oxalic acid by the oxidation of cane
sugar, and mucic acid by the oxidation of milk sugar.
Much less was known about compounds present in animal organisms. At the
end of the eighteenth century, the only accomplishments of importance were
the isolation of urea from urine in 1773, and of uric acid from urinary calculi
in 1776. It generally was assumed that there was a fundamental difference
between animal and vegetable matter since distillation of the former always
yielded ammonia.
Of greatest importance for the advance of organic chemistry was the development of methods for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Lavoisier,3 who was
1 Johann Tobias Lowitz (1757-1804), German-born Court Apothecary at St. Petersburg, who
made several outstanding contributions to basic laboratory technique. He discovered the
absorptive property of activated charcoal and used it in the purification of organic compounds.
He also discovered the phenomenon of supersaturation, used ice and various salts to make
freezing mixtures, and was the first to use calcium chloride to remove water from organic
liquids.
2 Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742-1786), Swedish apothecary. Besides being the first to isolate
and prepare many organic compounds, he was the first to prepare mOlybdic, tungstic, and
arsenic acids, to show that graphite is a form of carbon, to characterize manganese and barium,
and to note the insolubility of barium sulfate. He also discovered oxygen (independently and
prior to Priestley) and chlorine.
3 Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794), French scientist and public servant, who was condemned
to death by a judge of the Revolutionary Tribunal with the remark, "The Republic has no
need for savants."
Ch. I
one of the earliest investigators to analyze organic compounds, showed that
they contain carbon and hydrogen and usually oxygen. He showed also that
products derived from animal sources frequently contained nitrogen. Berzelius,4
Liebig,5 and Dumas 6 made further improvements in organic analysis particularly
from the quantitative standpoint.
Originally no distinction was made between the chemistry of mineral compounds and the chemistry of those of biological origin. However, after a
representative group of compounds had been isolated from natural sources,
the differences became so apparent that a division soon was made. Bergman 7
in 1780 was the first to differentiate between organic compounds and nonorganic
compounds. Berzelius first used the term organic chemistry in 1808 and published
the first independent treatment of organic chemistry in his textbook of 1827.
The slowness in the advance of organic chemistry before the nineteenth
century has been ascribed to the belief that compounds produced by living
organisms could not be synthesized without the intervention of a vital force.
The rapid advance during the nineteenth century has been attributed to the
renunciation of this theory after Woehler 8 reported in 1828 the synthesis of
urea from ammonium cyanate. Actually this event had little immediate effect
in combating the vitalistic theory, which persisted in one form or another for
at least another twenty years.
During this period, arguments for and against the vitalistic theory continued
but did not deter chemists from trying to synthesize organic compounds. Their
work, however, was leading them into chaos because of the confusion that
existed concerning atomic and molecular weights. Although Avogadro's law
provided the basis for atomic and molecular weight determinations in 1811,
order did not begin to appear until after Cannizzaro 9 clearly showed in 1858
4 Joens Jacob Berzelius (1779-1848), Swedish chemist, known chiefly for his accurate work
on the combining weights of the elements and for his support of the dualistic theory, which
held that elements were either electrically positive or negative in character and that only elements
oppositely charged were capable of combining with each other.
5 Justus Liebig (1803-1873), German professor who first introduced laboratory work into
general instruction in chemistry. He perfected the combustion method of organic analysis,
established the theory of radicals, laid the foundations of agricultural chemistry, and was the
forceful editor who built up the prestige of the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie. The present
title, Justus Liebig's Annaleli der Chemie, was given to this publication after his death.
6 Jean Baptiste Andre Dumas (1800-1884), French chemist, teacher, and public servant. He
was noted for the accuracy of his experimental work and for his clear thinking. His name is
associated chiefly with his analytical methods and with the phenomenon of substitution in
organic compounds.
7 Torbern Olof Bergman (1735-1784), professor of mathematics and later of chemistry at
the University of Upsala, Sweden.
8 Friedrich Woehler (1800-1882), professor at the University of Goettingen and friend of
Berzelius and Liebig. Besides his work in organic chemistry, he discovered aluminum when he
was only 27 years old and did important work on boron, aluminum, and titanium.
o Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826-1910), Sicilian revolutionist and politician, professor of
chemistry at the Universities of Genoa, Palermo, and Rome. His Summary of a Course of
Chemical Philosophy, which he wrote for his students, was published in 1858. An international
congress of the most eminent chemists was called by Wurtz and Kekule and presided over by
Weltzien, Kopp, and Dumas at Karlsruhe in 1860 to try to bring order out of the confusion of
atomic weights and chemical notation. At the close of the congress, which had failed to reach
agreement, Cannizzaro's pamphlet was distributed to those present by his friend, Pavesi.
Lothar Meyer was convinced by the exposition. and, largely through his influence, Cannizzaro's views soon were accepted.
how the application of the hypothesis would resolve many of the difficulties.
At about the same time, the theories of valence and structure expounded by
Kekul6 10 and others paved the way for the extremely rapid advances of the
next fifty years.
During the first half of the nineteenth century, it gradually was realized that
the essential difference between inorganic and organic compounds is that the latter
always contain carbon. Gmelin 11 was the first to state this fact in 1848. At the
present time, the number of carbon compounds synthesized in the laboratory
far exceeds number isolated from organic products, and the phrase chemistry
of the compounds of carbon would'-be more accurate than organic chemistry.
The latter term, however, is less cumbersome ,and is used almost universally.
The study of the chemical reactions taking place in living organisms now is
termed biochemistry.
Differences Between Inorganic and Organic Compounds
Actually there are more cogent reasons for considering the chemistry of
carbon compounds as a separate branch of chemistry than their derivation
from organic sources or the presence of carbon. First the physical properties of
nonsalts, which include most organic compounds, differ sharply from the
physical properties of salts, the most numerous class of inorganic compo.unds
(Table I). Then the reactions of most salts in solution are almost instantaneous
USUAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SALTS AND NONSALTS
High melting point (above 700°)
Nonvolatile
Insoluble in nonaqueous liquids
Soluble in water
Conduct electric current in molten
state and in solution
NONSALTS
Low melting point (under 300°)
Distill readily
Soluble in nonaqueous liquids
Insoluble in water
Solutions and melts are nonconducting
whereas those of nonsalts usually are slow. Also the number of known compounds that contain carbon is about ten times the number that do not contain
carbon. Finally the concept of structure or the way in which the atoms are
bound together is essential for an understanding of organic chemistry.
10 Friedrich August Kekule (1829-1896), professor at the Universities of Ghent and Bonn.
He extended the type theory and laid the foundations of structural theory in organic chemistry.
It seems significant that before becoming interested in chemistry, he was a student of
architecture.
11 Leopold Gmelin (1788-1853), professor of medicine and chemistry at the University of
Heidelberg, originator of Gmelin's Handbuch der Chemie, now in its eighth edition, and
member of a family noted for the large number and long line of prominent chemists it contained, beginning with Johann Georg Gmelin, born in 1674.
'.~
Bond Types. The explanation for these differences can be found in the different
types of bonds in the two groups of compounds,12 and a brief review of the
qualitative aspects of the electron theory of bond formation may be of value.
Since organic chemistry is concerned chiefly with the elements in the first three
periods of the periodic table, the discussion is limited to these elements. According to the electronic theory, atoms consist of positive nuclei surrounded by a
number of negative electrons equal to the positive charge on the nucleus (the
atomic number). These electrons group themselves in a first shell with a maximum of two electrons (K shell), a second shell with a maximum of eight electrons
(L shell), and a third shell with a maximum of eighteen electrons (M shell).
A somewhat more detailed picture represents the electrons as distributed in a definite way in
orbitals and groups of orbitals. Strictly speaking, an orbital is the mathematical expression
describing the behavior of an electron moving in the vicinity of a positively charged nucleus.
For a qualitative pictorial discussion of bonding, it is sufficient to think of orbitals as preexisting
regions in space about atomic nuclei in which electrons, ifpresent, are most like~y to be found; that
is, the system electron-nuclei will be most stable when the electrons are in these regions (cf.
p. 9). The groups of orbitals are known as shells, and within a shell there are subshells. The
K shell consists of a single orbital, the Is orbital. The L shell consists of four orbitals: a subshell
known as the 2s orbital, and a subshell of three orbitals known as the 2p~, 2py, and 2p z orbitals.
The numerals 1,2,3,4,5,6, and 7, called the principal quantum numbers, designate the shell or
principal energy levels of the electrons just as do the letters K, L, M, N, 0, P, and Q. They
indicate more, however, in that the number of subshells in a shell is equal to the principal
quantum number, and the total number of orbitals in a shell is equal to the square of the
principal quantum number. Thus the M shell with the principal quantum number 3 contains
three subshells and nine orbitals-one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d orbitals. The N shell contains
four subshells and sixteen orbitals-one 4s, three 4p, five 4d, and seven 4f orbitals.
Because of the attraction of the positive charge on the nucleus, electrons occupy an orbital
as close to the nucleus as possible. Hence there is a greater tendency to occupy a Is orbital than
a 2s orbital, and a 2s orbital than a 2p orbital. However, no more than two electrons can
occupy a given orbital, and even this condition is possible only if the electrons have opposite
spin, that is, if they are affected in opposite ways by a magnetic field. If more than one electron
is available for a given set of p orbitals which are equidistant from the nucleus, the electrons
usually do not pair but occupy separate orbitals until each of the three p orbitals has at least
one electron. Hence the pairing of electrons does not contribute to the stability of the atom but
merely is permissive if the electrons have opposite spins. This behavior may be summarized by
two important rules for the distribution of electrons in orbitals: (1) no orbital can contain more
than two electrons and these electrons must have opposite spin (Pauli exclusion principle); (2)
two electrons usually do not occupy a given orbital in a subshell until all of the orbitals of the
subshell have at least one electron (Hund rule).
The distribution of the electrons for the elements in the first three periods is given in Table 2. _
In accordance with the Hund rule, the carbon atom has two unpaired electrons in two p
orbitals, and nitrogen has three unpaired electrons in the three p orbitals. Pairing of electrons
in the p orbitals does not begin until oxygen, which has one pair in one p orbital and an unpaired
electron in each of the two remaining p orbitals. The number of unpaired electrons decreases
to one for fluorine and none for neon. The elements of the third period have no electrons in
the 3d orbitals although these orbitals are available for bonding purposes and may be used in
complex ion formation, or electrons may be promoted into them in excited states. There are
no Ip orbitals corresponding to the 2p and 3p orbitals, and no Id or 2d orbitals corresponding
to the 3d orbitals.
It is known that atoms with filled electron shells, such as helium and neon,
are extremely inert. If the outside shell is incompletely filled, it is conceivable
that an atom could acquire one or more electrons from another atom or atoms,
12 The differences in physical properties do not depend so much on bond type as on the atomic
arrangement and the distribution of the bonds. However there is some correlation between
bond type and type of atomic arraI!gement.
DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRONS FOR THE GROUND STATE OF ELEMENTS OF THE
FIRST THREE PERIODS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
2p~
SECOND PERIOD
2px .•. z
3px .•. ,
THIRD PERIOD
provided that the transfer would lead to an energetically more stable arrangement. The tendency of atoms to fill incomplete shells varies with the ability to
attract electrons. This tendency is called the electronegativity of the atom or
better its electron-affinity (cf. p. 117). In a given period the electron-affinity of
atoms increases from left to Tight because the increasing nuclear charge pulls
all of the electrons closer to the nucleus, the attraction being greater the closer
the electron shells are to the nucleus. Thus a nitrogen nucleus with a charge of
7 pulls the K shell of electrons closer to it than does a carbon nucleus with a
charge of +6. Hence the electrons in the periphery of a nitrogen atom also will
be able to come in closer to the nucleus and be held more strongly than those
of a carbon atom. However, the electron-affinity decreases from top to bottom
of a given column of the periodic table. Although the nuclear charge increases
greatly with each succeeding atom, the effective charge operating on the
peripheral electrons remains the same while the electrons are removed one
shell away from the nucleus. For example, one may consider that the charge
operating on the four electrons in the outer shell of carbon is +4, because two
of the nuclear charges are neutralized by the two electrons in the K shell. For
silicon, ten of the nuclear charges are neutralized by the ten electrons in the K
and L shells, again leaving an effective charge of +4 for the four electrons in
the M shell. Since the M shell of silicon is much farther from the nucleus than
the L shell of carbon, the attraction of the nucleus for electrons in the outer
shell is much less for silicon than for carbon. Therefore the ease offilling electron
shells by acquiring electrons from other atoms increases from leji to right and
decreases from top to bottom of the periodic table.
In the extreme case of two elements at opposite sides of the periodic table,
such as sodium and chlorine, the attraction of the chlorine atom for electrons
is much greater than that of the sodium atom; that is, the energy liberated
when the last orbital of chlorine is filled is much greater than the energy required
to remove an electron from the sodium atom. The result is that the sodium
atom transfers its electron to the chlorine atom to give a chloride ion with a
negative charge and a sodium ion with a positive charge (Fig. 1). In a mixture
of sodium ions and chloride ions, the positive ions would exhibit a strong
attraction for negative ions and the negative ions for positive ions. The attraction
obeys Coulomb's law, varying inversely with the square of the distance; hence
as the ions approach each other closely, the attractive forces become very large.
In solid sodium chloride, the size of the ions permits them to group themselves
so that each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions and each chloride
ion by six sodium ions to give solid sodium chloride. This type of bond is
known as an electrovalence, or as an ionic bond.
Fig. 1. Electronic representation of (a) the sodium atom, (b) the chlorine atom,
(c) the sodium ion, and (d) the chloride ion.
When there is less difference between the attractions of two atoms for
insufficient energy is liberated when an electron is transferred from
one atom to the other to make the new arrangement more stable than the old
one. In the extreme case of two like atoms, such as two chlorine atoms, any
energy gained by one atom acquiring an electron from the other would be offset
by the energy necessary to remove the electron from the other atom. Yet it is
known from experiment that chlorine is a diatomic molecule. Therefore there
must be a second way in which bonds can be formed. Apparently a considerable
amount of energy is liberated when the unpaired electrons of two chlorine atoms
occupy the shells of both chlorine atoms. This process has been called a sharing
of electrons and is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 2. In the alternative
simplified formula, the symbol for the element represents the nucleus with the
inner full shells of electrons, and only the electrons in the outermost shell, the
so-called valence electrons, are indicated. Since each atom has gained as much
charge as it has lost, the molecule as a whole is electrically neutral. This type
of bond is known as a covalence, or as a covalent or electron-pair bond, and
occurs for the most part between atoms containing four or more electrons in
the valence shell.
Just as a chlorine molecule consists of two chlorine atoms sharing one pair
of electrons, the water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms, each pairing
one electron with one of the two unpaired electrons of an oxygen atom (Fig. 3).
Since the K shell is filled when it contains two electrons, the hydrogen atoms
have stable electronic arrangements, as does the oxygen atom with eight
electrons in its L shell. Similarly in the ammonia molecule, three hydrogen
electron~,
atoms are joined by covalent bonds to a nitrogen atom, and in carbon tetrachloride, four chlorine atoms to a carbon atom.
X·
H;.,N:<H
Cl;' C
·X
Ammonia, NH.
Carbon tetrachloride, CCI 4
In the above formulas, and occasionally throughout the text, different marks
are used to differentiate between the sources of the electrons forming the bonds.
••
:CI~CI~
, )
H~ 0 :
Fig. 2. Electronic representation
chlorine molecule.
, Fig. 3. Electronic representation of
the water molecule
For example, in the ammonia molecule the dots represent the valence electrons
which belonged originally to the nitrogen atom and the crosses those which
belonged to the hydrogen atoms. Since electrons are all alike and constantly
are interchanging (electronic interaction), there is no distinction between them
once the bond is formed. The above representation is justified only in that it
simplifies the procedure in keeping track of electrons when writing formulas
representing electronic structures.
The difference in properties between the typical salt, sodium chloride, and
the typical nonsalt, carbon tetrachloride, now can be explained. In solid sodium
chloride there are no individual NaCl molecules. The crystal is composed of
positive sodium ions each surrounded by six negatively charged chloride ions,
and negative chloride ions each surrounded by six positively charged sodium
ions. Strong electrostatic forces hold the ions together, and high temperatures
are required to cause melting or volatilization. In carbon tetrachloride, however,
the CCl 4 molecule is a distinct entity which is electrically neutral. The bonds
between the carbon and the chlorine atoms are strong, but only relatively weak
attractive forces exist between the individual molecules. Since only a small
amount of energy is required to separate the molecules, carbon tetrachloride
is a liquid at room temperature and is vaporized easily.
Molecular Orbitals and Covalent Bonds. The covalent or electron-pair bond, when first
considered, seems to be definitely anomalous. Electrons can only repel each other, and the
pairing of electrons cannot account for the liberation of energy when a covalent bond is formed.
Yet the hydrogen molecule is more stable than two hydrogen atoms by 103 kcaI. per mole. The
explanation appears to be that the two positive nuclei of the hydrogen atoms can act as a
combined nucleus having a charge of +2. An electron encompassing both nuclei will be held
more strongly than if it encompassed a nucleus with a charge of + 1. Hence the electron
occupies a new orbital encompassing both nuclei and energy is liberated. Since orbitals of this
type are responsible for the formation of molecules, they are called molecular orbitals. Like the
atomic orbitals, they obey the Pauli exclusion principle in that a second electron can occupy
the same molecular orbital and increase the bond strength provided the two electrons have
opposite spins, but a third electron must occupy an orbital of higher energy.
Direction of Bond Orbitals. Atomic orbitals are considered as the regions in space where an
electron is most likely to be (p. 5). This region also is one of high probability when an electron
occupies a molecular orbital. Therefore the more nearly the individual atomic orbitals can
coincide or overlap with each other, the greater the tendency for an electron to occupy a
molecular orbital and the stronger the bond.
The atomic orbitals have a definite distribution in space. The s orbitals are spherically
symmetrical about the nucleus as illustrated in perspective in Fig. 4a, and in cross section
through the nucleus in Fig. 4b. The ability to overlap other atomic orbitals is the same in all
Fig. 4. Representation of the atomic Is orbital (a) in perspective and
(b) in cross section through the nucleus.
directions. In these figures no attempt is made to indicate the radial distribution of the electron
lithin the orbital but only the rt'latively small region in space which the electron occupies most
f the time. Several methods may be used to illustrate the distribution of the electron about the
ucleus. Visually one may think of the electron as moving randomly in all directions but being
lore frequently in some places than in others. Suppose one could locate the electron at a
articular moment and place a dot at that point in space and could do this repeatedly after
qual intervals of time. Then after many such operations, the relative density of the dots would
~present the probability of finding the electron in space. This relative density is called the
harge distribution or charge cloud of the electron. Fig. 5a represents the cross section of such
Fig. 5. Representations of the distribution of _ Qlcctron about a hydrogen nucleus.
a cloud formed by an electron in the Is orbital of the hydrogen atom. The charge density is
distributed spherically about the nucleus but decreases with increasing distance from the
nucleus. This picture does not indicate how much of the charge is at a particular distance from
the nucleus. Thus although the charge density is greatest close to the nucleus, the volume
occupied by a thin shell is very small, and only a small fraction of the total charge is present.
Similarly at great distances from the nucleus, a shell of equal thickness has a large volume, but
the density is so small that again a negligible fraction of the charge is present. Figure 5b
illustrates the variation in the amount of charge, e, on a uniformly charged shell with increasing
distance, r, from the nucleus. The maximum of the curve is at 0.529 A, the radius of the
old Bohr orbit. For most purposes it is sufficient to represent the orbital by a boundary surface
or by a cross section of the surface. This surface is chosen to enclose the space in which the
charge density is greatest and in which most of the charge is contained.
(al
(bl
Fig. 6. Representation of the a-type molecular orbital of the hydrogen molecule
(a) in perspective and (b) in cross section through the nuclei.
When two hydrogen atoms bond to form the hydrogen molecule, their s orbitals overlap, and
the pair of electrons encompasses both nuclei as indicated in Fig. 6. This new orbital which
describes the time-average position of the bonding pair of electrons is the new molecular orbital.
Since it is symmetrical about the line joining the two nuclei, it resembles an s orbital and is
called a a (sigma)-type orbital. The bond formed when a pair of electrons occupies a molecular
orbital that results from the overlapping of two s orbitals is called an s-s bond.
For elements in the second period the Is orbital shrinks to a size proportional to the size of
the Is orbital of hydrogen divided by the atomic number. Thus the Is orbital of oxygen is about
one eighth the size of that of hydrogen. The Is orbital is surrounded by the 2s orbital, which
also is spherically symmetrical about the nucleus and bonds equally well in any direction.
The electrons of the 2p orbitals are most likely to be in regions resembling a dumb-bell as
illustrated in Fig. 7. These orbitals possess a nodal plane, that is, a plane in which the probability of finding the electron is zero. The three dumb-bells representing the three 2p orbitals
Fig. 7. Perspective representation of the p .. P., and p. atomic orbitals.
are oriented perpendicularly to each other in the x, y, and z directions. Hence elements using
p orbitals, such as oxygen and nitrogen, tend to form bonds making angles of 90 degrees with
each other. The p orbitals form stronger bonds than s orbitals because their projection away
from the nucleus permits greater overlap with other atomic orbitals. The bonding of two
hydrogen atoms with an oxygen atom to form a water molecule is shown in cross section in
:h. 1
ig. 8. The third p orbital of oxygen, containing a pair of electrons and extending above and
~low the plane of the paper, is indicated by the inner circle about the nucleus of the oxygen
:om. Thus when oxygen is linked to two other atoms, two of its six valence electrons are in
·type orbitals, two are in the 2s atomic orbital, and two are in the 2p atomic orbital. Although
Ie p orbitals make angles of 90 degrees with each other in the oxygen atom, the hydrogenxygen bonds in the water molecule actually make an angle of 105 degrees with each other as
lown by spectroscopic data. Similarly the nitrogen-hydrogen bonds in ammonia make angles
Fig. 8. (a) Atomic orbitals of hydrogen and oxygen. (b) Overlapping of atomic
orbitals to give two a-type molecular orbitals in the water molecule.
i[ 107 degrees with each other. The widening of the angle may be caused by the mutual
epulsion of the electrons in the bonds (steric effect) or of the induced like charges on the
lydrogen atoms resulting from the polarization of the bond (p. 197), or by the partial spa
lybridization of the bonds (see below). The electrostatic repulsions would seem to be most
mportant, because in hydrogen sulfide and phosphine, where the hydrogen atoms are farther
Iway from the nucleus and hence farther apart, the bond angles are found to be 92 degrees and
19 degrees.
Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals. From the distribution of the electrons in the ground state
If the atom as given in Table 2, p. 6, it might be expected that beryllium and other elements
If Group II would be inert or could form only ionic bonds, because both valence electrons are
laired in the 25 orbital. As far as the members of the lla "group are concerned, they do form
:ompounds which are largely ionic. The elements zinc, cadmium, and mercury" of the lIb
Fig. 9. Cross section of (a) a single sp hybrid atomic orbital and (b) two sp hybrid orbitals.
~roup, however, form compounds in which the atom is largely dicovalent. The explanation is
:hat the 2s orbital can combine with one 2p orbital to give two sp hybrid orbitals (Fig. 9), each
)fwhich can accommodate two electrons. These sp hybrid orbitals make an angle of 180 degrees
Nith each other and can overlap other atomic orbitals better than can p orbitals. The result is
:hat the energy liberated during bond formation exceeds that necessary to promote the electrons
~o the hybrid orbitals. Electron diffraction data have shown that the halides of zinc, cadmium,
and mercury are linear in the vapor phase. Hybridization of two atomic orbitals is called
digonal hybridization.
Referring again to Table 2, p. 6, one might expect that boron would be monovalent and
carbon divalent. However, the 2s orbital and two 2p orbitals can undergo trigonal hybridization
for the purposes of bond formation to give three new orbitals designated as Sp2 orbitals. The
superscript indicates that two p orbitals are involved. These three hybrid orbitals make angles
of 120 degrees with each other and hence lie in a plane (Fig. 10). Boron forms tricovalent
compounds, and the boron halides have been shown to be planar with 120 degree bond angles.
Fig. 10. Cross section of (a) a single Sp2 hybrid atomic orbital and
(b) three Sp2 hybrid orbitals.
Finally the 2s orbital can hybridize with three p orbitals to give four Sp3 hybrid orbitals which
are tetrahedrally distributed, making angles of 109°28' with each other (Fig. 11). It is these
orbitals that are used by carbon when it is united to four other atoms.
,,:lv . /
----;,..,,:.'-..>:.::(%/;:,,:::::, .
'(,\';j;~i
-i}:.,;-;----;,.
,(0
Fig. 11. (a) Cross section of a single sp" hybrid atomic orbital;
(b) perspective of four Sp3 hybrid orbitals.
Solubility. The difference in bond type also explains the difference in solubility
behavior. Water is a polar compound; that is, when water molecules are placed
in an electric field, they tend to be oriented with the hydrogen atoms toward
the negative pole and the oxygen atom toward the positive pole. Because of
this orientation, the molecule appears to have a positive and a negative end
eh. 1
and is called a dipole. The dipole is believed to arise from several factors, but
primarily from the un shared electrons on the oxygen atom. When sodium
chloride is placed in contact with water, there is an attraction between the
positive sodium ion and the negative ends of water molecules, thus forming the
hydrated sodium ion. Similarly the negative chloride ion attracts the positive ends
of the water molecules (Fig. 12). Actually each water molecule is associated
with other water molecules (p. 87), and a considerable quantity of water is
affixed to each ion.
Water has a high dielectric constant, and when the water molecules come
between the sodium ions and the chloride ions, they decrease the electrostatic
lctions between the ions with the result that the ions separate, and the salt
Fig. 12. Hydrated sodium and chloride ions.
dissolves in the water. This solution conducts the electric current because the
ions are free to move, being insulated from each other by the water molecules.
Salts are insoluble in most organic liquids because the latter either are not
sufficiently polar, or do not possess a sufficiently high dielectric constant, or
the geometry may be such that the atoms giving rise to the dipole cannot get
sufficiently close to the ions for the forces to be effective.
Carbon tetrachloride is insoluble in water because there is no charge on the
molecule and no tendency for the carbon atom and the chlorine atoms to
separate as ions. Hence there is no strong attraction for water molecules.
Moreover water molecules have a relatively strong attraction for each other
(see association, p. 87) which prevents simple mixing or intermingling of
the water and carbon tetrachloride molecules. On the other hand, the carbon
tetrachloride molecules have no difficulty in mixing with the molecules of other
organic compounds, such as the molecules in gasoline, that likewise have little
attraction for each other.
Number of Organic Compounds. The large number of organic compounds
also can be explained by the electronic structure of the carbon atom, which places
it in the center of the second period. With four valence electrons, it is capable of
uniting with the maximum number of monovalent atoms or groups,13 and it is
able to form four strong covalent bonds not only with other kinds of atoms but
also with other carbon atoms indefinitely. Polyethylene, and many other high
13 This statement applies to atoms with a coordination number of four, that is, those having
a maximum covalence of four. Atoms in the third and higher periods can make use of d
orbitals (Table 2) and can combine with larger numbers of groups. They do not, however, bond
with themselves to the extent that carbon does.
molecular weight plastics, have a thousand or more carbon atoms linked to
each other chain-wise. Moreover the bonds formed by the carbon atom are
directed to the corners of a tetrahedron (pp. 12, 30), and three-dimensional
molecules and molecules having atoms joined in polygons are possible. Carbon is
unique because the other elements having four valence electrons, such as silicon,
germanium, and tin, have a decreasing attraction for their valence electrons
because of the increasing distance from the nucleus, and hence they are less
likely to form covalent bonds; that is, they become more like a metal. Moreover,
because of their larger size, the space relationships may be such that many
types of compounds known for carbon are unknown for the other elements.
It may be stated, then, that organic chemistry is based on two fundamental
principles: (1) carbon has a valence offour; that is, it is able to combine covalently
with four univalent atoms or groups of atoms; (2) carbon can unite with itself
indefinitely. These principles were discussed independently and almost simultaneously by Kekule and by Couper 14 in 1858, and formed the basis for the
development of structural organic chemistry. They were enunciated long before
chemists had any conception of the electronic nature of valence and were
developed purely from observations of the composition and chemical behavior
Isolation and Purification of Organic Compounds
Before any study can be made of an unknown compound, it first must be
isolated in a pure state. A number of processes are available for this purpose.
Distillation. Because of the small attractive forces between most individual
organic molecules, many organic compounds can be converted into the gaseous
state, without decomposition, by heating to a temperature at which the vapor
pressure becomes equal to the external pressllre. This temperature is known as
the boiling point of the liquid. The vapors may be forced into a cooling device
where they condense to the original liquid. The process is called distillation •
Fig. 13. Simple distillation apparatus.
14 Archibald Scott Couper (1831-1892), brilliant young Scottish chemist whose career was
cut short by illness in 1859. He was the first to pUblish formulas for organic compounds
comparable to present-day structural formulas.
simple distillation apparatus is shown in Fig. 13. The substance to be distilled
> placed in a distilling flask a and connected to a water-cooled condenser b.
thermometer c is placed in the neck of the flask to record the temperature
.t which the vapors distill.
Because the attraction between the molecules of one compound differs from
hat between the molecules of another, different organic compounds usually
listill at different temperatures. Hence distillation can be used not only to
eparate volatile organic compounds from nonvolatile materials but also
nixtures of organic compounds having different boiling points. To separate
ubstances whose boiling points are not far apart, it may be necessary to use
ractional distillation or an efficient fractionating column.
In fractional distillation, the mixture is distilled into a number of fractions.
~hese fractions usually differ in composition from the original material, the
ower-boiling fractions containing a higher percentage of the lower-boiling
ubstance (cf. p. 93). By a systematic redistiIIation of the fractions a further
eparation takes place, and the process is repeated until the desired degree of
epa ration has been achieved. A fractionating column is a device for bringing
.bout a more efficient separation than can be obtained in an ordinary distilling
lask. It consists of a tall column through which the vapors rise and a certain
Lmount of liquid, known as reflux, descends. As the hot vapors from the still
:ome into contact with the cooler descending liquid, a heat interchange takes
)lace. The vapors are cooled slightly and some of the higher-boiling constituents
:ondense. The heat of condensation given up to the reflux vaporizes a small
_J!4~.
_,t ~ __
PERFORATED PLATE
BUBBLE CAP PLATE
Fig. 14. Sections through three types of fractionating columns.
lmount of its lower-boiling constituents. Hence there is a gradual enrichment
)f the lower-boiling constituent in the vapors as they rise in the column, and
LD enrichment of the higher-boiling constituent in the reflux as it descends.
The operation of a fractionating column depends on intimate contact of the
iistilling vapors and the reflux, and many types of columns have been devised
o achieve this. There are two main classes of columns, the packed columns and
he plate columns, sections of which are illustrated in Fig. 14 Theoretically it
is not possible to separate two liquids completely by distillation. Even when
the difference in their boiling points is large, the higher-boiling constituent
always exerts its vapor pressure at the boiling point of tb.e other constituent
and some molecules of the higher-boiling constituent distill. For all practical
purposes, however, it is possible to separate by means of efficient fractionation,
liquids boiling as little as 3° apart.
If a mixture of equal amounts of ethyl alcohol, a colorless liquid boiling at 78°, and of
azobenzene, an orange solid boiling at 29T, is distilled from an ordinary distilling flask, even
the first distillate will be colored yellow by the azobenzene molecules that have come over with
the alcohol. despite the difference in boiling points of over 200°.
Distillation under reduced pressure, which frequently is called vacuum distillation, is used for high-boiling compounds to avoid the decomposition that might
take place at the high temperatures necessary to produce distillation at atmospheric pressure. Since substances distill as soon as their vapor pressures exceed
the pressure at the surface of the liquid, reducing the pressure enables the
substance to distill at a lower temperature. Steam distillation, consisting of
passing steam through the substance or distilling in the presence of water,
accomplishes the same purpose. Distillation takes place when the sum of the
vapor pressures of the compound and of water exceeds the pressure in the
distillation apparatus. This condition occurs at a lower temperature than for
either component alone.
Crystallization. This procedure is useful for the purification of organic solids,
just as it is an important method for salts. The solubilities of organic compounds
usually increase greatly with increasing temperature. Hence the usual method
of crystallization consists in making a saturated solution at the boiling point
of the solvent and then cooling to room temperature or below. The pure
compound crystallizes, and the more soluble or less abundant impurities remain
in solution. A large variety of solvents is available, and the one most suitable
for the material being purified can be chosen.
Extraction. Extraction with solvents also is an important method for isolating
and purifying organic compounds. Solid mixtures are extracted with volatile
solvents that will extract the desired constituents and leave the undesired
constituents behind. Organic compounds can be separated from aqueous
solutions by shaking with a water-immiscible solvent which will dissolve more
of the desired material than will water. The organic compound passes into the
organic solvent, from which the compound can be recovered by evaporating or
distilling the solvent. Organic or inorganic salts can be separated from nonsalts
by shaking the mixture with water and an organic solvent, the salt dissolving
in the water and the nonsalt in the organic solvent.
Adsorption. Selective adsorption at the surfaces of solids is important for
removing impurities and for separating mixtures of compounds having similar
physical properties. Activated charcoal (decolorizing carbon) is used widely to
remove colored impurities of high molecular weight from liquids or solutions.
In another procedure a solution of the mixture of compounds is passed through
a column of activated aluminum oxide or one of numerous other solid adsorbents,
and the column is eluted with suitable solvents. The components of the mixture
usually pass down the column at different rates, dependent on their relative
adsorbability, and are separated. This process first was applied to a mixture of
leaf pigments (p. 863) which separated as colored bands on the white alumina.
lIence the procedure was called chromatography, a term now used for all types
of separations using a column of a solid adsorbent. Separations of mixtures of
ions in aqueous solution can be made using ion-exchange resins (p. 513) as
the adsorbent. .
Since 1952 a process called gas-liquid partition chromatography has been used
to separate complex mixtures of volatile compounds. The mixture in an inert
carrier gas such as nitrogen or helium is passed through a column of diatomaceous
earth coated with a thin film of a nonvolatile liquid. The components of the
mixture are carried through the column at rates dependent on their relative
solubility in the stationary liquid. Surprisingly sharp separations can be obtained
using very small samples. A 4-foot column can be as effective as a 1200-plate
fractionating column.
Criteria of Purity. Pure substances distill at a constant temperature; hence
constancy of boiling point is a good criterion of purity. Pure solid compounds
usually melt over a very narrow range of temperature which is characteristic of
the compound. Since these melting points are relatively low, they may be
determined easily and form a second criterion of purity. Other useful criteria
are density, refractive index, solubilities in various solvents, and absorption spectra
(pp. 38 and 657).
Analysis of Organic Compounds for the Elements
Qualitative Tests. After a compound has been isolated in a pure state, any
investigation of it must begin with the identification of the elements present.
Qualitative tests for the elements depend almost exclusively on reactions of ions ..
Since the elements in organic compounds usually are not present in ions, other
types of tests must be devised, or the organic compounds must be converted
into ionizable salts. Both methods of attack are used. Carbon and hydrogen
may be detected readily by heating the unknown in a test tube with dry copper
oxide powder and passing the evolved gases into a solution of barium hydroxide.
The hydrogen is burned to water, which collects in droplets on the cooler portion
of the test tube and may be observed visually. The carbon is burned to carbon
dioxide, which reacts with the barium hydroxide solution to give a precipitate
of barium carbonate.
Several methods are available for converting other elements into detectable
ions, but the procedure most commonly used is to heat the compound with
molten sodium. This process is known as sodium fUSion. Sulfur is converted to
sodium sulfide, halogen to sodium halide, and nitrogen, in the presence of carbon,
to sodium cyanide.
Organic compound containing
C, H, N, S, Xl.
Na fusion
NaCN
Na.S
An aqueous solution of the ions is obtained by decomposing with water.
le cyanide ion may be converted to insoluble ferric ferrocyanide (Prussian
lle) by heating a portion of the aqueous solution with ferrous and ferric
The symbol X is used to indicate chlorine, bromine, or iodine.
sulfate in alkaline solution. Addition of hydrochloric acid dissolves the iron
hydroxides and leaves the blue precipitate.
18 NaCN
+ 3 FeSO. + 2 Fe.(SO.)a
Fe.[Fe(CN)61a
+ 9 Na.SO.
Sulfide ion is detected readily by acidifying the solution with acetic acid,
heating to drive off hydrogen sulfide, and allowing the vapors to come in contact
with a solution of lead acetate on filter paper. A dark, lustrous spot of lead
sulfide will form if sulfide ion is present.
+ 2 HC.HaO.
Pb(C2H a0 2)2 + H 2S
---+
+ 2 NaC.H30.
PbS + 2 HC.HaO.
H.S
To test for halide ion, the solution is boiled with nitric acid to remove cyanide
ion and sulfide ion, and then aqueous silver nitrate is added. If halogen is
present, a white, pale yellow, or deep yellow precipitate will be formed depending
on whether chlorine, bromine, or iodine is present.
+ AgNOa
+ NaNO a
Quantitative Analysis. The determination of the kind of elements present in
a new compound under investigation is followed by the determination of the
relative amounts of the elements. Carbon and hydrogen are estimated by a
procedure perfected by Liebig, which is based on the same principle used for
qualitative detection, namely combustion to carbon dioxide and water. The
apparatus and the functions of the various parts are given in Fig. 15.
r---T-----------,
Fig. 15. Apparatus for the determination of carbon and hydrogen: a, source ofaa or oxygen;
b, tube packed with solid absorbent containing sodium hydroxide for removing carbon dioxide,
and a second solid absorbent such as anhydrous magnesium perchlorate or activated alumina
for removing water; c, copper oxide gauze to oxidize vapor diffusing backward; d, porcelain or
platinum boat containing weighed sample and heated by sectional combustion furnace (dotted
lines); e, packing of copper oxide wire heated to 600°_800°; f, clean copper gauze to reduce
oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen; g, weighed tube containing water absorbent; h, weighed tube
containing carbon dioxide absorbent backed by water absorbent; i, safety tube packed with
water absorbent and carbon dioxide absorbent to prevent diffusion of atmospheric moisture
and carbon dioxide into h.
The combustion is carried out in a glass tube packed with copper oxide,
which is maintained at 600°-800° by means of an electrically- or gas-heated
furnace to insure complete oxidation of the organic matter. The tube first is
swept out with purified air to remove moisture and carbon dioxide, and then
the weighed sample is burned completely to carbon dioxide and water. The
gases from the combustion tube are passed through an absorption train, which
consists of a tube containing a water absorbent, a tube containing a carbon
dio'xide absorbent, and a safety tube containing an additional quantity of the
water and carbon dioxide absorbents. After the initial decomposition, a slow
stream of purified air or oxygen is passed through the tube to complete the
combustion. At the end of the combustion the apparatus is swept out with
purified air to drive all the carbon dioxide and water into the absorption tubes.
The increases in weight of the first and second absorption tubes g and h of
Fig. 15 give the weights of water and carbon dioxide respectively. From these
data and the weight of the original substance, the per cent of hydrogen and of
carbon can be calculated.
The Dumas method is the most important for the determination of nitrogen
because it can be used for any type of nitrogen compound. The apparatus is
illustrated in Fig. 16. The weighed sample mixed with powdered copper oxide
is placed in a tube which can be swept out with pure carbon dioxide. When the
section containing the sample and copper oxide is heated, the sample is burned
to carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen, and the gases passed over more hot
Fig. 16. Apparatus for the determination of nitrogen (Dumas): a, source of pure carbon
dioxide; b, copper oxide wire; c, weighed sample mixed with copper oxide powder and heated
by sectional combustion furnace (dotted lines); d, copper oxide wire heated to 600°-800°;
e, clean copper gauze to reduce oxides of nitrogen to nitrogen; f, nitrometer containing 50 per
cent aqueous potassium hydroxide solutiQn;g, leveling bulb and potassium hydroxide reservoir;
h, mercury valve.
copper oxide to insure complete combustion. Any oxides of nitrogen that form
are reduced to nitrogen by passing the gases over clean copper gauze. At the
end of the combustion, the tube is swept out again with carbon dioxide. The
gases are passed into a nitrometer tube filled with 50 per cent potassium hydroxide
solution,16 which absorbs the carbon dioxide and leaves the nitrogen. The
volume of nitrogen is measured and the temperature and barometric pressure
noted. The vapor pressure of the potassium hydroxide solution is obtained
from a table and subtracted from the barometric pressure. From these data
the weight of nitrogen and the per cent in the sample can be calculated.
In the Kjeldahl method a weighed sample is heated with concentrated sulfuric
acid and an oxidizing catalyst such as mercuric oxide, or copper sulfate and
selenium. The nitrogen in the sample is converted to ammonium sulfate. At
the end of the digestion, sodium hydroxide is added to liberate ammonia, which
16 Potassium hydroxide is used instead of sodium hydroxide because potassium carbonate is
soluble in conCeotrated potassium hydroxide solution, whereas sodium carbonate is insoluble
in concentrated sodium hydroxide solution and would precipitate.
is distilled into a measured volume of standard acid. Back titration with standard
alkali, using methyl red as an indicator, gives the amount of ammonia formed.
The procedure lends itself to routine analyses of large numbers of samples and
is very useful for those types of compounds for which it gives accurate results.
However, some compounds evolve nitrogen or do not decompose completely
during the digestion, and the results are low.
The only ~pecial feature in the quantitative determination of other elements
is the necessity of converting them into ionized compounds. In the determination
of sulfur, halogen, or phosphorus, for example, the compound may be fused in
a Parr bomb with sodium peroxide, which burns the carbon and hydrogen to
carbon dioxide and water, and converts halogen, sulfur, and phosphorus into
the alkali halide, sulfate, and phosphate. Alternatively the compound may be
oxidized with nitric acid in a sealed tube at elevated temperature (Carius
method). When the conversion to the inorganic salts has been effected, the usual
quantitative methods, gravimetric or volumetric, may be employed. No method
for the direct estimation of oxygen is in general use. As a result this element is
determined as the difference between 100 per cent and the sum of the per cents
of the other elements.
The quantity of material needed for an analysis depends on the experience
of the operator, on the apparatus, and on the sensitivity of the balance available.
Macroanalyses use from 0.1 to 0.2 g. of substance, semimicroanalyses use from
0.01 to 0.02 g., and microanalyses use from 0.003 to 0.005 g. In each case a
balance must be used that is accurate to four significant figures.
Empirical Formulas. From the analyses the relative proportion by weight of
the various elements present may be calculated, but for convenience the results
are expressed as an empirical formula which shows the relative number of
different atoms in the molecule. To calculate the empirical formula, the per
cent of each element is divided by its atomic weight. The result usually is in the
form of fractions, and it is customary to convert these fractions into ratios of
whole numbers.
The following example illustrates the general method for determining an
empirical formula from analyses.
A sample weighing 0.1824 g. gave on combustion 0.2681 g. of carbon dioxide and 0.1090 g.
of water.
WeIght of carbon In sample = 0.2681 x 44 = 0.07312 g.
Weight of hydrogen in sample = 0.1090 x
Per cent carbon
= 0.1824- x 100 = 40.09
Per cent hydrogen in sample
Per cent oxygen in sample
Per cent
:a = 0.01211 g.
0.1824 x 100
(40.09 + 6.64) = 53.27
The empirical formula therefore is CHzO.
Atomic ratio
in integers
Molecular Formulas. Usually a determination of the empirical formula
identifies an inorganic compound. For most organic compounds, however, the
empirical formula is less definitive. One reason for this difference is that several
organic compounds may have the same empirical formula but differ in molecular
weight. Thus formaldehyde, acetic acid, lactic acid, and glucose all have the
empirical formula CH 20, but their molecular formulas, that is, formulas
indicating not only the ratio but also the number of atoms in the molecule, are
respectively CH 20, C 2H 4 0 2 , C 3 H 6 0 3 , and C 6 H 120 6 • Molecular formulas
represent the composition of the compound. The importance of determining
molecular weights was brought to the attention of chemists by Cannizzaro in
1860, although the basis for their determination had been provided by Avogadro
in 1811 (p. 3).
Several methods for determining molecular weights are available. The Dumas.
method, which still is one of the most accurate, is suitable only for gases and
low-boiling liquids. A glass bulb of known volume is weighed when it is completely evacuated, and when it is filled with gas. From the weight of the known
volume of gas at the observed temperature and pressure, the weight of 22.4
liters at 0° and 760 mm. can be calculated.
In the Victor Meyer 17 method, which is suitable for easily volatilized substances,
a known weight of the compound is vaporized in a closed system and the
volume of air displaced is measured. The apparatus is illustrated in Fig. 17.
c __
Z C
~~\-_}'1.:-::1
t;
Fig. 17. Victor Meyer apparatus for the
determination of molecular weights.
Fig. 18. Variation of the vapor pressure of
solvent and solution with temperature.
A liquid boiling higher than the sample is placed in the jacket a and boiled
uniformly until bubbles no longer are emitted from the outlet of the inner
chamber b, indicating that temperature equilibrium has been reached. The
eudiometer tube c is placed over the outlet, the sample d introduced through a
device e into the chamber b, and heating continued until equilibrium again is
17 Victor Meyer (1848-1897), professor of chemistry at the University of Heidelberg. He is
remembered not only for the apparatus which bears his name but also for his work on steric
hindrance (p. 549), aliphatic nitro compounds (p. 258), oximes (p. 210), thiophene (p. 606),
and iodoso compounds (p. 436).
reached. The volume of air collected is that which the substance would occupy
if it were a gas at the same temperature and pressure at which the volume of
the displaced air was measured.
Two methods which are more generally applicable than those given above
are known as the cryoscopic or freezing point method, and the ebullioscopic or
boiling point method. They depend on the effect of a nonvolatile solute on the
vapor pressure of the solvent. This effect may be illustrated by the curves in
Fig. 18. Curve bc represents the vapor pressure of the pure solvent in the liquid
phase and curve ab that of the solid phase. The vapor pressure of a solid is
lower than that of the liquid at the same temperature because the attractive
forces between molecules are greater in the closely packed crystal lattice than
in the liquid. It is this greater attraction that gives rise to the heat of fusion of
a solid. Since the vapor pressure is lowered by dissolved molecules of a substance
having negligible vapor pressure, the vapor pressure of the solution may be
represented by the curve de. The freezing point b of the pure liquid will be
lowered to d for the solution, the difference being b..t1 . The boiling point c for
the pure liquid will be increased to e for the solution, the difference being b..t 2 •
Since the lowering of the vapor pressure depends on the number of molecules
dissolved, one gram molecular weight of any nondissociating substance dissolved
in 1000 grams of a solvent will lower the melting point K/. p • degrees, called
the molal lowering of the freezing point of the solvent, or raise. the boiling point
K b. p • degrees, the molal elevation. of the boiling point. If W grams of a substance
of molecular weight M is dissolved in G grams of solvent,
!l=KMX
orM=Tt x G
The experimentally determined values of K for a few of tl:\e common solvents
are given in Table 3.
CRYOSCOPIC AND EBULLIOSCOPIC CONSTANTS
SOLVENl:
Exaltone
K,.".
K b .". (760 mm.)
In determining the molecular weights of unknown compounds, the boiling
point or freezing point is determined in a special apparatus (Figs. 19a and b),
first on the pure solvent and then on a solution of known concentration.
Knowing K, W, G, and /:;.t, the molecular weight M can be calculated. Because
the changes in the boiling point or melting point usually are small, a special
differential thermometer which measures small differences in temperature, such
as the Beckmann thermometer, or the Menzies- Wright thermometer, is used, and
relatively large amounts of material are needed. The molecular lowering of the
freezing point of camphor, however, js large, and since it is a solid, the melting
Fig. 19. (a), Freezing point apparatus. (b), Boiling point apparatus.
point lowering may be determined in a capillary tube using an ordinary thermometer (Fig. 20). This procedure is known as the Rast camphor method for
determining molecular weights.
Fig. 20. Capillary tube melting point. apparatus with enlarged view of sealed capillary
melting point tube.
Fig. 21. Signer molecular weight apparatus.
Another useful method for determining the molecular weights of compounds having a low
vapor pressure is known as the Signer method. It depends on the fact that equimolar solutions
of different nonvolatile substances in the same solvent have the same vapor pressure. A weighed
amount of a pure substance of known molecular weight is dissolved in .it solvent having a high
vapor pressure and placed in one leg of an iiwerted U-tube having legs of the same diameter
(Fig: 21). A weighed amount of the unknown compound dissolved in the same solvent is placed
in the other leg. The system is evacuated, sealed, and allowed to stand at a uniform temperature.
Solvent distills from the solution of higher vapor pressure to that of lower vapor pressure, and
when equilibrium is reached, the molar concentrations of the two solutions is identical. From
the relative volumes of the two solutions, obtained by measuring the heights of the columns of
liquid, the molecular weight of the unknown can be calculated. A modification of the apparatus
using a ground glass joint (1954) permits a more rapid attainment of equilibrium and avoids
the necessity of sealing the tubes.
The relative error of molecular weight determinations rarely is less than
±5 per cent, and the result of a combustion analysis usually is considered
acceptable if the absolute error is less than ±0.5 per cent. lS Hence it is difficult
to determine by analyses alone the exact molecular formulas of saturated
hydrocarbons (compounds containing carbon and the maximum amount of
hydrogen) having molecular weights greater than about 150. If other elements
are present, the differences in the per cent composition of compounds differing
by one carbon atom are considerably greater. Thus if a compound contains
carbon and hydrogen and one oxygen atom per molecule, empirical formulas
can be determined for compounds having molecular weights up to about 400
Analyses for the elements usually are more accurate than ordinary molecular
weight determinations, and the latter are used merely to determine whether the
molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula
Classification of Organic Compounds
The number of organic compounds known in 1948 has been estimated to be
around 1,000,000. The reasons for this large number have been given, namely
that a carbon atom is able to combine with four other atoms or groups of
atoms, and that carbon atoms are able to combine with each other indefinitely
to produce stable compounds. The possible number of compounds of carbon
is infinite. Because of this large number of compounds, it might seem that the
study of organic chemistry would be hopeless, but fortunately it is possible to
divide these compounds into a comparatively small number of groups or
families of compounds. Most members of each family may be prepared by
similar methods, and most members exhibit similar chemical behavior. Moreover
the individual members of each family differ from each other more or l~ss
regularly in their physical properties. The families, on the other hand, usually
differ from each other markedly in their chemical properties and are prepared
by different types of chemical reactions. Accordingly it is possible to concentrate
on the methods of preparation and reactions of the families of compounds,
and it is not necessary to discuss each member of a family. Special methods of
preparation and special reactions of individual compounds then can be considered
as additions or exceptions to the generalizations.
The numerous families may be grouped according to similarities in structure.
The three main classifications are (1) acyclic compounds, which contain no ring
18 Accuracy is expressed in terms of absolute error or relative error. The error of a measurement is the deviation from what is thought to be the true value. The absolute error is the
difference between the numerical value observed and tbe true value and is expressed in the units
used to express the numerical value. The relative error usually is expressed as the per cent
deviation and is the absolute error divided by the true value and multiplied by 100. For example
if a compound has a molecular weight of 200 g. and the observed value is 210 g., the absolute
error is 10 g. and the relative error is 5 per cent. If a compound contains 5.5 per cent hydrogen
and the value found is 5.3 per cent. the absolute error is 0.2 per cent and the relative error is
3.6 per cent
/,
structures of the atoms, (2) carbocyclic compounds, which contain rings made
up solely of carbon atoms, and (3) heterocyclic compounds, which contain
rings made up of more than one kind of atom. The acyclic compounds more
commonly are called aliphatic compounds from the Greek word aleiphatos
meaningfat, because the fats have this type of structure.
l. Define the term organic chemistry.
2. What date usually is considered ,as the time when the modern science of organic chemistry
began and why? When did it begin to be placed on a rational basis?
3. Give one significant contribution of each of the following men to the early development of
organic chemistry: Scheele, Lavoisier, Liebig, Cannizzaro, Victor Meyer, Berzelius, Dumas,
Woehler.
4. Discuss and give examples of the two common modes of bond formation between atoms.
5. List the important differences in the physical and chemical properties of most salts and
most nonsalts, give the primary reason for these differences, and tell how it explains them.
6. How does the number and complexity of the compounds of carbon compare with the
number and complexity of the compounds of other elements? Why is carbon unique in this
respect?
7. Discuss the solubility of sodium chloride in water, carbon tetrachloride, and gasoline, and
the mutual solubility relationships of the last three substances. Give an explanation of the
facts.
S. List the more important processes used to purify organic compounds.
9. What is the usual procedure for the purification of organic solids by crystallization?
10. What physical properties are most commonly used as criteria of purity for organic
compounds? Why are these criteria of little importance for inorganic salts?
J I. Give a sketch of the apparatus and a brief description of the usual method for determining
the per cent of carbon and of hydrogen in an organic compound.
12. Give a brief description of the Dumas method for determining nitrogen in an organic
compound.
13. Describe the Kjeldahl method for determining nitrogen in organic compounds. What are
its limitations?
14. Why is it necessary to determine the molecular weights of organic compounds? What is the
difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula?
15. Give the formula relating molecular weight to the lowering ofthe freezing point of a solvent,
together with the meaning of the symbols. How can the elevation of the boiling point be
used to determine molecular weights?
16. Given a new organic compound mixed with other substances, outline briefly the experimental steps necessary for determining the molecular formula of the compound.
17. Calculate the per cent composition of the compounds having the following molecular
formulas: (a) CaHs; (b) C.H.O; (c) C.HaClO; (d) CaH,NO; (e) C.HsN.; (f) C.H5NO.;
(g) CaH5BrO; (h) CaH.O,P; (i) CH,S;(j)C,H sCI 2S; (k) CH6BrN; (/) C,H.Br; (m) C.H6Hg;
(n) CaH.SiCl; (0) C.H.O,.
IS. Calculate the differences in the per cent of carbon and hydrogen for the following pairs of
compounds:
A. (a) C H a6 and C,sHas; (b) C H a6 0 and C,sHasO; (c) CaoH,sO and C31H500.
B. (a) C,6H a• and C H 34 ; (b) C16Ha.O and C 17 H a,O; (c) C.,H'60 and C.sH,sO.
C. (a) C,5H a• and C,.H a.; (b) C,5Ha.O and C,.Ha.O; (c) CaoH6'O and C 31 H.,O.
D. (a) C l4 H,. and C'5H14; (b) C,.H,.O and C,sH l4 O; (c) CaoHsoO and CaoHS20.
19. Calculate the volume of nitrogen that would be obtained at S.T.P. * when the stated weight
of the given compound is burned in a Dumas apparatus: (a) 0.044 g. of C 2 H,N; (b) 0.072 g.
of C.HsNO; (c) 0.104 g. of C 6H,N; (d) 0.035 g. of C 2 H 6N.; (e) 0.065 g. of CH.N.S.
Standard temperature and pressure; that is, 0° and 760 mm. of mercury.
20. Calculate the empirical formulas for the following compounds which contain X per cent
carbon, Y per cent hydrogen, Z per cent sulfur, and possibly oxygen:
21. For the following compounds which contain X per cent carbon, Y per cent hydrogen, and
possibly oxygen, and have the approximate molecular weight Z, calculate the molecular
formula of the compound and the exact molecular weight:
22. Calculate the approximate molecular weight of the compounds that gave the following
freezing point depressions when 0.310 g. was dissolved in 15 g. of benzene: (a) 1.582°;
(b) 1.196°; (c) 0.719"; (d) 0.384°.
23. Calculate the approximate molecular weight of the following compounds, X g. of which in
a Victor Meyer apparatus displaced Y cc. of air collected at 747 mm. pressure and 20° over
water (vapor pressure 17 mm. of mercury):
24. What is the minimum molecular weight of a compound that contains (a) 59.2 per cent
chlorine; (b) 35.6 per cent sulfur; (c) 11.6 per cent nitrogen; (d) 4.24 per cent copper?
25. An ether solution of 9.82 mg. of a pure compound having a molecular weight of 154 was
placed in one leg of the Signer apparatus, and in the other leg was placed an ether solution
of the unknown compound. After reaching equilibrium, the heights of the liquids in the
two legs were measured. If X was the weight of the unknown in milligrams, Y the height
of the liquid in the leg containing the known compound and Z the height of the liquid in
the leg containing the unknown compound, calculate the molecular weight of the following
•26. The following compounds contain carbon, hydrogen, and possibly oxygen. Combustion of
X g. gave Y g. of carbon dioxide and Z g. of water. Calculate the p€r cent composition and
the empirical formulas. When Mg. was vaporized in a Victor Meyer apparatus, the volume
of displaced air corrected to S.T.P. was N cc. What are the molecular formulas of the
compounds?
27. The following compounds contain carbon, hydrogen, bromine, and possibly oxygen.
Combustion of X g. gave Y g. of carbon dioxide and Z g. of water. Fusion of M g. with
sodium peroxide, acidification with nitric acid, and precipitation with silver nitrate gave
N g. of silver bromide. Calculate the empirical formulas of the compounds.
28. Combustion of X g. of a substance gave Y g. of carbon dioxide and Z g. of water. Combustion of M g. in a Dumas apparatus gave N cc. of nitrogen measured over 50 per cent
aqueous potassium hydroxide solution at 25° (vapor pressure of solution = 9 mm. of
mercury) and at 735 mm. atmospheric pressure. When U g. was dissolved in 25 g. of benzene,
the freezing point of the benzene Was lowered V degrees. Calculate the molecular formula
of the compound.
Several families of organic compounds exist which contain only hydrogen
and carbon in the molecule. They are known as hydrocarbons. The simplest
family of this group is known as the alkanes. For reasons which will become
apparent, they are known also as saturated hydrocarbons or paraffin hydrocarbons, or the methane series of hydrocarbons. All other families of the acyclic
or aliphatic series can be considered as derived from the alkanes, and hence a
knowledge of their properties and constitution is the best preparation for
further study.
The simplest member of this family of hydrocarbons contains only one
carbon atom and is called methane. It is a gas that liquefies at -161° and has
the composition and molecular weight corresponding to the molecular formula
CH4 • The next member boils at -89°, has the molecular formula C 2 H s, and is
called ethane. The third member, propane, C3 H s, boils at -42°. It is apparent
already that this family is a series of compounds having the general formula
C n H 2n+ 2 , in which one member differs from each adjacent member by one
carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms, that is, by CH 2 • Such a series is known
as a homologous series, and the members of the series are known as homologs
(Gr. homos, same, and logos, speech; i.e., related or similar).
The electronic structure of the carbon atom explains the composition of
these compounds and the existence of a homologous series. The carbon atom
has four electrons which it can pair with four electrons of other atoms. Since
only compounds of carbon and hydrogen are being considered, the simplest
compound would be that in which a single carbon atom had paired its four
electrons with the electrons of four hydrogen atoms to give the molecule
H ;. C
H, or CH 4 • If two carbon atoms are in the molecule, they must be
united to each other by a mutual sharing of electrons, . C
Co, because the
hydrogen atom with only one valence electron cannot combine with more than
one carbon atom. Six electrons remain to be paired by combination with six
hydrogen atoms to give the molecule H ;. C
H, or C 2H s. This process
amounts to introducing a CH 2 group between one of the hydrogen atoms and
the carbon atom in the methane molecule, or replacing a hydrogen atom by a
CH3 group. If three atoms of carbon are in the molecule, the formula would be
H : C : C : C : H, or CaHB•
In the last electronic formula no distinction has been made between the
electrons supplied by different atoms. This representation is less artificial than
the previous ones, since all electrons are identical. The important points to
observe when writing electronic formulas are that the total number of valence
electrons is correct, that all are paired, and that the valence shells of the atoms
are filled (two electrons for hydrogen and usually eight electrons for all elements
in the next two periods).
The operation of building hydrocarbons by applying the rules for valence
can be carried on indefinitely. Hence compounds should exist with the molecular formulas C4 H 10 ' CsHw or in fact any compound with the general formula
Cn H 2n+ 2 ; that is, n CH 2 groups plus two hydrogen atoms to satisfy the remaining
two un shared electrons. For alkanes having four or more carbon atoms, however, the situation becomes somewhat more complicated because two compounds are known having the same molecular formula C4 H10 . One boils at
_0.5°, and the other boils at -12°. Two or more compounds having the same
molecular formula but differing in at least one chemical or physical property
are known as isomers (Gr. isos, equal and meros, part; that is, having equal or
like parts), and the phenomenon is known as isomerism. It can be explained
readily on the basis of electronic formulas. As soon as more than three carbon
atoms are present, they can be arranged in more than one way. Four carbon
atoms, for example, can be joined consecutively to each other, or one carbon
atom can be united to the central atom of a chain of three atoms.
.C:C:C:C.
·C:C:C·
. C·
Pairing the remaining unpaired electrons with those of hydrogen atoms gives
the formulas
H H H H
H:C:C:C:C:H
H:C
C:H
HH:C:HH
Ordinarily the electron pair bond is represented by a dash, and the above
lIas may be written
I I I I
H-C-C-C-C-H
H-t~t~~-H
H-C-H
Since the atoms are arranged differently in the two molecules, they should
have different chemical and physical properties. The above two compounds are
known as butanes. The compound with the carbon atoms linked consecutively
in a chain is known as normal butane, and its isomer is called isobutane. Hydrocarbons having the carbon atoms linked in a continuous chain are called normal
or straight-chain hydrocarbons. If side chains or branches are present, as in
isobutane, they are known as branched-chain hydrocarbons. Formulas which
show not only the number of atoms in the molecule but also the way in which
they are united to each other are known as structural or graphic formulas.
The arrangement of the atoms in the molecule is referred to as the constitution
of the compound as distinguished from its composition as represented by its
molecular formula (p. 21).
If the formulas are written in a plane with the carbon bonds directed to the
corners of a square, more than one propane should be possible also; that is,
H 3 C- -H might be expected as well as HaC-r-CHa. Similarly a considerCHa
ably larger number of butanes should exist. Additional isomers, however, are
not known, and the existence of optical isomers, which can be explained only
by different arrangements in three dimensions (p. 335), led to the postulation
that the bonds of a carbon atom are directed to the corners of a regular tetrahedron, as shown by the formula for methane (Fig. 22a) (cf. p. 12). Stuart or
/ \\\ ,
'I'"
\ '
C~u
\_'"
Y.~
--------Ii
H--
_-
Ca)
Fig. 22. Space representations of methane: (a) tetrahedral;
(b) Stuart model; (c) ball and stick model.
Hirschfelder models (Fig. 22b) give the correct interatomic distances and the
distances of closest approach of different molecules as determined by X-ray
diffraction studies. It is difficult, however, to see the mode of linkage of atoms
in complicated molecules with this type of model, and the ball and stick type
(Fig. 22c) more commonly is used. On paper or on the lecture board the plane
formulas, which show only the order in which the atoms are linked to each
other, are most convenient.
With a tetrahedral arrangement of the carbon valences, all of the hydrogen
atoms in the ethane molecule are alike; that is, each bears exactly the same
space relationship to all the other atoms in the molecule (Fig. 23a). Hence
replacement of any hydrogen atom by another atom or group of atoms gives
only one new compound, and the two plane formulas for propane become
identical in the space formula (Fig. 23b).
( b)
Fig. 23. Space representations of (a) ethane and (b) propane.
For compounds of more than three carbon atoms, the tetrahedral distribution
of the valences might be thought capable of giving isomeric compounds even
for normal hydrocarbons. A five-carbon chain might be expected to exist in
numerous arrangements. In the examples illustrated in Fig. 24, only the carbon
Fig. 24. Possible arrangements of carbon atoms in a five-carbon chain.
skeleton is indicated. Actually no isomers corresponding to these different
arrangements have been detected. It is believed that all of the above arrangements and an infinite number of others exist in gases and liquids, but that,
because of essentially free rotation about a single bond, the various forms
interconvert at room temperature. The actual relative positions of the atoms at
any instant is referred to as the conformation of the molecule. Thus the same
molecule may have an infinite number of conformations, and a gas or liquid
of the same molecular species consists of a mixture of molecules of different
'and continually changing conformations. However, the molecules do have
preferred conformations in which they exist most of the time. Gaseous ethane,
for example, is believed to prefer the staggered position (Fig. 23a) because the
electron concentrations in the carbon-hydrogen bonds repel each other. It has
been calculated that the barrier to free rotation about the carbon-carbon bond
in the ethane molecule is about 3 kcal. per mole. This so-called energy barrier
is the energy required to rotate the methyl groups with respect to each other
sufficiently to bring the hydrogen atoms from the staggered position to the
opposed position. Once the hydrogen atoms reach this position, further rotation
of the methyl groups in the same or in the reverse direction returns the hydrogen
atoms to a more sta ble position with the liberation of the same amount of energy.
An energy barrier of 3 kcal. per mole is sufficient to ensure that most of the
molecules at any instant have the most stable conformation. However, an
energy barrier of at least 20 kcal. per mole is required to prevent thermal
interconversions, that is, to permit the independent existence of isomers, at
room temperature.
In the solid state the molecules are held in more or less fixed positions. Thus
X-ray diffraction has shown that in crystals of long-chain paraffin hydrocarbons
the molecules have the extended zigzag conformation (p. 40).
Besides the square and tetrahedral arrangements for carbon bonds, a pyramidal form could
be considered in which the carbon atom occupies the apex of a square pyramid, and the valences
are directed to the corners of the base (Fig. 25a). This structure has the same defect as the plane
Fig. 25. (a) Pyramidal structure for methane; (b) and (c) predicted
isomeric pyramidal structures for propane.
square in that the hydrogen atoms of methane could be replaced by two CHa groups in two
different ways giving rise to two prop"nes (Fig. 25b and c), whereas only one propane is known.
With these facts available, it is possible to predict the number of isomeric
alkanes having five carbon atoms. Three arrangements of the carbon atoms,
called carbon skeletons, are possible,
C-C-C-C-C,
C-C-C-C
C-~-C.
• They give rise to the three hydrocarbons
H-t-t-b-t-t-H
I I I I I '
H-1-t-t-~-H
HH-C-HH
HH-t-HH
H-t-t-t-H.
Actually three and only three compounds having the molecular formula C5 H12
are known. The compound to which the first structure has been assigned boils
at 36° and is called normal pentane, that having the second structure boils at
28° and is called isopentane, and that having the third structure boils at 9.5°
and is called neopentane (Gr. neos, new).
The above formulas are known as extended structural formulas. In order to
conserve space and time in writing, they usually are replaced by condensed
structural formulas, for example, CHa(CHz)aCHa, CHaCH 2CH(CHah or
C 2H 5.CH(CH3h, and qCH3)4'
Obviously each organic compound must have a name. The development of
nomenclature in organic chemistry always has followed the same pattern.
When only a few compounds of a particular type are known and before their
structures have been determined, they are given names usually indicative of
their source. These names are called trivial or common names. As more compounds of a series become known, an attempt is made to develop a more
systematic nomenclature which shows the relation of the new compounds to
the older ones. Finally an attempt is made to develop a truly rational system.
In the meantime, however, the older names have become established, and it is
difficult to replace them by new ones, with the result that the simpler compounds
usually have two or three names. Since all of these names are in more or less
general use and appear in the literature, it is necessary to become familiar with
them and to be able to use them interchangeably.
Common Names. In all systems names of the members of the alkane series
end in ane. The names of hydrocarbons having four carbon atoms or less may
be called common names because they are derived from the common names of
the alcohols having the same number of carbon atoms. Above C4 the names
become a little more systematic by using the Greek (or Latin) 1 prefix to indicate
the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
C l3
C I5
pentanes
heptanes
octanes
nonanes
decanes
undecanes
dodecanes
tridecanes
tetradecanes
pentadecanes
C 16-C19
C' 3
C 2CC ••
Ca2-C a.
C' O
eicosanes
heneicosanes
docosanes
tricosanes
triacontanes
hentriacontanes
tetracontanes
These names do not indicate the structures of the many isomers existing in
each case. When a second butane was found it was called isobutane, and the
third pentane became >leopentane, but new prefixes, if coined indefinitely, would
become difficult to remember. The term iso still is retained for all compounds
having a single carbon atom branch at the end of a straight chain. Thus isohexane is (CH 3 hCH(CH 2hCH 3 and isononane is (CH3 hCH(CH 2hCH 3 • The
term neo is used in this series only for neopentane and neohexane.
As Derivatives of Methane. The necessity for devising a system that could
be used for a larger number of isomers led to naming compounds as derivatives
of a simple compound. Thus any alkane can be considered as derived from
methane by replacing the hydrogen atoms by other groups of atoms. In isobutane
three hydrogens of methane have been replaced by three CH3 groups, and in
isopentane by two CH3 groups and one C 2 H5 group. In neopentane four
1 Most of the names are of Greek derivation, but the Latin combining form nona is used
almost universally instead of the Greek ennea. Similarly undecane is used more frequently than
hendecane. Purists object to these inconsistencies as they do to the use of terms such as mono-,
di-, tri-,. and tetravalent, where prefixes of Greek origin are used with a word of Latin origin.
Once a word becomes a part of a language, however, it is impractical, even if it were desirable,
to try to bring about changes in terminology merely to be consistent.
AU{YL GROUPS CoNTAINING UP TO FOUR CARBON ATOMS
STRUCTURE OF GROUP
CHa-
CHaCH2-
C.Hs-
CHaCH.CH.-
GENEVA NAME·
II-propyl
propyl
CHaCHCHa,
CH-,
i-propyl
(methylethyll
or (CH.hCH-
CHaCH.CH.CH.-
II-butyl
CH aCH.CHCH 3,
CH3CH.CH-,
s-butyl
(l-methylpropyl)
i-butyl
(2-methylpropyO
t-butyl
(dimethylethyl)
C.HsCHJH.
CHaCHCH.-
~H.
(CHahCHCH.-
CH 3C- or (CH a)3C-
~H3
• All isoalkyl names and also s-butyl, t-butyl, and neopentyl may be used as alternates for
the systematic names of alkyl groups_
h.2
rdrogens have been replaced by four CHa groups. If these groups are given
tmes, the compounds can be named as derivatives of methane. The groups
emselves are hydrocarbons less one hydrogen atom and are called alkyl
oups. They are named by dropping the ane of the alkane having the same
Imber of carbon atoms and adding yl. CHa is methyl and C2HS is ethyl.
obutane then becomes trimethylmethane, isopentane becomes dimethylhylmethane, and neopentane is tetramethylmethane. The prefix always is
tached directly to the name to give one word.
It is customary to make use also of groups containing three and four carbon
oms in order to name more complicated compounds. Since there are two
nds of hydrogen 2 in propane, there are two propyl groups, CH3CH 2CH 2ld CH 3CHCH 3 . In order to indicate more clearly the carbon atom which
cks a hydrogen atom, it is customary to attach a long dash. In a molecule
e group must be bonded to some other atom or group of atoms at this point. a
:) distinguish between the two propyl groups by name, they are called normal
opyl or n-propyl, and isopropyl or i-propyl, respectively. Two groups each
,n be derived from n-butane and isobutane. n-Butane gives rise to the n-butyl
oup, CH3(CH2)2CH2-' and a group CH aCH HCH 3 which is called
condary butyl (s-butyl) because the carbon atom which lacks a hydrogen
om is united directly to two other carbon atoms. Such a carbon atom is
lown as a secondary carbon atom. Isobutane gives rise to the isobutyl (i-butyl)
'oup, (CH3hCHCH 2- , and to the group (CH3hC-. Th~ latter is known as
rtiary butyl (t-butyl), because the carbon atom lacking a hydrogen atom is a
rtiary carbon atom; that is, it is united to three other carbon atoms. These
ght groups form the basis for the systematic naming of a large number of
Impounds. Their names and their structures must be memorized. Once this
IS been done the nomenclature of most organic compounds will be remarkably
mple. For convenience these groups and their names are collected in Table 4.
It is customary to name only branched alkanes as derivatives of methane.
I general the most highly branched carbon atom is considered to be the methane
trbon unless a less highly branched atom permits naming a smaller group.
hus compound (a) would be called trimethyl-i-propylmethane rather than
CHa-CH-t-CHa
CHa-CH
~Ha
2 This expression arises from the fact that the properties of an atom in a molecule depend
not only on the atom itself but also on the atom or atoms to which it is bonded. Thus it is
possible to distinguish a hydrogen atom bonded to carbon from one bonded to oxygen or
nitrogen. Likewise a hydrogen atom bonded to a carbon atom that in turn is joined to one
carbon atom and two other hydrogen atoms is different from a hydrogen atom bonded to a
carbon atom joined to two carbon atoms and one other hydrogen atom.
a In the past it has been customary to refer to these groups as radicals. The term radical,
however, has taken on the connotation of a free group such as a free radical, which has an
unpaired electron. Hence it is considered better to refer to the portions of a stable molecule as
dimethyl-t-butylmethane. On the other hand compound (b) could be named
methyl-i-propyl-t-butylmethane if the less highly branched carbon atom were
considered to be the methane carbon atom but would require a name for a ,
five-carbon group if the more highly branched carbon atom were chosen to
represent methane.
Geneva, I.U.C., or I.U.P.A.C. System. The system which names compounds
as derivatives of methane has the disadvantage that the eight groups given in
Table 4 still are not sufficient for naming the more complicated compounds.
This disadvantage is overcome to a considerable extent in the system adopted
by the International Congress held at Geneva, Switzerland, in 1892, which
has come to be known as the Geneva system. This system, as extended by the
meeting of the International Union of Chemistry at Liege in 1930 and of the
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry at Amsterdam in 1949 ':
and subsequently, attempts to cover all the more important phases of the nomenclature of organic chemistry.4 A summary of the rules for alkanes follows: 5
(1) The ending for alkanes is ane.
(2) The common names for the normal (straight-chain) hydrocarbons are
(3) Branched-chain hydrocarbons are regarded as derivatives of normal
hydrocarbons, the longest normal chain in the molecule being considered as
the parent hydrocarbon. If there are two or more chains of equal length, that
chain is selected which has the most branches, that is, the one which is the most
highly substituted.
(4) The carbon atoms of the parent hydrocarbon are numbered from the
end which gives the branched atoms the smaller numbers.
(5) The names of the branches or side chains are attached as prefixes directly
to the parent name. Their position is indicated by the number of the atom to
which they are attached. If two branches are on the same carbon atom, the
number is repeated. The numbers precede the groups and are separated from
the groups by hyphens. Consecutive numbers are separated from each other
~by commas.
(6) Alkyl groups containing more than four carbon atoms are named in the
same way as the alkanes except that the ending is yl, and the point of attachment
is numbered 1. The full name of the group is enclosed in parentheses (cf. Table
4, p. 34).
These rules and the other methods of nomenclature are illustrated in Table 5
by the names for the five isomeric hexanes and for a still more complicated
compound. The advantages of naming compounds as derivatives of parent
hydrocarbons are that it is easy to assign a name to every compound and to
write the formula from the name. Thus the structure for 2,2,5-trimethyl-3-ethylhexane is written by joining six carbon atoms in a row, numbering them from
1 to 6, attaching three methyl groups and an ethyl group at the proper positions,
and satisfying the remaining valences of the carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms.
~.
• After the revisions the system has been referred to by some as the I.U.C. system and then
the I.U.P.A.C. system, but most chemists still call the modified system the Geneva system.
5 The rules laid down by the International Union are not without ambiguity, and a certain
amount of flexibility has been allowed. What may be the best system for indexing may not be
the most suitable for general use. The rules given are considered to be those most widely
followed by chemists in the United States.
NOMENCLATURE OF ALKANES
AS A DERIVATIVE
OF METHANE
BY GENEVA SYSTEM
hexane
:H3(CH.)4CH3
normal hexane not used
:H3CH(CH.).CH3
isohexane
dimethyl-n-propylmethane 2-methylpentane
methyldiethylmethane
3-methylpentane
(diisopropyl*)
dimethyl-i-propylmethane
2,3-dimethylbutane
neohexane
trimethylethylmethane
not possible using the first 2,4-dimethyl-Sbutylnonane
eight groups
:H3CH.CHCH.CH3
:H3CH-CHCH3
:H3-C-CH.CH3
:H.(CH.).CH(CH')3CH3
CH3-CH
CH.-CHCH3
* Occasionally a hydrocarbon is given a common name which indicates that it may be
livided into two like groups.
A useful check on the correctness of a one-word name is that the sum of
he carbon atoms in the various groups and in the parent hydrocarbon must
:qual the total number of carbon atoms in the molecule. In the last example of
fable 5 each methyl group has one carbon atom, the butyl group has four,
md the parent name nine, making a total of fifteen carbon atoms. This number
:hecks with the number of carbon atoms in the formula. It should be noted
Llso in this example that there are two different nine-carbon chains, but that
'y choosing the most highly substituted chain the necessity for naming a
:omplicated six-carbon group is avoided. If it had been necessary to name this
;roup, it would have been called the (l,3-dimethylbutyl) group. The parentheses
Lre necessary to prevent confusion concerning the portion of the molecule to
which the numbers refer. The compound
CH3CHCH1CH.CHCH.CH.CH.CH.
(1 ltHCH3
CHaCHCH3
for example, would be called 2-methyl-5-(l,2-dimethylpropyl)nonane. The first
five compounds in Table 5 are all hexanes because they have six carbon atoms,
regardless of the fact that they are named as derivatives of methane, butane,
and pentane. The last compound of the list is a pentadecane even though it is
named as a derivative of nonane.
In the naming of compounds as derivatives of another compound, it is
conventional to consider the name as one word rather than to write the names
of groups and parent compound as separate words or to use an unnecessary
number of hyphens. It is preferable to limit the use of hyphens to the attachment
of position numbers and symbols.
As the number of carbon atoms increases, the number of structural isomers
possible soon reaches astronomical proportions as shown by the following
figures which were arrived at by rather complicated mathematical formulas.
C 7 -9
C.-18
C lo-75
C 15-4347
C 2o-366,319
C 3o-4,1l1,846,763
C. o-6.25 x ]013
By 1947 all of the predicted alkanes through the nonanes, and over half of
the decanes were known. Only a few isomers of each of the higher groups of
compounds are known, chiefly because there has not been a sufficiently good
reason for organic chemists to attempt to synthesize them or because those
who are interested in them have not yet had time to do so. The largest alkane
of known structure and molecular weight synthesized so far has the molecular
formula CIooH202'
The physical properties of organic compounds depend in general on the
nUll)ber and kind of atoms in the molecule and on the way in which the atoms
• are linked together. At 25° and 760 mm., the normal hydrocarbons are gases
from C I to C4 , liquids from C5 to C17 , and solids for CI8 and above.
Boiling Points. The boiling points of the normal hydrocarbons increase with
increasing molecular weight. When plotted against the number of carbon atoms,
they fall on a smooth curve as shown in Fig. 26. The rise in boiling point is
due to the increased attraction between molecules as the number of atoms
increases. This attraction is known as the van der Waals force 6 and comes into
play when molecules are close to each other.
Branching of the chain always results in a lowering of the boiling point, the
van der Waals force being smaller for a more compact molecule than for a
longer molecule. Thus n-pentane boils at 36°, isopentane at 28°, and neopentane
at 9.5°.
So-called because it is the cause of the a term in the van der Waals equation,
)(V - b)
= RT for one mole of gas. The law for a perfect gas, PV = RT, holds only
if the molecules of a gas have no attraction for each other and occupy no volume. By introducing
a constant a to take care of the attraction between molecules and a constant b to offset the
volume occupied by the molecules, the equation fits more closely the experimental data.
Constants a and b are characteristic for each compound.
b.2
I"
NO. OF CARBON ATOMS
Fig. 26. Boiling points of normal alkanes.
The boiling point of a compound at a given pressure may be taken as a rough measure of the
tractive forces between molecules, since the boiling point is merely the temperature at which
e thermal agitation of the molecules is sufficient to overcome the attractive forces between
,em. All attractive forces are electrical and vary continuously with the structure of the molecule.
Dr the alkanes these forces arise because of the polarizabifity of the molecule. Although the
:gative charges of the electrons in a neutral molecule are balanced by the positive charges on
Ie nuclei, the electrons are in motion, and the center of density of the negative charges of the
ectrons does not coincide continuously with the center of density of the positive charges of
Ie nuclei. This condition gives rise to a transient slight separation of charge in the molecule,
~ an electrical dipole, which is called the polarization of the molecule. As a result of this dipole,
olecules which approach each other closely enough and with the proper orientation ten0. to
Ihere, the ends of unlike charge attracting each other. Once the attractive force comes into
.ay, the polarization of the molecule is increased. Therefore even simple molecules such as
:lium and hydrogen have some tendency to adhere. The ease of polarizability and hence the
rength of the attractive force increases as the number of electrons increases and hence as the
11mber and complexity of the atoms in the molecule increases. For normal alkanes the force
nounts to about 1.0 kcaL per carbon atom per mole and accounts for the regular increase in
Jiling point with increasing molecular weight within a homologous series. It is not possible to
istill without decomposition hydrocarbons having more than around 80 carbon atoms, no
latter how perfect the vacuum, because the energy of about 80 kcal. per mole required to
:parate the molecules is approximately the same as that necessary to break a carbon-carbon
ond (pp. 45, 46). These forces vary inversely as the seventh power of the distance between the
lolecules and hence are operative only when molecules approach each other very closely.
ranching of a molecule tends to decrease the magnitude of the transient dipole and prevents
Ie optimum proximity of the molecules to each other, thus accounting for the lower boiling
oints of branched compounds. Attractive forces that are due to transient polarizability usually
re called London forces.
Melting Points. The melting points of normal alkanes do not fall on a smooth
urve but show alternation (Fig. 27). With the exception of methane they fall
n two curves, an upper one for the hydrocarbons having an even number of
arbon atoms and a lower one for those with an odd number of carbon atoms.
:-ray investigations of solid hydrocarbons have shown that the chains of the
aturated hydrocarbons are extended, the carbon atoms taking a zigzag arrangelent. With compounds having an even number of carbon atoms the end carbon
toms are on opposite sides of the molecule, whereas for those having an odd
umber they are on the same side (Fig. 28). Apparently the molecules having
n odd number of carbon atoms do not fit together so well as those having an
ven number, and the van der Waals force is not so effective.
OF CARBON ATOMS
Ia.
Fig. 27. Melting points of normal alkanes.
Unlike the variation in boiling points, there is no regularity in the change in
melting point with branching, because the effectiveness of the attractive forces
depends on how well the molecule fits into the crystal lattice. Thus n-pentane
melts at -129.7°, isopentane at -160°, and neopentane at -20°. In general,
however, the more symmetrical and compact the molecule, the higher its
melting point. Hexamethylethane, (CH3)3CC(CH3)3' is interesting in that it
melts at 100.7° and boils at 106.3°.
Fig. 28. Extended chains having an even and an odd number of carbon atoms.
Other Properties. The density of the normal alkanes gradually increases from
0.626 g. per cc. at 20° for pentane to 0.769 for pentadecane. This behavior is
to be expected if the attraction between the molecules increases as indicated
,by the rise in boiling points. Similarly the density decreases with branching of
the chain. The viscosity of the normal alkanes increases with increasing chain
length, because the greater attraction between the molecules and the increased
possibility for entanglement increases the difficulty for the molecules to slip
past one another. The alkanes are almost completely insoluble in water, because
they have little attraction for water molecules whereas water molecules have
considerable attraction for each other (pp. 87, 88). They are miscible with many
other organic compounds because the attractions between like molecules and
unlike molecules are of the same order of magnitude. 7
Sources of the Alkanes
The commercial sources of the saturated hydrocarbons are natural gas and
petroleum. Paraffin hydrocarbons are present also in the products ofthe destructive
distillation of coal. Natural gas usually is composed chiefly of methane and
7 The outstanding investigator of the relation of physical properties to chemical constitution
was Herman Kopp (1817-1892), professor of chemistry at Heidelberg. He is well known also
for his History of Chemistry, a four-volume work, the first volume of which was published in
1843, when Kopp was twenty-six years old, and the last in 1847. It still is the outstanding work
in its field for the period covered.
smaller amounts of ethane, propane and the butanes (p. 69). Petroleum contains
a large number of the liquid hydrocarbons (p. 71). Methane also is a product
of the action of anaerobic organisms on cellulose and other organic matter.
For example it is formed during the decomposition of vegetable matter under
water in marshes, whence the common name marsh gas. Large amounts are
formed during the treatment of sewage by the activated sludge process. It also
is present in coal mines and, because it is one of the causes of explosions, it is
known as fire damp. n-Heptane is present in the volatile oil of the fruit of
Pittosporum resiniferum, and in the turpentine of the digger pine (Pinus sabiniana)
and the Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi) of the Sierras. It readily can be obtained
pure in quantity from the last source. The normal hydrocarbons having an odd
number of carbon atoms from C 25 to C37 occur in many plant and insect waxes.
For example the waxes from leaves of members of the cabbage family (Brassica)
contain the C 29 and C3l normal hydrocarbons, and spinach wax contains the
C33 ' C35 , and C37 hydrocarbons.
Individual alkanes of known structure usually are obtained by synthesis,
that is, by making them from certain other compounds. These methods of
synthesis are given in Chapter 7.
I. Inertness to Most Reagents. The alkanes are not affected by aqueous
solutions of acids, alkalies, oxidizing agents, or most other reagents at room
temperature and -frequently resist reaction under more drastic conditions. This
inertness gave rise to the name paraffin (L. parum little; affinis akin) for a
saturated hydrocarbon. 8
Two factors are important to chemists in their use of chemical reactions: (1) the position of
equilibrium for the reaction, and (2) th~ rate at which equilibrium is established. The first
factor determines the maximum yield of products under the conditions of the experiment, and
the second factor determines how fast the reaction goes. The chemist is interested in the latter
aspect, not only because a reaction must go at an appreciable rate to be useful, but also because
if two or more competing reactions are taking place, as usually is the case in organic reactions,
the relative rates of the reactions may be more important in determining the yield of desired
product than the relative positions of equilibrium of the competing reactions.
The position of equilibrium depends only on the free energy change of the reaction; that is, it
is governed only by energy relationships or thermodynamics, and is not concerned with the
path by which the reactants are converted into the products. Relative rates of reactions,
however, are intimately concerned with the process by which the molecules react.
In order to explain the inertness of alkanes, it is necessary to consider in detail the way in
which reactions that involve covalent bonds take place. Such reactions usually result from a
series of steps known as the mechanism of the reaction. Covalent bonds are strong bonds and
must be broken before or during the reaction in order that recombination of the parts of the
reactants can take place. It is conceivable that the covalent bond may break in two ways: either
one electron goes to each atom joined by the bond as in (a), or the pair of electrons stays with
one or the other of the two atoms as in (b) or (c). The first way is called homolysis, and the
second heterolysis (Gr. homos, same; hetero, other; and lysis, loosing).
A :B
A: iB
The term paraffin first was used by Karl Reichenbach (1788-1869), an Austrian, for a wax
which he isolated ftom the tar obtained by the destructive distillation of beechwood.
If the fragments [A . ] apd [B .] could exist with an unpaired electron, they would be known
as free radicals (p. 567); hence mechanisms in which bonds break by process (a) are known as
free-radical mechanisms. Reactions in the gas phase and reactions catalyzed by free radicals in
the liquid phase usually are explainable by this type of mechanism. If the fragments resulting
from process (b) or (c) could exist as such, they would be the ions [A+] and [: B-], or [A : -] and
[B+]. Positive groups containing a carbon atom that lacks a pair of electrons in its valence shell
are called carbonium ions. Negative groups containing a carbon atom that has an unshared pair
of electrons are called carbanions. Mechanisms in which the bonds are assumed to break by
process (b) or (c) during reaction are known as ionic mechanisms. Reactions involving polar
molecules or ions in the liquid phase are believed to take place usually by way of ionic
mechanisms.
I t should be emphasized that this theory does not postulate that the formation of free radicals
or ions is necessary as an intermediate step in the reaction or that the free radicals or ions
represented by [A .], [B .], [A+], [: B-], [A : -], or [B+] are capable of independent existence.
There is good evidence that under certain conditions some groups of this type do have an
appreciable life span or can exist in appreciable equilibrium concentration, but under the usual
conditions for reactions the energies required for complete dissociation into free radicals or
ions are too great for dissociation to take place prior to reaction. The transition from one
covalently bound state to another takes place continuously without the formation of a really free
radical or free ion at any time. The arrangement of maximum energy content through which
the reacting molecules must pass before the products can be formed is known as the transition
state or the activated complex. The energy that must be supplied to the reacting molecules before
they can attain the transition state is called the activation energy for the reaction. Catalysts are
substances that can cause the formation of a transition state having a lower activation ener~y
than one that must be formed in the absence of a catalyst.
High reactivity is associated with conditions in the molecule which favor the making or
breaking of a covalent bond. Such conditions are the presence in the molecule of (1) an
incomplete valence shell, (2) an unsharedpair of electrons, or (3) a partially polarized covalent
bond. Thus boron fluoride lacks a pair of electrons in its valence shell and hydrogen fluoride
has unshared pairs of electrons on the fluorine atom. Moreover the strongly electron-attracting
fluorine atom pulls the bonding pair of electrons away from the hydrogen atom, leaving the
latter deficient in electrons. Hence the activation energy for the reaction between hydrogen
fluoride and boron fluoride is very low and reaction takes place spontaneously at well below
: F:
H:F:B:F:
H:F:+B:F:
[H+] [BF.-J
None of these conditions exists in the alkanes. All valence shells are filled and all electron
pairs are shared. The carbon-carbon bonds of alkanes are nonpolar and the carbon-hydrogen
bonds only slightly so. Hence it is not surprising that the saturated hydrocarbons are relatively
unreactive.
2. Oxidation at High Temperature. Hydrocarbons in the presence of oxygen
or strong oxidizing agents at high temperatures burn to carbon dioxide and
+ 20.
C.H. + 3i o.
CO 2 + 2 H 2 O
CsHs + 5 O.
+ 3 H.O
3 CO. + 4H.0
3n + 1
+ --2- O 2
n CO. + (n + 1) H10
C"Han +2
For the gaseous hydrocarbons, the difference between the total volume of gases before
combustion and the total volume after combustion changes from one homolog to the next. At
room temperature, the water formed is condensed to a liquid. Hence one volume of methane
and two volumes of oxygen, a total of three volumes, give one volume of carbon dioxide, a
contraction in volume of twice the volume of methane. Similarly 4.5 volumes of ethane give
rise to 2 volumes, a contraction of 2.5 times the volume of ethane, and 6 volumes of propane
give 3 volumes, a contraction of 3 volumes. Therefore a pure hydrocarbon gas can be identified
by mixing a known volume with an excess of oxygen or air, burning in a closed system, and
measuring the volume after combustion.
The equations indicate also that the volume of carbon dioxide produced per volume of
hydrocarbon is different for different hydrocarbons. Thus one volume of methane gives one
volume of carbon dioxide, one volume of ethane gives two of carbon dioxide, and one volume of
propane gives three of carbon dioxide. The volume of carbon dioxide produced can be determined
readily by noting the decrease in volume on shaking with a solution of potassium hydroxide.
Hence it is possible to identify pure unknown hydrocarbons by measuring either the contraction
on combustion or the volume of carbon dioxide produced. Moreover the composition of a
mixture of two pure known hydrocarbons can be determined by either measurement. The
composition of a mixture of two known hydrocarbons with a third nonoxidizable gas can be
determined by measuring both the contraction and the volume of carbon dioxide, and setting
up and solving algebraic equations.
The oxidation or combustion of hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide and water
takes place with the evolution of heat. The amount of energy liberated per mole
of compound is known as the heat of combustion of the compound. The data
in Table 6 show that the heat of combustion per mole increases with increasing
HEATS OF COMBUSTION OF PARAFFIN HYDROCARBONS
KCAL. PER MOLE
I KCAL. PER GRAM
_.-
'"0::l
'"OJ
c:l
'Scr'
;.:1
Ethane
II-Butane
i-Butane
II-Pentane
i-Pentane
Neopentane
II-Hexane
II-Heptane
II-Octane
II-Nonane
n-Decane
n-Pentadecane
n-Eicosane
number of carbon atoms. Most of the heat arises from the difference between
the sum of the bond energies of the reactants and that of the products. Therefore
the greater the number of bonds broken and reformed to more stable structures,
the greater the heat evolved. For any homologous series the increment per CH 2
group is constant at approximately 156 kcal. The data show further that the
heat of combustion of the liquid form is less than that of the gaseous form by
the heat of vaporization of the compound, and that isomers do not have identical
heats of combustion.
Although the energy relationships (thermodynamics) for the oxidation of alkanes are
highly favorable, the activation energy is high. Thermal energy equal to the activation energy
must be supplied to start the reaction. Once the reaction starts, sufficient energy is liberated to
permit the reaction to continue. Catalysts, such as finely divided platinum, may greatly lower
the activation energy and hence the temperature at which ignition takes place.
The fact that the combustion of hydrocarbons is exothermic is the basis for
their use as fuels. The flammability depends on the volatility of the hydrocarbon.
Mixtures of air and hydrocarbon vapors in the proper proportions explode on
ignition, which gives rise to their use in the internal combustion engine. In a
deficient oxygen supply, carbon monoxide, or elementary carbon in the form
of carbon black, may be produced.
The term flammability is a very loose one. For example it may refer merely to the relative
ability of the material to burn in the presence of oxygen with the evolution of heat. From this
viewpoint hydrocarbons are more flammable than compounds containing a high per cent of
oxygen, which in turn are more flammable than those containing a large amount of halogen. On
the other hand flammability may refer to the volatility of the compound such as the greater
flammability of gasoline over lubricating oil. This factor is measured by the flash point of the
material, that is, the temperature to which it must be heated before the vapors will ignite by a
free flame in the presence of air. The flash point of gasoline is -45° whereas that of motor
lubricating oil is 232°. The flammability also may be influenced by the explosion limits of
mixtures of air and combustible vapors. Thus mixtures of n-pentane vapors and air will explode
only when the per cent by volume of pentane is between 1.5 and 7.5. With higher or lower
pentane content no explosion will take place on application of a spark or flame. At the other
extreme, hydrogen is explosive in the range of 4 to 74 per cent. Finally the ignition temperature,
that is, the temperature at which a combustible mixture with air will ignite in the absence of a
flame, is important. Hydrogen will not ignite until a telllperature of 582 0 is reached, n-pentane
vapor ignites at 309°, whereas carbon disulfide vapors will ignite at 100°, the temperature of ,
boiling water.
From the hazard standpoint, one other factor should be mentioned. Most vapors have a
density greater than that of air and may create a hazard by accumulating in low spots such as
• along the floor, in sinks, and in sewers.
3. Decomposition at High Temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures
hydrocarbons decompose in the absence of oxygen, a phenomenon known as
cracking or pyrolysis (Gr. pyr, fire, and lYSis, lobsing). Methane yields carbon
and hydrogen as final products.
+ 2H2
For the reaction to proceed rapidly with methane, temperatures above 1200°
are required. 9 Other hydrocarbons decompose rapidly at considerably lower
temperatures. In the decomposition of ethane at 600 a new hydrocarbon is
formed by the loss of one molecule of hydrogen from a molecule of ethane.
C2H 6
C2H. + H2
The new compound, ethylene, belongs to another homologous series, C n H 2n ,
known as the alkenes, olefins, or unsaturated hydrocarbons (Chapter 3).
9 When subjected to higher temperatures for very short periods, other products such as
ethylene, acetylene, and benzene also are formed (p. 133).
Propane at 6000 decomposes to give four products which arise from the
following reactions.
CHaCH,CH a
CaH6
+ H,
CHaCH,CHa
C,H.
+ CH.
Actually ethylene and methane are the principal products (p. 52). Higher
alkanes on cracking give hydrogen and mixtures of alkanes and alkenes having
varying numbers of carbon atoms. This cracking process is of great importance
to the petroleum industry (p. 74), because it provides a means for making
smaller, more volatile hydrocarbon molecules from the larger, less volatile
molecules that predominate in most natural petroleum.
The energy required for the heterolytic dissociation of hydrocarbons into two free ions is
about three times that required for homolytic dissociation into two free radicals or into a free
radical and a hydrogen atom. Hence thermal cracking takes place by a free radical mechanism
(cf. p. 41). Thus methane decomposes into carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms.
H :C:H
4H .
+ .C .
The hydrogen atoms combine to form molecular hydrogen and the carbon atoms to give
amorphous carbon.
For ethane two primary reactions are possible, dissociation of the carbon-carbon bond to
give two methyl radicals, or dissociation of the carbon-hydrogen bond to give an ethyl radical
and a hydrogen atom.
2 CHa .
C,Hs .
+H.
Energetically the first reaction is easier, the homolytic bond dissociation energy of a carboncarbon bond in ethane being 84.4 kcal. per mole compared with 97.5 kcal. per mole for a
carbon-hydrogen bond. 10
Once free methyl radicals are formed, several other reactions can take place readily because
their activation energy is relatively small (5 to 10 kcal. per mole).
+ C 2H 6
C2HS . + H,
C 2H,
Reaction (1) initiates the process. Reactions (3) and especially (4) and (5) are the propagating
steps in the conversion of ethane into ethylene and hydrogen. Because each time a free radical
10 Two methods of expressing bond energies are used. One assumes that the bond energy
between two given kinds of atoms is the same regardless of the rest of the structure of the
molecule. Although widely referred to simply as "bond energy," it should be called the average
or mean bond energy. Its chief use has been to calculate the energy liberated or adsorbed during
a reaction, but it is of no value in predicting the relative rates of different reactions. The second
method recognizes that the energy required to break a bond between two given kinds of
elements depends on the structure of the rest of the molecule. This energy is called the bond
dissociation energy and refers to the energy necessary to brea-k a specific bond.
is destroyed a new one is formed, this type of reaction is called a chain reaction. The chain may
be terminated by combination of any pair of free radicals. In the decomposition of ethane, it is
thought that the chief chain-breaking reactions are the combination of two ethyl radicals and
the combination of an ethyl radical and a hydrogen atom. The three phases initiatioll, propagatioll, and termination are characteristic of chain reactions.
The possible primary homolytic dissociations for propane are
CH.CH.CH.
CH.CHCH.
with bond dissociation energies of 82.2, 95.5, and 90.8 kcal. per mole respectively. Here again
reaction (I) chiefly is responsible for initiating the decomposition. Possible propagating
reactions are
CH•.
C.Hs .
H .
+ CH.CH.CH
+ CH.CH.CH•.
+ CH.CHCH.
+ CH 3CH.CH •.
C 2 H.
C.li;, .
C.H, -I- H·
CH,CH.CH •.
C.H. -I- H·
CH 3CHCH 3
C3Ho
+ H·
+ CH.Cl-I.CH.
H, -I- CH.CH 2 Cl-I •.
Hz -I- CH 3CHCIf.
C 2 H,
+ CH.CH.CH.
CH 3CII 2 CH 2
-+ CH 3 '
Energetically the easiest reaction should be (13). Although reaction (5) would be expected to
require less energy than (4), the chance for colliding with a secondary hydrogen atom is only
one third of that for colliding with a primary hydrogen. Hence it is not surprising that reactions
(4) and (13) predominate over reactions (5), (9), and (10). Termination of chains again can take
place by the combination of two free radicals.
4. Isomerization. Although alkanes show a marked resistance to structural
change, a phenomenon which is characteristic of carbon bonds and which
van't Hoff (p. 335) termed "the inertia of the carbon system," they undergo
certain reactions readily in the presence of suitable catalysts. Thus when either
n-butane or i-butane is placed in contact with a catalyst of aluminum bromide
'and hydrogen bromide, an equilibrium mixture of20 per cent n-butane and
80 per cent i-butane is formed at 27°.
AlBr •• Hllr
CH 3CHCH.
The conversion of one isomer into another is known as isomerization. The
isomerization of hydrocarbons plays an important part in the production of
modern gasolines (p. 78). The mechanism of isomerization is discussed on p. 79.
The alkanes also undergo other reactions such as alkylation (p. 77), controlled
oxidation (p. 220), halogenation (p. 119), and nitration (p. 259).
1. What is meant by the term isomers? How is the existence of isomers explained?
2. How does a structural formula differ from a molecular formula and why are structural
formulas necessary for organic compounds? What are the fundamental assumptions on
which structural theory is based?
3. What is meant by the term homologous series? Compare the physical and chemical properties of the members of a homologous series. Compare the chemical properties of the
members of one homologous series with those of another series.
4. Give condensed structural formulas and names for all alkyl groups containing four carbon
atoms and less.
5. What is meant by the terms primary, secondary, tertiary, and qllaternat~v as applied tu
carbon atoms?
6. Write condensed structural formulas for all of the isomers that meet the following descriptions, name each isomer by the Geneva system, and name branched chain compounds also
as derivatives of methane: (a) all of the heptanes; (b) all of the octanes having a chain of
five carbon atoms; (c) all of the octanes having a chain of six carbon atoms; (d) all of the
decanes having a chain of five carbon atoms.
7. Give the Geneva name and one other name for the following compounds:
(a) CH a(CH 2),CH a; (b) (CHa)2CH(CH2),CHa; (c) (CH a),CHCH 2CH(CH a)2;
(d) C,H5CH(CHa)CH,CH a; (e) (CHa)aCCH(CHa)C2H5; if) (CHa)aC(CH 2)aCHa;
(g) (CHa)2CHCH2C(CHa)a; (h) C,H 5CH(CH a)CH(CH a),; (i) (C,H 5)2C(CH a)CH(CH a),;
(j) (CHa)aCCH(CHa)C,Hs.
8. Give a suitable name for each of the following compounds:
(a) (CHa)aC
CH(CH a),
(h) (CHa),CHCH,
(c) CHaCHCH a
C,H CHCH
C,H
CHaCH--CH
CH aCH 2
(CHa)aCCC(CH.l a
(CHa)aCCCI-Ia
CHaCHCH a
C,H5CCH,CH(CH al,
CHaCHCHCH a
CHaCH,CHCH a
C,H 5CHCH(CH ah
CHCHa
CHaCHCH(CH a),
CHa(CH2)aCH(CH,)aCHa
CH.CHCH a
9. Write condensed structural formulas for the following compounds: (a) undecane;
(b) isodecane; (c) methyldiethyl-i-butylmethane; Cd) 6-(1,2-dimethylpropyl)dodecane;
(e) hexadecane; if) 2,3,4-trimethylpentane; (g) 5-(2,2-dimethylpropyl)nonane; (Ii) 4-ipropyl-5-t-butyloctane; (i) 5-(2,2-dimethylpropyl)-7-(I-methyl-2-ethylbutyl)dodecane; (j)
2-methyl-3-ethyl-3-i-propylheptane.
10. Tell why the following names are objectionable and give a suitable name to each: (a)
3-propylhexane; (b) 4-methylpentane; (c) methyl-3-pentane; (d) methyl-i-propylmethane;
(e) ~-i-propylhexane; if) 4-(1,2-dimethylethyl)heptane; (g) dimethyl-t-butylmethane.
II. Wnte structural formulas and give the Geneva names for all of the alkyl groups that can
be derived from the following compounds and indicate whether the alkyl group is primary,
secondary, or tertiary: (a) 2-methylpentane; (b) 3-methylpentane; (c) neohexane; (d)
isoheptane; (e) isopentane; (f) 2,3-dimethylpentane; (g) methyldiethyl-i-propylmethane.
12. Write balanced equations for the combustion of the following gases in an excess of oxygen
and give the contraction in volume and the volume of carbon dioxide produced compared
rhydrocarbon: (a) ethane; (b) propane; Cc) butane; (d) neopentane.
.- .L
._. __ • __ •
13. Identify the alkane and write the equation for the reaction in each of the following
combustions: (a) The volume of carbon dioxide formed was twice the volume of hydrocarbon used ; (b) the contraction in volume was four fifths of the volume of carbon dioxide
produced; (c) the volume of carbon dioxide produced was one half of the contraction in
volume; (d) the contraction was equal to the volume of carbon dioxide formed.
14. (a) When 100 cc. of a mixture of ethane and air was burned with an excess of oxygen,
32 ce. of carbon dioxide was formed. How much ethane was in the mixture?
(b) When 100 cc. of a mixture of butane and nitrogen was mixed with an excess of oxygen
and burned. a contraction in volume of 70 ce. took place. How much butane was in the
mixture?
(c) When 50 cc. of a mixture containing only ethane and propane was burned with an
excess of oxygen, the volume of carbon dioxide formed was 130 cc. How much ethane
was in the mixture?
Cd) When 10 ce. of a mixture containing only propane and pentane was burned with an
excess of oxygen, the contraction in volume was 36 cc. How much propane was in the
(e) Ten cubic centimeters of a mixture of methane, ethane, and air was burned completely
with an excess of oxygen in a closed system. The contraction in volume on burning was
13 cc. and a further contraction of 8 cc. was observed on washing the products of combustion \\ith a solution of potassium hydroxide. All volumes were measured at the
same temperature and pressure. What was the per cent composition of the original
mixture? (Hint: let x equal the volume of methane and y equal the volume of ethane,
and from the data set up two simultaneous equations and solve.)
ALKENES.
CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS
ALKENES
Like the alkanes, the second family or homologous series of organic compounds also are hydrocarbons. They are known as the alkenes. They also are
called ethylenes from the name of the first member of the series, or olefins from
olefiant gas, an old name for ethylene (p. 53). The members of this second
series have the general formula C"H 2 ,,; that is, each member has two less
hydrogen atoms than the corresponding alkane. Because they do not contain
the maximum number of hydrogen atoms, they frequently are called unsaturated
hydrocarbons in contrast to the alkanes which are called saturated hydrocarbons.
The simplest member of this homologous series, ethylene, has the molecular
formula C ZH 4 • No stable cOJ1l.pound having a single carbon atom is known for
this series. Three electronic formulas suggest themselves. Either one carbon
atom has two unshared electrons (I), each has one unshared electron (II), or
the carbon atoms are joined by two pairs of electrons (III).
H~C;Co
·xo
°H
C~C
H~C;C;cH
If I or II were capable of existence, H
C . or H
C . should be stable also,
but these groups have been detected only as highly reactive, short-lived free
radicals (p. 568). Formula I is ruled out also on chemical grounds because its
reactions would involve only one carbon atom, whereas all known reactions of
the olefins involve both carbon atoms. Formula III satisfies all requirements.
Atoms sharing two pairs of electrons are said to be joined by a double bond.
The exact nature of the covalent bond has not been described completely as yet for systems
more complex than the hydrogen molecule, although by making certain reasonable assumptions a qualitatively satisfactory picture is obtained (p. 9). The detailed description of the
multiple bond is still more difficult. A current theory which is proving useful to organic
chemists and spectroscopists postulates that when a carbon atom is united to only three other
atoms, it makes use of sp' hybrid orbitals, the three bonds being planar and making angles of
120 degrees with each other (p. 12). The remaining unpaired electron is in a p orbital (p. 10)
perpendicular to the plane of the three bonds. In ethylene, for example, overlapping of one sp'
orbital from each carbon atom forms a single Sp2_Sp' bond between the carbon atoms. The
remaining four sp' orbitals overlap with the s orbitals of four hydrogen atoms to form four s-sp'
bonds. All of these bonds result from the formation of a-type molecular orbitals (p. 10) and
make angles of 120 degrees with each other. These molecular orbitals accommodate three of the
valence electrons of each carbon atom, leaving one electron in a p orbital on each carbon atom.
This orbital is perpendicular to the plane of the carbon-hydrogen bonds. Figure 29a represents
a cross section through this plane and Fig. 29b represents a cross section through the carbon
, ,,,
--,,
,,'.
" '-
Fig. 29. Cross sections of the ethylene molecule before 'If bond formation: (a) through the
carbon and hydrogen atoms; (b) through the carbon atoms and perpendicular to the plane of
the hydrogen atoms.
atoms and perpendicular to this plane. The molecule represented by Fig. 29 ~ould acquire
added stability if the two electrons which are occupying monocentric p orbitals (electrons
encompassing a single nucleus) could occupy a dicentric molecular orbital (encompass two
nuclei). The formation of a molecular orbital could result if the p orbitals overlapped sufficiently.
Since the p orbitals are perpendicular to the planes of the CH. groups, these orbitals can overlap
best when the planes of the two CH. groups are coincident. In this position the two p orbitals
coalesce to form a molecular orbital which resembles two fat sausages above and below the
plane of the molecule and can accommodate two electrons. Figure 30a is the same cross section
as Fig. 29b but after the formation of the molecular orbitaL Figure 30b is a perspective representation, and Fig. 30c is a convenient schematic representation in which the figure eights indicate
the p orbitals and the light lines joining them indicate the overlapping to form the molecular
1111111111111111111111111111111 1111
H--C-_-C--H
O--H
Fig. 30. The ethylene molecule after 7T bond formation: (a) cross section through the carbon
atoms and perpendicular to the plane of the hydrogen atoms; (b) perspective representation of
the 1T bond; (c) schematic representation of the 1T bond.
Alkenes. Cyclic Hydrocarbons
rbita!. The presence of a nodal plane (p. 10) makes this mOlecular orbital resemble a p orbital.
~ence the type of bond that it represents is called a rr (pi) bond, and the electrons forming the
bond are called rr electrons.
Because the overlapping of the two p orbitals is relatively poor, the rr-type molecular orbital
is not as stable as a a-type molecular orbital. The energy associated with a carbon-carbon r;
bond is a"bout 80 kcal. per mole, whereas that associated with a carbon-carbon rr bond is about
60 kcal. per mole. The lower stability of the rr bond (higher energy content of the electrons)
accounts for the greater reactivity of the rr bond, that is, the tendency to form the more stable
a bonds with other atoms. Hence the rr electrons also are called unsaturation elect rom·.
Another observable effect of the rr bond is the decrease in the distance between the carbon
atoms. The interatomic distance of a carbon-carbon single bond is 1.54 A, but that of a carboncarbon double bond is 1.34 A; that is, the nuclei are bound together more strongly when
encompassed by an additional pair of electrons.
This theory amounts to a reinterpretation of the much older partial valence theory proposed
by Thiele.' He assumed that the valence forces, the nature of which was unknown, were only
partially satisfied at the carbon atoms of a double bond. The second bond was represented by a
dotted line to indicate that it was more reactive than the single bond. Thiele's theory lost
adherents because it could not be explained by the Lewis electron-pair bond theory.
Formulas for the homologs of ethylene can be constructed in the same way
as formulas for the homologs of methane, that is, by inserting CH 2 groups
(methylene groups) between hydrogen and carbon atoms or by replacing
hydrogen atoms by alkyl groups. For example, the next member of the series,
propylene, C3 H 6 , would have the formula CH 3 CH=CH 2 . Since the propylene
molecule has three kinds of hydrogen atoms, there should be three isomeric
butylenes, all of which are known.
\ CH 3CH=CHCH a
CHaC-=CH.
The same formulas would have been obtained if the double bond had been
put in all possible positions in normal butane and in isobutane.
Common Names. The common names are derived by replacing the ane of
the common name for the saturated hydrocarbon by ylene, but n-(norlnal) is
omitted for straight chain compounds. Greek letters sometimes are used to
distinguish between isomers (Table 7, p. 52).
As Deriyatives of Ethylene. The alkyl groups replacing the hydrogen atoms
of ethylene are named and the word ethylene added. Since ethylene has two
hydrogens on each of two carbon atoms, the replacement of two hydrogens
by two groups would give rise to two isomers .depending on whether the new
groups were on different carbon atoms or both on the same carbon atom. In
order to distinguish between these two isomers the one with the two groups
on different carbon atoms is called symmetrical (prefix sym-); that is, the groups
are placed symmetrically with respect to the double bond. The isomer with
both groups on the same carbon atom is called unsymmetrical (prefix unsym-).
These designations apply only to the distribution of the two groups which give
rise to the isomerism and have nothing to do with the symmetry of the molecule
as a whole. In the last two examples given in Table 7, the molecules as a whole
1 Johannes Thiele (1865-1918), professor at the University of Strassburg. He is noted chiefly
for his work on the addition reactions of unsaturated compounds (p. 707).
are unsymmetrical, but the methyl and ethyl groups in the first and the two
methyl groups in the second are symmetrically placed with respect to the double
bond. Hence they are called sym-methylethylethylene and sym-dimethyl-sbutylethylene.
NOMENCLATURE OF ALKENES
AS DERIVATIVE OF ETHYLENE
CH~CH2
ethene
CH.CH=CH.
methylethylene
propene
CHaCH.CH-CH.
O!-butylene
ethylethylene
I-butene
CHaCH=CHCHa
t/-butylene
sym-dimethylethylene
2-butene
CHaC=CH.
isobutylene*
i unsym-dimethylethylene
C2 H,CH-CHCHa
methylpropeiie
' I
CHaCH 2CHCH.
t/-amylenet
sym-methylethylethylene
2-pentene
sym-dimethyl-s-butylethylene
3,4-dimethyl-2-hexene
CH.C=CHCH.
* The name isobutene, which frequently is used, is undesirable because it mixes two systems.
t Olefins having five carbon atoms are known as amylenes instead of pentylenes (see fusel oil,
p.91).
Geneva System. The Geneva rules for naming alkenes resemble the rules for
naming alkanes (p. 36): (1) the ending ane of the corresponding saturated
hydrocarbon is replaced by the ending ene; (2) the parent compound is considered
to be the longest chain containing the double bond; (3) the chains are numbered
from the end nearest the double bond, and the position of the double bond
is indicated by the number of the lower-numbered carbon atom to which it is
attached; (4) side chains are named and their position indicated by a number.
Sources and Uses of the Alkenes
Alkenes are produced commercially by the cracking of natural gas and
petroleum hydrocarbons (p. 44). Ethylene is by far the most important olefin
as a raw material for the synthesis of other chemicals. Production in 1954 was
over 3 billion pounds, and the contract price less than 5 cents a pound. About
50 per cent was produced by cracking propane, 40 per cent from ethane, and
10 per cent from petroleum refinery gas (p. 72). About 25 per cent each was used
for the synthesis of ethyl alcohol (p. 92) and ethylene oxide (p. 743), and 10 per
cent each for styrene (p. 573), ethyl chloride (p_ 118), and polyethylene (p. 61).
Propylene and the butylenes find some use for the production of chemicals,
but are used chiefly for the production of gasoline (pp. 76, 77) and synthetic
rubber (p. 716). Methods of synthesis for individual olefins, for example from
alcohols or compounds containing halogen, are given in Chapter 8.
The general physical properties of the alkenes are much the same as those
of the corresponding saturated hydrocarbons. The solubility of the lower
alkenes in water, though slight, is considerably greater than that of the alkanes,
because the higher concentration of electrons in the double bond leads to a
greater attraction for the positive end of the water dipole (p. 12).
General Chemical Properties
In contrast to the saturated hydrocarbons, the unsaturated hydrocarbons
are very reactive. Many reagents will add to the two carbon atoms joined by
the double bond. In this process the reagent itself is decomposed, one part
combining with one carbon atom and the other part with the other carbon
atom. Such reactions are known as addition reactions. The bonding properties
of one pair of electrons in the double bond are not fully satisfied, and in the
presence of a suitable reagent one pair r!facts with the reagent to give a new
bond system that is more stable. The reagent is said to have added to the double
bond. The reactions may be divided into two groups, depending on whether
the addenda are identical or nonidentical.
Addition to the double bond results in the net replacement of one 7r bond by one a bond.
Because tne overlap of the atomic orbitals to form a 7r bond is poorer than the overlap of
atomic orbitals to form a a bond, the a bonds are stronger (p. 51). Hence the addition to a
double bond usually results in the liberation of considerable energy and the reaction goes to
completion. In the isomerization of butane (p. 46), there is little change in bond strengths,
and the equilibrium mixture contains appreciable quantities of both isomers.
IDENTICAL ADDENDA
I. Halogen. The most characteristic reaction of the double bond is the rapid
addition, in the liquid phase or in solution, of chlorine or bromine to those
alkenes in which each of the doubly bound carbon atoms is united to at least
one hydrogen atom.
CH.=CH 2 + CI 2
ClCH 2CH 2Cl
Ethylene chloride 2
(l,2-dichloroethane)
CHaCH=CH 2 + Br2
CH.CHBrCH.Br
Propylene bromide
(I,2-dibromopropane)
The reaction in general may be expressed by the equation
RCH=CHR
+ X.
RCHXCHXR
• It is this reaction that gave rise to the old name for ethylene, namely olejiant gas (meaning
oil-making gas), because the reaction of gaseous ethylene with gaseous chlorine gave liquid
ethylene chloride.
where R is any alkyl group or a hydrogen atom, and X is any halogen atom.
In practice the reaction is limited to chlorine and bromine, because fluorine
reacts too violently to be controllable, and iodine does not give stable 1,2-diiodo
derivatives except with a few simple oletins. If both hydrogen atoms on the
same carbon atom of ethylene are replaced by alkyl groups as in isobutylene,
addition of chlorine does not take place as readily as another reaction, substitution, in which a hydrogen atom is replaced by a chlorine atom (p. 727).
Bromine, however, adds regularly, forming isobutylene bromide.
The simplest picture of the reaction of halogen with a double bond would be the simultaneous
addition of both halogen atoms from the same molecule. From a number of experimental facts,
however, it is quite certain that this type of reaction does not take place. Instead, a stepwise
reaction occurs by an ionic mechanism (p. 42) in which the unsaturated hydrocarbon uses the
11" electrons of the double bond to remove from the halogen molecule a halogen particle having
only six electrons. The resulting carbonium ion then adds a negative halide ion from the
RCH-CHR -1- : X; X :
:X:
-)0
RCH-CHR
The halide ion removed from the solution need not be, and from a statistical viewpoint
probably is not, the same halide ion liberated in the first step of the reaction. The intermediate
positive ion may abstract a halide ion from molecular halogen, especially when the concentration
of halogen is relatively high.
:X:X:
R?H-?HR
[~=,]
The positive halogen ion liberated can react with an olefin molecule to continue the chain, or
with a negative halide ion to give a halogen molecule.
These halogen derivatives are colorless liquids. Hence decolorization of a
solution of bromine in water, or better in a mutual solvent such as carbon
tetrachloride or acetic acid, may be used as a test for unsaturation, provided
that no other group is present which reacts with bromine. To determine the
amount of a known olefin in a mixture with other substances, the mixture can
be titrated with a standardized solution of bromine. A similar titration of a
pure unknown olefin would give the equivalent weight of the compound, that
is, the weight associated with one double bond. The number of double bonds
would be equal to the molecular weight divided by the equivalent weight.
2. Hydrogen. In the presence of a suitable catalyst such as finely divided
platinum, palladium, or nickel, hydrogen adds to a double bond with the
evolution of about 30 kcal. of energy per mole. The process is called catalytic
hydrogenatIOn.
Pt, Pd. or Ni
Pt, Pd, or Ni
If the olefin is a gas, a mixture with hydrogen may be passed over the catalyst.
Liquid olefins, or solid olefins dissolved in an inert solvent, may be shaken with
hydrogen in the presence of a suspension of the finely divided catalyst. The
reaction can be used for analytical as well as for preparative purposes. From
the volume of hydrogen absorbed, the amount of an unsaturated compound
of known structure in a mixture with saturated compounds, or the number of
double bonds in an unknown compound whose molecular weight has been
determined, can be calculated.
Although hydrogenation is an exothermic process, the reaction does not take place spontaneously because the amount of energy required to break a 1T bond in the olefin or a (] bond
in hydrogen and thus initiate the reaction is too large. The function of the metal catalyst is to
lower this activation energy by permitting a series of steps, the activation energy for each of
which is much lower than that required for thermal breaking of a 17 or (] bond.
Metals such as platinum, palladium, nickel, and copper strongly adsorb hydrogen and
unsaturated molecules. The atoms in the metal surface have unpaired electrons which can
interact with the electrons in the relatively exposed (] orbital of the hydrogen molecule and the
7Torbital of the double bond. The resulting formation of weak bonds with the metal atoms causes
adsorption. As indicated in the schematic representation, the hydrogen molecule can be
dissociated to give adsorbed hydrogen atoms and the olefin to give an adsorbed free biradical.
Reaction of the atom and free biradicalleaves an adsorbed hydrogen atom and an adsorbed
free radical. Further reaction gives the saturated hydrocarbon which is desorbed.
Pt :H
Pt .
Pt ·+H:H
:I
Pt : CH.
:H H
Pt : CH.CH.
+ ..
CH.-CH.
Because the various steps in the reaction involve unpaired electrons and weak bonds, none has
a high activation energy.
Although the illustration indicates that both hydrogen atoms that add to the double bond
come from the same hydrogen molecule, this is not necessary. The adsorbed ethyl radical is
surrounded by several adsorbed hydrogen atoms and can react with any of them. When
ethylene is reduced catalytically with a mixture of hydrogen and its isotope, deuterium (D.), .
ethane (CHaCHa), monodeuteroethane (CHaCH.D), and dideuteroethane (CH.DCH.D) are
produced.
The first reference to the use of catalytic hydrogenation appears to be that by Debus in
1863. He found hydrogen added to hydrogen cyanide in the presence of platinum to give
methylamine (p. 228). Scattered references to similar reactions were made during the next
thirty-four years. In 1897 Paul Sabatier (1854-1941) and Jean Baptiste Senderens (1856-1937)
at the University of Toulouse found that ethylene and hydrogen when passed over cobalt, iron,
copper, or platinum at 300° gave ethane, and that benzene and hydrogen over nickel gave
cyclohexane (p. 830). Sabatier pursued the subject until his retirement in 1930. He was awarded
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, jointly with Victor Grignard (p. 120), in 1912. Senderens entered
industry alld introduced contact catalysis into technical organic chemistry. He was a very
religious man and became an abbe and later lianonjI!.~~.~oman <2::.tholic Church.
::c: ~o~e4' -r ~ <i6; 'g"
Da t (':
6( t) .
I . ~1
In order that reactIon may take place between the adsorbed molecules, they must approach
each other closely and be properly oriented. Not only the size and structure of the reactants
but also the crystal structure of the surface of the catalyst determines these space relationships.'
It is evident that the optimum conditions .and type of catalyst will vary for every different pair
of molecules reacting, and that the choice of such conditions and catalyst still must be largely
empirical. Fortunately hydrogenation catalysts have been developed which show high activity
for a wide variety of compound~ hence catalytic hydrogenation is an eminently practical
3. Ozone. If a stream of ozonized air or ozonized oxygen is passed through
a liquid olefin or a nonaqueous solution of an unsaturated compound, the
ozone is removed rapidly and quantitatively with the formation of an ozonide.
RCH=CHR'
/o~
CHR'
0-0 /
CH3 CH 2CH
"'-
CHCH3
2-Pentene ozonide
The evidence concerning the structure of ozonides formed from simple oletins
indicates that both bonds of the double bond are broken with the formation
of a five-membered ring containihg three oxygen atoms (p. 880). The olefin is
said to be ozonized, and the process is known as ozonation or ozonization. The
former term seems preferable because it is analogous to the term oxidation.
The ozonides would not be' of importance were it not for the fact that they
react readily with water with fhe formation of aldehydes or ketones (Chapter 11).
+ H 20
RCHO
+ OCHR' + H 20 2
CH3CH 2CHO
Propionaldehyde
+ OCHCH + HIO.
Ketones result from more highly substituted ethylenes.
RaC-CR2
R.C
CR 2 .~
2 R 2CO
+ HP.
0-0/
Ozonation of an unsaturated compound followed by decomposition with water
therefore becomes a useful method for synthesizing aldehydes and ketones.
Moreover since the aldehydes and ketones can be isolated and analyzed, the
reaction can be used to locate the position of double bonds in unknown compounds. For example, the formation of a three-carbon aldehyde and a twocarbon aldehyde from an olefin proves that it is 2-pentene. If it had been
I-pentene, a four-carbon aldehyde and a one-carbon aldehyde would have been
formed..
The process of ozonation followed by hydrolysis is known as ozonolysis.
The hydrolysis is somewhat more complicated than is indicated above, a
mixture of organic peroxides and aldehydes or ketones being formed rather
than hydrogen peroxide. Usually the decomposition is carried out in the
presence of a reducing agent, such as zinc dust and acetic acid or hydrogen and
platinum, to destroy the peroxides and prevent the oxidation of the aldehydes
to organic acids (p. 212).
4. Aqueous Permanganate. Reaction of alkenes with dilute aqueous permanganate solutions gives rise to the addition of two hydroxyl (OH) groups to
the doubly-bound carbon atoms. Little is known about the mechanism of this
reaction, but for the purpose of writing the equation it may be assumed that
the permanganate supplies an oxygen atom which with a water molecule gives
two hydroxyl groups, and that the latter add to the double bond.
R 2 C=CR.
+ [O](KMnO.) + H 0
R 2COHCOHR.
The symbol [0] does not indicate atomic oxygen, but some reagent capable of
supplying oxygen in an oxidation reaction. Here the reagent is given in parentheses. This device avoids the necessity for writing balanced equations, but
does not excuse the student from being able to write a balanced equation when
required to do so. In neutral or alkaline solution the permanganate is reduced
to manganese dioxide, and three atoms of oxygen are available for oxidation
from each two molecules of potassium permanganate. Hence the balanced
equation for the reaction is
3 R.C=CR 2
+ 2 KMnO. + 4 H 20
3 R 2 COHCOHR.
+ 2 Mn02 + 2 KOH
Methods for balancing oxidation-reduction reactions of organic compounds
are considered on page 145.
Evidel).ce of reaction with permanganate is the change in color from the
purple of the permanganate ion to the brown of the precipitate of manganese
dioxide. In the absence of sufficient reducing agent the permanganate ion may
be reduced only as far as the green manganate ion, Mn0 4=. The change from
purple to green should not be considered a positive test, however, since this
change can take place in a strongly alkaline solution in the absence of reducing
agent. The reaction with permanganate usually is referred to as Baeyer's test
for a double bond. It should be pointed out, however, that like the reaction
with bromine and with hydrogen, this test is not specific for a double bond.
Reaction with permanganate indicates a double bond only in the absence of
other easily oxidized groups.
NONIDENTICAL ADDENDA
Numerous reagents add unlike groups to a double bond. For example,
sulfuric acid adds Hand OS03H, and halogen acids add Hand X. If the
molecule is symmetrical, that is, if identical groups are on both of the doublybound carbon atoms, only one compound can be obtained on addition even if
the addenda are not alike. However if the olefin molecule is unsymmetrical, two
isomers should be possible. Actually one isomer is formed in predominant amount,
namely that in which the hydrogen of sulfuric acid, or of the halogen acid adds
to the carbon atom having the larger number ofhydrogen atoms. This generalization
is known as the Markovnikov rule. 4
I. Sulfuric Acid. Olefins add sulfuric acid to give alkyl hydrogen sulfates.
CHaCH.CHCHs
I·Butene
s·Bu\'j\ hyuTI)gl!n
RCH=CR. + HOSOaH
2-Butene can give only one product which is the same as that from I-butene.
CHaCH=CHCHs + HOSOsli
2·Butene
CHaCH.CHCH a
dSOaH
The ease of addition of sulfuric acid depends on the number of alkyl substituents at the double bond. For example, ethylene reacts slowly at room
temperature with concentrated sulfuric acid, requiring a catalyst such as silver
sulfate for rapid addition; propylene reacts with 85 per cent sulfuric acid in
the absence of a catalyst; isobutylene reacts with 65 per cent sulfuric acid at
room temperature. Use is made of these differences in reactivity to analyze
and to separate mixtures of olefins.
If the air in a 100-cc. cylindrical separatory funnel containing 10 cc. of 20 per cent fuming
sulfuric acid is swept out with ethylene and the funnel stoppered and shaken, a vacuum is
created because of the reaction of the ethylene with the sulfuric acid to give the nonvolatile
ethyl hydrogen sulfate, together with ethionic acid, HOaSCH.CH.OSO.OH. The presence of
the vacuum can be demonstrated by dipping the end of the funnel beneath the surface of about
150 cc. of concentrated sulfuric acid and opening the stopcock. The sulfuric acid rushes into
the separatory funnel and nearly fills it.
It is difficult to separate the free alkyl hydrogen sulfates from the excess
sulfuric acid because neither compound is volatile and both have about the
same solubility characteristics. The mixture can be neutralized, however, for
example with potassium hydroxide, and the potassium alkyl sulfate separated
from potassium sulfate by crystallization. The calcium and barium alkyl sulfates
can be isolated even more readily because they are soluble in water, whereas
calcium or barium sulfate is insoluble in water. A mixture of the sodium salts
of s-alkyl hydrogen sulfates having from eight to eighteen carbon atoms is used
in Europe as a detergent (p. 191). The mixture of olefins from which it is made
is produced by cracking the wax distillate from petroleum (p. 74).
'Vladimir Vasil'evich Markovnikov (1838-1904), director of the Chemical Institute of the
University of Moscow. Although his ideas concerning the effect of structure on the course of
chemical reactions were published in Russian in 1869, they went unnoticed in Europe until
1899, because he refused to publish them in a foreign language. After 1881 he did important
work on the chemistry of petroleum hydrocarbons.
In the presence of an excess of olefin, a second molecule can add to the
alkyl hydrogen sulfate to give an alkyl sulfate.
CH aCH20S0 20H + CH,.=CH 2
Ethyl hydrogen sulfate
CH aCH20S0 2 0CH.CH a
Ethyl sulfate
2. Halogen Acids. Olefins add halogen acids to give alkyl halides.
CHaCH=CH: + HBr
RCH=CR.
+ HX
:~ }
i-Propyl bromide
(2-bromopropane)
RCH 2CR 2
Halogen acids also add more readily the greater the amount of alkyl substitution at the double bond. For example, the order of ease of addition of
hydrogen chloride is isobutylene > propylene> ethylene. The ease of addition
varies also with the halogen acid, the order from concentrated aqueous solutions
being hydrogen iodide> hydrogen bromide> hydrogen chloride > hydrogen
fluoride.
The organic chemist recognizes that such qualitative statements are not exact. What does
the statement mean that one reagent reacts more readily than another? Usually it means that
the reaction (1) goes more rapidly under the same conditions, (2) proceeds at the same speed
at lower temperatures, or (3) proceeds at lower pressures if the reaction takes place in the gas
phase with a decrease in volume. It may mean, however, that the position of equilibrium is
more favorable in one case than in another. More often than not it is not known whether the
generalizations are based on relative rates or on relative positions of equilibria. Only the
relative yields of desired products under the conditions of the reactions may be known.
Too often generalizations are made from comparisons under widely different conditions
without consideration of the effect of solvent and of heterogeneous or homogeneous catalysts.
For example, although neither gaseous nor aqueous hydrogen chloride adds to ethylene at an
appreciable rate, anhydrous hydrogen chloride adds readily in the liquid phase at low temperature in the presence of anhydrous aluminum chloride. Here the question merely is one of
providing a catalyst to enable the reaction to go at a practical rate. The product, ethyl chloride,
is perfectly stable at room temperature. Although hydrogen fluoride in aqueous solution is less
reactive than hydrogen chloride, anhydrous hydrogen fluoride adds rapidly to olefins to give
yields of monofluoroalkanes up to 80 per cent, 5 even in the absence of a catalyst, provided that
the reaction is carried out at -45 0 in the presence of a large excess of hydrogen fluoride. If the
monofiuoroalkanes are allowed to warm to room temperature, however, they spontan1!ously
decompose into olefin and hydrogen fluoride. Here the nonaddition at room temperature is not
a matter of rate of addition but of position of equilibrium.
The general lack of knowledge concerning the fundamentals of even simple reactions is not
surprising, because organic reactions are exceedingly numerous and complex. It is safe to say
that organic chemistry has reached its present state of development because it has been handled
not only as a science but as an art as well. Until future chemists reduce the qualitative statements
to quantitative measurements, the former must continue to serve.
5 Organic compounds rarely are produced in the amount expected from a particular equation.
Frequently the reaction is reversible and does not go to completion, and still more frequently
several simultaneous or consecutive reactions take place starting with a given set of reactants.
Moreover, mechanical losses usually occur during isolation of the product. For these reasons,
organic chemists always are concerned with yield. The yield of the desired product usually is
expressed as the per cent of the amount expected if the reaction took place quantitatively
according to the equation.
The behavior of hydrogen bromide is anomalous if peroxides are present.
Under these conditions the mode of addition for the most part is contrary to
the Markovnikov rule. For example when propylene reacts with hydrogen
bromide in the presence of peroxides, n-propyl bromide is formed instead of
i-propyl bromide.
+ HBr
CH3 CH=CH.
(Peroxides)
CH3 CH.CH.Br
The mode of addition of hydrogen chloride or hydrogen iodide is not affected'
by the presence of peroxides.
In the addition of sulfuric acid and in the uncatalyzed addition of halogen acids to alkenes,
it is believed that the first step is the combination of the 1T electrons of the double bond with a
proton derived from the nonionized but polarized acid to give what is known as a 1T complex.
+H
Attack of the intermediate positive ion by a negative ion or abstraction of a negative ion from
a neutral molecule gives the final product.
[RCH: CHR]
:X:H
+ [H+]
If the alkene is symmetrical, the molecule is nonpolar; that is, the electrons on a time average
are symmetrically distributed about the center of the molecule. If the alkene is unsymmetrical,
the electrons are shifted with respect to the positive nuclei and the molecule is polarized. This
polarization is believed to be due to two factors. First, the unsaturated carbon atoms make use
of Sp2 hybrid orbitals in bonding to other atoms instead OfSp3 orbitals used by saturated carbon
" atoms. The Sp2 orbitals have a higher proportion of s orbital (more s character) than Sp3
orbitals. Because electrons in an s orbital are closer to the nucleus than those in a p orbital, an
Sp2 orbital pulls electrons closer to the nucleus than an Sp3 orbital. Hence a multiple bond pulls
electrons away from a single bond. Second, an alkyl group with its larger number of electrons
is more highly polarizable than hydrogen and releases electrons to an unsaturated carbon atom
more readily than hydrogen. The resulting increase in electron density about the carbon atom
to which the alkyl group is attached causes a shift of the less strongly held 1T electrons away
from the methyl group to give a polarized molecule.
R-+C-C-H
RCH-CH.
For the same reason, the hydrogen bonded to the 1T electrons in the 1T complex with acids is
closer to the carbon atom with the smaller number of alkyl groups. Accordingly, attack by a
negative ion occurs at the carbon atom having the greater number of alkyl groups, thus
explaining the Markovnikov rule.
The abnormal addition of hydrogen bromide to terminal double bonds in the presence of
peroxides !s explained .by a free-radical mech.anism ra~her than ~n ionic mec~ani~~ (p. 42).
The peroxide reacts with the hydrogen bromide and gives bromme atoms, whIch mltiate the
reaction. The addition then proceeds by a free-radical chain mechanism.
---+ Reduced peroxide + H 20 + r . Dr j
RCH=CH. + [ . Brj
---+ [RCHCH.Brj
[RCHCH.Brj
RCH.CH.Br
+ [ . Brj
Of the halogen acids only hydrogen bromide shows this effect, because hydrogen chloride is not
oxidized readily enough for peroxides to produce chlorine atoms; although hydrogen iodide
readily gives iodine atoms, they are too unreactive to add to a double bond and give molecular
iodine instead. No really satisfactory explanation of the orientation of the abnormal addition
has been given. Of the two possible intermediates [R~HCH2Brj and [RCHBr~H.l, it is
reasonable that only the first would be affected by a substituent R. It has been assumed that R
stabilizes the first intermediate by interaction with the unpaired electron.
3. Polymerization. A polymer is a compound of high molecular weight whose
structure can be considered as being made up of many smaller identical parts
(Gr. polys, many, and meros, part). The process by which polymers are formed
is called polymerization. It consists of a series of stepwise reactions. Two
molecules of the simple compound, known as the monomer, react to give a
dimer, the dimer reacts with a third molecule to give a trimer, and the process
continues until all of the monomer is consumed.
Under the influence of various catalysts olefins undergo a self-addition known
as addition polymerization, with the formation of compounds having many
times the molecular weight of the original compound. For example when
ethylene is heated above 100° and under pressures above 15,000 p.s.i. in the
presence of 0.01 per cent of oxygen, it is converted into a high molecular weight
saturated hydrocarbon.
x CH.-CH.
(-CH.CH.-)x
Polymerization takes place also at nearly atmospheric pressure when special
catalysts are used (p. 898). The product consists of long chains with x being
from 100 to 1000 or more. In the equation, the formula for the polymer does
not indicate what is at the ends of the chains, because the chains may have
terminal groups of several types such as a double bond, a hydrogen atom, or a
hydroxyl (OH) group. However, the number of these groups is so small
compared to the molecular weight that the polymers are almost as inert as
paraffin hydrocarbons. Neither does the formula show that the molecules are
somewhat branched. It is estimated that one methyl group is present for each
8 to 10 methylene (CH 2) groups.
Polymers of ethylene are called polyethylenes. They may be waxlike, or tough
and flexible, or hard. They soften and flow on heating, because the molecules
can slip past each other. After being extruded into the desired shape, irradiatio'1
with electrons or neutrons causes bonds to form between chains (cross-linking)
and leads to a material that has greater rigidity and a higher melting point.
Polyethylene is used chiefly in the manufacture of thin sheets, wire and cable
insulation, and plastic pipe. Production in the United States was 400 million
pounds in 1955.
Polymerizations catalyzed by oxygen take place by a free-radical mechanism. The oxygen
molecule is unusual in that it contains two unpaired electrons of like spin as evidenced by the
fact that it is paramagnetic. Having unpaired electrons, the oxygen molecule behaves to some
extent like a free radical. It is thought that in oxygen-catalyzed polymerizations the oxygen
molecule combines with one carbon atom of the unsaturated compound by taking one electron
from the 7T bond (p. 51) and leaving a free electron on the other carbon atom .
.0 :0 .
+ CH.-CH. ~
[ .
~ : ~ : CH.-CH•.J
This intermediate can combine with another molecule of olefin .
[ . O--O-CH,-CH •.
I + CH.-CH.
[ . O-O-CH.-CH.-CH.-CH, . I
The process repeats itself until the chain is broken by the union of two free radicals or by taking
a hydrogen atom from another molecule. In the latter case a new chain is started. The greater
the amount of oxygen used as a catalyst the lower the molecular weight of the polymer, because
the larger the number of chains that are started, the less the amount of monomer that will be
available for each chain, and the more likely that a chain will be stopped by colliding with
another oxygen molecule or chain. If too large an amount of oxygen is used, polymerization
does not take place because the chains are stopped as fast as they are started.
When propylene is passed over a granular "solid" phosphoric acid catalyst
(a calcined mixture of phosphoric acid and diatomaceous earth) at about 200°
and 150 p.s.i., a mixture of higher alkenes is produced.
CH.TH [CH,)HJ CH=CHCH.
"-,
The tetramer (x = 4) is manufactured commercially as an intermediate for one
of the widely used synthetic detergents (p. 469). Recently catalysts have been
developed that convert propylene into polypropylene plastics analogous to the
polyethylene plastics.
If isobutylene is passed into cold 60 per cent sulfuric acid and the solution
heated to 100°, a mixture of dimers and trimers (about 4 : I), together with
smaller amounts of higher polymers, is formed. The mixture of dimers is known
as diisobutylene and consists of four parts of 2,4,4-trimethyl-I-pentene and one
part of 2,4,4-trimethyl-2-pentene.
20 per cent
The trimers and higher polymers are formed by reaction of the dimers with
more isobutylene. If boron fluoride or anhydrous aluminum chloride is used
as a catalyst at - 100°, high molecular weight polyisobutylenes having from
400 to 8000 C4HS units and varying from sticky viscous resins to elastic rubberlike solids are obtained.
x (CH.).C=CH.
----::;;:
[-C(CH3).CH,-1~
The acid-catalyzed polymerizations take place by an ionic mechanism and follow the
Markovnikov rule. In the polymerization of propylene, a proton from the acid catalyst adds
to the double bond at the terminal carbon atom, giving a carbonium ion with a positive charge.
The carbonium ion adds in the same way to a terminal carbon atom of a second molecule of
propylene to g',ve a new carbonium ion. This process is repeated until the chain is terminated.
Any of the carbonium ions can be stabilized and the chain terminated by loss of a proton from
either carbon adjacent to the carbonium ion. Hence the product always contains one double
bond per molecule and consists of a mixture of isomers in which, barring further isomerization,
the double bond is in either the 1,2 or 2,3 position.
fH+]
CH aCH=CH 2
CI!.=ClIClI a
----+
3T HCH.?H+]
Loss of{H+J
CHaT (CH·TH )~H'TH+]
CHaTH [CH.?H ] CH.CH=CH. and
A similar series of steps accounts for the formation of the mixture of dimers, 2,4,4-trimethyll-pentene and 2,4,4-trimethyl-2-pentene, and for the structure of the polymers formed by the
polymerization of isobutylene.
The alkenes undergo numerous other addition reactions. Some of these are
cD,QsiLle..ren from 1ime 10 1ime j_1J slJh.'f'JiIJJe.1Jt chapie..r.s.
All of the reactions of the alkenes that have been considered are dependent
on the presence of the double bond. The rest of th(! molecule is inert like the
paraffin hydrocarbons. A reactive group such as the double bond is called a
function or a functional group. Most of the homologous series have their
characteristic functional groups. The methods of introducing this group are
the methods of preparation for members of the series, and the effects of other
agents on this group are the general reactions of the series. The number of
functional groups is small in comparison to the number of organic compounds.
By emphasizing the functional groups of each homologous series, the facts of •
organic chemistry are systematized and made easier to remember.
In addition to the alkenes, a second series of hydrocarbons having the general
formula C"H 2n is known. The lowest member of the series has three carbon
atoms. In contrast to the aIkenes, most of the members of this isomeric series
are as unreactive as the alkanes. The only way in which three carbon atoms
could be joined other than in a linear fashion would be in the form of a closed
triangle as in (a). Each of the six unshared electrons on the carbon atoms could
.x
C/
""/~/
C---C
1-:1
"'-,
bond with a hydrogen atom to give structure (b), or as usually written (c).
This molecule has the molecular formula C3H6 and is isomeric with propylene.
However, no double bond is present, which is consistent with the fact that the
compound does not decolorize alkaline permangarlate solution or react with
ozone.
If four, five, six, or n carbon atoms were joined in similar fashion, the
homologous series C4HS' CsH 1o, C 6H 12 , C n H 2n would result. Carbon atoms
joined in this way are thought of as forming a closed ring and compounds
having this feature are called cyclic compotmds. Because the members of this
series are saturated and hence resemble the alkanes, they are called cyclanes.
Another name is alicyclic hydrocarbons, that is, cyclic compounds having
aliphatic properties. Petroleum chemists frequently call them naphthenes,
because they occur in the naphtha fraction of petroleum and are isomeric with
the alkenes. Names for the individual compounds are formed by adding the
prefix cyc!o to the name of the saturated hydrocarbon having the same number
of hydrocarbons. Thus C3H6 is cyclopropane; C4 Hs, cyclobutane; CSH 10 '
cyclopentane; C S H12' cyclohexane; and C7BW cycloheptane.
Each of the cyclanes can give rise to a sep~rate homologous series if hydrogen
atoms are replaced by alkyl groups. Thus methylcyclopropane, ethylcyclopropane and several dimethylcyclopropanes and higher homologs exist. The
cyclic atoms are numbered consecutively around the ring to distinguish among
the various possible isomers.
"'/
",C /
'-.,
/'"
H.C--CH.
H2C-~CHCH3
Methylcyclopropane
1,1-DimethylcycJopropane
1,2- Dimethylcyclopropane
Of the various types of cyclanes, only those having five and six carbon atoms
in the rings are abundant. Consideration of those having fewer or more carbon
atoms and of the derivatives of cyclanes is deferred until Chapter 39.
The cyclopentane ring is less stable at room temperature than the cyclohexane
ring, and isomerization of the cycIopentane ring to the cyclohexane ring can
take place. Thus methylcyc10pentane isomerizes in the presence of anhydrous
aluminum chloride to an equilibrium mixture containing 80 per cent of cyclo, hexane. 1,2-Dimethylcyc1opentane isomerizes to a mixture containing 97 per
cent of methylcyclohexane.
CHCH 3
AlCl.
H,C~C/CH2
+ ------
MethylcycJopentane
HCH3
H2C~ 3/CHCH.
1,2-Dimethylcyclopentane
Aiel.
HC/
~CHCH
H.C~ /CH.
MethyIcycIohexane
Alicyclic hydrocarbons having double bonds in the ring also are known.
The compound with one double bond in a six-membered ring is called cyclohexene. Those with two double bonds are called 1,3-cyclohexadiene and
1,4-cyclohexadiene.
HC/ ~CH
HC/ 1 ~CH
H.C~ /CH
"---4;?"
HC~ /CH
1,'3·Cyclohexadiene
1,4-Cyclohexadiene
II .
Cyclohexene
These compounds are typical unsaturated compounds and undergo all of the
addition reactions of the alkenes (p. 53).
When a third double bond is present in a six-membered ring, the properties
differ radically from those of either the cyclanes or the cyclenes. The members
of this series are called aromatic hydrocarbons. The parent compound is benzene,
C6HS' The lower homolpgs are toluene, CSH 5CH 3 , ethyl benzene, C6H 5C 2 H s,
and three dimethylbenzenes, known as the xylenes.
"---C
~CCH
;?"CH
CC2 H S
HC,,---
'-._
;?"
Ethylbenzene
~CH
HC5
"--- 4 ;?"
;?"CCHa
1,2-Dimethylbenzene
(orthoxylene)
(metaxylene)
"--- C
1,4- Dimethylbenzene
(paraxylene)
The special properties of the aromatic hydrocarbons are discussed in Chapter
8. It is sufficient here to state that when three double bonds alternate with
hree single bonds in a six-membered ring, the unsaturation electrons are
lmost as unreactive as the electrons in single bonds. For example, benzene
oes not decolorize a solution of bromine and does not react with aqueous
ermanganate solution.
Aromatic hydrocarbons occur in coal tar (p. 427) and petroleum (p. 71).
They can be prepared by dehydrogenating cyclohexanes over a platinum catalyst
or by cyclization of alkanes to cyclanes, followed by dehydrogenation.
+ 3H___ _
HC"",- ~CH
IH~
""'- CH.
Heptane
:H.+
H.~ ""'-CH.
H.C"",- /CH 2
Methylcyclohexane
I +
3B.
,.
I. Give the evidence for the commonly accepted structure of ethylene.
2. Compare the alkenes with the alkanes in respect to their physical and chemical properties.
3. State the Markovnikov rule and give an equation illustrating its application. Discuss the
exceptions to the Markovnikov rule.
4. Tell what is meant by the following terms and illustrate by an example or equation: (a)
double bond; (b) addition reaction; (c) hydrogenation; (d) ozonolysis; (e) polymerization;
(/) functional group; (g) cyclic hydrocarbon; (h) a cyclane; (i) an aromatic hydrocarbon.
5. Write condensed structural formulas and give a suitable name to the members of the
following groups of compounds: (a) all of the isomeric pentenes; (b) all of the hexenes with
a terminal double bond; (c) all of the octenes with a central double bond; (d) all of the
heptenes with six carbon atoms in a chain; (e) all of the octenes that contain a branching
ethyl group.
6. Write structural formulas for the following compounds:
A. (a) 2-2-Dimethyl-3-hexene; (b) s-butylethylene; (c) sym-ethyl-t-butylethylene; (d)
3-(I-methylpropyl)-2-heptene; (e) (sym-dimethyl)ethylethylene.
B. (a) 2-Methyl-3-ethyl-l-pentene; (b) sym-methyl-i-propylethylene; (c) 6,6-dimethyl-4(2,2-dimethylpropyl)-3-octene; (d) i-butylethylene; (e) unsym-di-n-propylethylene.
C. (a) Tetramethylethylene; (b) (unsym-methylethyl)-n-propyl-i-propylethylene; (c) sym-ibutyl-n-amylethylene; (d) 3-(2-methylpropyl)-2-heptene; (e) 3-methyl-4-ethyl-3-hexene.
7. Name the following compounds by the Geneva system and as derivatives of ethylene:
A. (a) (CHa)aCCH=CHCHa
(b) CH aCH.CH(CH a)CH=CHC.H 5
(c) (CH a).CHC=C(CH 3).
B. (a) (CH 3).CHCH=CH(CH.).CH.
CH 3CH.CH=CCH3
(CH 3).CHCH.CH=CHC.Hs
(d) C.H 5C=C(CH3).
CH3(CH.).CH.
C. (a) (CH 3CH.CH.).C=CHCH 3
(c) CH 3C=CHCH.CH(CH 3)2
(b) (CH3)3CCH=CHC.H.
(d) C.HsC=CHCHCH a
CH.(CH.).CH3
8. Indicate the objections to the following names and give suitable ones:
A. (a) 2-Ethyl-3-hexene; (b) 3-methyl-4-heptene; (c) methyl-t-butylethylene; (d) 2,3-dimethylpentene-2; (e) (l-methylethyl)ethylene.
B. (a) Ethyl-i-propylethylene; (b) 3,3-dimethylpentene-l; (c) 5-ethyl-2-hexene; (d) symmethyl-(2-methylpropyl)ethylene ; (e) 2,2-dimethyl-3-butene.
C. (a) 3,5-Dimethylheptene-l; (b) 2,3-dimethyl-3-pentene; (c) n-butyl-i-butylethylene; (d)
3-ethyl-4-s-butyl-I-hexene; (e) unsym-ethyl( dimethylethyl)ethylene.
Write equations for the following reaction& and give a suitable name to the organic product:
A. (a) Chlorine and 2-pentene; (b) sulfuric acid and I-hexene; (c) hydrogen chloride and
2-methyl-I-pentene; (d) dilute permanganate and t-butylethylene; (e) hydrogen,
platinum, and 3-ethyl-I-pentene; (f) hydrogen bromide, peroxides, and isobutylethylene.
B. (a) Bromine and trimethylethylene; (b) sulfuric acid and sym-dimethylpropylethylene;
(c) hydrogen bromide and 3-methyl-2-pentene; (d) dilute permanganate and 2,3-dimethyl-l-pentene; (e) hydrogen, platinum, and 4-methyl-2-pentene; (f) hydrogen
bromide, peroxides, and isopropylethylene.
C. (a) Chlorine and 3-heptene; (b) sulfuric acid and 2-methyl-2-pentene; (c) hydrogen
bromide, peroxides, and 2,3,3-trimethyl-l-butene; (d) hydrogen bromide and 2,4dimethyl-2-pentene; (e) dilute permanganate and 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene; (f) hydrogen,
platinum, and sym-methyl-t-butylethylene.
10. Give reactions illustrating the preparation of the following compounds from the proper
alkene:
A. (a) 2,3-Dimethylpentane; (b) 2-chloro-2-methylbutane; (c) 1,1,2-trimethylpropyl
hydrogen sulfate; (d) 2,3-dibromo-2-methylhexane; (e) 2-methylpentyl bromide.
B. (a) Neohexane; (b) 3-bromo-3-methylhexane; (c) 1,I-dimethylpentyl hydrogen sulfate;
(d) 1,2-dichloro-2-ethylpentane; (e) 2,3-dihydroxy-2,3-dimethylbutane.
C. (a) Isoheptane; (b) I-methylpropyl hydrogen sulfate; (c) 2-methyl-2-chlorohexane;
(d) 2,3-dimethyl-2,3-dibromopentane; (e) 2-methylhexyl bromide.
11. Deduce the structure of the olefin which gives the following products on ozonolysis: (a)
a one-carbon aldehyde and a three-carbon ketone; (b) a two-carbon aldehyde and a fourcarbon ketone; (c) two moles of a four-carbon ketone; (d) a two-carbon' aldehyde and a
four-carbon aldehyde having an isopropyl group; (e) a three-carbon ketone and a fourcarbon ketone.
12. If one gram of an olefin decolorized the indicated number of cubic centimeters of a
standard solution of bromine in carbon tetrachloride containing 20 g. of bromine per
100 cc. of solution, calculate the equivalent weight of the compound: (a) 14.3 cc.; (b)
8.2 cc.; (c) 19.1 cc.; (d) 11.4 cc.
13. If X is the weight of a pure olefin having one double bond which decolorized Y grams of
bromine, calculate the molecular formulas of the following olefins:
Chemistry of Organic Cdmpounds
14. When X grams of a pure hydrocarbon having one or more double bonds was shaken with
hydrogen in the presence of a platinum catalyst, Y cc. of hydrogen (S.T.P.) was absorbed.
If Z was the molecular weight as determined by the Victor Meyer method, calculate the
number of double bonds and the molecular formula of the following compounds:
81 ±8
101±7
15. When X grams of a mixture of pentenes and pentanes was titrated with a standard bromine
solution, Y grams of bromine was absorbed. Calculate the per cent of pentenes in the
following mixtures:
16. A sample of a mixture of air, ethane, propane, and propylene measuring W cc. was
washed with concentrated sulfuric acid. It then had a volume of X cc. After mixing this
residue with a known volume of oxygen and burning completely to carbon dioxide and
water in a slow combustion pipette. there was a contraction of Y cc. When the combustion
products were washed with 30 per cent aqueous potassium hydroxide, a further contraction
of Z cc. took place. Calculate the per cent composition by volume of the following original
mixtures:
NATURAL GAS, PETROLEUM, AND
DERIVED PRODUCTS
Natural gas and petroleum are important natural resources. Their chief use
is as fuel for generating mechanical and electrical energy and for space heating.
The world production of petroleum in 1955 was estimated to be 5.6 billion
barrels of 42 gallons. Although the United States possesso:d less than 16 per
cent of the known world reserves, and because of the much more thorough
exploration in the United States certainly much less of the actual reserves, it
produced over 2.4 billion barrels or 43 per cent of the total production. In
other words the petroleum resources of the United States are being depleted
much more rapidly than the average rate for the rest of the world. The Middle
East was responsible for 21 per cent of world production, Venezuela for 14 per
cent and the U.S.S.R. for 9 per cent. The remainder was widely distributed
throughout the world.
Natural gas and petroleum were formed by the decomposition of vast
quantities of organic material, undoubtedly of marine origin, buried in sediment.
The view that petroleum is of biological origin, rather than that it was formed
from inorganic carbides, or from carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide and
hydrogen, is supported by the presence of organic nitrogen and sulfur compounds, optically active compounds (p. 331), and complex organic compounds
known as porphyrins, which are produced only by plants and animals. The
exact processes which converted organic matter into hydrocarbons, the principal
components of petroleum, are not known. It is believed, however, that they
took place for the most part at ordinary temperatures, because porphyrins
would have been decomposed if elevated temperatures had been involved. Oil
at depths of 10,000 to 15,000 feet has, of course, been subjected to temperatures
of at least 150 to 200°. Hence heat has played a part in determining the
composition of oils found or formed at these or lower depths.
Both natural gas and petroleum accumulate in porous formations capped by
dome-shaped impervious layers of rock or in other stratigraphic traps. When
a well is bored through the impervious cap, hydrostatic pressure forces the gas
or oil to the surface. After the pressure has been entirely released and oil no
longer flows from the well, the oil is pumped out mechanically.
Natural gas varies greatly in composition. Most unprocessed gases contain
60 to 80 per cent methane, 5 to 9 per cent ethane, 3 to 18 per cent propane,
and 2 to 14 per cent higher hydrocarbons. However, one Pennsylvania well
delivers natural gas containing 98.8 per cent methane, and gas from a well in
Kentucky contains only 23 per cent methane. Varying amounts of nonhydrocarbon gases also are present, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide. Gas from some wells contains up to 98 per cent carbon dioxide and
from others up to 40 per cent hydrogen sulfide. Natural gas, after the removal
of propane and butanes by liquefaction, is used chiefly as fuel. After processing,
the composition is in the range 70 to 90 per cent methane, 6 to 24 per cent
ethane, and I to 8 per cent propane. Natural gas pipe lines serve practically
every section of the United States and extend from Texas to New York and
to California.
Large quantities of natural gas are converted by incomplete combustion into
a finely divided form of carbon known as lamp black, carbon black, or gas black.
CH4 + O. (air)
C + 2 H.O
In the older process the sooty methane flames impinge on moving steel
channels. The deposited carbon, known as channel black, is scraped continuously
into conveyors. The newer furnace blacks are prepared by the partial combustion
of methane, or of a petroleum fraction low in hydrogen, in a furnace. The
carbon is carried out of the furnace by the gas stream, cooled, and collected by
passing through fabric bags.
Carbon blacks are used chiefly to confer abrasion resistance to tread stocks
of automobile tires, and account for about one third of the weight of the tread.
Channel blacks once were used exclusively and still are best for natural rubber,
but the furnace blacks are superior for GRS synthetic rubber. As a result the
production of channel black in the United States decreased from about 600 to
500 million pounds per year between 1948 and 1954, while that of furnace
blacks has increased from practically nothing to over one billion pounds per year.
Carbon black and hydrogen are produced by the thermal decomposition of
methane.
C+2H.
Hydrogen and carbon monoxide may be prepared from methane or other
hydrocarbons and steam,
i ,",
+H0
800°-900°
+ 3 Hz
or by the partial oxidation of methane with oxygen prepareci fr~m liquid
2CH.
+ O.
2eo
+ 4H.
a1r:
f;,
Both reactions may be combined using a mixture of methane, oxygen, and
steam. The second exothermic reaction (heat evolved) provides the energy
required by the first reaction, which is endothermic (heat absorbed). The carbon
monoxide may be converted to carbon dioxide and more hydrogen by another
endothermic process.
+ H.O
Fe,O,
+ promoters
+ H.
The carbon dioxide is removed by scrubbing with water under pressure or
with alkaline reagents such as solutions of sodium carbonate or ethanolamine
(p. 752). About two thirds of the hydrogen used to make synthetic ammonia
Natural Gas, Petroleum, and Derived Products
is produced by these reactions. The mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
can be used for the synthesis of methyl alcohol (p. 90) and ketones (p. 223).
Processes for the conversion of natural gas into acetylene (p. 133), halogenated
hydrocarbons (p. 118), alcohols (Chapter 5), acids (Chapter 9), and aldehydes
and ketones (Chapter II) have been developed.
Petroleum is the liquid mixture of organic compounds obtained at certain
points from the upper strata of the earth. Its composition varies widely depending
on the area from which it is obtained. The chief components of this very complex
mixture are hydrocarbons, which may be paraffinic, alicyclic (p. 64), or
aromatic (p. 65) in varying proportions, depending on the source of the
petroleum. The examples given in Table 8 were chosen to illustrate the maximum
variations observed.
COMPOSITION OF STRAIGHT-RUN PETROLEUM FRACTIONS
PER CENT BY VOLUME
BOILING RANGE
Hastings, Tex
Conroe, Tex.
Hastings, Tex.
Conroe, Tex:
PARAFFINIC \ ALICYCLIC
The separation of the individual components is very difficult, but between
1927 and 1952, at the U.S. Bureau of Standards and at the Carnegie Institute
of Technology, 130 pure hydrocarbons were isolated from the gas, gasoline,
and kerosene fractions of a midcontinent petroleum. Of the 130 hydrocarbons,
54 were paraffinic, 39 were alicyclic, 33 were aromatic, and 4 were aromaticalicyclic. It is estimated that the portion of petroleum boiling up to 200 contains
at least 500 compounds.
In addition to carbon and hydrogen, petroleum contains I to 6 per cent of
sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. The per cent of sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen
compounds, however, is much higher. Thus if a fraction has a sulfur content
of I per cent, and the sulfur compound has a molecular weight of 300 and one
atom of sulfur to the molecule, the sulfur compound constitutes approximately
10 per cent of the fraction by weight.
Petroleum is refined, that is, separated into useful products, near the oil
field, or it is shipped by pipe line or tanker to refineries located near centers of
high population or readily available transportation. Refining consists essentially
of distilling the petroleum into fractions of different boiling ranges, converting
the less desirable components into more valuable products, and special treatments of the fractions to remove undesirable components. Originally distillation
was a batch operation using horizontal cylindrical direct-fired stills. The
fractions were cut according to density, the lighter fractions having the lower
boiling point. When all of the volatile components had been removed, the still
was cooled, and men entered through a manhole and dug the coke out with a
pick and shovel. This type of still has been displaced by the tubular furnace
witl). fractionating column illustrated in Fig. 31. Oil is pumped continuously
HIGHER 1ICIIUIIG
FRACTJC!I"
Fig. 31. Straight-run distillation unit.
Fig. 32. Dubbs cracking unit.
through heated pipes and flashed into a fractionating column from which the
various fractions can be withdrawn. The main fractions are gas, gasoline, kerosene, gas oil, and high-boiling residue. The residue can be distilled under reduced
pressure for the recovery of lubricating oils and wax, or it can be cracked to
gasoline (p. 75) or used directly as fuel. The relative amounts of the different
fractions vary widely with the· source of the crude oil. Thus one yellow crude
from California yields 2 per cent gas, 80 per cent gasoline, 10 per cent kerosene,
and 8 per cent gas oil; a green crude from Texas yields 1 per cent gas, 39 per cent
gasoline, 11 per cent kerosene, 22 per cent gas oil, and 27 per cent residuum;
a black crude from California yields 1 per cent gas, 28 per cent gasoline, 8 per
cent kerosene, 18 per cent gas oil, and 45 per cent residuum.
Gas. The gas fractions are obtained during the first distillation of petroleum
and also result from cracking operations (p. 74). They consist chiefly of hydrocarbGns having from one to five carbon atoms, which ... re both saturated and
unsaturated. They are separated into their various components by chemical
methods and by efficient fractionating columns. The methane and ethane
usually are burned as fuel. The olefins may be removed by conversion into
alcohols (pp. 92, 97), or by polymerization or alkylation reactions (pp. 76, 77).
The butenes are particularly valuable for the manufacture of high-octane gasoline
and synthetic rubber (p. 716). The propane and butanes may be liquefied and
distributed in high-pressure tanks and cylinders or used for the synthesis of
other organic compounds. A total of 7 billion gallons of liquefied petroleum
gas was used in the United States in 1956. Large amounts of the butanes and
most of the pentanes are blended into gasoline.
Gasoline. With the rapid increase in the use of motor vehicles since 1910,
gasoline has become the most important product derived from petroleum. The
~omposition of gasoline varies widely, but motor gasoline may be defined as a
complex mixture of hydrocarbons boiling between 0° and 200° . Aviation gasoline
boils between 30° and 150°. Initially the gasoline fraction obtained from the
first distillation of petroleum, referred to as straight-run gasoline, was more
than enough to supply the demands for motor fuel, but the increase in the
number of automobiles soon made this source insufficient and recourse was
had to the thermal decomposition of higher hydrocarbons into lower molecular
weight molecules (p. 44). The manufacture of gas from oil was discussed in
England as early as 1792, and in 1865 Young distilled shale oil under pressure
to raise the boiling point of the oil and cause partial pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) during distillation. Large-scale commercial cracking was developed in
the United States in 1912 by Burton 1 who carried out distillations under pressure
in horizontal stills as a batch operation. Numerous continuous processes have
been developed since then.
Qualities other than the proper volatility are important in gasoline, especially
the octane number. Everyone is familiar with knocking in a gasoline automobile
engine, the ping that develops when pulling up a long grade or attempting to
accelerate a car too rapidly. In the operation of an engine the down stroke of
the piston draws air through the carburetor where the air becomes laden with
vapor and fine droplets of gasoline. This air-fuel mixture is next compressed
by the piston to a small volume, the ratio of the initial and final volumes being
known as the compression-ratio of the engine. When the piston reaches the top
of the stroke, the ignition system produces a spark at the spark-plug, which
ignites the air-fuel mixture. As the gases ignite and expand, the piston is forced
down providing power to the crankshaft. During proper combustion the wavefront travels from the point of ignition through the fuel mixture at a rate of
25 to 250 feet per second. In knocking, the wave-front is normal during the
first three-fourths of the combustion but then suddenly begins to travel at 1000
feet per second. This sudden increase in rate is accompanied by an increased
rate of pressure increase which sets off shock waves of the same frequency as
the sound of knocking. Knocking decreases power and increases wear on the
engine. Engine efficiency increases with the compression ratio of the engine but
so does knocking. Nevertheless the compression ratio of gasoline engines,
which was around 4 to 1 in 1920, was 7.5-10 to 1 in 1956. This increase has
been possible because of the development of anti-knock fuels. It has been
found that the knocking characteristic of a fuel depends on the structures of
the hydrocarbon molecules and that knocking can be increased or decreased by
the addition of relatively small amounts of other chemicals (p. 80).
As a means of measuring the knocking properties of a fuel, two pure hydrocarbons were selected as standards. One is n-heptane, which was worse in its
tendency to cause knocking than any ordinary gasoline, and the other is
1 William Meriam Burton (1865-1954) began his career as the first chemist employed by the
Standard Oil Company at its Whiting, Indiana, refinery and became president of the Standard
Oil Company of Indiana in 1918. He is regarded as the founder of modem petroleum technology.
2,2,4-trimethylpentane 2 which was better than any gasoline known at the time.
Blends of these two pure hydrocarbons could be made to match the knocking
characteristics of any known fuel. The knocking property of the fuel then
could be described by its octane number, the per cent of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane
in the synthetic blend that matched the gasoline in knocking properties.
Investigation of a large number of pure hydrocarbons has shown that in general
the octane number increases with increase in branching, and that olefins and
aromatic hydrocarbons (pp. 65, 429) are better than saturated hydrocarbons.
The trend in gasoline production has been to develop methods for producing
gasoline with higher and higher octane numbers. It is possible to design gasoline
engines using special fuels, for example trimethylbutane (triptane), that will
operate at compression ratios between 12 and 16 to 1 and have an efficiency
equal to that of a Diesel engine (p. 81). In 1955 the octane numbers of regular
and premium gasoline in the United States were about 87 and 95.
Thermal Cracking. Thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons results not only
in smaller molecules of higher volatility but also in the production of olefins
and aromatic hydrocarbons. Hence the cracking process gives a higher yield of
gasoline and a product with higher octane number. The products formed
depend on their relative thermodynamic stability and on the relative rates of
the reactions taking place, both factors being dependent on temperature and
pressure. Between 400° and 500° gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons of lower
boiling range are formed. Above 500° gas production becomes more important.
The commercial production of oil-gas (gas from oil) normally is carried out at
about 700°. Around 900° the maximum yield of aromatic hydrocarbons (p. 429)
is obtained, and above 1000°, methane, hydrogen, and carbon are the chief
The basic cracking equipment consists of a heating coil and a reactor. All the
various possible reactions require time for the reaction to take place. Preheated
oil is pumped through the coil and heated to the cracking temperature of
450°-500° so rapidly (contact time one-half to three minutes) that undesirable
phases of decomposition, especially coke formation, do not have time to take
place in the coil. On passing into the reactor, which is simply an insulated
cylindrical tank, the rate of flow is decreased sufficiently to give time for the
completion of the reaction. The operation thus far takes place at pressures of
175-250 p.sj., to increase the amount of material in the liquid phase. On leaving
the reactor the oil is flashed into a fractionating column, where it is separated
into the desired products. Figure 32, page 72, shows diagrammatically the
Dubbs process which may be operated to yield only gas, gasoline, and residual
fuel oil or coke from any type of stock.
If clean recycle stocks are used which deposit practically no coke, it is possible
to dispense with the reactor. A higher cracking temperature is used (500°-600°)
and the cracking is permitted to take place in soaking tubes, an extension of
the tubular furnace. Whereas the octane number of a straight-run gasoline will
be 50-55, that of a thermally cracked gasoline will be 70-72. Few new thermal
cracking units have been built since 1945 because of the rapid change to catalytic
cracking.
2 Unfortunately designated isaactane by petroleum technologists. The prefix isa should bv
reserved for compounds having two methyl groups at the end of a straight chain (p. 33).
Catalytic Cracking. Since the products formed during the cracking operation
depend not only ?n their relative stab~lity but on the relative rates a~ which
the different reactIOns take place, the alm has been to find catalysts whlch will
accelerate the rates of reactions leading to desirable products over those leading
to undesirable products. As a result catalytic cracking has become of prime
importance. By these processes gasolines with octane number~ of 77 ~o 81. ~re
obtained. The catalysts used are natural clays or synthetic alumma-slhca
mixtures, and the operation is carried out at 450°-500° and relatively low
pressures of 10-50 p.s. i. In all catalytic processes the catalyst becomes deactivated
by the deposition of coke, which must be burned off periodically to regenerate
OIL VAPOR
CI)
'.'
LI..
VAPOR OUT
Fig. 33. Moving-bed catalytic cracking unit.
the catalyst. The more recent processes are continuous. In the moving-bed type
the catalyst ih the form of beads is carried through the reaction, purging, and
regenerating zones by mechanical conveyors and gravity (Fig. 33). In later
modifications the reactor is above the regenerator, and the spent catalyst moves
to the regenerator by gravity. The regenerated catalyst is carried to a hopper
above the reactor by an air lift. Processes using fluidized catalyst are similar
except that the catalyst is in the form of a fine powder which behaves as a fluid
and is transported through the various zones by the gas streams. The catalyst
is removed centrifugally from the cracked gases or from the flue gases by means
of cyclone separators.
Economically, catalytic cracking has another advantage over thermal cracking.
In the former the heat necessary for cracking comes from the burning of coke
whereas in the latter, the heat is supplied by burning the more valuable refinery
gases or liquid fuels.
Coking. In the refining operations, large quantities of residual oils are obtained.
Cracking of these residual oils can yield more gasoline, but when carried out
as a batch process, the coke is obtained in a massive form which is difficult to
remove from the stills. As a result, distillation and thermal cracking were
carried only to the point where the residual oils were sufficiently fluid to be
burned as fuel. New coking processes have been described in which the residual
oil is brought in contact with hot coke particles previously heated by partial
combustion. The particles grow in size during the cracking process and are
removed continuously and replaced by freshly heated particles. As in catalytic
cracking, either a moving bed or fluidized bed may be used.
Reforming. Most aromatic hydrocarbons in the boiling range of gasoline
have octane numbers above 100. Because of the demand for gasoline of higher
and higher octane number, catalytic processes for the conversion of the cyclohexanes, cyclopentanes, and alkanes into aromatic hydrocarbons have been
developed (pp. 64, 65).
During World War II, a catalyst of molybdenum oxide supported on alumina
was used to convert methylcyclohexane to toluene (p. 66). Since 1949, much
more active catalysts containing less than I per cent of platinum supported on <
alumina have been used. Dehydrogenation of cyclohexanes (p. 66) is the
easiest operation, isomerization of methylcyclopentanes to cyclohexanes (p. 64)
is harder, and cyclization of alkanes to cyclohexanes is the most difficult. All
of the reactions are favored by high temperatures and low pressures. These
factors, however, increase the deposition of coke on the catalyst, which then
must be regenerated by burning. The various commercial processes are all
compromises. If the process is operated at 470 and 600 p.s.i., the catalyst may
be active for years without regeneration, but the yield of aromatics comes
chiefly from the cyclohexanes. If operated at 480 0 and 500 p.s.i., more methylcyclopentanes are isomerized to cyclohexanes, but the catalyst needs occasional
regeneration. Processes operated at 510° and 300 p.s.i. give more cyclization
of alkanes, but the catalyst needs periodic regeneration. Because dehydrogenation is an endothermic process, heat must be supplied for the reaction and
the vapors must be preheated in furnaces before being passed over the catalyst.
By combining an extraction process with a reforming process, the Jow octane
components can be recycled and the feed converted entirely into fuel having
an octane number of 100 or better.
In any reforming operation, the conversion to aromatic compounds is not
complete. When pure benzene, toluene, or xylenes are desired, the aromatics
are separated by extraction with an appropriate solvent such as diethylene
glycol (p. 744) or by extractive distillation. In the latter operation a higher
boiling solvent, such as phenol (p. 502), is added near the top of the fractionating
column. The solvent is chosen to increase the difference in volatility of the
materials being separated.
Large quantities of hydrogen have become available from the reforming
operations. Some of it is being used to improve various petroleum fractions
and to remove sulfur by hydrogenation. Most of it probably will be used to
hydrogenate low quality crude oils and residual oils, which then would yield
more gasoline and less coke on cracking.
Polymerization. The availability of large quantities of gases from the cracking
operations has made it desirable to convert them into more useful products.
One such procedure for the utilization of olefins is polymerization to liquid
fuels. The polymerization of propylene to dodecylenes and of isobutylene to
diisobutylenes has been discussed on page 62. If mixtures of propylene and the
butylenes are used, an interpolymerization, called copolymeri::.ation, takes place.
The products have octane numbers of 80 to 85 and, as the equation for the
polymerization of propylene shows (p. 62), still contain a double bond. Because
of the unsaturation, the polymers on exposure to air are slowly oxidized and
further polymerized to undesirable compounds of high molecular weight known
as gums. The rate of oxidation and polymerization can be decreased greatly by
the addition of small amounts of substances known as antioxidants (p. 886).
When used for this purpose they are called gum inhibitors. Gum formation can
be completely eliminated by hydrogenating to a mixture of saturated hydrocarbons. Hydrogenation of the diisobutylenes with hydrogen and a nickel
catal vst (p. 55) gives 2,2,4-trimethylpentane, the standard 100 octane fuel.
Thes~ saturated, high-octane alkanes are blended with aromatic hydrocarbons
for aviation gasolines (p. 430).
Alkylation. Since 1938, branched alkanes have been added to the double
bond of olefins to give high-octane gasoline, a process known as alkylation.
At atmospheric pressure this process is thermodynamically possible only at
relatively low temperatures, and a catalyst is necessary to make the reaction
take place at a practical rate. Using 85 to 100 per cent sulfuric acid or anhydrous
hydrogen fluoride as a catalyst at temperatures below 20°, isobutane reacts
with the mixed butylenes to give a mixture of octanes having an octane number
of 92 to 94.
CH aCHCH.C(CH a)3,
CHaCH.CH=CH.
(CHa).CH
CH 3CH.CHC(CHa)a, and
CH3 CH=CHcl-I.
CH.CH-CHCH(CH.).
CH. CHa
The advantages of the alkylation process over polymerization are that the
branched alkanes are used as well as the oletins, and that the product is saturated,
thus avoiding the necessity for hydrogenation or the use of gum inhibitors.
The alkylation reaction is believed to take place by an ionic mechanism. The initial step is the
transfer of a proton from the proton-donating catalyst to a molecule of olefin to give a carbonium ion, followed by addition of the carbonium ion to a second molecule of olefin to give
a dimeric carbonium ion as in the polymerization of olefins (p. 63).
<rHa
CHaCHCH-CCHa
However, instead of stabilization of the dimeric ion by loss of a proton to give an unsaturated
dimer or of further polymerization, the presence of isobutane permits transfer of a hydride
ion, [H:-], to give a saturated molecule with regeneration of a I-butyl carbonium ion.
CH.CHCH-CCH. + (CH.).CH
CH3 CH.CH-tCH.
+ (CH.).C+
2,2,3-Trimethylpentane
The reason that isobutane is necessary in the alkylation reaction is that only the I-butyl
carbonium ion is sufficiently stabilized by the electron-donating properties of the methyl groups
(p. 60) to permit transfer of hydrogen with a pair of electrons from an alkane to a carbonium
;nn under the conditions of the reaction.
To account for the formation of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane and 2,3,4-trimethylpentane, it is
necessa.ry to assume rearrangement of the intermediate car?onium ion with migration to the
carbonIum atom of a methide ion, [CH,:-], from an adpcent carbon atom, followed by
hydride ion transfer from isobutane.
CH 3CHCH-CCH 3
~Iethide
Methide
CHaCHCH-C-CHa
ion shift
CHaCH-CH-CCH3
(CHal,Crr
(CH 3 l,en
CHaCH-CH-CHCH,+(CHa)aC+
CHaCHCH.C-CH a + (CH,).C+
CH, CHa CHa
Although the initial formation of the '-butyl carbonium ion is indicated as coming from
isobutylene, it can arise also by hydride ion transfer from isobutane to a carbonium ion formed
from I-butene or 2-butene. Moreover, since I-butene and 2-butene are in equilibrium in the
presence of sulfuric acid (p. lOS), both can give rise to the same products. Other compounds
may be formed by numerous other paths involving similar steps. The final composition of
the product depends on the relative rates of the various steps and the extent to which thermo_
dynamic equilibrium is attained.
Isomerization. Of the lower-boiling saturated hydrocarbons the least useful
are methane, ethane, propane, and n-butane, because they do not enter into
alkylation reactions, and n-pentane and n-hexane because of their low octane
numbers. Although n-butane and isobutane are stable indefinitely in the absence
of catalysts, Fig. 34 indicates that at room temperature they should exist m
'·PENTANE
7!>
,tso
,,·BUTANE
o2!>
42!>
202!>
TEMPEP.ATURE, ·c
Fig. 34. Variation of the equilibrium
composition of the butanes with temperature.
62l>
TEMPERATURE.
'c
composition of the pentanes with temperature.
equilibrium in the ratio of I : 4. Commercially catalysts consisting of a liquid
complex of anhydrous aluminum chloride, dry hydrogen chloride, and hydrocarbon, or a solid catalyst of aluminum chloride on alumina is used to cause
this equilibrium to be established rapidly at room temperature. The isobutane
produced is used in the alkylation reactions. According to Fig. 35 the equilibrium
mixture of the pentanes should contain large amounts of neopentane. No
neopentane ever has been obtained, although either n-pentane or isopentane
readily isomerizes to the equilibrium composition of the two isomers calculated
from their relative thermodynamic stabilities. Isopentane and the branched
hexanes formed by isomerization of n-pentane and n-hexane are valuable
blending stocks for gasoline.
Isomerization, like alkylation, is believed to take place by a carbonium ion mechanism.
Aluminum halides in the absence of hydrogen halides are not effective catalysts, and the
isomerization is greatly accelerated by the presence of olefins. Accordingly it is assumed that
the first step is the addition of a proton to an olefin molecule present as an impurity.
R.C=CR.
+ HX + AIXa
[R.?CHR.]
+ [-AlXJ
The carbonium ion, [R+], thus formed can remove a hydride ion from a secondary or tertiary
carbon atom to give another carbonium ion.
CHaCH.CH.CHa + [R+]
--+ [CHaCH.?HCHa]
+ RH
Shift of a methide ion gives a rearranged carbonium ion which can undergo a hydride ion shift
to give an intermediate able to remove a hydride ion from a secondary carbon atom.
CHaCH.CH.CHa -I-
[CH3~CHaJ
[CHaCH.~HCHaJ + CHa1CHaHCHa
It is neccessary to assume that a primary carbonium ion, in this case the isobutyl carbonium
ion, cannot abstract a proton directly from a butane molecule. Otherwise it should be possible
to isomerize isopentane to neopentane by a similar mechanism.
CHa?CH.CH a
CHaT-CH.+
(CHa).CHCH.CH a
CH 3?CH 3
[(CH 3).tcH.CH al
Likewise it is assumed that a carbonium ion cannot abstract a hydride ion from a primary
carbon atom.
Dehydrogenation. Another use that can be made of ethane, propane, and the
butanes is conversion into the more valuable olefins by thermal cracking,
partial oxidation, or by dehydrogenation using chromic oxide on alumina as
the catalyst. Figure 36 illustrates the equilibrium concentrations of n-butane,
TEMPERATURE, ·C
Fig. 36. Variation of equilibrium composition of butane, I-butene,
I,3-butadiene, and hydrogen with temperature.
I-butene, 1,3-butadiene, and hydrogen at one atmosphere from 100°-800°.
Butenes may be used in the polymerization and alkylation processes, and
butadiene is the basis for the large volume production of synthetic rubber (p. 716).
Knock Inhibitors. Numerous substances when added to gasoline increase its
octane number. Iodine and aniline were recognized first as knock-reducing
agents, but the metal alkyls are the most effective. Tetraethyllead, Pb(C 2 H 5)4
(p. 899), is by far the best and is the only compound now used commercially.3
One of the disadvantages of tetraethyllead when used alone is that the product
of combustion is lead oxide which is reduced to lead and causes pitting of the
cylinder walls. If ethylene bromide is added with the tetraethyllead, lead bromide
if formed which is more resistant to reduction. The commercial Ethyl Fluid,
which is added to gasoline, consists of approximately 65 per cent tetraethyllead,
25 per cent ethylene bromide, and 10 per cent ethylene chloride. It is of interest
that the increased use of bromine in Ethyl Fluid and other tetraethyllead
mixtures led to the development of processes for the extraction of bromine
from sea water. The extent of improvement in octane number on addition of
tetraethyllead varies with the hydrocarbon, and the increase in octane number
per unit of addition of tetraethyllead is known as the lead susceptibility. The
paraffin hydrocarbons have a better lead susceptibility than olefins or more
highly unsaturated compounds. Hence although a straight-run gasoline may
have a low octane number, it may be more desirable than certain types of
cracked gasoline because of the small amount of tetraethyllead necessary to
bring the octane number to a desired value. Gasolines having octane numbers
above 100 are rated according to the number of cubic centimeters of tetraethyllead that must be added to one gallon of 2,2,4-trimethylpentane to produce a
fuel equivalent to the gasoline being tested, 6 cc. being defined as 120.3 octane
Kerosene. Previous to 1910, kerosene was the most important product
derived from petroleum because of its use in lamps for lighting purposes.
Considerable quantities still are used for domestic heating with small heaters.
The kerosene fraction distills at 175°-275°, and all of the oletins and most of
the aromatics must be removed to enable it to burn from a wick with a white
flame and leave no residue. Refining is accomplished by washing with concentrated sulfuric acid or with liquid sulfur dioxide (Edeleanu process). Although
aromatics burn with a smoky flame, it is not necessary to remove them completely.
The burning qualities of the kerosene actually are improved when up to 20 per
cent is present. The demand for the kerosene fraction is increasing again, since
it is being used as the fuel for gas turbines and jet engines. The specifications
for jet engine fuel require that it flow at -60°. Hence the higher-melting normal
alkanes must be removed to prevent them from crystallizing at this low
Gas Oil, Fuel Oil, and Diesel Oil. Hydrocarbons distilling above kerosene
and below lubricating oils (250°-400°) may be used in a variety of ways. They
3 The story behind the development of tetraethyllead as an anti-knock agent is instructive.
Thomas Midgley, Jr. (1889-1944) thought that knocking was caused by the presence of droplets
of incompletely vaporized fuel. The suggestion was made that if a red dye were added to
gasoline, the droplets might absorb more heat and be vaporized. Midgley could not find a red
dye in the stockroom, and because it was Saturday afternoon, the supply houses were closed.
Iodine came to mind as a possible substitute, and on trying it Midgley found that it decreased
knock. On Monday he obtained all of the oil-soluble dyes that he could find in Dayton, but
not one reduced knocking. Although the theory was wrong, he had found that knocking could
be reduced by adding a chemical. Further exhaustive search led to one that was more effective
than iodiDe and not corrosive.
maY be cracked to gasoline or more drastically to oil gas, they may be burned
as ~uch for the generation of heat, or they may be used in internal combustion
engines of the Diesel type. These engines differ from the gasoline engine in that
the combustible mixture of air and fuel is not ignited by a spark but by the
high temperature generated during the compression of the air. Air is drawn
into the cylinder on the downward stroke of the piston and highly compressed
on the upward stroke. At the moment of maximum compression, oil is sprayed
into the hot air by injectors. In order that the temperature will be high enough
for ignition to take place, the compression ratio must be at least 12 to 1 and
usually is 14-17 to 1. At the compression ratio of 16 to 1 the theoretical thermodynamic efficiency is about 50 per cent, compared with an efficiency of 40 per
cent for a gasoline engine having a compression ratio of 6 to 1. The fuel must
have a low spontaneous ignition temperature and be clean to avoid clogging
of the jets. For the purposes of Diesel fuel, straight chain paraffin hydrocarbons
are superior to branched chain hydrocarbons and aromatics. Cetane (n-hexadecane), which ignites rapidly, is rated as 100 and a:-methylnaphthalene (p. 588),
which ignites slowly, is rated as zero. The cetane number of a fuel is the per cent
of cetane in a cetane-a:-methylnaphthalene mixture which has the same ignition
qualities as the fuel. In addition to somewhat better efficiency than the gasoline
engine, the Diesel engine has the advantage of being able to use less expensive
fuel. A more recent development is the gas turbine in which, presumably, any
type of combustible liquid or powdered fuel may be used.
Lubricating Oils. Friction is due to rough surfaces and molecular attraction.
Before a journal starts to rotate in a bearing lubricated by, some liquid, the
journal and the bearing are-in close contact, and the friction is at a maximum.
As the journal picks up speed, the friction decreases rapidly until the journal
is floating in a layer of lubricant. During this period of decreasing friction the
journal is said to be in a region of unstable lubrication. As the speed of the
journal continues to increase, the coefficient of friction again rises slowly because
of increasing molecular friction in the lubricant. This period is called the region
of stable lubrication. In the region of stable lubrication when the journal is
floating in a complete layer of lubricant, any liquid of the proper viscosity
should be satisfactory. On starting or stopping, however, the system is in the
region of unstable lubrication, where the behavior of the lubricant depends on
the composition of the lubricant and the nature of the surfaces.
The resinous and asphaltic constituents of oil are not lubricants. Moreover
the higher polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons are undesirable. At low
temperatures, paraffin waxes would crystallize out in the oil line. Hence refining
of lubricating oils aims at removal of the resinous, asphaltic, higher polycyclic,
and wax constituents. The crude higher-boiling oil fractions or still residues
are distilled at reduced pressure to obtain fractions of different viscosities and
then extracted with suitable solvents such as liquid sulfur dioxide, furfural
(p. 620), fJ-chloroethyl ether (Chlorex, p. 141), phenol (p. 502), or mixtures of
liquid propane and cresylic acid (p. 502) (Duosol process), which remove the
undesirable nonparaffinic constituents. Dewaxing is brought about by solution
in a mixture of methyl ethyl ketone (p. 225) and toluene (p. 420), chilling,
filtering the wax, and removing the solvent. Small amounts of additives such
as esters of acids of phosphorus (p. 515) and sulfur compounds usually are
added to improve the lubricating properties of the oil and to produce the
present-day "extreme pressure" lubricants. Polyisobutylene (p. 62) may be
added to improve the viscosity index, that is, the change in viscosity with
change in temperature.
Miscellaneous Products. Numerous fractions of petroleum are used as solvents.
Petroleum ether is a fraction consisting chiefly of pentanes and hexanes boiling
at 30°-60°. Fractions boiling at 60°-90° and 90°-100° usually are referred to as
ligroin. Solvent naphthas and paint thinners boil at 140°-200°. Even though
the boiling point range may be the same, the composition of these products
may vary widely depending on the source of the petroleum and the refining
process (cC Table 8, p. 71). The naphthas are used as fat solvents, dry cleaning
agents, and paint and synthetic enamel thinners. Gasoline never should be
substituted for naphtha or mixed with it for any of these purposes, because
gasoline contains low-boiling components whose vapors are ignited r~adily by
a flame or spark. Moreover practically all commercial gasoline contains the
highly toxic tetraethyllead. White mineral oils or paraffin oils are polycyclic
high-boiling fractions that have been decolorized by activated Fuller's earth (a
diatomaceous clay) or bauxite (crude aluminum oxide). Paraffin wax 4 is a
refined grade of the solid hydrocarbon fraction. The ordinary paraffin wax
crystallizes from the wax distillate. It is removed by filtration and is purified
by crystallization from methyl ethyl ketone (p. 225). The better grades melt at
52°-57° and consist for the most part of normal alkanes having from 20 to 30
carbon atoms. The microcrystalline waxes are obtained by crystallization of the
still residues and consist of molecules having 30 to 50 carbon atoms. Because
of the high molecular weight of the molecules, these waxes melt as-high as
88°-90° and hence are more valuable for many purposes. Some are hard and
brittle, and others are fairly tough and flexible. Petrolatum (petroleum jelly or
Vaseline) is a semisolid fraction used chiefly for pharmaceutical purposes.
Greases are made by dissolving metallic soaps (p. 192) in hot lubricating oils.
On cooling, the solution sets to a semisolid mass. Pitch and asphalt are residual
products used as protective coatings and as binding agents for fibers and
crushed rock. If these residues are distilled to dryness, petroleum coke is obtained
which can be calcined to a practically pure carbon valuable for the manufacture
of carbon electrodes.
Destructive Hydrogenation and Synthetic Fuels
In the cracking process, the formation of olefins, coke, and cyclic compounds
takes place because of a lack of hydrogen and can be prevented if an excess
of hydrogen is supplied in the presence or absence of a catalyst. A low cracking
temperature is used at pressures around 3000 p.s.i. During the process, which is
known as destructive hydrogenation, nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen are removed
completely as their hydrides, and the gasolines and kerosenes obtained are
saturated and do not require further refining. Moreover each barrel of oil
yields over a barrel of liquid products. 5 Because of the availability of hydrogen
cf. Footnote 8, p. 41.
The "increase in volume is not due to the amount of hydrogen absorbed but to the fact that
the hyarocarbons of lower molecular weight have a lower density than the original hydrocarbons. Or"dinary cracking also would result in increased volume were it not for the gases and
coke prodticed.
from the newer reforming processes (p. 76), the hydrogenation of low grade
crudes and residual oils undoubtedly will come into wider use.
A similar process has been used for the conversion of coal and other solid
fuels to liquid fuel in countries which do not have petroleum resources. Germany
was the pioneer in this development, but other countries have built experimental
plants as a safeguard against t~e day. when l?etroleum supplies h~ve. become
exhausted. 6 The Bergius process IS carned out 111 two stages. In the lIqUId phase
treatment, ?Qwdered coal i~ mixed with heavy ail re~idue~ and a ~mall amount
of catalyst, presumably iron oxide, and converted to heavy and middle oils at
4500 and hydrogen pressures of 10,000 p.s.i. In the second stage, the middle
oils are vaporized and passed with hydrogen over a fixed catalyst. The products
are separated by distillation.
More recently, processes based on the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis of liquid
fuels have been investigated extensively. Coal or other carbonaceous material
is converted into carbon monoxide and hydrogen by the water-gas reaction.
+ H2
The mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is enriched with hydrogen
(p. 70) and passed over a cobalt-thoria catalyst on a suitable support at 200°250 0 and atmospheric pressure.
+ (2n +
1)H2
C n H 2n +2
+ n H 20
The gasoline fraction must be reformed to improve the octane number. An
obvious advantage over the Bergius process is that equipment capable of
withstanding high pressure and temperature is not necessary. Nevertheless most
of the German synthetic fuels were made by the Bergius process.
1. Discuss the source and composition of petroleum. What are the current theories concerning
it;; origin and the conditions. under which it was produced '?
2. What is meant by the following terms: liquefied petroleum gas; petroleum ether; ligroin;
straight-run gasoline; cracked gasoline; naphtha; kerosene; gas oil; Diesel fuel; lubricating
oil; white mineral oil; petroleum jelly?
3. Give a brief discussion of knocking, octane number, anti-knock gasoline, Ethyl Fluid,
and cetane number.
4. Discuss briefly the Burton, Dubbs, Thermofor, and Fluid Catalyst processes for cracking
petroleum, giving the advantages and disadvantages of each.
5. Describe the following processes as used by the petroleum industry: polymerization,
alkylation; isomerization; reforming; dehydrogenation.
6. Give a brief description of the Fischer-Tropsch process and the Bergius process for the
production of hydrocarbon oil from natural gas, lignite, or coal.
• The proved reserves of petroleum in the United States at the end of 1955 were 30 billion
barrels. Production during the same year was 2.4 billion barrels. Newer geophysical methods
for locating oil pools are increasing reserves somewhat but cannot do so indefinitely. Before
the exhaustion of reserveS, other sources of liquid fuel such as coal and oil shale must be
developed if the United States wishes to remain independent of foreign sources.
ALCOHOLS. ESTERS OF INORGANIC ACIDS
The simplest alcohols contain oxygen and have the general empirical formula
C n H 2n +2 0. The first member, methyl alcohol, has the molecular formula CH4 0.
Since oxygen has six valence electrons, it requires two more to complete its
valence shell. It does this by pairing two of its electrons with two electrons
from one or two other atoms or groups, thus forming two covalent bonds. In
the alcohol molecule, CH 40, the oxygen atom must be joined to both carbon
and hydrogen because if it shared both of the electrons with carbon, carbon
would have only two valence electrons left to share with hydrogen and the
formula would be CH 2 0. If both electrons of oxygen were shared with hydrogen,
a water molecule would result. Hence only one structural formula is possible,
namely H-C-O-H or CH3 0H. This formula is in accord with the general
methods of preparation and the reactions of methyl alcohol.
The number of possible structures for the other members of this homologom
series can be predicted in much the same way as was done for the olefins.
namely from a consideration of the possible positions which the functiona i
group, in this case the hydroxyl group (OH), can occupy in the carbon skeletom
of the alkanes. The procedure leads to one C 2 alcohol, two C3 alcohols, foUl
C4 alcohols, and eight C 5 alcohols.
The word alcohol has been applied to the active principle of intoxicating
beverages since the eighteenth century. The usually accepted derivation is from
al-kuhl, the Arabic word for finely powdered antimony sulfide used as a cosmetic
to darken eyelids. Later the term was applied to any finely divided substance
and then during the sixteenth century in the sense of "essence". Thus alcool
vini was the essence or spirit of wine. Gradually rini was dropped, but it was
not until the early part of the nineteenth century that the term alcohol came to
be used generally for wine spirits. It now is used also as a family name for the
homologous series.
Three systems of nomenclature are in general use. In the first the alkyl group
attached to the hydroxyl group is named and the separate word alcohol is
added. In the second system the higher alcohols are considered as derivatives
of the first member of the series, which is called carbinol. The third method is
the modified Geneva system in which (1) the longest carbon chain containing
the hydroxyl group determines the surname, (2) the ending e of the corresponding
saturated hydrocarbon is replaced by 01, (3) the carbon chain is numbered
from the end that gives the hy~roxyl. ~roup. th~ smaller number, and (4) the
'de chains are named and theIr posItions mdlcated by the proper number.
~he following examples illustrate these various systems.
CH 3 0H
carbinol
ethyl alcohol'
methylcarbinol'
normal propyl alcohol (n-propyl alcohol)
ethylcarbinol
I-propanol
CH 3 CHCH 3
isopropyl alcohol (i-propyl alcohol)
dimethylcarbinol
normal butyl alcohol (n-butyl alcohol)
n-propylcarbinol
I-butanol
CH 3 CH 2CHCH,
secondary butyl alcohol (s-butyl alcohol)
methylethylcarbinol
CH 3 GICH,Oli
isobutyl alcohol (i-butyl alcohol)
i-propylcarbinol
2-methyl-l-propanol
tertiary butyl alcohol (I-butyl alcohol)
trimethvlcarbinol
CH 3 -C---.-OH
2CH/
ethy l-i-propy l-s- bu ty lcarbinol
2,4-dimethyl-3-ethyl-3-hexanol
CH 3-CH,-3i-O H
CH 3 -CH 2
Alcohols in general are divided into three classes. In primary alcohols the
lydroxyl group is united to a primary carbon atom, that is, a carbon atom
mited directly to only one other carbon atom. Secondary alcohols have the
lydroxyl group united to a secondary carbon atom, that is, one united to two
, Whether a chemical name for an organic compound is written as one word or more than
me depends on whether the compound is being named as a derivative of a chemical entity.
rhus carbinol is a definite compound, CH 3 0H, and names for compounds considered to be
lerivatives of it are written as one word, for example methylcarbil1ol. On the other hand alcohol
s not the name of any compound but is the name of a class of compounds. Hence ethyl alcohol
s written as two words.
other carbon atoms. Tertiary alcohols have the hydroxyl group united to a
tertiary carbon atom, that is, one joined directly to three other carbon atoms.
The three classes can be represented by the general formulas RCHzOH,
R 2 CHOH, and R 3 COH. In the above list ethyl, n-propyl, n-butyl, and i-butyl
alcohols are primary alcohols, i-propyl and s-butyl alcohols are secondary
alcohols, and t-butyl alcohol and ethyl-i-propyl-s-butylcarbinol are tertiary
alcohols. Ordinarily methyl alcohol is grouped with the primary alcohols,
although really it is unique in that it is the only alcohol having only hydrogen
atoms attached to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl group.
1-'
C!)
~I
!>o
!>
Fig. 37. Boiling points of normal alcohols.
Methyl alcohol, the first member of the series, is a liquid boiling at 65°, in
contrast to methane which boils at -161 "'. Even ethane, which has almost the
, same molecular weight as methyl alcohol, boils at -88 0 • The alcohols in
general boil at a considerably higher temperature than the saturated hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight. The rise in boiling point of the straight
chain primary alcohols with increasing molecular weight is about 18 0 for each
additional CH 2 group, as shown by Fig. 37. For a given molecular weight,
branching of the carbon chain lowers the boiling point just as it does in hydrocarbons. The boiling points of n-, i-, and t-butyl alcohols are respectively 117°,
107°, and 83 0 • The boiling point of s-butyl alcohol is 1000 indicating that the
hydroxyl group acts like a branch as might be expected.
The much higher boiling point of water and of alcohols as compared with alkanes of the
same molecular weight means that an attractive force, in addition to the transient dipole caused
by polarizability (p. 39), must be operating. This second type of van der Waals force appears
between molecules having hydrogen bound to oxygen or nitrogen and molecules containing an
unshared pair of electrons on oxygen or nitrogen, and in a few other isolated instances.
The hydrogen atom is unique in that it has a single electron surrounding the nucleus. When
it is bonded to other elements, the hydrogen nucleus, that is, the proton, is less protected by a
cover of electrons than the nuclei of other elements, and it can approach the electron shells of
other molecules more closely. The result is that an attractive force can appear between the
proton and any concentration of negative charge in another molecule.
If the other molecule contains an atom having an unshared pair of electrons and if this atom
will share this pair of electrons more nearly equally with the proton than does the atom to which
Alcohols. Esters oj Inorganic Acids
he proton is attached, that is, form a more nearly covalent bond, transfer of the proton from
~ne atom to the other takes place. The usual acid-base reactions are of this type.
HaN. + H: C1 --+ [HaN: H] [C1-]
If the new bond were less covalent than the original bond, no transfer would take place. Thus
there is no tendency for an alkane to transfer a proton to other elements, because hydrogen
forms a more nearly covalent bond with carbon than with any other element except another
' eIectncal
d'late con d'ItlOn
. sh ou1d be POSSI'bl'
Conceivab IY an Interme
e In wh'IC h t h
e reiatIve
forces are such that the tendency of hydrogen to form covalent bonds with two atoms is equal
or nearly so. Then if the molecules approach each other closely enough and in the right orientation for transfer of a proton to take place, there will be a stage where the proton is attracted
equally or almost equally by the atoms of two molecules. Under such conditions the proton
mayor may not transfer from one molecule to the other, and if transfer does take place, it will
be reversible. Nevertheless during the time when the molecules are close enough for the transfer
to take place, there will be a strong attraction of the proton for both molecules and hence an
increased attraction between the molecules. This type of attraction is called proton bonding or
hydrogen bonding. The former term is more descriptive of the process and avoids confusion
with the normal covalent hydrogen bond. The phenomenon also is known as association, and
compounds exhibiting proton bonding are said to be associated.
On this basis the high boiling point of water as compared with methane is due to the
association of water molecules by proton bonding. The high boiling point of the alcohols as
compared with the boiling point of alkanes of similar molecular weight may be explained in
H-O : H-O . H-O : H-O
CHa-O: H-O:
H-a'
CHa-O:
H-O: H-O:
. O-H: O-H
CHa-O: H-O
CH a
: O--H: O-H
Liquid water
Liquid methyl alcohol
However, the attractive forces between alcohol molecules are not so great as those between
water molecules, because the hydrogen atoms of the alkyl groups do not form proton bonds,
and the bulk of the alkyl groups decreases the chance that collision of two alcohol molecules
will form a proton bond between two hydroxyl groups
In proton bonding, a single proton cannot attract more than two other atoms. Because of
the small size of the proton, two water molecules or two alcohol molecules approach each other
so closely that a third molecule cannot approach the proton closely enough to be attracted
appreciably. However, a proton of a third molecule ::an bond to one of the oxygen atoms, and
this process can be repeated until the attractive forces balance the disruptive forces caused by
thermal agitation.
The reason that proton bonding occurs most frequently between molecules having hydrogen
on oxygen or on nitrogen and those having an unshared pair of electrons on oxygen or nitrogen
is simply that then the balance of electrical forces is such that proton bonding is possible. The
proton is held neither wo strongly nor too loosely by oxygen and nitrogen and the negative
charge resulting from the unshared pair on oxygen or nitrogen is sufficiently concentrated to
be effective. Fundamentally the attraction is not concerned with an unshared pair of electrons.
However only when an atom has an unshared pair is the negative charge sufficiently exposed
for a proton attached to another oxygen or nitrogen atom in another molecule to get close
enough to the electrons for an attractive force to operate.
Dodecyl alcohol is the first straight chain alcohol which is solid at room
temperature, although the more nearly spherical branched alcohols with fewer
carbon atoms, for example t-butyl alcohol, also may be solids at room temperature. There is no evidence for alternation in melting point (Fig. 38) as is exhibited
by saturated hydrocarbons (Fig. 27, p. 40) .
•u
....z
,,-40
...5:::E -80
e 7 a. 9 10
Fig. 38. Melting points of normal alcohols.
The alcohols containing three carbon atoms or less and t-butyl alcohol are
miscible with water at 20°, but n-butyl alcohol is soluble to the extent of only
about 8 per cent, and primary alcohols with more than five carbon atoms are
less than I per cent soluble in water.
Solubility has been mentioned previously on page 12 and page 40. Solution
is nothing more than the intermingling of molecules. Two liquids will not mix
if the attractive forces of like molecules for each other are much greater than
the attractive forces between unlike molecules. Moreover tlie more closely
molecules are related in composition and structure, the more similar will be
the attractive and repulsive forces between them. These statements explain the
very approximate rule that like dissolves like.
It is desirable to have a somewhat clearer picture of the factors producing solubility and
• insolubility. From the differences in boiling points, it was concluded that the attractio~
between water molecules is considerably greater than between alcohol molecules, and it mightl
be predicted that water and methyl alcohol would not mix. However alcohol molecules can
form proton bonds with water molecules and vice versa with the result that the differences in
attractive forces are decreased and intermingling takes place.
R-D:H-D:
H-O:H-D:
R-O:H-O:
H-O:
:O-R
As the length of the hydrocarbon chain increases, the attractive forces resulting from the
polarizability of the molecule (p. 39) increase until a point is reached at which the association
with water molecules is no longer sufficient to prevent alcohol molecules from being attracted
more strongly to each other than to water complexes, and two phases result. The separation is
not complete, however. Some aJcohol-water complexes remain in the water layer, and some
remain in the alcohol layer . Thus 100 g. of n-butyl alcohol dissolves 37 g. of water, and 100 g.
of water dissolves 7.3 g. of n-butyl alcohol at 15°. The fact that t-butyl alcohol is miscible with
water agrees with the fact that it boils lower than n-butyl alcohol, since the higher solubility
and lower boiling point are both dependent on the lower attractive forces between I-butyl
alcohol molecules.
Alcohols of Commercial Importance
Methyl Alcohol. The word methyl, first used by Dumas and Peligot in 1834,
was derived from the Greek word methy meaning wine and yle meaning wood
or material, and refers to the fact that it is the chief alcohol formed by the
destructive distillation of wood. Previous to 1919 it commonly was called wood
alcohol or Columbian spirits in the United States. With the introduction of
national prohibition of alcoholic beverages and the advent of the "speak-easy"
over which the authorities had no supervisory control, anything called alcohol
was used for intoxicating drinks. Since methyl alcohol is highly toxic, the result
was an alarming number of deaths and cases of blindness. As one combative
measure the use of the Geneva name methanol was urged, and it now largely
has displaced the older term.
Methyl alcohol now is obtained both by wood distillation and by a synthetic
process. In the wood distillation process dried hardwood such as beech, birch,
hickory, maple, or oak is decomposed in an oven or retort at a temperature
increasing fr(jm about 160° to 450°. If the wood is dry when placed in the
retort, the reaction is exothermic, and heat is supplied only to start the reaction.
The products are gases, which are burned as fuel, a liquid condensate, and a
residue of charcoal. The liquid condensate separates into an aqueous layer
called pyroligneous acid, and a tarry layer. The pyroligneous acid, of which
200 to 250 gallons per cord of wood is obtained, is mostly water but contains
1 to 6 per cent of methyl alcohol, 4 to 10 per cent acetic acid, 0.1 to 0.5 per
cent of acetone, and smaller amounts of methyl acetate and a number of other
In the oldest process for the separation of the components, the acetic acid
is neutralized with lime to produce the nonvolatile calcium acetate, and the
mixture is distilled to give a liquid containing 8 to 10 per cent of methyl alcohol
and the other volatile constituents. Fractional distillation gives the so-called
"82 per cent methyl alcohol" containing 82 per cent organic compounds or
60-65 per cent methyl alcohol, 11-14 per cent acetone, and 6-8 per cent methyl
acetate. Further fractionation removes the methyl acetate and acetone as low
constant-boiling mixtures with methyl alcohol. This mixture is known as
"methyl acetone" and is sold as a solvent 2 without further separation. The
next fraction contains 92-95 per cent methyl alcohol. The higher-boiling
fractions contain allyl alcohol (p. 738), n-propyl alcohol, and methyl ethyl
ketone (p. 225). Pure methyl alcohol was obtained through the calcium chloride
complex (p. 97).
During the year 1924 the total importation of methyl alcohol by the United
States was 48 gallons. This material was of high purity, the import duty of 12
cents per gallon being sufficient to prevent importation of the commercial
grade of foreign wood alcohol. During the first five months of 1925, the Badische
Company of Germany shipped into the United States almost a quarter of a
million gallons of methyl alcohol. Wood alcohol was selling for 88 cents per
2 The term solvent refers to the use of organic liquids for the purpose of dissolving other
organic substances. Solvents may be used as reaction media, &r for extraction of organic
compounds from solids or from aqueous solutions. Following t})e operation the solvent is
removed by distillation or evaporation. Hence they usually are low-boiling liquids. Solvents
may be used also to dissolve solid organic materials in order to form the latter into sheets or
fibers or to coat other materials with them.
Ch.S
gallon, but the imported material was being made by a synthetic process
perfected in 1923 which could produce methanol at a cost of around 20 cents
per gallon. Even raising the import duty to 18 cents per gallon, the maximum
permitted by law, was of little help to the wood distillers. Not enough methanol
was shipped into the country to drive the price below 57 cents per gallon in
1925, and for some reason the price rose again to 82 cents per gallon in February
1927. However with the advent of synthetic production in the United States,
the price became stabilized in 1930 at about 40 cents per gallon. Many of the
wood distillation plants survived because of more efficient operation and revision
of their procedures, particularly the development of new methods for separating
acetic acid by extraction or by special distillation processes (p. 158).
The synthetic process starts with carbon monoxide and hydrogen which
combine over a zinc oxide catalyst containing other promoter oxides, for
example 10 per cent chromium oxide, at a temperature of 300°_400° and at
pressures of 200 to 300 atmospheres.
co + 2H.
The synthesis frequently is carried out in conjunction with some other operation
such as the synthesis of ammonia, acetylene (p. 133) or hydrogen cyanide (p. 255).
By-product hydrogen from other processes, such as the anaerobic fermentation
of carbohydrates (p. 96), or the electrolytic production of chlorine, may be used,
but most of the carbon monoxide and hydrogen is produced from natural gas
(p.70).
Some higher alcohols also are produced in the synthetic process. The amount
can be increased by modifying the catalyst, for example by adding alkalies or
by using an iron base-alkali catalyst, and by raising the temperature to 350°- 475°.
Methyl alcohol is obtained also as one of the products of the controlled air
oxidation of natural gas (p. 220). Other alcohols also are formed, as well as
aldehydes, ketones, and organic acids.
The total production of synthetic methanol in the United States in 1955 was
1.3 billion pounds, or 204 million gallons, exceeding the production of any
other synthetic organic chemical. About 45 per cent was used for the manufacture
of formaldehyde (p. 220), 25 per cent for the synthesis of other chemicals,
15 per cent as radiator antifreeze, and 15 per cent as solvent and denaturant
for ethyl alcohol. Production of wood alcohol was 2.3 million gallons. Practically
all of it was used to denature ethyl alcohol. When pure synthetic methanol sold
for 30 cents per gallon, impure wood alcohol sold for 70 cents per gaHon,
because by law it is a required ingredient of certain formulas for denatured
ethyl alcohol (p. 95).
Ethyl Alcohol. Although the suffix yl was used in 1834 by Dumas and Peligot
in the word methyl to indicate its derivation from wood, Liebig and Woehler
had used the same suffix in 1832 in the term benzoyl in the sense of stuff or
material. It is in the latter sense that it ordinarily is used. Ethyl means the
material which gives rise to ether (p. 136).
One important source of ethyl alcohol is the fermentation of sugars. Fermentation is the decomposition of organic compounds into simpler compounds
through the agency of enzymes. Enzymes are complex organic compounds
secreted by living cells. The name enzyme means in yeast and was given because
the earliest known enzymes were those secreted by yeast cells. Pasteur,3 who
discovered the nature of fermentation, thought that the living cell was necessary,
but this view was disproven by Buchner in 1897. He showed that the juice
expressed from yeast cells which had been completely destroyed still was
capable of bringing about fermentation.
The chief sources of sugars for fermentatIOn are the varIOUS starches and the
molasses residue from sugar refining. Corn (maize) is the chief source of starch
in the United States, and ethyl alcohol made from corn commonly.is known
as grain alcohol. Potatoes are the chief source of starch in Europe, and rice in
Asia. In preparing alcohol from corn the germ first is ren 'wed, and the remainder
ground and cooked to giv.e ~he mash. Malt (s~routed. barley), or a mold s~ch as
Aspergillus oryzae, contammg the enzyme dzastase IS added, and the mIxture
kept at 40° until all of the statch has been converted into the sugar maltose.
This solution is known as the wort.
2 (C6 H,005)n
+nH 0
in malt
n C 12H 22 0 U
The wort is cooled to 20°, diluted to lO per cent maltose, and a pure yeast
culture added, usually a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (or ellipsoidus).
The yeast cells secrete two enzymes, maltase, which converts the maltose into
glucose, and zymase, which converts the glucose into carbon dioxide and alcohol.
C'2H"OU
+ H,O
lIfaJtase
2C.H'2 0 6
Zymase
2 CO 2 + 2 C,H 50H
+ 26 kcal.
Heat is liberated, and the temperature must be kept below 32° by cooling.
After 40 to 60 hours, fermentation is complete, and the product is run through
beer stills (perforated plate type, Fig. 14, p. 15) to remove the alcohol from
solid matter. The distillate is fractionated by means of an efficient column of
the bubble cap type. A small amount of acetaldehyde (b.p. 21°) distills first
and is followed by 95 per cent alcohol. Fusel oil is withdrawn from the center
of the column. The fusel oil.consists of a mixture of higher alcohols, chiefly
n-propyl, i-butyl, i-·amyl (3-methyl-l-butanol), and active amy14 (2-methyl-lbutanol). The exact composition offusel oil varies considerably, being dependent
particularly on the type of raw material tnat is fermented. These higher alcohols
are not formed by fermentation of glucose but arise from certain amino acids
(p. 293) derived from the proteins present in the raw material and in the yeast.
a Louis Pasteur (1822-1895), French chemist and microbiologist whose studies of fermentation led to the germ theory of disease and to immunization by inoculation with attenuated
organisms and viruses. The "Life of Pasteur" written by his son-in-law, Vallery-Radot, is a
most interesting account of the life and work of an outstanding scientist.
• The five-carbon alcohols commonly are referred to as amyl alcohols, because they first were
obtained from the products of fermentation (L. amylum, starch). The use of pentyl instead of
amyl is being advocated. The term active refers to the effect of the compound on plane-polarized
light (p. 331). The higher alcohols are toxic even in small amounts. The term fusel oil comes
from the German word fusel meaning bad liquor.
Industrial alcohol is ethyl alcohol used for nonbeverage purposes and usually
is not produced from starch. Previous to the development of efficient synthetic
processes, the chief source of industrial alcohol was the fermentation of blackstrap molasses, the noncrystallizable residue from the refining of sucrose (cane
sugar). It contains about 50 per cent of sucrose. Malt is unnecessary in the
fermentation, since yeast contains an enzyme, sucrase (invertase), capable of
converting sucrose into glucose and fructose, both of which are fermentable
by zymase.
C 12 H 22 0 11
Sucrase
C.H12 0.
2 CO 2
+2C H
The black-strap molasses is shipped from the islands of the Caribbean Sea by
tankers to plants located on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is diluted with
water to give a sucrose concentration of 14 to 18 per cent, and the solution is
weakly acidified with sulfuric acid to prevent the growth of harmful organisms.
After the addition of yeast, the process is the same as for the production of
alcohol from starch. Plants may have fermenters of a half million gallons
capacity, which are enclosed to collect the carbon dioxide for recovery of
alcohol vapors and for the condensation of the carbon dioxide to the liquid or
solid form. Storage capacity for molasses may be as high as 6,000,000 gallons.
The waste liquors from the production of wood pulp by the sulfite process
(p. 400) contain a low concentration of fermentable sugars and can yield about
20 gallons of alcohol per ton of wood pulp produced. Numerous plants utilizing
waste sulfite liquors are operated in the Scandinavian countries and in Germany,
and in 1954 two plants were operating in Canada and one in the United States.
• Glucose formed by the hydrolysis of wood cellulose (pp. 360, 399) also is a
possible source of carbohydrate for fermentation which has been utilized in
Germany. Experimental plants have been built in the United States, but they
have not been able to compete with other processes under normal economic
conditions. The flowers of Bassia latifolia and other species have a high content
of glucose and fructose and are used extensively for the production of alcohol
in India.
Several processes for the synthesis of ethyl alcohol are possible. The first
synthesis was reported by Henne!5 in 1828, the same year in which Woehler
reported the synthesis of urea (p. 311). In 1826 Hennel had reported the isolation
of potassium ethyl sulfate (p. 58) from a sample of sulfuric acid which had
absorbed 80 volumes of ethylene, and which had been given to him by Faraday 6
5 Henry Hennel, English apothecary and contemporary of Michael Faraday. He was killed
in 1842 by the explosion of a large quantity of mercury fulminate which he had prepared for
the East India Company for military purposes.
6 Michael Faraday (1791-1867). Although best known for his work on electricity and
magnetism, he made outstanding contributions to chemistry as well. He was the first to liquefy
a number of gases and was the discoverer of benzene (p. 416). He established the laws of
electrolysis and discovered the phenomenon of magnetic optical rotation.
for investigation. In 1828 Henne! reported the hydrolysis of potassium ethyl
sulfate to ethyl alcohol. Hennel's discovery was overlooked, however, and the
synthesis was rediscovered in 1855 by Berthelot,? who absorbed the ethylene
from coal gas in concentrated sulfuric acid, and diluted and distilled the solution.
Although the possibility of industrial synthesis by this process was discussed
in the following year and a claim made in France in 1862 that the cost of
synthetic alcohol was about one-third that of fermentation alcohol, the first
continuously successful process was not operated until 1930 in the United
States. The ethylene used as the raw material is produced by the cracking of
hydrocarbons. It is absorbed in concentrated sulfuric acid at 100 to give a
mixture of ethyl hydrogen sulfate and ethyl sulfate (p. 103). Dilution with water
brings about hydrolysis to ethyl alcohol, which is removed by distillation. The
dilute sulfuric acid is concentrated for reuse. Since 1949 ethyl alcohol has been
manufactured also by direct hydration of ethylene in the vapor phase. The
conditions reported are a large excess of water, high temperature (300°) and
pressure (1000-4000 p.s.i.), and a solid catalyst such as phosphoric acid on a
carrier, hydrogen fluoride-treated clays, or promoted tungsten oxide. By 1940,
the synthetic process accounted for 25 per cent of the total U.S. production of
industrial alcohol and in 1955 for 80 per cent. Ethyl alcohol also is one of the
products of the butyl alcohol fermentation of starch (p. 96), of the FischerTropsch synthesis of liquid hydrocarbon fuels (p. 83) and of the controlled
oxidation of natural gas (p. 220).
Various grades of ethyl alcohol are produced. Ordinary alcohol is 92-95 per
cent ethyl alcohol by weight, the remainder being chiefly water. Anhydrous
alcohol cannot be obtained by simple distillation because a constant-boiling
mixture (also called an azeotrope) containing 95.6 per cent alcohol by weight
boils lower (78.15°) than pure alcohol (78.3°).
A general discussion of distillation and fractionation was given on page 14. In distillation
three types of binary mixtures are recognized. In type I, the boiling point of all compositions
lies between those of the two components. In type II, there is some particular composition at
which the boiling point is lower than that of either component. In type III, there is a particular
composition at which the boiling point is higher than that of either component. Figure 39 gives
typical boiling point diagrams for the three types. Wit1- reference to the diagram for type r,
curve L represents the boiling point of the liquid for different mixtures of components A and
B. Curve V represents the composition of the vapor phase when it is in equilibrium with the
liquid. If a mixture has the composition x, the instantaneous boiling point of the liquid will be
t, and the composition of the vapor in equilibrium with the liquid at this temperature will be x'.
In other words the vapor phase contains a higher concentration of the lower-boiling constituent
than the liquid phase from which it distilled. If this vapor is condensed and redistilled, the new
vapor phase will have the composition x Hence it is possible by fractional distillation or by
the use of a fractionating column, which is a device for providing ~inuous fractional
distillation (p. ] 5), to separate the mixture into its pure components.
7 Marcellin Pierre Eugene Berthelot (1827-1907), French chemist and statesman. He is noted
especially for his high temperature syntheses of organic compounds, for his study of esterifi~
cation, and for his work in thermochemistry.
In types II and III the vapor and liquid curves touch at some particular composition. In other
words, at this composition of the liquid the vapor coming from it has the same composition as
the liquid. Hence no separation can occur on distillation, the liquid phase retains a constant
composition, and the mixture boils at a constant temperature. In these types the mixture behaves
like a binary mixture of type I, consisting of the constant-boiling mixture and one of the. pure
components. For example referring to the diagram for type II, if the mixture has composition
x, distillation will concentrate the constant-boiling mixture C in the distillate, and component
B in the still; if the mixture has composition y, the constant-boiling mixture again will concentrate in the distillate, and component A will concentrate in the still. For mixtures of type III,
either component A or B will concentrate in the distillate and the constant-boiling mixture,
which boils higher than either component, remains in the still.
:::i
o x·
x'
Oy y'
MOLE FRACTION OF B
y'
x":l
Fig. 39. Types of boiling point diagrams.
The deviations from ideality arise when different molecules exert an attraction for each other
which differs from the attractive forces between like molecules. Maxima and minima in physical
phenomena occur when more than one factor influences a property and when these factors vary
in opposite directions with change of a third factor. The various attractive forces between
molecules play an important part in determining the extent of deviation from ideality and
whether maxima or minima will arise in the distillation curves as the composition of the liquid
changes.
Absolute alcohol (anhydrous, 99.9+ per cent) usually is prepared in the
laboratory by removing the water by chemical means, for example by heating
with calcium oxide, which reacts with the water, and distilling the dried alcohol
from the calcium hydroxide. The 5 per cent water in ordinary alcohol has a
marked effect on its solvent properties, and there is a considerable large-scale
demand for the anhydrous product. One commercial method of dehydration
makes use of the fact that a ternary mixture consisting of 18.5 per cent alcohol,
74.1 per cent benzene (C6H6' p. 65), and 7.4 per cent water by weight boils at
64.85°. Since the ratio of water to alcohol in the ternary mixture is 1 : 2.5,
enough benzene can be added to remove all of the water in the low-boiling
distillate, and anhydrous alcohol can be withdrawn from the still pot. A binary
mixture containing 80.2 per cent of benzene and 19.8 per cent of ethyl alcohol,
and boiling at 68.2°, permits complete removal of any excess benzene. The
ternary distillate separates into two layers. The upper layer comprises 84.7 per
cent of the total and consists of 11.6 per cent alcohol, 85.6 per cent benzene,
and 2.8 per cent water. The lower layer amounts to 15.3 per cent and consists
of 51.3 per cent alcohol, 8.1 per cent benzene, and 40.6 per cent water. Redistillation of the upper layer removes all of its water as the ternary mixture, and the
residue is returned to the main still. Redistillation of the lower layer removes
Cb. 5
all of its benzene as the ternary mixture and leaves a dilute alcohol which is
rectified to 95 per cent alcohol and returned to the main still. By the use of four
stills the process can be made continuous, with 95 per cent ethyl alcohol entering
the system and absolute alcohol and water being withdrawn. Other substances
such as 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (p. 77), trichloroethylene (p. 723), or ethyl ether
(p. 136) may be u~ed as entra~ners ins.tead of bcn~ene..
Since all countnes have denved a sIzeable portIOn of theIr revenue by taxmg
alcohol for beverage purposes, ethyl alcohol for industrial use first must be
converted into denatured alcohol if the payment of tax is to be avoided.
Denaturing is the addition of substances which render the alcohol unfit to
drink. Many formulas are available to the manufacturer in order that he may
choose one suitable for his purpose. Only denatured alcohols containing
obnoxious mixtures that are difficult to remove may be sold to the general
public without payment of tax. On January 1, 1940, the price of tax-free
denatured alcohol was 31 cents per gallon, compared with $4.55 per gallon for
taxed grain alcohol; on January 1, 1956, the prices were 40 cents and $20.35
respectively. The difference in each case is approximately the tax per gallon.
The United States tax is based on "100 U. S. proof" alcohol, which contains
half of its volume of absolute alcohol. Since there is a contraction in volume
on mixing alcohol and water, one volume of proof spirits contains 0.537 volumes
of water. Proof spirits is 42.5 per cent alcohol by weight. Ordinary so-called
95 per cent alcohol is 190 proof. One volume contaiD3 0.95 volume of alcohol
and 0.062 volume of water and is 92.4 per cent alcohol by weight. The term proof
spirit has its origin in an old method of testing whiskey by pouring it on some
gunpowder and lighting it. Ignition of the gunpowder after the alcohol burned
away was considered proof that the whiskey did not contain too much water.
The economics of industrial alcohol has changed often and markedly since
1930. Previous to 1931 the price of industrial alcohol was governed by the
price of molasses. In 1929 with molasses at 12 cents per gallon, ....cohol sold at
48 cents per gallon. In 1931 with molasses at 7 cents, alcohol sold at 27 cents.
Since 1931, synthetic alcohol has been made in the United States from ethylene
and has controlled the price of alcohol. After a slight rise to 30 cents in 1932,
the price of alcohol dropped regularly due to improvemints and expansion in
synthesis until it reached 20 cents in 1939. Since molasses is a by-product of
sugar manufacture, it had to be sold at a price permitting competition of
fermentation with synthetic alcohol, and in spite of general economic recovery,
its price dropped to 5 cents per gallon in 1939. Then a demand developed for
black-strap molasses for animal feeds, and it no longer needed to be sold at
distress prices. At the end of 1947 molasses sold for 31 cents per gallon, and
since 2.5 gallons are required to make one gallon of alcohol, it no longer was
a low-cost raw material.
With the increase in requirements during World War II and the decrease in
the importation of molasses because of submarine warfare, it became necessary
to revert to the use of grain (corn and wheat) as a source of industrial alcohol
with resulting increase in cost. While price controls were in effect, alcohol sold
for around 60 cents per gallon. After the removal of controls it rose to over
$1.00 per gallon in 1947 despite the low cost of making synthetic alcohol,
simply because the supply was not able to meet the demand. Failure of the
manufacturers. of synthetic alcohol to expand sufficiently to bring the price
back in line with their costs undoubtedly was due to several factors. Probably
the most important ones were the high cost of building new plants and the-.
shortage of materials, and the uncertainty concerning the future because of
the possibility that alcohol formed as a by-product in the synthesis of gasoline.
would become more than sufficient to meet the entire needs of the country.;
This last threat has. not materialized and synthetic manufacture expanded"-.
sufficiently to bring the price down to 30 cents per gallon in 1954.
Production in 1940 was 128 million gallons but rose to 606 million gallons
in 1944. In 1955 it was 217 million gallons, of which 80 per cent was made by
synthesis from ethylene and only 20 per cent by fermentation of carbohydrates.
The sharp rise during World War II was due to its use for the synthesis of
butadiene for the manufacture of synthetic rubber (p. 716). This use required
about 55 per cent of the total production. In 1954 about 45 per cent was used
for the synthesis of acetaldehyde (p. 222) and 26 per cent for solvent purposes.
The remainder was used for the synthesis of other chemicals and for miscellaneous
Higher Alcohols. Previous to W orld War I the chief source of higher alcohols
was fusel oil from which n-propyl, i-butyl, i-amyl, and active amyl alcohols
were separated by distillation (p. 91). Since then many other alcohols have
become available. n-Butyl alcohol is made by a special bacterial fermentation
process. Corn mash or black-strap molasses is inoculated with a pure culture
of one of several strains of Clostridium acetobutylicum in closed tanks under
anaerobic conditions_ The products of fermentation are n-butyl alcohol, aceton'e,
and ethyl alcohol in proportions varying from 60 : 30 : 10 to 74 : 24 : 2. The
evolved gas contains hydrogen and carbon dioxide in the ratio of 1 volume : 2
volumes. The process was developed during W orId War I as a source of acetone
when the supply from the decomposition of calcium acetate from pyroligneous
acid was insufficient to meet the requirements of the British for the production
of cordite (p. 401). At that time there was no large-scale use for n-butyl alcohol,
and huge stocks accumulated. Since then uses for n-butyl alcohol have been
" developed, and now it is the most valuable product, and acetone has become
the by-product. n-Butyl alcohol is manufactured also by a synthetic process
starting with acetaldehyde (p. 222). Since acetone also is made by synthesis
(p. 224), the ability of the fermentation process to compete economically depends
on the price of corn and molasses. In 1955 the total U.S. production of n-butyl
alcohol was 225 million pounds of which about one third was produced by
fermentation and two thirds by synthesis. The chief uses of n-butyl alcohol are
as a solvent, for the manufacture of esters (p. 173), and for the synthesis of
n-butyraldehyde (p. 223) and n-butyric acid (p. 159).
Higher branched chain primary alcohols result when normal primary alcohols
are heated with the sodium alkoxide in the presence of a nickel catalyst (Guerbet
reaction).
NaOCH 2 CH,R. Ni
RCH 2CH,CHCH 20H
2-Methyl-l-pentanol is made commercially in this way from n-propyl alcohol
and 2-ethyl-l-hexanol from n-butyl alcohol. The reaction has not been used
much in the laboratory because complex mixtures frequently are obtained.
Secondary and tertiary alcohols are manufactured on a large scale from the
lower olefins obtained by the cracking of saturated hydrocarbons.
CH,CH-CH.
CH,CHCHa
CH,CHCH.
~)H
OSO.H
CH 3CH=CHCH3
H 2 SO,
CHaCH 2CHCHa
clS0 H
CH 3CH 2CH=CH 2
(CH3).CCH.
s-Butyl alcohol
(CH')3 COH
bS0 H
Isobutylene
CHaCH.CHCHa
Similarly amylenes (pentenes) are converted into secondary and tertiary amyl
alcohols.
Some of the higher alcohols are obtained also as co-products of methanol
synthesis (p. 90), the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis (p. 83), and the controlled air
oxidation of natural gas (p. 220). Other methods for synthesizing alcohols are
considered after the structures of the compounds from which they are derived
have been discussed (pp. 113, 162, 172, 198, 199).
From a structural viewpoint an alcohol may be considered as derived from
a water molecule by replacement of a hydrogen atom by an alkyl group. Since
both water and alcohols contain a hydroxyl group, alcohols would be expected
to undergo reactions analogous to those of water, and in many respects this
is true.
1. Formation of Complexes with Metallic Salts. Alcohols resemble water in
that they associate readily, as evidenced by their abnormally high boiling points.
Just as water forms hydrates of inorganic salts, alcohols form complexes which
might be called a/coho/ates. Corresponding to MgCI 2 ' 6 H 20 there exist the
molecular complexes, MgC1 2 '6 CH30H and MgC1 2 '6 C 2 H 50H. Although
calcium chloride forms a hexahydrate, the reported complexes with methyl and
ethyl alcohols have the composition, CaC1 2 '4 CH3 0H and CaCI 2 ' 3 C 2 H 5 0H.
Some salts which form hydrates, for example anhydrous calcium sulfate, do
not form complexes with alcohols.
If to an aqueous solution of ammonium hexanitratocerate or perchloratoceric
acid is added about 5 per cent of an alcohol, the color changes from orange to
red. This color change may be used as a test for the a'coholic hydroxyl group.
The reaction undoubtedly depends on the replacement of nitrate or perchlorate
groups in the complex ion by alcohol molecules .
+ 2 ROH
(H+).[Ce(CIO')6r + 2 ROH
(NHtMCe(NOa>.r
..._
+ 2 NH.N03
Ce(CIOJ.(ROH). + 2 HCIO.
Ce(NO.MROH).
Hydrates have been classified into three types: (1) the water molecules merely occupy holes
in the crystal lattice (inclusion or clathrate compounds, L. clathri, lattice), the number of water
molecules associated with one mole of substance depending on the number of voids in the
crystal which can hold a water molecule; (2) the water molecules are combined with a specific
ion, an unshared pair of electrons of each water molecule occupying an orbital of the
H:O:H
metallic ion as in [Cu(H,O),]++ or
H: 0 : Cu : 0 : H
; (3) the crystal resembles ice in
which the ions are dissolved, the water molecules being associated with the ions because of
ion-dipole attraction (p. 13). Since alcohols have permanent dipoles and unshared pairs of
electrons, the same possibilities might be expected for combination between salts and alcohols.
The size and shape of the molecule would be expected to playa part in the formation of such
complexes, and it is not surprising that the number of alcohol molecules associated with a
given salt is not always the same but varies with different alcohols.
In general, salts are not as soluble in alcohols as in water because alcohols
have a much lower dielectric constant (methyl alcohol = 34, water = 81)
(p. 13). If a salt, such as calcium chloride, forms a definite coordination complex
with the alcohol, the complex may be highly soluble.
2. Oxonium Salt Formation. It is well known that when a strong acid is
dissolved in water, there is practically complete transfer of the proton from the
acid radical to the water molecule as illustrated by the following equation.
H: 0:
H: CI:
The product from hydrogen chloride is called hydronium chloride, and the
[H30+} ion is the hydronium ion. The explanation of this reaction is that the
negative charge on the larger chlorine atom is more diffuse than that on the
oxygen atom. Hence the proton can form a more nearly covalent bond with
the water molecule than with a chloride ion. The relative ability to combine
with a proton or an electron-deficient molecule is called the basicity of a group,
and the proton is transferred to a water molecule because the water molecule
is a stronger base than the chloride ion.
Alcohols also are stronger bases than the anions of strong acids. Hence
alcohols dissolve in strong acids with the formation of alkonium salts.
R:O:
H:CI:
The general term for this type of compound is oxonium salt. Concentrated
sulfuric acid will dissolve practically all organic compounds containing oxygen,
frequently without chemical change other than salt formation. This fact is used
in qualitative organic analysis to distinguish oxygen-containing compounds from
saturated hydrocarbons.
Alcohols and all other oxygen-containing compounds are more soluble in
aqueous solutions of strong acids than in water because of the competition of
alcohol and water molecules for the proton.
R';
~ H] ~ [R ~ +H,Q
n-Butyl alcohol is miscible with concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid
although it is soluble only to the extent of 8 per cent in water.
oxonium salt formation differs from proton bonding, since in the latter the proton bonds two
rnolecules together by electrostatic attraction, whereas in the former a proton is transferred
cornpletely from one molecule to another. The proton is completely engulfed in the electron
shell of the new molecule and carries a positive charge with it. Alcohols are more soluble in
aqueous acids than in water because the charged oxonium ions are considerably more heavily
hydrated than the alcohol molecule, which is dependent primarily on proton bonding for
hydration.
3. Reaction with Metals. Just as water reacts with metallic sodium to give
hydrogen and sodium hydroxide, the alcohols react with sodium to give
hydrogen and sodium alkoxide.
+ Na
HO-+Na
+ tH,
CH 30H
CHaO-+Na
Sodium mcthoxide
+ ·~H2
RO-+Na
Sodium alkoxide
In these equations the ionic bond between the sodium atom and the hydroxyl, methoxyl, and
alkoxyl groups is indicated by (+ ) and ( -) signs. Usually ionic bonds will not be indicated for
inorganic salts, because it is assumed that the reader understands that inorganic salts are
completely ionized and that although the formula is written NaOH, for example, two types of
bonds are involved, the ionic bond between sodium and the hydroxyl group and the covalent
bond between the hydrogen atom and the oxygen atom. Also it is assumed that the reader
understands that the molecule represented by the formula CHaOH involves )nly covalent bonds.
However when an organic molecule contains both ionic and covalent bonds, the presence of
the ionic bond frequently will be emphasized by indicating the ionic bond with ( +) and ( - )
charges.
Proton transfer reactions frequently will be indicated merely by the symbol [H+j without
designating the base with which the proton is associated. Thus the formation of an oxonium
salt may be written
[H+]
If anhydrous hydrogen chloride is used, [H+j stands for HCI; if an aqueous solution of hydrogen
chloride is used, [H+j stands for [HaO+]. If a stronger base than an alcohol is being neutralized
with an alcoholic solution of hydrogen chloride, [H+j stands for [ROH 2 +j. An objection to the
nse of the symbol [H+] is that it represents a proton, and free protons under ordinary conditions
are nonexistent. In organic reactions, however, where a number of bases may be involved, there
usually is no point in trying to indicate the base with which the proton is associated.
The reaction with alcohols is slower than with water and decreases with
increasing molecular weight of the alcohol.
If a small piece of sodium is dropped into a beaker containing water at room temperature,
the reaction is so vigorous that the hydrogen formed bursts into flame; if dropped into methyl
alcohol, the reaction is vigorous, but no ignition takes place; if dropped into n-butyl alcohol,
only a slow evolution of hydrogen is observed. The decrease in rate probably is caused more by
the decrease in solubility of the alkoxide in the alcohol and by the slower rate of diffusion of
the ions away from the metal surface in the more viscous medium with resultant coating of the
surface of the sodium, than by a decrease in the chemical reactivity of the alcohol.
The reaction product of methyl alcohol with sodium is known as sodium
methoxide. The term sodium methylate also is used but is less satisfactory, since
the term alcoholate frequently is used for complexes with inorganic salts
analogous to the hydrates (p. 97).
Other active metals also react at elevated temperatures. For example,
anhydrous methyl alcohol reacts with magnesium to give hydrogen and magnesium methoxide, Mg(OCH 3)2' and amalgamated aluminum reacts with ethyl
alcohol, i-propyl alcohol, or t-butyl alcohol, to give respectively aluminum
ethoxide, AI(OC 2H 5)3' i-propoxide, Al(OC 3H 7-i)3' or t-butoxide, AI(OC4 H 9-t)s,
Since in all cases only one hydrogen atom per mole of alcohol is liberated,
these reactions indicate that one hydrogen is different from all the rest and is
linked to oxygen.
The reason that hydrogen united to carbon ordinarily is not displaced by metallic sodium is
the same as the reason that hydrogen united to carbon does not form proton bonds, namely
that the carbon-hydrogen bond is almost completely covalent. The rate of displacement of
hydrogen may be greatly increased by the presence of other groups which make the carbonhydrogen bond less covalent (pp. 131,213,260).
Metallic alkoxides are hydrolyzed extensively by water because the acidity
of water and of alcohols is about the same.
+ NaOH
This equilibrium is reversible, and sodium ethoxide is made commercially from
ethyl alcohol and sodium hydroxide by removing the water by azeotropic
distillation with benzene (p. 94). Magnesium and aluminum alkoxides may be
used to remove small amounts of water from alcohols, because the extreme
insolubility of magnesium or aluminum hydroxide in alcohols shifts the
equilibrium to the right.
4. Reaction with Inorganic Acid Halides. Another typical reaction of water is
with inorganic acid halides to give halogen acid and a second inorganic acid.
3 HOH
+ PCI 3
3 HCI
+ P(OH).
The alcohols not only behave similarly but react in two different ways. In the
above equation the water molecule may split between the oxygen atom and
either hydrogen atom. Hydrogen and hydroxyl result in both cases. With
alcohol molecules, however, hydrogen and alkoxyl would be obtained in one
case and hydroxyl and alkyl in the other. Hence two different reactions may
occur.
3 ROH
+ PCI.
+ PCI3
-----+
3 RCI
+ P(OR)3
The relative proportion of reactions 2 and 3 depends on the conditions and
the reagent. Phosphorus trichloride with primary alcohols at room temperature
gives mostly reaction 2, but phosphorus tribromide at 0° gives mostly reaction 3,
Tertiary alcohols invariably give reaction 3, whereas secondary alcohols undergo
both reactions simultaneously.
Compounds of the type P(OR)a are alkyl esters of phosphorous acid and are
named like salts. For example P(OC 2Hs)3 is ethyl phosphite. Compounds of the
type RCI are called alkyl chlorides, the terminology being carried over from
that of salts. They may be considered also as derivatives of hydrocarbons.
Thus CH3CHCICH3 is called either i-propyl chloride or 2-chloropropane.
The reactions with phosphorus halides are a further chemical proof that the
alcohols contain a hydroxyl group, because it appears in phosphorous acid in
reaction 3. The production of one mole of hydrogen chloride from one mole
of alcohol in reaction 2 is another indication that one hydrogen atom in an
alcohol is linked differently than all the rest.
Although these reactions indicate that phosphorous acid has the structure: P(OH)a, it is a
dibasic acid and has reducing properties. Hence its stable form undoubtedly has the isomeric
structure : 0 : PH(OH) •. On the other hand P(OR)a, which has no ionizable hydrogen,
cannot isomerize and has the structure : P(OR)a. The great mobility of hydrogen, that is, its
ease of transfer from one electron-attracting element to another or to an element with less
attraction for electrons, compared to the nonmobility of alkyl groups, can be accounted for
by its very small size and its lack of a shielding shell of electrons. These conditions permit
sufficiently close approach to another molecule for reaction to take place without requiring a
high energy of activation.
Other inorganic acid chlorides, for example thionyl chloride, react like
phosphorus trichloride.
HOH+SOCl.
2ROH + SOCI.
ROH + SOCl.
2HCl + SO.
2 HCl + SO(OR).
+ RCI +
Here also primary alcohols give chiefly esters (alkyl sulfites, reaction 5), whereas
tertiary alcohols give alkyl chlorides (reaction 6).
Most reactions involving more than two molecules take place stepwise in such a way that
only two molecules are involved in each step. The reason is that the chance that more than two
molecules will approach each other with the proper energies and in just the right orientation
with respect to each other for all to react simultaneously is very small. In reaction 5 the two
steps are
ROSOCI + HCI
ROSOCI + HOR
ROSOOR + HCI
Even a reaction such as 6 which appears to be bimolecular takes place in at least two steps.
The first is the same as reaction 7, and the second is
ROSOCI
+ SO.
Tertiary amine hydrochlorides, such as pyridine hydrochloride (p. 620), catalyze the decom'position of alkyl thionyl chlorides (reaction 9), and hence <l good yield of alkyl chloride can be
obtained even from a primary alcohol and thionyl chloride in the presence of pyridine, if the
mole ratio is 1 : 1 : 1. If an excess of pyridine is present, the yield of chloride is reduced with
the formation of other by-products. If two moles of alcohol, one of thionyl chloride, and two
of pyridine react, an excellent yield of the alkyl sulfite is produced (reaction 8).
Reasoning by analogy may not always lead to a correct interpretation of the way in which
an organic reaction takes place. For example, since the acid chlorides of monoalkyl sulfites
(ROSOCI) decompose in the presence of pyridine hydrochloride to give alkyl chlorides, the
formation of chlorides from phosphorus trichloride and a primary alcohol might be expected
to result from the decomposition of the acid chlorides of alkyl phosphites. Actually these
compounds are very stable in the presence of pyridine. The formation of chlorides in the
absence of pyridine is caused by the reaction of the ester with the hydrogen chloride formed
in reaction 2.
(RO)aP
+ 3 HCI
+ (HO)aP
If pyridine is present during reaction 2, the yield of phosphite is increased and that of chloride
is decreased, because the pyridine combines with the hydrogen chloride and prevents reaction
10. With tertiary alcohols it seems likely that the hydroxyl group is replaced directly by halogen
(reaction 3).
5. Reaction with Halogen Acids. Inorganic acids in general react with alcohols
with the elimination of water. The products of reaction with halogen acids are
alkyl halides.
ax + H.o
The rate of this reaction varies with the acid and with t~e type of alcohol. The
order for halogen acids is hydrogen iodide> hydrogen bromide> hydrogen
chloride> hydrogen fluoride. The order for the alcohols is tertiary> secondary
> primary.
Methyl and i-butyl alcohols, and neopentyl alcohol, (CHa)aCCH.OH, are exceptions to this
rule. With aqueous hydrogen bromide methyl alcohol reacts as rapidly as s-butyl alcohol and
more rapidly than i-propyl alcohol. It is known that in general methyl derivatives are much
more reactive than ethyl and higher alkyl derivatives. i-Butyl alcohol reacts at about one tenth
of the rate for normal primary alcohols. Not only is the reaction of neopentyl alcohol slow,
but the ehief product is I-amyl bromide (cf. p. 169).
In practice conditions are chosen suitable for the particular compound being
prepared. Primary alcohols will react even with aqueous solutions of hydrogen
iodide but usually require anhydrous hydrogen bromide or aqueous hydrogen
bromide and sulfuric acid. They react with hydrochloric acid at a practical rate
.. only with hot concentrated solutions and zinc chloride as a catalyst. Tertiary
alcohols on the other hand react with concentrated aqueous solutions of
hydrochloric acid at room temperature.
The Lucas test for distinguishing between primary, secondary, and tertiary
alcohols is based on their relative rates of reaction with hydrogen chloride. The
reagent is a solution of zinc chloride in concentrated hydrochloric acid. The
lower alcohols all dissolve in this reagent because of oxonium salt formation
(p. 98), but the alkyl chlorides are insoluble. Tertiary alcohols react so rapidly
that it is difficult to detect solution, the chloride separating immediately.
Secondary alcohols give a clear solution at first which becomes cloudy within
five minutes with eventual separation into two layers. Primary alcohols dissolve,
and the solution remains clear for several hours.
The reaction of alcohols with halogen acids belongs to the class known as displacement
reactions (p. 116). The initial step is merely the formation of the oxonium salt (p. 98).
H:X:
The addition of a proton to the hydroxyl group caust::s the pair of electrons between the alkyl
group and oxygen to shift toward the oxygen atom and makes it easier for the hydroxyl group
to leave with the proton as a water molecule. The halide ion then attacks the oxonium ion with
displacement of a water molecule.
[:~:]+[R:t7H] ~
:X:R+ :O:H
6. Reaction with Inorganic Oxygen Acids. Some oxygen-containing inorganic
acids react with alcohols to form alkyl esters in which the alkyl group is linked
to the acid radical through oxygen.
ROH+ HONO
RONO + H.O
Alkyl nitrite
RONO. + H.O
Alkyl nitrate
ROSOaH + H.O
Alkyl hydrogen
ROSO.OR
Alkyl sulfate
(RO)aB
+ 3H.o
Alkyl borate
ROH + HONO.
ROH + HOSO.OR
3 ROH + HaBOa
Sulfuric acid esters from tertiary alcohols capable of dehydration have not been
isolated, probably because of easy decomposition to the olefin.
Insofar as is known, the reaction of alcohols with inorganic oxygen acids follows a different
course than the reaction with halogen acids. The oxygen acids are capable of self-ionization
with the formation of positive ions other than protons. For example the following equilibria
exist in concentrated sulfuric acid.
H , 0 , SO,H + H , 0 , SO,H
[ H , : ' SO'H] + [ , () , SO,HJ
H : 0: + [SOsH]
r ~
H : 0: + H: 0 : SOsH
: H] + [:-
0 : SOaH]
The [SOaH] ion, which lacks a pair of electrons on the sulfur atom, attaches to an unshared
pair of electrons on the oxygen atom of the alcohol.
R :
~:
+ [SOaH]
[R+SO'H]
Loss of proton to a bisulfate ion gives the ester.
[R,
SO'H] + [,;;, SO,H]
R , 0 , SO,H + H,SO,
It will be noted that in this mechanism the oxygen atom in the water molecule which is
eliminated in the over-all reaction comes from the acid and not from the alcohol.
7. Dehydration to Olefins. If the alcohol is volatile, it can be dehydrated
most conveniently by passing the vapors through a hot tube packed with
activated alumina. 8
RCHOHCH,R
By using pure alumina, molecular rearrangements which frequently take place
when acid catalysts are used are largely avoided.
When sulfuric acid is used as a catalyst, it usually is assumed that the alkyl
hydrogen sulfate is an intermediate in the reaction.
+ H,SO.
RCHCH2 R
+ H SO.
OS03H
If the boiling point of the alcohol is lower than the temperature of decomposition,
it is necessary to use sufficient acid to convert all of the alcohol into the nonvolatile alkyl hydrogen sulfate or the oxonium salt. The process may be made
catalytic and continuous by passing the alcohol vapors over pumice impregnated
with sulfuric or phosphoric acid and heated to the required temperature.
The relative ease of dehydration of alcohols is tertiary> secondary> primary.
Tertiary alcohols dehydrate so readily that olefin is the chief product when
attempts are made to carry out other reactions in the presence of strong acids.
The order of removal of hydrogen atoms, when alternate paths exist, is tertiary
in preference to secondary, and secondary in preference to primary (Saytzev
rule). Thus the dehydration of s-butyl alcohol gives almost exclusively 2-butene.
Although the dehydration of alcohols to olefins in the presence of sulfuric acid usualJy is \.
indicated as proceeding by way of an intermediate alkyl hydrogen sulfate, and although the '
formati.on of alkyl hydrogen sulfates takes place on heating alcohols with sulfuric acid, other
acids such as sulfonic acids that do not esterify readily and nonesterifiable electron-seeking
reagents such as zinc chloride also catalyze the dehydration. These acid-catalyzed dehydrations
of alcohols belong to the class known as elimination reactions. The initial step is the reaction
of the alcohol with the acid, HB, to form the oxonium salt, just as in the reaction of alcohols
with halogen acids (p. 102).
H:~-t:O:
H:B
I I ..
H : C-C: 0
: H]
+ [: B-]
R R H
Subsequently a base, which may be another alcohol molecule or the anion [ : B-], removes a·
hydrogen as proton from the second carbon atom with simultaneous loss of a water molecule.
R : 0:
or [B:]
H: {-{ : 0 : H
RRH
[R :
H~ : H] + ~? +
orH: B
Frequently in acid-catalyzed dehydrations, the product does not have the structure expectoo.
For example, the dehydration of n-butyl alcohol gives chiefly 2-butene instead of I-butene. If
8 Some forms of solid catalysts are more effective than others. When prepared in such a way
that they have the maximum activity, they are called activated catalysts. Activated alumina has
an optimum porosity or surface structure, and an optimum amount of adsorbed water or water
of constitution.
the oxonium salt loses a water molecule to give the n-butyl carbonium ion, a hydride ion shift
would lead to an s-butyl carbonium ion which can give rise by loss of a proton to either
I-butene or 2-butene.
[CH,CH.CH.CH., ~'H]
[CH,CH.CH,CH,l + H,O
+ CH3CH.CH=CH.
[CH 3CH.cHCH3]
~ CH3CH=CHCH3 + [H+]
Olefins are more highly stable thermodynamically the more highly substituted the doubly-bound
carbon atoms. Hence the above equilibria are shifted in favor of 2-butene rather than I-buteno.
The last steps also account for the isomerization of I-butene to 2-butene in the presence of
strong acids.
Sometimes dehydration involves also the migration of alkyl groups. For example, if methylt-butylcarbinol is dehydrated in the presence of acids, very little of the expected t-butylethylene
is formed, the chief products being the result of methide ion shifts (cf. p. 78).
(CH3)2C=QCH3)2
(CH3)3CCHCH3
-------+
(CH 3)3CCH-CH 2
3 per cent
Some alcohols whose structure does not appear to permit loss of water can be dehydrated to
form olefins by rearrangement of the carbon skeleton.
CH 3CCH,OH
CH 3C=CBCH3 + H 20
A change in structure during a reaction frequently is called a molecular rearrangement. It is
nothing more than an isomerization that takes place during the course of another reaction.
Because of the possibility of molecular rearrangements, proof of structure should be based on
degradative as well as synthetic reactions. The structures of the above olefins can be determined
by ozonation, decomposition of the ozonides, and identification of the products (p. 56).
8. Dehydrogenation or Oxidation to Aldehydes and Ketones. Primary and
secondary alcohols may be dehydrogenated to aldehydes and ketones respectively
by passing the vapors over activated copper, copper-chromium, or copper-nickel
catalyst at 300°-325°.
RCH,OH
RC=O
325' An aldehyde
R,CHOH
R,C=O
A ketone
If air is used alo,!g with the alcohol, the hydrogen is converted into water and
the reaction goes to completion.
eu or Ag
RCH,OH + O2
RCHO + H 2O
eu DrAg
R,CO +H,O
R,CHOH + O2
Tertiary alcohols, which do not have a hydrogen atom on the carbon atom
united to the hydroxyl group, do not undergo these reactions but may dehydrate
if the temperature is sufficiently high.
The same type of dehydrogenation can be brought about by chemical
oxidizing agents. The reagent most commonly employed is dichromic acid
in aqueous sulfuric acid (sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid), or chromic
anhydride (chromium trioxide) dissolved in glacial acetic acid.
3 RCH,OH
3 R,CHOH
+ Na,Cr,O, + 4 H,S04
+ 2 CrOa + 6 HC,HaO,
+ Na,S04 + Cr,(S04)a + 7 H
+ 2 Cr(C H a0 )a + 6 H 0
3 RCHO
3 R 2 CO
The formation of aldehydes by this method is successful only if the aldehyde is
removed rapidly from the oxidizing mixture by distillation; otherwise it is
oxidized further to an organic acid (p. 212).
+ [0]
Strong oxidizing agents such as hot dichromic acid or potassium permanganate
may oxidize tertiary alcohols by breaking the carbon chain. The products
always have fewer carbon atoms than the original alcohol.
CHaCIOH
+ 2 [0]
CHaCOCHa
H.CO
Under such vigorous conditions these products undergo further oxidation.
CHaCOOH
+ H CO
HCOOH
CO,
The mechanism of the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones
in acidic solution appears to follow the same course for most oxidizing agents. The active
oxidizing agent is an electron-deficient species which may be a positive ion or a molecule with
an electron-deficient atom. For example, dichromic acid oxidizes by way of the [+CrOaH] ion
which is present because of the following series of equilibria.
H : 0 : Cr : 0 : H
+ H 2S04
H : ~ : ~.r : ~ : H
: 0:
:O:H
:0:+ J
H : ~ : ~r : ~ : H
:O:J +
H : ~ : ~r+
+ [HSO.-]
The over-ali effect may be written as
H.Cr2 0, + 3 H 2SO,
2 [+CrOsH]
+ 3 [HSO.-] + [HsO+]
In the oxidation the positively charged atom of the active agent first attacks a free electron
pair on the oxygen atom of the alcohol.
RCH, 0
I.~, ~ J
l:o:
I ~ t.,. ~ .
<=t
RCH, •
H:O:
Loss of a proton to some base gives a neutral intermediate, which is an ester (p. 103) of
chromic acid.
RCH, : ? : ~: : ? : H
RCH. : 0 : Cr : 0 : H
H :0:
The esters from primary or secondary alcohols and inorganic acids that are strong oxidizing
agents are unstable, and the alkyl chromate decomposes with loss of a proton and loss of the
acid chromite ion to give the aldehyde and chromous acid. The curved arrows indicate the
electron transfers taking place.
RCH :
.. J
0.. 1:~ : 0 : H
RCH-O
+ [HCrOa-] + [H+]
H.CrO a
A similar series of steps can reduce chromo us acid to hypochromous acid, H2Cr02' Reaction'
of hypochromous acid and chromous acid can yield chromic oxide, which with sulfuric acid
yields chromic sulfate,
'.
H : 0 : Cr
+ :0
: Cr : 0 : H --+
H: 0 : Cr : 0 : Cr : 0 : H
Cr.(SO.)s
+3H 0
Cr20 S
+ 3 H S0
--+ Cr,0• .f>,2 HIO
Secondary alcohols are oxidized to ketones by the same mechanism, but the esters of tertiary
alcohols with chromic acid cannot decompose by the mechanism indicated and are fairly stable
compounds. When the esters of tertiary alcohols are forced to decompose, a carbonium ion
must be expelled, a more difficult process than losing a proton.
.... n'
CHs-~?: ~.r:
[CHs+]
0 :H
CHsCOCHa
+ [HCrOs-] + [CHa+j
.. +
CH.: 0: H
CH.OH
The primary alcohol produced is oxidized to aldehyde and further oxidation products by the
usual mechanism.
~ther oxidiz~ng agents behave similar!y in acid solution: .th~ active electron-deficient agent
bemg formed as indicated by the followmg condensed eqUlhbna.
+ 2HCl
[Ha O +]
+ 2 H.SO.
[HaO+]
+ 2 [HSO.-] +
3 HONO.
+ 2 [NOa-] + [ :
HOCI
~l: ]
2 [:
+.[: ~l+J
[H: ?+]
?:~+
ESTERS OF INORGANIC ACIDS
Esters of inorganic acids are produced by the reaction of alcohols with
inorganic acid halides (reactions 2 and 5, pp. 100, 101), or with inorganic acids
(p. 103). Sulfites, phosphites, phosphates, arsenites, titanates, and silicates usually
are prepared by the first method. Sometimes the sodium alkoxide is used in
place of the alcohol to avoid the formation of hydrogen chloride.
3 RONa
+ POCla
(RO)aPO
+ 3 NaCl
More frequently the alcohol is used together with the calculated amount of a
tertiary amine such as pyridine (p. 620) to combine with the halogen acid that
is' liberated.
Nitrites, nitrates, methyl and ethyl sulfates, and borates are prepared directly
from the alcohol and acid (p. 103). The alkyl nitrites are formed by passing
oxides of nitrogen (NO
N 20 3) into the alcohol, or by adding sulfuric
acid to a mixture of the alcohol and an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite.
When nitric acid reacts with alcohols some reduction takes place to form nitrous acid. The
nitrous acid catalyzes the oxidation of the alcohol and violent explosions may result. This
autocatalytic reaction can be decreased by the addition of urea, which destroys the nitrous
acid as it is formed (p. 312).
Methyl and ethyl sulfates are isolated by the distillation of a mixture of
sulfuric acid and the alcohol under reduced pressure. The esters of the higher
alcohols boil at too high a temperature and their acid esters decompose to give
olefins at too Iowa temperature (p. 104) to permit their preparation by this
method. Instead they are made by the reaction of the alkyl sulfite with the
chlorosulfonic ester.
C.H.OSO.Cl
+ (C.H.O).SO
chlorosulfonate
(C.H.O).SO.
+ C.H.Cl + SO.
Butyl sulfate
Butyl sulfite
The alkyl chlorosulfonate may be prepared by the reaction of sulfuryl chloride
with either the alcohol or the sulfite.
C.H.OH
(C.H.O).SO
+ SO.CI.
+ SO.Cl.
C.H.OSO.CI
+ HCI
Borates are prepared by heating a mixture of the alcohol with eit;ber boric
acid (p. 103) or boric anhydride, B20 a.
Only the tertiary alkyl hypochlorites are stable (p. 107). They may be prepared
by passing chlorine into an alkaline solution of the alcohol.
(CHa)3 COH
+ NaOH + CI.
(CH')3COCI
+ NaCI + RoO
hypochlorite
Properties .
In esters of oxygen acids the hydrocarbon group always is linked to the acid
group through oxygen. Although the esters are named like salts, they are
covalent compounds. The lower molecular weight esters are volatile liquids,
whereas the hIgher. esters can be distilled under reduced pressure. They are
insoluble in water and sotuble in organic solvents,
The esters are- hydrolyzed by water with varying degrees of ease. Ethyl
borate and ethyl silicate, for example, are hydrolyzed readily by water at room
One alkyl group of sulfates and phosphates is hydrolyzed much more readily
than a second group. For example, at 95° and low concentration the first methyl
group of methyl sulfate is completely removed in 3 minutes, whereas only 25
per cent of the second methyl group is removed after 3 hours.
Ethyl nitrate and ethyl perchlorate are hydrolyzed only very slowly by water
even at elevated temperatures. Care should be exercised in handling these
compounds as they decompose explosively. It is stated that ethyl perchlorate
in the anhydrous condition explodes on pouring from one vessel to another.
In contrast to the hydrolysis of esters of organic (carboxylic) acids (p. 170),
the hydroiysis of esters of inorganic acids does not appear to be catalyzed by
hydrogen ion. Although alkali appears to accelerate the hydrolysis, the effect
is not very marked.
Esters react with halogen acids under anhydrous conditions to give the alkyl
halide and inorganic acid.
lWNO
+ HONO
The esters of boric acid differ from the others in that they combine with one mole of an
alcohol to give a monoba~ic acid. This behavior can be explained by the fact that the boron
atom lacks a pair of electrons and can form a complex with a molecule of alcohol by taking
an unshared pair of electr()ns from the oxygen atom into its valence shell. The electron pair is
held so strongly that the proton can be removed readily.
CHa-O~B
: O-CH 3
CH3-0-B : O-CHa
The complex can be titrated in methyl alcohol solution with a solution of sodium methoxide
in alcohol with the consumption of one equivalent of base.
CH.-O-B : O-CHa
1CHa-O-B-O-CHa
+ Na+-OCHa
+ HOCH3
o H
C~
Aluminum alkoxides behave similarly.
Nitrites relax the smooth muscles of the body and produce a rapid lowering
of the blood pressure. i-Amyl nitrite is used for the relief of pain in acute angina
pectoris although the normal brevity of the attacks in the absence of medication
makes it difficult to determine whether amyl nitrite actually assists in the relief
of pain. Ethyl, butyl, and i-amyl nitrites are used extensively as a source of
nitrous acid in organic reactions when it is necessary or desirable to carry the
reaction out in an anhydrous solvent (p. 493). The sulfites, sulfates, and
phosphates find important use as alkylating agents, that is, as reagents for the
introduction of alkyl groups (pp. 137, 504). Methyl sulfate, which is used
extensively as a methylating agent, is highly toxic and care must be exercised
to avoid exposure to its vapors.
When ethyl phosphate reacts with phosphorus oxychloride, a product is
obtained which is an effective insecticide, particularly against plant aphids and
mites. This material, commonly called tetraethylpyrophosphate (TEPP), is a
mixture of substances of which the active constituent appears to be ethyl
pyrophosphate, (C2HsO)4P203' Although highly toxic to animals, it hydrolyzes
rapidly to harmless phosphoric acid and ethyl alcohol when exposed to moist
air. The ready hydrolysis of ethyl silicate finds use for the preparation of
colloidal solutions of silicic acid and for depositing on porous material films
of silicic acid which subsequently dehydrate to silica. Again this chemical must
be handled with care, since the vapors cause opacity of the cornea. Similarly
i-propyl and n-butyl titanates, (RO)4 Ti, hydrolyze easily to titanium oxide, Ti0 2 ,
and are used in the formulation of protective coatings.
1. What steps are necessary to establish the molecular formula of methyl alcohol? What are
the arguments based on the theory of chemical bonding for assigning the structure,
CHaOH? What chemical evidence shows that one hydrogen atom is different from the
other three and that a hydroxyl group is present?
2. State the conditions necessary for proton bond (hydrogen bond) formation and give an
3. Why might methane and water be expected to have nearly the same boiling points? Give
and explain the actual facts.
4. Compare the boiling points of alcohols with those of the saturated hydrocarbons having
approximately the same molecular weight and explain the differences.
5. Discuss and explain the solubility behavior of hydrocarbons and of alcohols in water.
6. What is the relative order of reactivity of primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols (a) with
hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride, (b) with phosphorus trichloride to give phosphorous
esters, (c) with phosphorus trichloride to give alkyl chlorides, and (d) when dehydrated?
7. What is the relative reactivity of hydrochloric, hydrobromic, and hydroiodic acid with
primary alcohols?
8. Describe the Lucas test for distinguishing between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols.
9. Discuss briefly (a) the destructive distillation of wood, (b) synthetic methanol, (c) production
of ethyl alcohol by fermentation, and (d) the anaerobic fermentation of starch with
Clostridium acetobutylicllm.
o. What is fusel oil and what are its chief components?
1. What is absolute alcohol and how is it prepared? Why is it not possible to prepare it by
simple distillation?
2. For each of the following groups, write condensed structural formulas for all of the isomeric
alcohols that meet the given specifications, name by the Geneva system, and indicate by
Roman numerals I, II, or III, whether the alcohols are primary, secondary, or tertiary: (a)
molecular formula C 5 H I2 0; (b) a chain of five carbon atoms and a single methyl branch;
(c) a chain of five carbon atoms and two methyl branches on a single carbon atom; (d) a
chain of five carbon atoms and two methyl branches on different carbon atoms.
J. Write structural formulas for the following alcohols:
A. (a) n-Amyl alcohol; (b) dimethylethylcarbinol; (c) 2,2-dimethyl-3-pentanol; (d) i-hexyl
alcohol; (e) diethyl-s-butylcarbinol; (f) 3-ethyl-2-hexanol; (g) neopentyl alcohol; (h)
di-i-propylcarbinol; (i) 4-methyl-2-i-propyl-I-pentanol; (j) active amyl alcohol.
B. (a) n-Butyl alcohol; (b) methyldiethylcarbinol; (c) 2,3-dimethyl-2-pentanol; (d) i-octyl
alcohol; (e) dimethyl-i-propylcarbinol; (f) 3-methyl-3-hexanol; (g) neohexyl alcohol;
(h) di-s-butylcarbinol; (i) 4-methyl-3-i-propyl-2-hexanol; (j) t-amyl alcohol.
C. (a) Ethyl-t-butylcarbinol; (b) 2,2,3-trimethyl-I-butanol; (c) i-amyl alcohol; (d) n-decyl
alcohol; (e) diethyl-n-propylcarbinol; (f) t-butyl alcohol; (g) lauryl alcohol; (h) methyldi-i-butylcarbinol; (i) 2,2-diethyl-l-pentanol; (j) triethylcarbinol.
4. Tell why each of the following names is unsatisfactory and give an acceptable name:
A. (a) Isopropanol; (b) 3-i-propyl-I-pentanol; (c) methyl ethyl carbinol; (d) dimethyl(2-methylbutyl)carbinol; (e) 2-methyl-hexanol-l; (f) s-amyl alcohol; (g) i-amylalcohol;
(II) s-butanol; (i) 4,4-dimethyl-3-pentanol; (j) 3-ethyl-2-butanol.
B. (a) t-Hexyl alcohol; (b) n-propylalcohol; (c) neopentanol; (d) (l-methylpropyl)-ethylcarbinol; (e) 3-i-butyl-2-hexanol; (f) 2-methyl-3-butanol; (g) 2-ethyl-2-propanol; (h)
diethyl carbinol; (i) 3-ethylpentanol-3; (j) 3-s-butyl-I-hexanol.
C. (a) Isobutanol; (b) 2-methylpentanol-2; (c) s-butylalcohol; (d) 3-s-butyl-l-hexanol; (e)
3-methyl-4-hexanol;
s-octyl alcohol; (g) methyl diethyl carbinol; (h) 2-propyl-lbutanol; (i) (l-methylbutyl)-n-propylcarbinol; (j) 2-(I-methylpropyl)-I-butanol.
5. Give reactions iHustrating the preparation of the following alcohols from suitable oletins:
A. (a) 2-Pentanol; (b) dimethyl-n-propylcarbinol; (c) t-amyl alcohol; (d) triethylcarbinol.
B. (a) 3,3-Dimethyl-2-pentanol; (b) methylethyl-n-propylcarbinol; (c) methylneopentylcarbinol; (d) 2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol.
C. (a) Dimethyl-t-butylcarbinol; (b) 3-methyl-2-pentanol; (c) methylethyl-i-propylcarbinol; (d) 3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol.
6. Give balanced equations for two reactions suitable for the following conversIOns:
A. (a) 2-Methyl-I-butanol to l-chloro-2-methylbutane; (b) i-hexyl alcohol to i-hexyl
iodide; (c) tridecanol to l-bromotridecane.
B. (a) Diethylcarbinol to 3-chloropentane; (b) 4-methyl-3-pentanol to 3-bromo-4methylpentane; (c) 2,4-dimethyl-2-pentanol to 2-iodo-2,4-dimethylpentane.
C. (a) n-Hexadecyl alcohol to n-hexadecyl bromide; (b) ethyl-n-propylcarbinol to 3chlorohexane; (c) 3,3-dimethyl-2-pentanol to 2-iodo-3,3-dimethylpentane.
17. Give balanced equations for the preparation of an alkoxide, an alkene, and an inorganic
ester from the following alcohols, and name the organic product of the reaction:
A. (a) Octadecanol; (b) 2-methyl-I-pentanol; (c) 2,3-dimethyl-I-butanol.
B. (a) n-Nonyl alcohol; (b) methyl-i-butylcarbinol; (c) 2,3-dimethyl-I-pentanol.
C. (a) i-Heptyl alcohol; (b) 2,4-dimethyl-3-pentanol; (c) methyl-n-butylcarbinol.
18. Give a series of reactions for the following conversions:
A. (a) n-Butyl alcohol to s-butyl alcohol; (b) 2-methyl-l-butene to 2-methyl-2-butene; (c)
ethyl-i-propylcarbinol to 2-methyl-2-chloropentane.
B. (a) I-Pentene to 2-pentene; (b) I-propanol to 2-propanol; (c) di~i-propylcarbinol to
dimethyl-i-butyl-bromomethane.
(n
c. (0)
Methyl-i-propylcarbinol to (-amyl alcohol; (b) i-butyl alcohol to (-butyl chloride;
(c) i-amyl alcohol to 2-methyl-2-butene.
19. Give equations for the following reactions and name the organic product:
A. (0) Sodium n-butoxide and phosphorus oxychloride; (b) ethyl nitrite and dry hydrogen
chloride; (c) methyl borate and water.
B. (0) i-Amyl alcohol and nitrous acid; (b) n-propyl phosphate and aqueous sodium
hydroxide; (c) n-butyl nitrite and dry hydrogen chloride.
C. (0) Methyl alcohol and boric anhydride; (b) ethyl silicate and water; (c) n-undecyl
alcohol and nitric acid.
20. Give and explain a chemical test that could be used to distinguish between the members
of each of the following pairs of compounds:
A. (a) n-Propyl alcohol and i-propyl alcohol; (b) ethyl nitrite and ethyl nitrate; (c) sodium
n-butoxide and aluminum n-butoxide; (d) methanol and hexane; (e) n-propyl sulfate
and n-undecane; (f) i-amyl alcohol and l-octene; (g) 2-methyl-l-propanol and ethyl
phosphate; (h) l-tridecene and ethyl silicate.
B. (a) Methyl sulfate and methyl borate; (b) 2-methylbutanol and l-octadecene; (c)
neohexane and ethyl sulfite; (d) magnesium methoxide and potassium methoxide; (e)
n-butyl alcohol and n-butyl nitrite; (/) 1-butanol and 2-butanol; (g) i-propyl titanate
and 2-octene; (h) 2-octanol and n-octane.
C. (a) Sodium ethoxide and sodium hydroxide; (b) n-hexyl alcohol and ethyl silicate; (c)
2-methyl-2-propanol and 2-methyl-l-propanol; (d) 2,4,4-trimethyl-2-pentene and ethyl
phosphate; (e) ethyl sulfate and ethyl sulfite;
neohexane and n-butyl nitrite; (g)
s-butyl alcohol and i-octane; (h) 4-methyl-2-pentene and methanol.
<n
ALKYL HALIDES. GRIGNARD REAGENTS
ALKYL HALIDES
Alkyl halides are important intermediates for the synthesis of other compounds .. Not onl~ do they undergo a variety of reactions, but they are prepared
readily In good YIelds.
Alkyl halides are formed when alcohols react with either inorganic acid
halides or with hydrogen halides under appropriate conditions (pp. 100, 102).
These two procedures are the most satisfactory general methods of preparation,
although the addition of hydrogen halides to olefins (p. 59) and the direct
halogenation O;f saturated hydrocarbons (p. 119) also may be used. Primary
alkyl iodides may be made from primary alkyl chlorides and bromides by the
reaction of sodium iodide in acetone solution (Finckelstein reaction).
RCH.Cl
+ NaI
RCH 2 1
+ NaCl
This reaction takes place because sodium chloride and sodium bromide, in
contrast to sodium iodide, are insoluble in acetone, and the equilibrium is
shifted to the right. The reaction of secondary and tertiary chlorides and
bromides is too slow to be practical.
Structure and Nomenclature
The methods of formation from alcohols leave no question as to the structure
of the alkyl halides. They usually are named as if they were salts of halogen
acids. They may be considered also as halogen derivatives of saturated hydrocarbons and often are so named. Thus ethyl chloride may be called chloroethane,
and isobutyl bromide may be called I-bromo-2-methylpropane.
In physical properties the alkyl halides resemble the saturated hydrocarbons.
They are insoluble in water and are good solvents for most organic compounds.
The boiling points of the chlorides are of the same order of magnitude as those
of hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight, whereas bromides boil about
60° lower than chlorides, and iodides 70° lower than bromides, again comparing
compounds of the same molecular weir,ht (Table 9, p. 114).
. The reason for the decrease in boiling points of bromides compared with chlorides, and of
iodides compared with bromides, probably is the same as the reason for the lowering of boiling
point with branching of the hydrocarbon chain. The increase in size of the atom from chlorine
to bromine to iodine would be expected to l:.,·'e much the same effect as branching in decreasing
the van der Waals forces between the moltj·ules..
Alkyl halides are more dense than hydrocarbons. The densities of the
compounds considered so far increase in the order hydrocarbons < alcohols '(
alkyl chlorides < bromides < iodides, if compounds with the same number of
COMPARISON OF THE BOILING POINTS OF /I-ALKANES WITH THOSE OF /I-ALKYL CHLORIDES
BROMIDES, IODIDES, AND ALCOHOLS OF SIMILAR MOLECULAR WEIGHT
Mol.
C ll
C '2
BROMIDES
wt. B.p.
58 +0.6
65 +13
C 3 123
c.1 137
Co 151
C, 179
carbon atoms are compared. The density of hydrocarbons increases with
increasing length of chain because of the increasing van der Waals forces, but
because carbon atoms are less dense than elements of higher atomic number,
increasing the size of the alkyl group in alkyl halides causes a decrease in density.
The importance of the alkyl halides lies in the great variety of reactions
which they undergo. In all of these reactions, the halogen is removed or replaced
by another group. Some of the more important reactions for primary and
secondary halides are illustrated by the following equations.
RX + AgOH
(or aqueous NaOH)
RX + NaOR
ROH + AgX
An alcohol (or NaX)
2NaX
An ether
RX + NaSH
RSH
A mercaptan,
th io alcohol,
or alkanethiol
2RX + Na2 S
}(t2S
An llikyl
sulfide
RX+NaCN
An al'{yl
cyanh :e
~h. 6
RX + NHa
RNHa+X-
An alkylammonium halhje
(amine hydrohalide)
RX + Mg
RMgX
An alkylmagnesium halide
(Grignard reagent, p. 120)
+ Zn-Cu couple
RZnX
( + Cu)
An alkylzinc
2 RX
+ 2 Zn-Cu couple
R 2Zn
ZnXa ( + Cu)
A dialkylzinc
+ 2 Na
2 NaX (Wurtz syrithesis, p. 126)
An alkane
RX+Zn+HX
RH +~znX.
\~'Q.\"-<::>~<::>\)
t>.."tl'Q.\"v..'Q.n~
The reagents that react with an alhyl halide lre metals rilr salts of weak acids.
same reagents react with halogen acids. The reacti,ons for the most part
.re identical in both cases except that a hydrogen aton;,i of the acid takes the
lart of an alkyl group in the alkyl halide. For exampLe, silver hydroxide and
lalogen acid give water and silver halide, sodium sulfid(~ gives hydrogen sulfide,
odium cyanide gives hydrogen cyanide, ammonic:t f~ives ammonium halide,
.nd sodium gives hydrogen. The principal difference is that the reactions with
.Ikyl halides are slow, whereas those with halogen a~jds are rapid.
Alkyl iodides react more rapidly than bromides, aI1!d bromides than chlorides.
:ince bromides are cheaper than iodides and usual11y are sufficiently reactive,
hey are used most frequently in the laboratory. /The specific conditions for
arrying out the above reactions and the limit:ations of the reactions are
onsidered later where the methods for preparing the various compounds
ormed in the reactions are discussed.
One additional reaction of alkyl halides sho,.:uld be discussed, namely the
Jemoval of halogen acids by alkaline reagents tev give olefins.
~hese
R 2CHCR. + KOH (in alcohol)
'R.C=CR. + KX + H 20
This reaction usually is not suitable for t]1,e removal of halogen acid from
primary halides because another reaction I eading to the formation of ethers
may predominate (p. 137).
C.H&OH + KOH
C.H.OK + RX
C.HsOI( + H 20
C.HsOIt + KX
For reactions! to 10 the relative rat~~s for the alkyl halides ar.e pri~ary >
secondary> tertlary. The ease of ol<;,fin formation, however, IS tertiary>
>econdary > primary. Hence primary 3balides give the best yields in reactions
l to 10. Elimination of halogen acid Mom tertiary halides takes place so much
Chemistry of Orgcmic Compounds
more read'Jy than replacement of halogen by another group that most reagents
that can ccmbine with halogen acid give the olefin. Tertiary butyl chloride, for
example, rfacts with sodium cyanide to give isobutylene, hydrogen cyanide
and sodium chloride. An exception to this generalization is the reaction with
magnesium 0 give Grignard reagents, but even here special conditions are
necessary to (btain good yields with tertiary halides (p. 121). As in the dehydra_
tion of alcohos, the direction of elimination of halogen acid follows the Saytzev
rule (p. 104).
Like dehydnhalogenation, the ease of hydrolysis of alkyl halides also follows
the order terti ry > secondary> primary. Tertiary halides hydrolyze with
water alone, therate not being affected by either acids or bases.
RaCX
---'>
RaCOH
The difference beNeen the rate of hydrolysis of i-butyl bromide and t-butyl
bromide is so grealthat the composition of mixtures of the two can be estimated
by shaking with wa~r, separating the unreacted i-butyl bromide, and determining
the bromide ion in Ie aqueous layer by precipitation with silver nitrate.
The reactions of alkyl ali des with the salts of weak acids take place by the simplest form of
the displacement reactlon;J. 102). The reactive agent is the basic or electron-donating negative
1, [-: ~H J, or [-: CNJ, which can be symbolized as [- : BJ.
ion, for example [-: ?H
Molecules having an unsh<>.d pair of electrons, such as water or ammonia, behave in the same
way. Collision of the negatt ion with the alkyl halide molecule causes loss of a halide ion and
formation of a new molecul
[B: -}- R: X:
For effective collision, the at~king ion must approach from the rear, in line with the carbon
atom and the ion which is leav~.
[B :
"IX
-J + H-C-X
,m\
H ]-
B-C-H
+ [: x-]
One reason that this approach is
effective is that a port;on of the orbital or "tail" from
the carbon-halogen bond ~xtends III \ direction (Fig. Ila, p. 12). Moreover, the configuration
of the half-reacted stage IS the reas!tbly stable one of a trigonal bipyramid found in the
pho~phorus pe~ta~alides.
As the negatIve IOn approaches clo~ enough, bonding with the carbon atom begins, and
• the halide ion starts to .leave the molecl assisted by hydration with solvent molecules. At the
'lid-stage of the reactIOn, the. ca~bon 'ill and the three groups that remain bound to the
ryon atom lie in a plane whlc~ IS pefJdicular to the line passing through the two halogen
- and the carbon.a.tom. ThIS half-r.ted condition, together with the associated solvent
atom~
'~, is the transltlon state (p. ~2) ithe reaction. As the halide ion leaves, the carbon
"~h the plane to bond wIth tl.ntering group. Hence at the end of the reaction,
moves thr~~. ~ arrang~ment of bonds aga,xists. This process resembles an umbrella being
the tetrahedr'
- an~ IS known as a W~ld'nversion (p. 346).
.... -~lOns that follow thiS IDanism are proportional to the concentration of
turned inS'd a_
SUI.l
. to take
The rateie fou!
an d the alkyI halide'.~" ;::i'~ .:;:;l:ed bimolecular
and are saId
both the e;t 0 . rea~, RC '~~. This symbol s·.(s for substitution by a nucleophilic (nucleus
"lOg) reagent, the \ of reaction being governed by a bimolecular
place by an ;nng IOn
N2 mechaD'"a!
seeking i
, .e., electron-dona'l,
Displacement reactions of compounds having a functional group attached to a primary
st~'l group usually take place by this mechanism.
al has been found experimentally that the rates of displacement reactions of compounds
h iag a functional group attached to secondary or tertiary alkyl groups or to certain other
aVes of groups (p. 437) may be dependent only on the concentration of the compound and
~Y~ependent of the concentration of the nucleophilic reagent. Such kinetically first order
la ctions are said to take place by an Sxl mechanism. Reactions of this type may occur with or
r~hout Walden inversion. Despite the extensive investigations of these reactions, their detailed
W~hanism still is a matter of controversy. In view of the fact that Sx1 reactions occur when
~ctors are p:esent that can increase .the stabil_ity of a. carb.on.ium ion, the least c~mpl.icated
xplanation IS that the rate-controllmg step IS the diSSOCiatIOn of the alkyl halIde mto a
~arbonium i?n an? a halide ion. ~~e dissociation is followed by a rapid combination of the
carbonium IOn with the nucleophilic reagent.
R:X
[R +]
+ [ : B-]
[R+]+[:X-]
R :B
Thus the over-all rate is dependent only on bond-breaking and hence on the concentration of
the alkyl halide. If the base attacks the carbonium ion before it becomes planar, no Walden
inversion occurs. If the carbonium ion becomes planar, inversion mayor may not take place,
depending on which side the base approaches.
The fact that tertiary halides react by an SN 1 JTIechanism whereas primary halides react by
an SN2 mechanism may be explained by the greater polarizability of the alkyl groups compared
to hydrogen atoms, which permits the alkyl groups to supply electrons to the tertiary carbon
atom, thus making it easier for the halogen to leave as a solvated negative ion. For other
compounds that react by the Sxl mechanism, stabilization of the intermediate carbonium ion
may be brought about in other ways (p. 463). It has been proposed also that a tertiary carbonium
ion forms more readily than a primary carbonium ion because the alkyl groups occupy more
space than hydrogen and the resulting crowding is relieved in the planar carbonium ion.
For reactions that take place by an SN2 mechanism the order of reactivity of alkyl halides
is primary > secondary > tertiary. Alkyl groups are larger than hydrogen and block the
approach of the nucleophilic reagent to the back side of the molecule. This space effect is called
steric hindrance. For reactions that take place by an SN 1 mechanism, the order is tertiary >
secondary> primary because this is the order of ease of formation of the carbonium ion.
These statements do not imply that a particular order signifies a specific mechanism. Both SN 1
1 Numerous coined terms and svmbols have come into general use, the meaning of which is
not always immediately clear to ',e uninitiated, and ~ll~ appropriateness or necessity of which
may be questionable. Neverthe1/;,s they have become established in chemical language, and it
is important that their meanin~. be understood. The more common terms are defined here for
reference purposes.
As already indicated, nucleophilic literally means nucleus-loving (Gr. phi/os, loving), but
even the translation is not immediately clear. The group is not necessarily interested in a nucleus
but only in an empty orbital or a point of low electron denslty. The synonymous term anionoid
reagent refers to the presence of an unshared pair of electrons characteristic of an anion and
electrodotic to the ability of the reagent to supply a pair of electrons. Electron-donating and
electron-sharing are self-explanatory.
The term electrophilic literally means electron-loving. It is applied to a group deficient in
electrons, such as a proton. Cationoid is used to mean the same thing because positive cations
are deficient in electrons. The terms electron-deficient or electron-accepting are more descriptive.
The very confusing term electronegative is used to mean electron-attracting; that is, an electro
negative group is positive with respect to the group to which it is attached. Originally it was
used to designate groups that enhanced the acidity of acids and hence referred to the state of
the atom or group after electrons had been acquired. The term electropositive, except as applied
to elements, has been almost wholly replaced by the term electron-repelling or electron-donating.
The use of the letter S in the symbol Sx 1 and SN2 does not permit one to refer to displacement
rea~tions as nucleophilic substitution. The term substitution should be limited to reactions in
which hydrogen attached to carbon is replaced by another group (p. 120).
and SK2 reactions may be taking place simultaneously, and various stages between pure SKI and
pure SN2 seem likely. Moreover solvation of the molecules and ions (p. 13), including inter_
mediate carbonium ions, and the nature of the nucleophilic reagent playa part in the reactions.
The rate of any particular reaction is dependent on all of these factors.
Olefin formation takes place by removal of a proton and some other group from adjacent
carbon atoms (p. 115). In the reaction of alkyl halides with bases, the negative hydroxide ion
removes a proton, and the halogen leaves as halide ion.
lHO ; -1
+H ;
t-t
U + [ : X-I
The elimination reaction may be bimolecular, the rate depending on the concentrations of
both the base and the alkyl halide (E2 mechanism), or the rate determining step may be
dependent only on the concentration of the alkyl halide, when it is said to follow a unimolecular
mechanism (El mechanism).
Alkyl Halides of Commercial Importance
It is evident from the variety of compounds obtainable from them that the
alkyl halides are extremely important to the organic chemist. Only a few of the
simple halides are of industrial importance, however, because only a very
small fraction of the known organic compounds are manufactured in large
quantities. In the laboratory the chemist usually uses bromides or iodides
because of their greater reactivity, but industrially the chlorides are used
because of their lower cost. Many of the poly halogen compounds are industrially
important, and they are discussed in Chapter 33. Methyl chloride, b.p. _24°,
is made by heating Methyl alcohol with hydrochloric acid. It is formed also as
one product of the reaction of chlorine with methane (p. 722). Its principal
uses are as a refrigerar;t in mechanical refrigerators, as a solvent at low temperatures, and as a methyl&ting agent in the preparation of methylcellulose (p. 404),
silicones (p. 914), and other organic compounds. Methyl bromide, b.p. 4,SO, is
made from methyl alcohol and hydrogen bromide. It is highly toxic and is used
as a poison gas for rodent control. It is toxic to other forms of life also and is
used as a soil and grain fumigant. Its use in fire extinguishers probably depends
on dissociation into free radicals (p. 568) which act as chain breakers and
inhibit the propagation of flame. Because of its high toxicity to human beings,
it should be used for this purpose only with proper precautions to prevent
inhalation of the vapors. The same precautions should be taken when using
methyl bromide in chemical reactions. Ethyl chloride, b.p. }30, is made either
from ethyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid in the presence of zinc chloride, by
passing an equimolar mixture of ethylene and hydrogen chloride into a solution
of anhydrous aluminum chloride in liquid ethyl chloride, or by the reaction of
a mixture of ethane and ethylene with chlorine whereby the hydrogen chloride
formed by the substitution of et.hane is added to the ethylene.
+ CI.
+ HC!
CzH.
C!H4
C.H5 Cl
C.H5CI
]t is used for the manufacture of tetraethyllead (p. 899) and of ethylcellulose
(p. 404), and as a ,quick acting general anesthetic (footnote, p. 141) for minor
operations.'
The amyl chlorides are made by the direct substitution of the hydrogen atoms
of n_pentane and i-pentane by halogen, a process known as halogenation.
C.HlO
+ Cl.
C.HllCl
+ HCl
This reaction of the hydrocarbons is of limited usefulness and hence was not
':scussed in Chapter 2. Fluorine reacts with the alkanes spontaneously and so
~;pidlY that the reaction may be explosive. Most combustible compounds will
burst into flame when a stream of fluorine is allowed to impinge upon them.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine do not react with alkanes in the dark at room
temperature. Chlorine and bromine react with hydrocarbons photochemically
under the influence of light of short wavelength (250-500 m,u2) or thermally at
high temperatures. The usefulness of the reaction is limited by the fact that it
is not very selective. All types of hydrogen are attacked with almost equal ease,
and the introduction of one halogen atom does not appreciably affect the
replacement of a second hydrogen atom. The result is that a mixture of almost
all of the possible monosubstitution products is obtained, and some polysubstitution products as well.
In the commercial chlorination of pentanes the reaction is carried out in the
gas phase at 250°-300° using a volume ratio of pentane to chlorine of 15 to 1 in
order to form chiefly monosubstitution products. Even at this ratio about 5 per
cent of disubstitution products are formed. The rate of flow of the gases is about
60 miles per hour. This rate is faster than the rate of propagation of the chlorinehydrocarbon flame, and the unreacted material behind the flame cannot explode.
The relative amounts of the monosubstitution products formed from n-pentane
at 300° are 24 per cent I -chloropentane, 49 per cent 2-chloropentane, and 27 per
cent 3 chloropentane. From i-pentane there is obtained 33 per cent I-chloro2-methylbutane, 22 per cent 2-chloro-2-methylbutane, 17 per cent I-chIoro3-methylbutane, and 28 per cent 2-chloro-3-methylbutane. Commercially the
mixed monochlorides are hydrolyzed to mixed amyl alcohols (Pentasol).
Reaction with ammonia gives amylamines, and with sodium hydro sulfide gives
amyl mercaptans and amyl sulfides. It is possible to separate the mixtures by
distillation, but for most uses separation is unnecessary.
Substitution Reactions
The direct replacement of hydrogen by a halogen atom or other monovalent
group is known as substitution and is of considerable importance for other compounds as well as for the saturated hydrocarbons. Substitution of hydrogen by
halogen was investigated first by Dumas after an episode at the Tuileries. On the
occasion of a ball during the reign of Charles X of France, the guests were driven
from the ballroom by choking fumes given off by the burning candles. Brongiart,
the chemical advisor to the king, called in his son-in-law Dumas, who found that
the candles had been bleached by a new process using chlorine. The bleaching
had given rise to chlorinated fat acids, which on burning gave off hydrogen
chloride. Dumas then made an extensive investigation of the substitution reaction.
One of the fundamental concepts of substitution and of all replacement reactions is
2 The abbreviation mp, is used for millimicron, which is equal to 10-1 centimeter or 10
Angstrom units.
that the new atom or group takes the position formerly occupied by the replaced
atom or group of atoms.
Substitution, chlorination, halogenation, and other terms for analogous
reactions should be used only for the direct replacement of hydrogen. For
example, the reaction of an alcohol with hydrogen bromide should not be spoken
of as the bromination of an alcohol or as a substitution reaction, but as the
replacement of hydroxyl by bromine. 3 Similarly the reaction of 2-bute-ne and
chlorine to give 2,3-dichlorobutane should not be called chlorination, but the
addition of chlorine to 2-butene. Although these conventions may seem somewhat arbitrary, they should be observed if chemists are to understand each other
without confusion.
Zinc or magnesium reacts with alkyl halides to give compounds in which the
alkyl group is united to the metal. Such compounds are known as organometallic compounds (p. 899). The organozinc compounds found use in early
synthetic work but have the disadvantage that only methyl and ethyl iodides give
good yields, and that even methylzinc and ethylzinc are difficult to use because
they are spontaneously flammable in air. In 1899 Barbier 4 announced that in
many cases the alkylzincs could be replaced by a mixture of alkyl halide and
magnesium in ether (p. 136) in the presence of the compound with which the
reaction was to take place. This reaction was improved by Grignard,5 a student
of Barbier's, who reported in 1900 the separate preparation of alkylmagnesium
halide solutions and their reaction with a variety of compounds. Subsequent
work by Grignard and a large number of other investigators has shown that the
use of alkyl magnesium halide solutions, now commonly known as Grignard
reagents, is of more practical importance for the laboratory synthesis of organic
compounds than is any other single synthetic method. By the time of Grignard's
death, the literature contained about 6000 articles dealing with this reagent. The
reaction has few commercial applications.
Grignard reagents are made by the direct action of alkyl halides on magnesium
turnings. Reaction takes place in the absence of a solvent but soon stops because
the alkylmagnesium halide is a solid that is insoluble in alkyl halide and coats
over the surface of the magnesium. In the presence of a solvent for the alkylmagnesium halide, the reaction goes to completion. Ether is the solvent most
commonly used, although tetrahydrofuran (p. 620) has many advantages.
Sometimes the reaction is slow to start. The drier the reagents and apparatus and
3 To avoid such phrases it has been suggested that displacement reactions be designated by
the name of the entering group followed by de, the name of the departing group, and the suffix
ation. Thus the replacement of hydroxyl by bromine would be called bromodehydroxylation.
4 Francois Philippe Antoine Barbier (1848-1922), professor at the University of Lyon, France,
who is known not only for his discovery of the usefulness of magnesium in organic synthesis
but also for his work on the constitution of the terpenes. In his later years he was interested in
mineralogy and the analysis of minerals.
5 Victor Grignard (1871-1935), professor at the University of Nancy and later successor to
Barbier at Lyon. In 1912 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry jointly with Paul
Saba tier (p. 55).
the less oxide film on the surface of the magnesium, the easier the reaction starts.
vsually a small crystal of iodine is added to initiate the reaction. Alkyl iodides
react more readily than bromides, and bromides than chlorides, but the yields
are in the reverse order, namely chlorides> bromides> iodides. The higher
the dilution and the greater the purity and state of subdivision of the magnesium,
the higher the yields.
Several side reactions account for decreased yield.
1. The halide may react at the surface of the magnesium in a manner analogous to the
Wurtz reaction (p. 126).
2 RX + Mg
RR + MgX2
2. If the halogen is replaced readily, as with tertiary halides, excess halide may react with
the Grignard reagent.
RMgX + RX
3. Halogen acid may be removed, especially from tertiary halides, with the formation of
alkene.
4. Alkyl halides which can lose halogen acid may react with magnesium in the presence of
metallic impurities, especially copper, with the formation of alkene and alkane.
2 RCH 2CHXR + Mg
RCH=CHR + RCH 2CH 2R + MgX2
1. With Reactive Hydrogen. Grignard reagents react with all compounds that
evolve hydrogen with alkali metals. The organic product is an alkane.
+HOH
+HOR
+ HNH.
+HX
Mg(OH)X
+ Mg(OR)X
+ Mg(NH 2)X
+ MgX.
For simplicity in balancing the equations, the inorganic products usually are
written as the mixed compounds Mg(OH)X, Mg(OR)X, and Mg(NH 2)X. Since
the molecules are ionic, it is more likely that the solid salts are mixtures of the
various possible crystal species, including MgX2 and Mg(OHh, Mg(ORh, or
Mg(NH2h. The reactivity of Grignard reagents with hydroxyl groups accounts
for the necessity of having all materials and apparatus dry and free of alcohol
during the preparation of the reagent.
The formation of the alkane is an acid-base reaction, that is, a proton-transfer reaction.
Hydrogen united to oxygen is lost more readily as proton than hydrogen united to carbon, and
hence the weaker acid, the alkane, is liberated. In other words the reaction of a Grignard
reagent with water to give alkane and magnesium hydroxide is analogous to the reaction of
sodium cyanide with hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen cyanide and sodium chloride.
This type of reaction is valuable for the estimation of groups containing replaceable hydrogen,
for example hydroxyl groups. The procedure was proposed first by Chugaev 6 and further
Leo A. Chugaev (1872-1922), professor at the University of St. Petersburg, Russia.
developed by his student Zerevitinov and by others. It commonly is referred to as the Zerevitinov
determination. A simple form of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 40. A solution of methylmagnesium iodide in a high-boiling ether, such as i-amyl ether (p. 141), is placed in one leg of the
bifurcated tube, and a weighed amount of the compound dissolved in a suitable solvent is
placed in the other leg. The apparatus is brought to temperature equilibrium with the stopcock
open, the cock then is closed, and the height of the mercury column read. The two solutions
are mixed, and after again reaching temperature equilibrium, the volume of methane formed
in the reaction is determined. From these data and the molecular weight of the compound, the
number of active hydrogen atoms in the molecule can be calculated. Various refinements in the
above procedure have been introduced to increase the accuracy of the determination.
The concentration of Grignard solutions can be determined by adding water to a known
volume of the reagent and titrating the magnesium hydroxide formed. The method is inaccurate
to the extent that the reagent has reacted with air, since magnesium alkoxides also react with
water to give magnesium hydroxide (p. 100).
Fig. 40. Zerevitinov apparatus for the determination of reactive hydrogen.
2. With Halogen. Halogens react with alkylmagnesium halide to give alkyl
lalide and magnesium halide.
+ X2
+ MgX2
This reaction can be used to determine the concentration of Grignard solutions
by titrating with standard iodine solution.
3. With Oxygen. Grignard reagents absorb oxygen with the formation of
alkoxides, from which the alcohol can be liberated by the addition of water.
+ O2
2 ROMgX
+ HOH
2 RMgX
ROMgX
+ Mg(OH)X
Hence it is necessary to exclude air from the reagents to obtain optimum yields.
At low temperatures the product is the salt of the alkyl hydroperoxide (p. 874).
RO-O-+MgX
{!
4. With Inorganic Halides. Grignard reagents react with the halides of all
lements below magnesium in the electromotive series, usually by replacing the
lalogen with alkyl groups.
+ 2 RMgX
HgR2
SnC!. + 4 RMgX
PCl 3 + 3 RMgX
SiCI. + 4 RMgX
AIR,
HgCI.
AICI,
+ 2 MgX.
Sn~ + 4 MgX.
PR 3 + 3 MgX.
SiR 4 + 4 MgX.
• _
fless reagent is used than is required to react with all of the halogen, intermediate
eaction products are obtained. For example, silicon tetrachloride and methylnagnesium chloride can give rise to methylsilicon trichloride, CH3 SiCI 3 •
limethylsilicon dichloride, (CH3hSiCI 2 , trimethylsilicon chloride, (CH 3)sSiCl,
.nd tetramethylsilicon, (CH3)<lSi. Mercurous chloride and the chlorides of iron,
opper, silver, and gold cause chiefly coupling of the alkyl groups.
+ CuCI.
+ 2 MgX. + Cu
5. With Carbon Dioxide. Grignard reagents add to the carbon-oxygen double
)ond of carbon dioxide with the formation of the halomagnesium salt of a
arboxylic acid.
+ o=c=o
0=-r-OMgX
\ddition of a mineral acid liberates the free carboxylic acid (p. 143).
RCOOMgX
In the organometallic compounds, the carbon-metal bond undoubtedly is highly polarized
,ith the metal the positive end of the dipole (a).
C~H.
: 0 : C.H.
R-Mg+XCzH. : 0 : C.H.
Therefore in reactions in which the carbon-metal bond is cleaved, it is to be expected that the
alkyl group will leave with the pair of electrons. This type of cleavage for oroanomagnesium
compounds is assisted by the solvation of the reagent with ether molecules (b) which supplies
electrons to the magnesium atom and permits the alkyl group to leave more readily. In compounds such as carbon dioxide, aldehydes, and ketones (p. 197), the carbonyl group is polarized
with the carbon atom at the positive end of the dipole because the oxygen nucleus is more
strongly electron-attracting than the carbon nucleus (c). Hence in the addition of Grignard
reagents and other reactive organometallic compounds (p. 891) to a carbonyl group, the alkyl
group adds to carbon and the metal to oxygen.
O=C=O
+ R-Mg+X6-
O=C-O-+Mo+-X
I:'
Often the reaction of the Grignard reagent with carbonyl compounds is preceded by complex
formation in which the carbonyl compound displaces ether molecules from the solvated
magnesium atom. Although such preliminary complex formation may determine the course of
certain Grignard reactions (p. 438), it does not appear to be necessary for reaction, since
solvates of Grignard reagents with tertiary amines such as pyridine (p. 620) still react with
carbonyl compounds. These solvates are so stable that it seems unlikely that the tertiary amine
is displaced by the carbonyl compound, a much weaker base, prior to the addition reaction.
6. With Other Compounds. The many important reactions of Grignard
reagents with other organic compounds are considered as new functional
groups are discussed.
1. Discuss the physical properties of the alkyl halides.
2. Summarize the general methods for the preparation of alkyl halides.
3. Discuss the differences in conditions necessary for the preparation of alkyl chlorides,
bromides, and iodides from primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols using (a) halogen
acids, and (b) phosphorus trihalides.
4. Discuss the direct substitution of hydrogen in a saturated hydrocarbon by halogen. Why
is the reaction usually not satisfactory from a preparative standpoint?
5. How may primary alkyl chlorides be converted into alkyl iodides?
6. Compare primary, secondary, and tertiary halides in regard to ease of hydrolysis and ease
of removal of halogen acid.
7. Compare the ease of displacement of halogen from primary, secondary, and tertiary halides
by another group (excluding hydrolysis).
8. Discuss the action of aqueous solutions of hydroxides, and of alcoholic potassium
hydroxide, on alkyl halides.
9. Give the reasons for and against considering the alkyl halides as belonging to the class of
compounds known as esters.
10. What are the differences in the chemical and physical properties of alkali halides and alkyl
halides?
, 11. Give a condensed structural formula and a suitable name for each member of the following
groups: (a) the monobromopentanes; (b) the dichlorobutanes; (c) those dibromopentanes
that can be prepared readily from olefins; (d) all of the secondary iodohexanes; (e) all of
the primary bromohexanes.
12. Give reactions for three methods, each using a different reagent, for preparing each of the
following compounds: (a) i-propyl bromide; (b) t-butyl chloride; (c) s-butyl iodide; (d)
n-butyl chloride; (e) t-amyl bromide; (f) 2-chloropentane; (g) n-propyl chloride; (h) i-octyl
iodide.
13. Write equations for the following reactions:
A. (a) s-Butyl bromide with silver hydroxide; (b) i-amyl chloride with sodium ethoxide;
(c) l-iodobutane with sodium sulfide; (d) t-amyl bromide with magnesium in ether; (e)
i-propyl iodide with sodium cyanide; (j) n-amyl chloride with sodium iodide; (g) t-butyl
chloride with water; (h) n-butyl bromide with sodium; (i) 2-bromopentane with sodium
hydrosulfide.
B. (a) 2-Bromooctane with sodium cyanide; (b) t-butyl chloride and magnesium; (c)
i-propyl iodide with silver hydroxide; (d) i-amyl chloride and sodium iodide; (e) lauryl
bromide and sodium hydrosulfide; (f) n-butyl bromide and sodium i-propoxide; (g)
ethyl iodide and sodium sulfide; (h) t-amyl bromide and water; (i) I-bromohexane and
sodium.
C. (a) Ethyl bromide and sodium hydrosulfide; (b) n-heptyl iodide and sodium "yanide;
(c) i-octyl bromide and sodium; (d) t-butyl iodide and water; (e) n-amyl iodide and
sodium t-butoxide; (f) s-butyl bromide and sodium sulfide; (g) 3-methyl-3-bromopentane; (h) n-propyl chloride and sodium iodide; (i) 2-chloropentane with silver hydroxide.
:h.6
I. Give equations for the following reactions:
A. (a) Ethylmagnesium bromide with mercuric chloride; (b) t-butylmagnesium chloride
with carbon dioxide; (c) n-hexylmagnesium iodide with water; (d) methylmagnesium
chloride with silicon tetrachloride; (e) 1-methylbutylmagnesium bromide with phosphorus trichloride; (f) n-nonylmagnesium iodide with methanol; (g) i-octylmagnesium
bromide with cupric chloride.
B. (a) Methylmagnesium iodide with aluminum chloride; (b) laurylmagnesium bromide
with water; (c) n-butylmagnesium chloride with zinc chloride; (d) s-butylmagnesium
chloride with ethanol; (e) i-amyhpagnesium iodide with silver chloride; (j) n-tetradecylmagnesium bromide with carbon dioxide; (g) ethylmagnesium iodide with stannic
chloride.
C. (a) i-ButylmagneslUm bromide with mercurous chloride; (b) n-propylmagnesium
chloride with arsenic chloride; (c) 1-methylheptylmagnesium iodide with 2-propanol;
(d) i-propylmagnesium bromide with cadmium chloride; (e) n-heptylmagnesium bromide
with carbon dioxide; (f) methylmagrtesium iodide with germanium chloride; (g)
i-amylmagnesium bromide with water.
;. If a 20 per cent excess of sodium bromide and sulfuric acid is used and if the yield is 90
per cent, calculate the amount of alcohol and sodium bromide that must be used to prepare
the following amounts of the indicated alkyl bromide: (a) 100 g. of i-propyl bromide; (b)
150 g. of n-butyl bromide; (c) 180 g. of i-amyl bromide; (d) 50 g. of ethyl bromide.
l. Calculate the volume (S.T.P.) of methane that would be evolved when an excess of methylmagnesium iodide reacts with 0.1 g. of the following compounds: (a) butanol; (b) 3-methyl1-pentanol; (c) 2,3-dihydroxybutane; (d) octanol; (e) 1,2,3-trihydroxypropane.
r. If 0.1 g. of the unknown compound having a molecular weight of X g. reacts with an excess
of methylmagnesium iodide in the Zerevitinov apparatus to give Y cc. of methane (S.T.P.),
calculate the number of hydroxyl groups that are in the following compounds:
l00±7
I. What are the possible structures for the compounds in Problem 17 if they are hydroxy- or
polyhydroxyalkanes?
SYNTHESIS OF ALKANES AND ALKENES.
ALKYNES (ACETYLENES)
ALKANE AND ALKENE SYNTHESIS
As indicated in Chapters 5 and 6, some of the reactions of alcohols and alkyl
halides lead to the production of paraffin and olefin hydrocarbons. It now is
possible to summarize some of the general methods for the synthesis of the
paraffin hydrocarbons and olefins having a desired structure.
Syntheses of Alkanes
1. Reduction of an Alkyl Halide. The direct reduction of alkyl halides may be
brought about by a variety of reagents such as zinc and hydrochloric acid in
alcoholic solution, sodium and alcohol, sodium amalgam and water, hydrogen
iodide, or hydrogen and a catalyst such as platinum. The reaction may be
represented by the equation
RX + 2[H] ---+ RH + HX
where [H] represents any of the above reducing agents. If hydrogen iodide is
used the reaction is
RI + HI ---+ RH + J~
In this reaction red phosphorus frequently is used along with aqueous hydrogen
iodide. The phosphorus reacts with the iodine to form phosphorus triiodide,
which is hydrolyzed by the water, regenerating hydrogen iodide. In this way the
concentration of hydrogen iodide does not decrease, and only red phosphorus is
consumed in the reduction. Because the position of equilibrium favors the
·formation of hydrocarbon and iodine, the substitution of iodine into a molecule
by direct iodination is not possible unless some other reagent is present which will
destroy the hydrogen iodide. This reducing action of hydrogen iodide also limits
the usefulness of its reaction with alcohols to form alkyl iodides (p. 102).
One of the best methods for preparing pure alkanes is the indirect reduction
of halides through the Grignard reagents (p. 121).
RX + Mg ---+ RMgX
2. Wurtz 1 Reaction. The reaction of an alkyl halide with an alkali metal gives
a hydrocarbon in which the two alkyl groups have combined (p. 115).
2 RX + 2 Na ---+ RR + 2 NaX
1 Charles Adolr.he Wurtz (1817-1894), successor to Dumas on the latter's resignation from
the faculty of the Ecole de Medecine in 1853, and first occupant of the chair of organic chemistry
established at the Sorbonne in 1875. He was the first to synthesize amines in 1849. His synthesis
of alkanes was published in 1855. Among his many other contributions are the synthesis of
ethylene glycol and ethylene oxide in 1859, the reduction of aldehydes to alcohols in 1866,
and the synthesis of aldol in 1872. In a work on the history of chemical principles, he
antagonized many chemists of other nations with his opening statement, "Chemistry is a
French science. It was founded by Lavoisier of immortal memory."
Synthesis of Alkanes and Alkenes. Alkynes (Acetylenes)
The reaction is carried out in an ordinary flask to which a reflux condenser having a wide bore
is attached. The metallic sodium is cut into small pieces and placed in the flask, and dry alkyl
bromide added through the condenser at such a rate that the reaction always is under control.
The surface of the sodium first turns blue and then white with the formation of sodium bromide.
When the reaction is complete, the liquid is free of halogen and is distilled. The best yields are
obtained with primary halides. Tertiary halides yield almost exclusively olefin.
It should be possible to prepare unsymmetrical hydrocarbons by the reaction
of sodium with a mixture of two alkyl halides.
+ 2 Na + R 'X
RR'
2 NaX
This mixed coupling does take place readily if the reactivities of the two halides
are approximately the same. However, since the other two possible hydrocarbons,
RR and R'R', also are formed, the yield of the desired product is small. Mixed
coupling takes place to some extent even when there is a marked difference in
reactivity, but the greater this difference, the greater are the amounts of symmetrical hydrocarbons produced.
3. Reduction of Olefins. The double bond of an olefin adds hydrogen
quantitatively in the presence of finely divided platinum, nickel, palladium, or
other hydrogenation catalysts, with, the formation of alkanes (p. 55).
Pt, Ni,
or Pd
If the unsaturated hydrocarbon is available, for example, by the dehydration of
an alcohol, this method is an excellent one for alkane synthesis. To convert an
alcohol to an alkane, it is easier in general tOr use the series of reactions
alcohol ~ alkene ~ alkane, rather than the series alcohol ~ alkyl
halide ~ alkane.
Syntheses of Alkenes
1. Pyrolysis of Saturated Hydrocarbons. Refinery gases from the industrial
cracking of petroleum (p. 72) and the gases formed by the cracking of propane
or the dehydrogenation of butane (p. 79) are the chief source of the lower
alkenes. Cracking of alkanes is not a useful laboratory procedure, however,
because the reaction cannot be controlled to give a single product, and the
separation of pure products from the complex mixture that is formed is too
difficult in small scale operations.
2. Dehydration of Alcohols. Generally the best procedure for converting
alcohols to olefins consists of passing them in the vapor state over hot activated
alumina (p. 104).
RCH 2CHOHR
This method is least likely to give rearranged products. For example if highly
purified alumina is used, n-butyl alcohol will give largely I-butene with only
small amounts of 2-butene.
When acid catalysts are used, molecular rearrangement frequently takes
place (p. 105). When rearrangement does not take place, or when the constitution
of the rearranged product is known, heating the alcohol to a sufficiently high
temperature in the presence of a strong acid such as sulfuric; phosphoric, or
p-toluenesulfonic acid (p. 470) may be a satisfactory procedure. The last "two
acids have the advantage that they are relatively nonoxidizing. If the alcohol
boils above the temperature required for decomposition, a trace of the acid may
be sufficient; otherwise enough acid must be present to keep the alcohol in the
form of the nonvolatile oxonium salt. Alternatively, the alcohol vapor may be
passed over hot pumice impregnated with phosphoric acid. Some alcohols such
as diacetone alcohol (p. 206) dehydrate so easily that a trace of iodine is sufficient
to catalyze the decomposition.
3. Removal of Halogen Acid from Alkyl Halides. The order of ease of removal
of halogen acid from alkyl halides is tertiary> secondary> primary for both
the halogen atom and the hydrogen atom. The usual reagent is an alcoholic
solution of potassium hydroxide.
+ KOH (alcoholic)
RCH.CHXR
+ KX + H.O
Alcohol is used as a mutual solvent for the base and the alkyl halide, thus permitting the reaction to take place in a single phase. Potassium hydroxide is
preferred to sodium hydroxide because the former dissolves in alcohol much
more easily than does sodium hydroxide. Tertiary alkyl halides lose halogen acid
so readily that a higher-boiling organic base such as pyridine (p. 620) or quinoline
(p. 628) may be used. Primary halides lose halogen acid so slowly that ether
formation becomes the dominant reaction.
+ KOH
+ KOC.Hs
C.HsOH
RCH.X
RCH.OC.Hs + KX
C.HsOK
4. Removal of Two Halogen Atoms from Adjacent Carbon Atoms. If a compound contains two halogen atoms on adjacent parbon atoms, the halogen may
be removed readily by heating with zinc dust in alcohol, leaving a double bond
in the molecule .
RCHCHR
+ Zn (in alcohol)
+ ZnX.
This reaction is not of much use as a preparative method since the best way to
obtain 1,2-dihalides is by adding halogen to an olefin. It occasionally is valuable
for the purification of unsaturated compounds if the dihalide can be purified
more readily than the olefin itself. The olefin is converted to the dihalide, the
dihalide purified, and the olefin regenerated by means of zinc dust.
In addition to the olefins, a second homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons exists, called acetylenes from the first member of the series, or the
alkynes. Acetylene has the molecular formula C 2 H 2 • The acetylenes add two
moles of halogen whereby two halogen atoms are united to each of two adjacent
carbon atoms. Using the same arguments advanced for the structure of the
olefins, the only logical structure for the acetylenes would be one in which two
carbon atoms are joined by a triple bond. Acetylene would have the structure
HC CH, and acetylenes in general the structure RC CR.
The description of the triple bond foIIows the same reasoning as that for the double bond
'po 49). In acetylene each carbon atom is joined to only two other atoms. Hence sp hybridization
:akes place on bonding, and the bond directipns are in a straight line (p. 11). The primary
'arbon-carbon bond results from sp-sp overlapping of orbitals,' and the carbon-hydrogen
;onds result from sp-s overlapping, giving rise to a linear molecule. Both carbDn/atoms still
lave two p orbitals perpendicular to each other, each containing one electron. Overlapping of
,he four p orbitals gives two 7T molecular orbitals, both having cylindrical symmetry. Figure 41a
IIustrates a cross section through the a orbitals and the 7T orbitals. Figure 41b gives a perspective
{jew of the 7T orbitals and Fig. 41c is a schematic representation of the overlapping of p orbitals.
(/D=Qe
C-H
H-C
°0 00
(el
Fig. 41. The acetylene molecule: (a) cross section through the moleculaf orbitals; (b) perspective representation of the 7T bonds; (c) schematic representation of the 7T bonds.
Physical Properties and Nomenclature
The physical properties of the alkynes closely resemble those of the alkanes
and the alkenes, although the boiling points are somewhat higher and the
solubility in water is greater. The systems of nomenclature are analogous to those
for olefins. Alkynes may be named (1) as derivates of acetylene, and (2) by the
Geneva system. In the latter the ending is yne. These methods are illustrated by
the following examples.
CHaCH2THC=CC2Hs
i-Propylacetylene
(methylbutyne)
Ethyl-s-butylacetylene
(5-methyl-3~hePtyne)
Acetylenes in. general may be prepared by two procedures analogous to the
preparation of olefins, and by a third that cannot be used for oIefins.
1. Removal of Two Moles of Hydrogen Halide from Dihalides. If a dihalide has
the halogen atoms on the same or adjacent carbon atoms, boiling with an
alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide removes two moles of halogen acid
with the introduction of a triple bond.
+ 2 KOH (alcoholic)
RCHCHR + 2 KOH (alcoholic)
RCH.CX.R
+ 2 KX + 2 H.O
RC=CR + 2 KX + 2 H.O
RC=CR
Since 1,2-dihalides can be prepared easily from oletins, this method can be used
to convert oletins into acetylenes.
2. Removal of Four Halogen Atoms from Adjacent Carbon Atoms. If a
tetrahalide has two halogen atoms on each of two adjacent carbon atoms, boiling
with zinc dust in alcoholic solution removes the halogen, and an alkyne is
formed.
RCX.CX.R
+ 2 Zn (in alcohol)
+ 2 ZnX.
This reaction has the same limitations as the similar one used for the preparation ,of oletins, namely that the halides required are best made by adding halogen to
the unsaturated compound.
3. From Other Acetylenes. This procedure does not produce a triple bond but
depends on the fact that hydrogen united to a triply bonded carbon atom is much
more acidic than hydrogen united to a singly or doubly bonded carbon atom.
Acetylenes of this type form metallic derivatives in which hydrogen is replaced
by a metal.
RC=CH + Na (in liquid NHa) _
[RC=C-]Na+ + i H.
The sodium-carbon bond in acetylides is ionic; that is, these metallic derivatives
are salts.
The sodium acetylides react with alkyl halides or alkyl sulfates to give higher
homologs of the acetylenes.
RC=CNa
+ R'X
RC-CR'
methylacetylide
+ NaX
Methylethylacetylene
(2-pentyne)
The acetylenes undergo addition reactions analogous to those of the oletins·
and are capable of adding two moles of reagent instead of one. Unlike hydrogen
united to a doubly bonded carbon atom, however, hydrogen united to a triply
bonded carbon is replaced readily by metals.
1. Addition to the Triple Bond. Hydrogen can be added to the triple bond in
the presence of a suitable catalyst.
+ 2 H.
RCH.CH2R
If finely divided palladium or iron is used as catalyst, it is possible to stop the
reaction when one mole of hydrogen has been added.
Pd or Fe
One or two moles of halogen or halogen acid can be added to the triple bond.
RC=CH
RCX=CHX
+ 2 X2
RCX2CHX 2
RCX=CH 2
+ 2 HX
RCX2CHs
The addition of nonidentical addenda follows the Markovnikov rule.
Although water does not add directly to the triple bond, the acetylenes react
with water in the presence of sulfuric acid and mercurous sulfate (mercurymercuric sulfate mixture). However instead of forming hydroxy compounds, as
occurs in the reactions of olefins with water and sulfuric acid, acetylene yields
acetaldehyde.
[H aC=CHOH]2
HC=CH+ H 20
CHst=O
The initial mercury salt complex probably yields a hydroxy olefin having a
hydroxyl group on a carbon atom united to another carbon atom by a double
bond. Such structures are known as eno/s. The simple enols are unstable 2 and
rearrange to give the more stable isomer having the double bond between the
carbon atom and the oxygen atom rather than between the two carbon atoms.
Alkynes other than acetylene yield ketones because addition takes place
according to the Markovnikov rule.
RCCHs
RC-CH+HOH
Alcohols add to acetylene in the presence of alkali to give vinyl ethers (p. 737).
HC-CH + ROH
H,C=CHOR
150'-180'
2. Reactions of Hydrogen. If one of the acetylenic carbon atoms bears a
hydrogen atom, this hydrogen is replaceable by metals. Acetylene reacts with
molten sodium to form a monosodium derivative (sodium acetylide) at 110°.
HC=CH + Na (molten at 110°)
[HC=C-][Na+] + ! H.
Sodium acetylide can be formed also by passing acetylene into a dilute solution
of sodium in liquid ammonia or into a solution of sodium amide in liquid
ammonia.
HC=CH + NaNH2
[HC=C-]Na+ + NHs
If acetylene is passed into sodium at 190°-220°, or if sodium acetylide is heated
at this temperature, sodium carbide is formed.
HC=CH + 2 Na (at 190°-220°)
Na+[-C
C-]Na+ + Hs
Heat at 200'
• To indicate that a structure is unstable and that a compound having this structure cannot
be isolated, the formula is enclosed in brackets.
Acetylene reacts readily with aqueous ammoniacal silver nitrate or aqueous
ammoniacal cuprous chloride solutions to give water-insoluble carbides.
HC=CH
+ 2 Ag(NH.).NO.
Ag.C.
+ 2 NH.NO. + 2 NH.
+ 2 Cu(NH.).Cl
Cu.C.
+ 2 NH.Cl + 2 NH.
Compounds of the type RC=CH yield acetyl ides, [RC=C~]Ag+ and
. [RC-C~]Cu+, whereas compounds of the type RC=CR do not react. These
reactions are useful to distinguish acetylene and monosubstituted acetylenes
from olefins and disubstituted acetylenes.
The heavy metal carbides are thermodynamically unstable and may be
exploded when dry by heat or shock with the formation of the metal and carbon.
Silver carbide, for example, explodes at 140°-150°. Sodium carbide, on the other
hand, is stable up to 400°, and calcium carbide, which is made in the electric
furnace, melts without decomposition at 2300°.
The acetylides and carbides are salts of the very weak acid, acetylene, and
hence are hydrolyzed by water.
NaOH
Ca(OH).
[HC-C] Na+
Ca++[C-C]
+ C,H.
+ C.H.
A mineral acid is required to decompose the heavy metal salts.
+ 2 RNO.
2 AgN03
Acetylenic hydrogen (the hydrogen in HC=CH or RC=CH) is sufficiently
more acidic than alkane hydrogen (the hydrogen in RCH 3 ) to liberate alkanes
from alkyl Grignard reagents with the formation of acetylenic Grignard
reagents.
+ R'MgX
RC=CMgX
+ R'H
Since Grignard reagents undergo a great variety of reactions, the acetylenic
Grignard reagents are valuable for the preparation of other compounds
containing the triple bond.
The acidity of ethylene is between that of acetylene and ethane, although the difference
between ethylene and ethane is less than that between acetylene and ethylene. It is of interest
that the increased acidity coincides with a change in bond type from Sp3_S to Sp2_S to sp-s
(p. I I). Although this correlation merely is another way of saying that ethylene is more acidic
than ethane, and acetylene than ethylene, it permits a generalization that includes the hydrogennitrogen bond and the hydrogen·oxygen bond (p. 252). Quantum mechanical calculations
indicate that an atom joined to another by a triple bond tends to localize a fourth pair of
electrons about the atom and hence forms a covalent bond with a second atom less readily than
an atom joined to others by only single or double bonds. In other words the sp hybrid orbital
available for bonding with hydrogen has more s character than an spa or sp' orbital, and the
pair of electrons of the sp-s bond is held closer to the carbon nucleus than that in an Sp3_S
or sp'-s bond.
leh. 7
ilndustrial Preparation and Use of Acetylene
Acetylene is the only commercially important compound of the series.
Although it can be made by any of the general methods, it is made much more
cheaply from coke by way of calcium carbide, or from natural gas.
Electric furnace
3 C + CaO
Coke Lime
CaC. -:- CO
(2000')
CaC 2 + 2H,o
HC==CH
+- Ca(OH).
When methane is heated to a very high temperature, acetylene is one of the
C.H. + 3 H. - 95.5 kcal.
If the time of exposure to the high temperature (1400°-1600°) is short enough
(.1 to 0.01 second) and the products are cooled quickly enough, a reasonably
high yield of acetylene can be obtained. Numerous processes for attaining these
conditions are being tried such as passing the methane through an electric arc or
over a refractory heated to a high temperature. The process operated most
successfully in the United States in 1955 was developed in Germany. The
necessary heat is supplied by partial combustion of methane with oxygen.
Natural gas and 95 per cent oxygen are preheated separately to 600°, mixed,
ignited in a special burner, and the products immediately cooled by a water
spray. The cooled gases are compressed and the acetylene is absorbed in the
water from which it can be recovered in 99.8 per cent purity. The off gases
consist of carbon monoxide and hydrogen in the ratio of 7 to 15, a satisfactory
composition for the synthesis of methanol (p. 90).
The initial step in the decomposition of methane is the formation of methyl radicals and
hydrogen atoms. The methyl radicals can give rise to ethane, ethylene, and acetylene. Combination of hydrogen atoms gives molecular hydrogen.
2CH 3
CH 3 • + H .
CH3CH 3
CH 3CH 3
CH3CH.· + H·
CH 3CH•.
CH.=CH. + H·
CH.=CH.
CH.=CH·
2H·
CH 2=CH· + H·
CH=CH+H·
Whereas the order of stability at 25° is ethane> ethylene> acetylene, at 10000 they are about
equally stable and at higher temperatures the order is reversed.
Acetylene is a colorless gas which boils at -84°. The crude product from
calcium carbide and water has a garlic odor because of the presence of phosphine.
Acetylene cannot be liquefied safely, since it is thermodynamically unstable and
explodes from shock with the formation of the elements.
C.H2
2 C + H. + 56 kcal.
Procedures have be.en developed for handling acetylene safely at pressures up
to 30 atmospheres (450 p.s.i.). Contact with all copper and copper alloys is
avoided, and the free space kept to a minimum. No pipes for carrying the gas
under pressure are over 35 mm. in diameter, all larger pipes being filled with
small pipes. Higher pressures can be used without explosion by adding an inert
gas such as water vapor or nitrogen.
At atmospheric pressure acetylene is soluble to the extent of one volume of the
gas in one volume of water, four volumes in one of benzene (p. 65), six volumes
in one of ethyl alcohol, twenty-five volumes in one of acetone (p. 224), and 33
volumes in one of methyl sulfoxide (p. 284). At twelve atmospheres 300 volumes
dissolve in one volume of acetone. Since this solution is stable, acetylene is
transported under pressure in tanks filled with a porous material saturated with
acetone.
One of the e,arlier uses for acetylene was as an illuminant. When special tips are
used which mix it with the proper amount of air, it burns with an intense white
flame. Decomposition of the gas gives carbon particles whIch, because of the
high temperature of the flame, are heated to a white incandescence. For the same
reason acetylene was mixed with coal gas used for lighting to increase the
luminosity of the flame. In 1954 about 45 per cent of the 600 million pounds consumed in the United States was used for the welding, cutting, and cleaning of
iron and steel by means of the oxyacetylene flame, which has a temperature in
the neighborhood of 2800°.
From the heats of combustion of ethane, ethylene, and acetylene, it might be expected that
ethane would give the highest temperature.
+ 3i Ot
C H. + 3 Oa
C.H. + 2i O 2
C tH 6
2 CO a + 3 H.O
+ 373 kcal.
2 CO. + 2 H.O + 337 kcal.
2 CO. + H 20 + 317 kcal.
Actually acetylene gives the hottest flame because the least amount of oxygen is required to bum
a given volume of hydrocarbon, and hence less heat is required to raise the gases from room
. temperature to the temperature of the flame. The temperatures of these flames would be much
• higher if the reactions went to completion. At 28000 water is dissociated to hydrogen and oxygen
and carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide and oxygen, probably to the extent of 20 to 25 per cent.
About 55 per cent of the acetylene produced was used for the preparation of
other organic chemicals. Acetylene dichloride and tetrachloride are made by the
addition of chlorine to acetylene and are used as solvents and for the preparation
of other compounds (p. 723). Catalytic addition of water gives acetaldehyde
from which acetic acid and a large number of other organic compounds can be
made (p. 222). Catalytic addition of acetic acid yields vinyl acetate (p. 736), and
addition of alcohols yields vinyl ethers (p. 737), which are used in the preparation
of plastics and other useful products. Addition of hydrogen cyanide gives
acrylonitrile (p. 787) used for the production of synthetic fibers (p. 788) and
synthetic rubber (p. 718). Vinylacetylene (p. 719) and l,3-butadiene (p. 716),
which are starting points for synthetic rubbers, are synthesized from acetylene.
During World War II Germany prepared ethylene by the catalytic reduction
of acetylene at the rate of 3000 tons per month. The extent to which the German
chemical industry was based on acetylene can be appreciated by comparing the
scheduled production of 450,000 tons in Germany in 1943 with the production
of 186,000 tons in the United States in 1944.
Summarize the general methods discussed thus far for the synthesis of alkanes.
Summarize the general methods discussed thus far for the synthesis of alkenes.
Compare the general methods for preparing olefins with those for preparing acetylenes.
Compare the reactions of alkynes, alkenes, and alkanes.
Discuss the commercial methods for preparing acetylene and the industrial uses for
acetylene.
6. Write structural formulas for the members of the following groups of compounds and give
a name to each: (a) alkynes..having the molecular formula C 6 H ,O ; (b) dialkylacetylenes
having the molecular formula C 7H,.; (c) ethylacetylenes and propyl acetylenes having the
molecular formula CsHu.
7. Give reactions for the following preparations:
A. (a) 2,3-Dimethylbutane from a three-carbon alkyl halide; (b) 3-methyl-I-pentene
from a dihalide; (c) n-heptane from an alkyl halide; (d) i-butylene from an alcohol.
B. (a) i-Pentane from an alkyl halide; (b) 3,4-dimethylhexane from a four-carbon alkyl
halide; (c) 4-methyl-2-pentene from a dihalide; (d) neohexane from an olefin.
C. (a) n-Octane from a four-carbon alkyl halide; (b) hexadecane from an alkyl halide; (c)
tetramethylethylene from a dihalide; (d) trimethylethylene from an alcohol.
8. Give reactions for the following syntheses:
A. (a) I-Pentyne from n-propyl bromide; (b) 2,2-dibromobutane from ethylacetylene; (c)
3-hexene from 3-hexyne; (d) 2-butyne from acetylene.
B. (a) I-Butyne from acetylene; (b) 3,3-dibromohexane from 3-hexyne; (c) 3-hexyne from
ethyl iodide; (d) 3-methyl-l-butene from i-propylacetylene.
C. (a) Methylethylacetylene from propyne; (b) 2,5-dimethyl-2,2-dibromohexane from
isopropylacetylene; (c) 4-octyne from acetylene; (d) i-pentane from 3-methyl-l-butyne.
9. Give a series of reactions for carrying out the following conversions:
A. (a) I-Pentene to 2-pentene; (b) ethyl-s-butylcarbinol to 3-methylhexane; (c) n-hexyl
bromide to I-hexyne; (d) i-butyl alcohol to 2,4-dimethylhexane; (e) 2,3-dibromobutane
to 2,2-dibromobutane.
B. (a) I-Amyl chloride t'o dimethylethylmethane; (b) s-butyl alcohol to 2-butyne; (c)
ethylacetylene to s-butyl bromide; (d) 3-methyl-I-butene to trimethylethylene; (e)
l-pentene to 4,5-dimethyloctane.
C. (a) Propylene to 3-methyl~I-butyne; (b) 2,3-dimethyl-I-butene to 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene;
(c) n-hexyl alcohol to n-dodecane; (d) I,2-dibromopentane to 2-bromopentane;
(e) 2-octanol to n-octane.
10. Without resorting to quantitative determinations, how may one distinguish by chemical
tests between the members of the following groups of gases: (a) ethyl chloride, butane, or
2-butyne; (b) propane, propene, or propyne; (c) ethylacetylene, i-butane, or dimethylacetylene.
11. Making use of chemical reactions, describe a procedure for obtaining in a relatively pure
form the components of the following mixtures: (a) ethane, ethylene, and acetylene; (b)
methyl chloride, 2-butyne, and I-butyne; (c) I-pentyne, 2-pentyne, and pentane; (d)
ethylacetylene, diethylacetylene, and 3-hexene.
ETHERS
The simplest ethers have the general molecular formula C n H 2n+ 20, and hence
are isomeric with the alcohols. Unlike the alcohols, no ether is known containing
only one carbon atom, the first member of the series having the molecular
formula C 2 H60. If the formula CH3 CH 2 0H is assigned to ethyl alcohol, the
• only other structural formula possible for an isomer would be that in which the
oxygen atom joins two carbon atoms. Hence the first ether should contain the
structure C-O-C. By placing the hydrogen atoms on the two carbon atoms to
give the compound CH3 0CH3 , all of the rules of valence are satisfied. ;he
general formula for the ethers would be ROR. The methods of preparation and
chemical properties of the ethers confirm this structure.
The word ether (Gr. aither, applied to the material filling heavenly space) was
given to ethyl ether because of its volatility. The ethers commonly are divided
into two groups, the simple ethers, ROR, in which both R groups are alike, and
the mixed ethers, ROR', in which the R groups are different. They generally are
designated by naming the alkyl groups and adding the word ether. For the simple
ethers no indication need be given that two alkyl groups are present in the
molecule; (CH3hO is methyl ether, CH3 0C2 Hs is methyl ethyl ether, and
(C2H5)20 is ethyl ether.1
The group RO is known as an alkoxyl group, although as a substituent it is
called alkoxy. In the Geneva system the ethers are named as alkoxy derivatives of
hydrocarbons. Methyl ether is methoxymethane, and methyl ethyl ether is
J!lethoxyethane. This system usually is used only when other functional groups
are present. For example CH3 0CH 2CH 2CH 20H may be called 3-methoxyI-propanol.
Since the ethers do not contain hydrogen united to the oxygen atom, there is
no tendency for molecules to associate with each other by proton bonding, and
the boiling points are nearly normal. Methyl ether boils at -240 and propane at
_42°, methyl ethyl ether boils at 6° and n-butane at -OS, and ethyl ether
boils at 35° and n-pentane at 36°.
Ethers have, however, unshared pairs of electrons on oxygen and can form
1 Since there is no ambiguity in the term methyl ether, it is redundant to call it dimethyl ether.
The situation is comparable to naming Na2S0 4 sodium sulfate rather than disodium sulfate.
Similarly the addition product of chlorine to ethylene was called ethylene chloride rather than
ethylene dichloride (p. 53), just as MgCl 2 is called magnesium chloride rather than magnesium
dichloride. This same principle will be followed later in naming derivatives of other polyvalent
compounds such as the ketones (p. 197), sulfides (p. 278), sulfoxides and sulfones (p. 286)
esters of polycarboxylic acids (p. 792) and alkyl peroxides (p. 875).
proton bonds with water molecules. As would be expected, the solubilities in
water are roughly the same as those of alcohols having the same number of
carbon atoms. A saturated solution of ethyl ether in water at 25° contains 6 per
cent by weight of the ether, and a saturated solution of n-butyl alcohol at 25°
contains 7.5 per cent by weight of the alcohoL Water is soluble in both but only
to the extent of 1.5 per cent in ether at 25° compared with 26 per cent in n-butyl
Ethers usually are made by one of two processes.
1. The Williamson 2 Synthesis. This method involves the reaction of a metallic
alkoxide with an alkyl halide.
+ XR'
ROR'
The reaction may be used to prepare mixed ethers as well as simple ethers,
because it is not reversible. The reaction is important also because it affords
synthetic proof of the structure of the ethers. Since an alkyl group has replaced
the sodium of an alkoxide made by replacing the hydrogen of the hydroxyl
group of an alcohol by sodium, an ether must have two alkyl groups combined
with oxygen. Alkyl sulfates resemble alkyl halides in displacement reactions and
also may be used to prepare ethers.
+ (R'O)2S02
+ NaSO,OR'
2. The Sulfuric Acid Process. Alkyl hydrogen sulfates react with alcohols to
give ethers. Hence ethers can be made from alcohols by reaction with sulfuric
acid.
+ HOR
ROSO,H
ROSOaH
This reaction is carried out by mixing equal moles of alcohol and concentrated
sulfuric acid, and heating to a temperature sufficiently high to cause rapid
reaction with alcohol but below the temperature for appreciable decomposition
of the alkyl hydrogen sulfate to alkene (p. 104). On adding more alcohol to the
mixture the ether distills. Yields of ethers are best with primary alcohols because
the latter are the least readily dehydrated to olefins. The more volatile the ether,
the more readily it is removed from the reaction mixture. If the ether boils above
the temperature at which the alkyl hydrogen sulfate decomposes to olefin, the
ether must be removed under reduced pressure. It is not possible to prepare
ditertiary alkyl ethers by either process, because sodium alkoxides remove
hydrogen halide from t-alkyl halides, and mineral acids dehydrate tertiary
alcohols to give the olefin.
The equations indicate that the sulfuric acid procedure could be used for the
preparation of mixed ethers by making the alkyl hydrogen sulfate from one
alcohol and allowing the product to react with a second alcohol. Although the
2 Alexander William Williamson (1824-1904), professor at the University College, London.
His synthesis of ethyl ether in 1850 cleared tip the confusion existing then concerning the
constitution of the alcohols and ethers. He also was the first to synthesize ortho esters (p. 174),
and to assign the correct structure to acetone (p. 197).
second alcohol does react, and some mixed ether is formed, the mixed ether
always is accompanied by large amounts of both simple ethers because of the
easy reversibility of the reactions involved.
It is not necessary that the alkyl hydrogen sulfate be formed as an intermediate for ether
formation to take place. As in the dehydration of alcohols, it has been shown that any strong
acid such as hydrochloric acid or the sulfonic acids (p. 468), or in fact any strongly electronaccepting reagent such as zinc chloride or boron fluoride, will catalyze ether f~r~ation'.It has
been shown also that hydrogen chloride catalyzes ether formation under condltlOns which do
not lead to the formation of ether from ethyl chloride and ethyl alcohol. In general the mechanism undoubtedly is one of acid catalysis and displacement.
R:O:R
In the above series and in subsequent equilibrium reactions illustrating stepwise mechanisms,
it is convenient to adopt a convention which eliminates the necessity of rewriting formulas. The
reagent is placed above the double arrow and the minor product which is eliminated is pl~eed
below the double arrow. According to the above series of reactions an alcohol molecule picks
up a proton from the acid HB eliminating the base [B-]. The alkoxonium ion intermediate on
collision with another alcohol molecule loses water with the formation of the ether oxonium
ion which reacts with the base [B-] to regenerate the acid and produce the ether. In the reverse
reaction the reagent is the substance below the arrows and the minor product eliminated is
above the arrows. For example, in the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis ~f et~ers, an a~id. rri~lecule,
HB, transfers a proton to the ether molecule forming an ether OXOnIum Jon and ehrmnatmg the
base [B-]. The ether oxonium ion reacts with a water molecule forming the alcohol oxonium
ion and eliminating a molecule of alcohol. The alcohol oxonium ion transfers a proton to the
base [B-] forming a molecule of alcohol and regenerating the acid, HB. It will be observed that
the intermediates in brackets disappear and reagents and intermediates that appear both above
and below the arrows cancel each other. Hence the over-all reaction is
+ ROH
In the sulfuric acid process it is possible that ether formation results from two different
r~cti?ns that take place simultaneously. The more direct route would be that p,?stulated _for
aCids m general. The second route would involve the alkyl hydrogen sulfate as an mtermedlate
'(po 103).
[OSO.H]
R: OSO.H
Ethers are obtained as co-products in the manufacture of alcohols from
olefins (p. 97). Since the reactions by which ethers are formed from alcohols in
the presence of acids are reversible (p. 140), what cannot be sold profitably is
recycled. The direct preparation of ethers from ole fins is useful especially for the
preparation of ethers in which one of the alkyl groups is tertiary. Here the olefin
reacts with a primary alcohol in the presence of sulfuric acid.
CH.C=CH 2
+ HOC2H s
(CH.hCOC 2 H s
Ethyl I-butyl
Tertiary butyl ether is the only ditertiary-alkyl ether known. It was made by
the reaction of t-butyl chloride with dry silver carbonate.
2 (CHJaCCI
+ Ag 2CO a
(CHa)aC-O-C(CHa)a
+ 2 AgCl + CO.
, Ethers
The reaction of sulfuric acid with an alcohol is a good example of the way in
which the course of an organic reaction may be modified by conditions. At room
temperature the chief reaction is the formation of the oxonium salt.
C.HsOH + H,S04
[ C,H/>H,] [SO.HJ
If ethyl alcohol is warmed with an excess of sulfuric acid, ethyl hydrogen sulfate
is formed.
If ethyl hydrogen sulfate is heated to the point where it decomposes (above 150°),
ethylene is formed.
CH,=CH 2 + H 2SO.
C,H.OSOaH
1f sulfuric acid is allowed to react with an excess of alcohol and the mixture
heated under reduced pressure, ethyl sulfate (p. 108) distills.
+ C,H.OH
C,H 50SO aH
(C,H,),SO.
If ethyl hydrogen sulfate is heated to 140°-150° and alcohol added below the
surface, ethyl ether distills.
C,H 50SO aH + C,H.OH
(C,H5)20
+ H 2SO.
Since all of these reactions are reversible, all of the reactants and products are
in equilibrium with each other. To prepare any particular compound, the
optimum conditions must be chosen for obtaining it rather than the unwanted
compounds.
Ethers are relatively inert. Because the oxygen atom contains unshared
electrons, ethers are capable of forming oxonium salts with any strong acid, HB,
and addition complexes with any molecule having an atom that lacks a pair of
electrons in its valence shell.
+ BFa
R: 0: BF3
+ M~X2
X: Mg: 0: R
+RMgX
R: Mg: 0: R
Chemistry oj Organic Compounds
Ch.8":,,
It is because of the last reaction that ether dissolves alkylmagnesium halides and
is used as a solvent in preparing Grignard reagents. Not all ethers are suitable
solvents, since the complexes in some cases, for example with i-propyl ether and
dioxane (p. 642), are insoluble in an excess of the solvent.
All other reactions of the ethers must involve a scission of the carbohoxygen bond. Because reagents which can split the carbon-oxygen bond in
ethers can split the carbon-oxygen bond in alcohols as well, the initial reaction
may be followed by a second to give the final product.
+ AICI.
2 RBr
ROAICl 2
+ RCI
The reaction of ethers and of other compounds containing alkoxyl groups with hydrogen.
iodide is important, chiefly because it is the basis of the Zeisel procedure for the estimation of
methoxyl and ethoxyl. Methyl or ethyl groups linked to oxygen are converted to the volatile
methyl or ethyl iodides, which are distilled. The amount of alkyl iodide in the distillate is
determined by allowing it to react with alcoholic silver nitrate solution and collecting and
weighing the precipitate of silver iodide. In the Vieboeck and Schwappach modification the
accuracy of the estimation is greatly increased. The alkyl iodide is absorbed in a solution of
bromine and potassium acetate in glacial acetic acid, which converts the iodide to iodate.
RI+Br2
+ 2Brz + 3 H 20
+ IBr
HI0 3
The excess bromine is destroyed by adding formic acid. On adding potassium iodide and
acidifying, six atoms of iodine are liberated for each atom originally present in the alkyl
iodide; that is, six iodine atoms are obtained for each alkoxyl group .
•The iodine is titrated by standard thiosulfate solution.
A reaction of ethers which has not found a use but which always should be
kept in mind because of its potential danger is the absorption of atmospheric
oxygen to form peroxides (p. 884).
These peroxides are unstable and decompose violently on heating. An instance
has been reported in which a can containing i-propyl ether that had been exposed
to air for some time exploded on being moved. Hence ethers should not be
exposed to air unnecessarily and always should be tested for peroxides before
use and especially before distillation (cf. p. 884).
Uses of Ethers
Methyl ether boils at -24 0 and can be used as a solvent and extracting agent
at low temperatures and as a propellant for aerosol sprays. The preparation of
impure ethyl ether first was recorded in the sixteenth century. Since it was made
by the sulfuric acid process, it usually contained sulfur as an impurity, and it was
not until 1800 that it was proved that sulfur was not part of the ether molecule.
Since 1846 ethyl ether has been used as a general anesthetic 3 and still is the
most widely used substance for this purpose. It is used also as a solvent for
fats. It frequently is used in the laboratory as a solvent for extracting organic
compounds from aqueous solutions, 9.lthough it is not always the best solvent
for this purpose. Ether is highly flammable and it is very soluble in strongly
acid solutions. Moreover it emulsifies readily making separation of the ether
and water layers difficult. Finally it usually contains peroxides, which should
be removed both for safety and because the peroxides may oxidize the product
being extracted. One of the lower boiling chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as
methylene chloride (p. 722) or ethylene chloride (p. 723), may be preferable .
. One advantage of ether is that the equilibrium distribution of a compound
between the water and the ether is attained rapidly because ether and water
are appreciably soluble in each other.
Ordinary ether contains some water and alcohol which are detrimental for
some purposes such as the preparation of Grignard reagents. Both impurities
can be removed by allowing the ether to stand over metallic sodium, since
sodium hydroxide and sodium ethoxide are insoluble in ether. The pure product
is known as absolute ether.
Methyl propyl ether (metopryl) has been reported to be more potent and less
irritant than ethyl ether as a general anesthetic. i-Propyl ether is a co-product
of the manufacture of i-propyl alcohol from propylene. n-Butyl ether (b. p. 142°)
and i-amyl ether (b. p. 173°) are made from the alcohols and are used as higher
boiling solvents. [J-Chloroethyl ether (Chlorex), (CICH 2CH 2hO, is made by the
action of sulfuric acid on ethylene chlorohydrin, CICH 2CH 20H (p. 743). It is
used as a soil 'fumigant and as a solvent for refining lubricating oils (p. 81).
Like other [J-chloroethers, the halogen is very unreactive. For example it does
not react with sodium cyanide to give the cyano ether or with magnesium to
give a Grignard reagent.
I. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Williamson synthesis and the sulfuric acid
process for making ethers.
2. Give the probable mechanism for the acid-catalyzed formation of ethers from alcohols.
What facts support this view?
3. Why are di-t-alkyl ethers difficult to prepare? How may the mixed primary-tertiary alkyl
ethers be prepared (a) from olefins; (b) by the Williamson synthesis?
4. Give equations and conditions for preparing each of the following compounds from. the
two reagents, ethyl alcohol and sulfuric acid: ethyl hydrogen sulfate; ethylene; ethyl ether;
ethyl sulfate.
5. Why does ethyl ether have about the same solubility in water as n-butyl alcohol but a
boiling point 82° lower? What normal alkane would be expected to boil approximately
where ether boils?
6. Why is ether only slightly soluble in water but miscible with concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid? Why is dry hydrogen chloride very soluble in both ether and water but not
in hexane or carbon tetrachloride?
7. Why does the Grignard reagent dissolve in ether but not in hydrocarbons? Name some
inorganic compounds that dissolve in ether.
a A general anesthetic is one that acts on the brain and produces unconsciousness as well as
insensitivity to pain. In local anesthesia and spinal anesthesia, only portions of the body are
rendered insensitive to pain, and the patient retains consciousness.
8. What is absolute ethec and how may it be prepared? What are some of the common uses
of ether?
9. Why is it dangerous to distill ethers that have been exposed to air? What disadvantage may
arise if an ether that has been exposed to air is used as a solvent for extraction or for a
reaction? What reactions can be used to determine whether an ether is safe to use?
10. Write structural formulas for all of the isomeric ethers in each of the following groups that
meet the given specifications, and give a name to each compound: (a) all ethers having the
molecular formula C 5H,.O; (b) methyl alkyl ethers having the molecular formula C.H,.O;
(c) ethers other than methyl alkyl ethers having the molecular formula C.H 140.
II. Give reactions for all of the possible ways by which the following ethers can be prepared
by the Williamson synthesis making use of alcohols and alkyl chlorides, bromides and
iodides: (a) methyl i-butyl ether; (b) methyl n-amyl ether; (c) ethyl n-propyl ether; (d) ethyl
i-amyl ether.
12. Using a handbook, find the boiling points of each of the alcohols and alkyl halides used in
the reactions of Problem 11 and determine which reaction would permit the easiest
separation of the product by distillation.
13. Give equations for the following conversions:
A. (a) n-Butyl ether into n-butyl iodide; (b) i-propyl ether into propylene; (c) s-butyl ether
into s-butyl alcohol; (d) isobutylene into ethyl t-butyl ether.
B. (a) i-Propyl ether into i-propyl bromide; (b) s-butyl ether into 2-butene; (c) n-amyl
ether into n-amyl alcohol; (d) 2-methyl-2-butene into methyl t-amyl ether.
C. (a) i-Amyl ether into i-amyl alcohol; (b) I-methylbutyl ether into 2-pentene; (c) n-propyl
ether into l-iodopropane; (d) 2-butene into s-butyl ether.
14. What simple chemical tests could be used to distinguish between the members of the
following groups of compounds: (a) ethanol, i-propyl alcohol, and i-propyl ether; (b)
2-hexene, ethyl ether, and n-hexane; (c) s-butyl alcohol, n-butylacetylene, and n-propyl
ether; (d) i-amyl ether, i-amyl chloride, and 3-hexyne.
15. Describe a procedure for distinguishing between the members of the following groups of
compounds: (a) compounds having the molecular formula CaHBO; (b) ethers having the
molecular formula C.H,oO; (c) ethers having the molecular formula C5HlOO.
16. If X g. of a compound gave Y g. of silver iodide in a Zeisel determination, calculate the
per cent methoxyl and the equivalent weight for the following compounds:
17. If X g. of a compound required Y cc. of 0.1 N thiosulfate solution in a methoxyl determination by the method of Vieboeck and Schwappach, calculate the per cent methoxyl and
the equivalent weight for the following compounds:
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES.
ORTHO ESTERS
Numerous types of organic compounds transfer protons to bases more
readily than does the water molecule, These compounds are referred to as
organic acids or acidic compounds. The carboxylic acids constitute one of the
most important groups of compounds having this property.
The simplest carboxylic acids have the general formula C n H 2n0 2 , and since
a carboxylic acid having only one carbon atom is known, namely formic acid,
CH 2 0 2 , the number of possible structures is limited. If unlikely structures
containing unpaired electrons are omitted, only two formulas, I and II, are
reasonable from the theory of electronic structure.
'" C / I
/"-0
H-C-O-H
R-C-O-H
Formula I has two oxygen atoms joined to each other; that is, it contains a
peroxide structure. Carboxylic acids, however, do not show any of the properties
of peroxides, such as the liberation of iodine from hydrogen iodide solutions.
Moreover all monocarboxylic acids contain only one ionizable hydrogen atom.
If the hydrogen atoms in formula I ionized, both would be expected to do so.
Formula II in which one hydrogen is joined to oxygen and one to carbon
accounts for the difference in behavior of the hydrogen atoms. Formula III is
the general formula for the homologous series. The methods of synthesis and
the reactions of carboxylic acids confirm the view that both the doubly bound
oxygen atom and the hydroxyl group are combined with a single carbon atom
to give the group -COOH, which is known as the carboxyl group.
General Methods of Preparation
1. From the Grignard Reagent and Carbon Dioxide (p. 123).
R-C-OMgX
R-C-OH
+ MgX,
This reaction is not only one of the best general methods for synthesizing
carboxylic acids, but it proves that both oxygen atoms are united to the same
2. By the Hydrolysis of Alkyl Cyanides (Nitriles).
[u+)
RC-N +2 H 20
RC-M
+ 2 H 20
[OU)
[R-[OH]
[R-r OH]
+ NH.C1
NaOU
RCOONa
+ H 20 + NH3
Both of these reactions are the result of the addition of water to the cyano
group, followed by loss of ammonia. The addition is catalyzed both by protons
and by hydroxide ions and is a rev~rsible reaction, but the secondary reactions, •
that is, the formation of ammonium chloride or of ammonia, are irreversible.
and the reactions go to completion. The mechanism of hydrolysis of alkyl
cyanides is discussed on pages 253 and 246. The formation of carboxylic acids
by the hydrolysis of nitrites proves that the alkyl group and both oxygen atoms
must be united to a single carbon atom.
3. By the Oxidation of Primary Alcohols. When primary alcohols are oxidized
by an excess of a strong oxidizing agent such as sodium dichromate and sulfuric
acid, chromium trioxide in glacial acetic acid, potassium permanganate, or
nitric acid, carboxylic acids are produced without loss of carbon.
RCH2 0H
+ 2 [Ol
An aldehyde is an intermediate in this reaction (p. 194). The symbol [0] merely
means any suitable oxidizin.g agent. The oxidizing agents suitable for the
reaction must be remembered. Moreover it is assumed that the student has
learned how to balance oxidation and reduction reactions and is able to write
balanced equations when nece~sary (p. 145). For example, when sodium
dichromate and sulfuric acid is used as the oxidizing agent, the balanced
equation is
The mechanism of the oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and ketones is discussed on p. 106.
The oxidation of aldehydes to acids is discussed on p. 212.
If organic compounds containing methyl groups attached to methylidyne (CH) groups are
subjected to extremely vigorous oxidizing conditions (hot chromium trioxide in concentrated
sulfuric acid), each CH3CH < group is oxidized to acetic acid. The acetic acid can be distilled
and determined quantitatively. Thus a method is available for determining the number of
methyl branches in a molecule (C-methyl determination).
4. By tl,te Oxidation of Unsaturated Compounds. Controlled oxidation of
alkenes with a dilute solution of potassium permanganate yields the dihydroxy
derivative (p. 57). The presence of oxygen on two adjacent carbon atoms
makes the carbon-carbon bond more susceptible to oxidation, and under the
more vigorous conditions of higher temperature, longer time of reaction, and
higher concentration of oxidizing agent, the dihydroxyalokane is oxidized to two
Carbo.'ylic Acids and Their Derivatives. Ortho Esters .
molecules of carboxylic acid. Since potassium hydroxide is one of the products
of oxidation, the salt of the acid is the actual product.
3 RCH=CHR'
+ 2 KMnO. + 4 H.O
3 RCH-CHR'
----+ 3 RCH-CHR'
+ 6 KMnO.
----+ 3 RCOOK
+ 2 MnO. + 2 KOH
+ 3 KOOCR' + 6 MnO. + 6 HaO
Adding these two equations gives
3 RCOOK
+ 3 KODCR' + 8 MnO. + 2 H.O + 2 KOH
If one or both of the doubly bound carbon ato}1lS lacks a hydrogen atom, the
reaction gives one or two molecules of ketone.
R.C=CHR'
R.C=O
+ "[(OOCR' + 2 MnO. + KOH
Unsaturated compounds having a terminal methylene group give potassium
carbonate, since the formic acid produced is oxidized f1:lfther to carbon dioxide
·and water (p. 158).
3 RCB
eH. +
1I)KMnO.
3 RCOOK + 3l(.CO. + l\)MnO.+ 4B.O + KOH.
Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Equations
By Inspection. When sodium dichromate is reduced to chromic sulfatt:, three oxygen atoms
are available for oxidation. When a primary alcohol is oxidized to an acid, two atoms of oxygen
are required.
Na.Cr.07
Na.SO.
RCH.OH
+ Cr.(SO.)a + 4 H.O + 3 [0]
Therefore if the first equation is multiplied by two and the second by three and these equations
added, a balanced equation results.
Potassium permanganate in neutral or alkaline solution is reduced to manganese dioxide.
For each two moles of permanganate, three atoms of oxygen are available for oxidation.
2 KMnO.
2 KOH -+- 2 MnO.
In acid solution the reduction product is a manganous salt, and five atoms of oxygen are available from two moles of permanganate.
K.SO.
+ 2 MnSO. + 3 H.O + 5 [0]
When nitric acid is used as an oxidizing agent, the reduction product ordinarily is considered
to be nitrogen dioxide and each two moles of nitric acid provide one atom of oxygen.
2 HNOa ----+ 2 NO. + !-l.0 + [0]
If the reduction product is nitrogen trioxide, each mole of nitric acid provides one atom of
oxygen.
2HNOa
If the reduction product is nitric oxide, two moles of nitric acid provide three atoms of oxygen.
----+ 2 NO + HoD + 3 [0]
By Change in Polar Number (Oxidation Number). Since oxidation is the loss of electrons and
reduction the gain of electrons, balancing the loss apd gain of electrons will lead to the balancing
of oxidation and reduction equations. Here certain atoms of the molecules involved are
considered to be oxidized or reduced in the reaction. The degree of oxidation or reduction of
an atom in a molecule or ion is considered to be proportional to the electron concentration
about the atom compared with that of the free atom. Each bond to the atom is assigned a unit
polarity, the direction of polarity depending on which atom has the greater attraction for
2 HNOa
electrons. Hydrogen always is considered positive with respect to other at~s. For other
elements the attraction for electrons increases from left to right in a given period and decreases
from top to bottom in a given column of the periodic table. Thus in a primary alcohol the
R-C bond is between two carbon atoms and is assigned zero polarity. Each C-H bond and
the O-;-H bond are assigned polarities with the negative end at carbon or oxygen and the
positive end at hydrogen. The c-o bond is assigned a polarity with the positive end at carbon
and the negative end at oxygen. The same is true for each bond of the double bond in the
carboxyl group of the acid.
-111- 1
-1 +1 -1
R--C--O--H
R-C--O--H
01-+1
The algebraic sum of the charges on any atom is its polar number or oxidation number. Thus
the polar number of carbon in a primary alcohol group is 0 - 1 + 1 - 1 = -1, and that in
a carboxyl group is 0 + 1 + 1 + 1 = +3. If the polar number becomes more positive in a
reaction, indicating a decrease in electron density, the atom is oxidized, and if it becomes less
positive, indicating an increase in electron density, it is reduced. The change in polar number
of an atom in an oxidizing agent must balance the change in the polar number of an atom in the
molecule being oxidized.
In the unbalanced reaction
RCH"OH
+ Na 2Cr20 7 +
H 2S0 4
+ Cr2(SO.)a + Na 2SO. + H 20
the atoms undergoing a change in polar number are the carbon atom in the primary alcohol,
which changes from -1 to + 3 or a change of +4, and the chromium atoms in the dichromate
which change from +6 to +3 or a change of -3 for each chromium atom, a total change for
the two atoms of -6. To balance +4 against -6, +4 may be multiplied by 6 and -6 by 4, or
more simply +4 by 3 and -6 by 2. Hence three molecules of alcohol will be oxidized by two
molecules of dichromate. The moles of sulfuric acid required and the moles of water formed
follow from the number of sulfate ions required and the amount of hydrogen available.
It is unfortunate that the expression change in valence sometimes is used in balancing
oxidation-reduction reactions when change in polar number is meant. The term valence should
be reserved for the number of covalent bonds by which an atom is united to other atoms or for
tpe number of charges which an ion bears. It is obvious in this example that the valence of
carbon has not changed on being oxidized from a CH 2group to a C=O group but remains four
throughout, whereas the polar number has changed from -1 to + 3.
By Means of Half-Reactions. Oxidation and reduction equations may be balanced by the
method of half-reactions. In the present example one half of the reaction is the oxidation of
alcohol molecules to acid molecules, and the other half is the reduction of dichromate ion to
chromic ion. The source of oxygen for the oxidation half may be considered to be water
molecules.
RCH"OH + H 20
RCOOH + 4 [H+j + 4 [e-j
[Cr20 7=]
+ 14 [H+j + 6 [e-j
2 [Cr+++j
Since the first half-reaction must supply as many electrons as are used by the second halfreaction, the first half-reaction must be multiplied by 3 and the second by 2. Addition then gives
3 RCH.OH + 2 [Cr2 0 7=) + 16 [H+]
3 RCOOH
+ 4 [Cr+++] + 11 H 20
All of the above schemes for balancing oxidation and reduction equations are empirical and
arbitrary and none is more scientific than the others. In the first method oxygen is assumed to
be available from the oxidizing agent; in the second method the atoms are assumed to differ in
polarity by unit charges; in the third method the reaction is assumed to take place by the
elimination of electrons and the consumption of electrons. These assumptions merely are
devices for arriving at the desired result, and that method should be used which seems preferable
to the individual. The oxidation of organic compounds usually is limited to the addition of
oxygen or the removal of hydrogen, and reduction to the addition of hydrogen or the removal
,I
Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives. Ortho Esters
of oxygen. Since the oxygen or hydrogen requirement in organic oxidations and reductions can
be determined at a glance, the first method given for balancing oxidation-reduction equations
is the simplest. Whatever method is used, it should be practiced sufficiently to be carried out
correctly and with facility.
Common Names. Normal carboxylic acids were isolated first from natural
sources, particularly from the fats (Chapter 10). Hence they frequently are
called fatty acids. Since nothing was known about their structure, they were
given common names indicating their SOurce. These names and the derivations
of the names together with some physical properties are given in Table 10.
CoMMON NAMES OF NORMAL CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
NAME OF ACID
Formic
Acetic
Propionic
Butyric
Caproic
Enanthic
Caprylic
Pelargonic
Capric
Dndecanoic
Lauric
Tridecanoic
Myristic
Pentadecanoic
Palmitic
Margaric
Nonadecanoic
Arachidic
Heneicosanoic
Behenic
Tricosanoic
Tetracosanoic
Pentacosanoic
Cerotic
DERIVATION OF NAME
L. formica, ant
L. acetum, vinegar
Gr. proto, first; pion, fat
L. butyrum, butter
valerian root (L. valere, to
be strong)
L. caper, goat
Gr. oenanthe, vine blossom
Myristica (nutmeg)
Gr. margaron, pearl
Gr. stear, tallow
Arachis (peanut)
behen oil
L. cera, wax
Geneva names are given for the odd-carbon acids above C10 rather than
common names. The reason is that only acids with an even number of carbon
atoms had been found in fats,! the odd-carbon acids having been prepared
1 The presence of small amounts of normal odd-carbon acids in natural fats has been
reported recently. Thus trio, penta-, and heptadecanoic acids have been obtained from butter
fat. Heptadecanoic acid has been isolated also from mutton fat and from shark liver oil.
synthetically by hydrolysis of the nitriles. The name margaric appears to be an
exception. However it has been shown that the material isolated from fats and
thought to be a C17 acid actually is a mixture of palmitic and stearic acids.
When the true C17 normal acid was synthesized, the common name was retained.
As with other homologous series, those compounds having an isopropyl
group at the end of a normal hydrocarbon chain may be named by adding the
prefix iso to the common name, for example (CH3)2CHCOOH, isobutyric acid,
or (CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2CHzCH2CH2COOH, isocapric acid. If the methyl
branch occurs at any other portion of the chain, the designation iso may not
be used.
As Derivatives of Normal Acids. Acetic acid frequently is chosen as the
parent compound, and derivatives are named as compounds in which the
hydrogen atoms of the methyl group are replaced by other groups.
CHaCH.CH-CHCOOH
This compound may be called methyl-s-butylacetic acid. It also may be considered to be derived from valerie acid and called 1X,/1-dimethylvaleric acid or
2,3-dimethylvaleric acid. When Greek letters are used to designate the positions
of the substituents, the IX carbon atom of the chain is the carbon atom adjacent
to the carboxyl group. When numerals are used, the carbon atom of the
carboxyl group is numbered I.
Geneva System. The final e is dropped from the name of the hydrocarbon
having the same number of carbon atoms as the longest chain containing the
carboxyl group, and oic acid is added. The carbon atom of the carboxyl group
always is numbered 1 when numbering the atoms of the longest chain. For
example CH3CH 2CH(CH3)CH(CH3)COOH is called 2,3-dimethylpentanoic acid.
The boiling points of carboxylic acids (Table 10) rise more or less uniformly
with increase in molecular weight. The increase for those listed averages about
18° per additional methylene group, the same as for the alcohols. The magnitude
of the boiling points, however, is even more abnormal than for the alcohols.
Ethyl alcohol boils at 78°, but formic acid having the same molecular weight
boils at 101°; n-propyl alcohol boils at 98°, but acetic acid boils at 118°. The
explanation of the abnormal boiling points of the acids is the same as that for
the alcohols, namely association by proton bonds, but the acids are able to
form double molecules which are more stable than the association complexes
formed by the alcohols.
O:H-O
R-C/
C-R
O-H:O/
It has been shown by vapor density measurements that the double molecules
of acetic acid persist even in the vapor state. Hence it is not surprising that
the boiling point of acetic acid (118°, mol. wt. = 60 X 2 = 120) is of the same
order of magnitude as n-octane (126°, mol. wt. 114).
An interesting characteristic of the normal carboxylic acids is the alternation
in melting points. Acids with an even number of carbon atoms always melt at
a higher temperature than the next higher member of the series (Fig. 42).
X-ray diffraction has shown that in the solid state the carbon atoms of the
hydrocarbon chain assume an extended zigzag arrangement in which the
carboxyl groups of the odd carbon acids are on the same side of the chain as
the terminal methyl groups, whereas those of the even carbon acids are on the
-~L-~~-L-L~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 18
NO. OF C"R80N "TOMS
Fig. 42. Melting points of normal carboxylic acids.
opposite side of the chain (see p. 40). Although all of the acids are double
molecules, the arrangement of those with an even number of carbon atoms
gives a more symmetrical molecule and a more stable crystal lattice.
Other homologous compounds may show oscillation in melting points. Thus the first four
normal paraffin hydrocarbons exhibit complete alternation in melting points, but the remainder
show incomplete alternation; that is, in passing from an even number of carbon atoms to an
odd number there is not a decrease in melting point, but the increase is less than in passing from
an odd number to an even number (Fig. 27, p. 40). For the normal alcohols (Fig. 38, p. 88) no
alternation in melting point is observable. Other physical properties such as heats of crystallization, solUbility, and viscosity also may oscillate with successive members of a homologous series.
Because of partial ionization in water, carboxylic acids are somewhat more
heavily hydrated than alcohols and hence show somewhat greater solubility
in water. In general they have about the same solubility in water as the alcohol
with one less carbon atom. For example n-butyric acid is miscible with water
as is n-propyl alcohol, whereas n· butyl alcohol dissolves only to the extent of
about 1 volume in 11 volumes of water. Monocarboxylic acids usually are
soluble in other organic solvents.
The marked attraction of carboxylic acids for water molecules is indicated by the behavior
of the ~~wer acids on distillation of an aqueous solution. It would be expected that the lower
the bOlhng point of the acid, the more readily the acid would distill with water. If a dilute
solution of an acid is distilled and 10 per cent of the original volume collected, the mole per cent
of the total amount of acid that appears in the first 10 per cent of distillate is as given in Table 11.
These results show that the volatility increases rather than decreases with increasing boiling
point. This behavior must mean that the attractive forces between water and the carboxylic acids
decrease with increasing molecular weight, which is in accordance with the solubility behavior
of the acids in water. The numerical results given in Table II are known as the Duclaux values
for the acids and are sufficiently characteristic of the pure acids to be used for identification
DUCLAUX VALUES FOR SOME VOLATILE CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
MOLE PER CENT OF ACID IN
FIRST 10 PER CENT OF
Valeric
6.S
Odor and Taste
The carboxylic acids which are sufficiently soluble in water to give an
appreciable hydrogen ion concentration have a sour taste. The lower members
have a sharp acrid odor, and the acids from butyric through caprylic have a
disagreeable odor. The odor of rancid butter and strong cheese is due to volatile
acids, and caproic acid gets its name from the fact that it is present in the skin
secretions of goats. The higher acids are practically odorless because of their
low volatility.
General Reactions of Free Acids
1. Salt Formation. The acidity of alcohols is of the same order of magnitude
as that of water, whereas carboxylic acids are stronger than carbonic acid but
• weaker than mineral acids. The strength of acids, that is the degree of ionization
in water, usually is expressed in terms of the ionization constant, which is
related to the equilibrium constant for the reversible reaction
[H30+1
+ [B-1
The equilibrium constant for this reaction is
[H 3 0+][B-]
[HB][H 20]
where the symbols in brackets now indicate the concentration in moles per liter.
Since the concentration of the water is so large that it may be considered to be
constant, the above expression may be written
[H.O+][B-]
[HB]
Ka is called the ionization constant for the acid and is proportional to the
extent of ionization. The ionization constants for most simple carboxylic acids
vary between 10-4 and 10-s, whereas the first ionization constant of carbonic
acid is 4.3 X 10-7 . The acid ionization constant of water is 1.8 X 10-16 . Hence
carboxylic acids react with bicarbonates, carbonates, or hydroxides to form
salts that are not hydrolyzed appreciably by water.
+ NaHC03
2 RCOOH + Na COa
RCOOH + NaOH
+ CO2 + H 20
2 RCOO-+Na + CO + H 0
RCOO-+Na + H 0
RCOO-+Na
However, carboxylic acids are displaced from their salts by mineral acids
(Ka
> 10-1).
The neutralization of an acid by a standard solution of a base is the customary
procedure for estimating acids. When a weak acid is neutralized by a strong
base, the equivalence point will be on the alkaline side because of hydrolysis
of the salt. Therefore an indicator changing color at the proper acidity is
necessary. For carboxylic acids, phenolphthalein usually is satisfactory. The
equivalent weight of an acid as determined by neutralization with a standard
base is known as the neutralization equivalent of the acid.
Since salts are completely ionized, and ions are more heavily hydrated than
neutral molecules, the alkali metal salts of carboxylic acids are much more
soluble than the acids themselves. For example, whereas water solubility of the
free normal acids approaches that of the saturated hydrocarbons above C5 , the
sodium salts are very soluble up to C10 and form colloidal solutions from CIO
to CI8 . This fact is used to separate acids from water-insoluble compounds such
as alcohols or hydrocarbons. Extraction of the mixture with dilute a1kali causes
the acid to go into the aqueous layer as the salt. The aqueous layer then can
be separated and the free acid liberated from its salt by the addition of a mineral
acid. It is necessary to add at least the calculated amount of mineral acid, or
if the amount of salt present is unknown, to add mineral acid until a universal
indicator, such as Hydrion paper, shows that a pH of 1 or 2 has been reached.
Merely making the solution acid to litmus will not completely free the carboxylic
acid from its salt because a mixture of the salt and organic acid will be acid
to litmus.
Another result of the ionic nature of salts is that they are nonvolatile. The
nonvolatility of salts permits volatile acids to be recovered from aqueous
solutions or separated from other volatile substances by converting into salts
and evaporating to dryness.
2. Replacement of Hydroxyl by Halogen. Since the hydroxyl group of alcohols
can be replaced by halogen (p. 100), the hydroxyl group of carboxylic acids
likewise might be expected to be replaceable. Replacement cannot be brought
about with reagents such as the hydrogen halides, however, because the position
of equilibrium lies far on the side of the carboxylic and halogen acid. Inorganic
acid halides on the other hand react readily, the products being an organic
acid halide (acyl halide) and an inorganic acid.
+ PXa
~ f
3 R-C-X
An acyl
+ P(OH)3
The reactions of other inorganic acid halides are discussed under the preparation
of acyl halides (p. 160).
3. Esterification. Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to give esters and
water. The reaction is catalyzed by hydrogen ion (p. 166).
+ HOR'
[H+j
R-C-OR'
An ester
Methyl esters may be prepared easily by the reaction of acids -witlLdiazo
methane (p. 266).
4. Decomposition to Ketones. Ketones are formed when carboxylic acids are
heated in the presence of thoria or manganous oxide to the point where
decomposition takes place, or when salts of polyvalent metals such as calcium,
lead, or thorium are pyrolyzed.
Th0 2 or MnO
R-C-R
R-C-O-
+ CO. + H 2 0
Ca++
Heat to
+ Cacoa
In general the vapor-phase decomposition over thoria is the preferred method.
When the vapor of the free acid is passed over a weakly basic oxide, the salt need not be
flmned as an intermediate. The oxygen atoms of the thoria may act simply as a basic surface
which can assist the transfer of a proton from one acid molecule to the other.
R-~-OH + R-~-OH ~ [R-~-O-] + [R~~H
OH]
Decomposition of the negative ion can give a carbanion which may react with the second positive
ion to give the ketone.
[R-~-O-] ~
[R : 1 +
+OH
[ R-C-OH
-->-
J + CO 2
[ Ri OR]
R,CO + H,O
Another possibility is that the hydrated ketone arises directly from the reaction of the oxonium.
ion with the carboxylate ion.
[Ri:J + [RCOO-]
[RtR] + CO,
5. Reaction with Hydrogen Peroxide. When carboxylic acids are mixed with
90 per cent hydrogen peroxide in the presence of sulfuric acid, peroxy acids
(per acids) are formed (p. 875). The process undoubtedly is analogous to
esterification.
+ HO-OH
RC-O-OH
+H 0
Peroxy acids readily add oxygen to unsaturated compounds to give the threemembered oxirane ring. These compounds commonly are called epoxides
(p. 744), and the process is known as epoxidation.
+ CHaC-O-OH
RCH-CHR + CHaCOOH
"'0/
In the presence of strong acids, the ring opens with the formation of esters
of the dihydroxy compound.
Acidity of Carboxylic Acids and Resonance in the Carboxylate Ion
The question arises as to why the replacement of one hydrogen atom of the water molecule by
the acyl group markedly increases the acidity. It is assumed that during ionization a proton
leaves the acid; that is, the pair of electrons binding the hydrogen and oxygen atoms remains
with the oxygen atom. Hence any factors which tend to withdraw the electrons from the
hydrogen should facilitate its removal as a proton. An acyl group is an electron-attracting group
because the oxygen atom with its greater nuclear charge pulls the electrons away from the
carbon atom and makes it deficient in electrons (p. 6). Hence the acyl group facilitates the loss
of a proton from a hydroxyl group. This effect of the acyl group is called the electrostatic or
inductive effect.
Another factor which makes carboxylic acids lose a proton more readily than water is the
interaction of 1T electrons with the nuclei of the carbon atom and both oxygen atoms, a
phenomenon called resonance. In the carboxylate ion the primary bonds between the carbon
atom and the three groups to which it is attached are formed by the presence of two electrons
in each of three a-type orbitals (p. 10). Because of the sp' hybridization of the atomic orbitals
of the carbon atom, the molecular orbitals make angles of approximately 120 degrees with
each other and lie in a plane (p. 12). These bonds, which are indicated in Fig. 43 by the usual
dash, utilize three of the four valence electrons of the carbon atom. Each oxygen atom contributes one of its six valence electrons to these bonds. Two more of the valence electrons of each
oxygen atom are in a 25 orbital and two are in a p orbital, leaving one unassigned electron for
each oxygen atom. Since one electron is acquired in the ionization of the proton, a total of four
electrons have not been assigned. Three p orbitals remain, one at each of the oxygen atoms and
one at the carbon atom. Their axes can become parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
plane of the a orbitals. If the p orbital of carbon overlaps that of one of the oxygen atoms to
form a molecular 1T orbital, the latter could hold two electrons. The remaining pair could occupy
the empty p orbital of the second oxygen atom. This type of overlapping is indicated by Fig. 43a
or by the conventional valence bond structure (b). Alternatively the p orbital of carbon could
overlap with that of the other oxygen atom as indicated by (c) or (d). Either structure (a) or
structure (c) would be more stable than that with an unpaired electron occupying each of two
p orbitals, because in either case the electrons can encompass two positive nuclei (p. 9). However,
since the p orbital of carbon can overlap the p orbital of either oxygen atom equally well, a
molecular orbital can be formed encompassing all three nuclei as indicated in (e) in which the
electrons would have a still lower energy than in either (a) or (c) because now the electrons
encompass three nuclei. Two such tricentric molecular orbitals are possible, one having a single
nodal plane (/) and the other having two nodal planes perpendicular to each other (g). Hence
two pairs of electrons can be accommodated. Although the orbital (g) with two nodal planes
has a higher energy than that with a single nodal plane (n, the total energy of tW() electrons in
(g) and two in
is less than the total energy of two electrons in a dicentric orbital and two
electrons in a p orbital as in (a) or (c). This ability to utilize molecular orbitals involving more
than two positive nuclei is the phenomenon which is called resonance. The difference in energy
R-~_ R-C,4 .. 0:
R-a
6;..
R-C~Q:.
Id)
R~.
Ie)
Fig. 43. Resonance in the carboxylate ion.
between the tricentric and the dicentric states is called the resonance energy of the molecule ..
This type of interaction may be indicated by placing a double-headed arrow between the
conventional valence structures and enclosing the whole in braces.
,;/
R-C
", 0:
~ R_c(~·}
It should be clear from the above discussion that these separate valence structures do not exist
ip the ground state of the molecule. It usually is said that the actual molecule is a resonance
hybrid of the two structures. The hybrid concept is a convenient alternate symbolism for
resonance.
The source ofresonance energy is the same as that of any other type of bonding energy. Thus
the energy of a single bond or of a double bond arises from the ability of an electron to
encompass two positive nuclei in a molecule instead of one in an atom (p. 9). Resonance energy
is merely the additional stabilization resulting from the ability of an electron to encompass three
or more nuclei instead of two. Electrons encompassing more than two nuclei frequently are
called mobile electrons, and are said to be delocalized in contrast to the localized electrons in
the a bonds. Hence resonance energy is referred to also as delocalization energy. Another term
for resonance is mesomerism (Gr. mesos, middle) because the state of the molecule is intermediate between that of the possible classical valence-bond structures.
Two physical properties by which the extent of resonance can be observed are heats of
reaction and interatomic distances. Thus the heat of combustion of a resonance hybrid should
be less, by an amount equal to the resonance energy, than the heat of combustion of an isomeric
compound containing the same functional groups in isolated positions where no resonance is
possible. This effect is observed, although resonance energies as determined by differences in
heats of combustion are not very accurate. The numerical values of the latter are large compared with the magnitude of the resonance energies, and small percentage errors in the heats
of combustion may cause considerable error in the calculated value of the resonance energy.
Interatomic distances in molecules can be determined with high precision from X-ray
diffraction data on crystals, from electron diffraction data on gases, or from spectroscopic data.
The double bond shortens the distance between two atoms (p. 51). Thus the distance between
a carbon and oxygen atom linked by a single bond is 1.43 A, whereas that between doubly
linked carbon and oxygen is 1.24 A. In the resonance hybrid, however, there is neither a single
nor a double bond but a bond uniformly encompassing all three atoms. Therefore the distances
between the carbon and either oxygen should be identical. Moreover this distance might be
expected to be less than the average of the distance for a double and a single bond, since
the resonance energy would cause the atoms to be bound more strongly. The measured distance
in the formate ion is 1.27 A.
To account for the fact that carboxylic acids ionize more readily than water or alcohols, it
is necessary only to consider that for a proton to combine with a carboxylate ion, energy
equivalent to the resonance energy of the ion must be supplied. Since a hydroxide or alkoxide
ion is not stabilized by resonance, more energy is evolved on combination with a proton.
Conversely a proton can leave the carboxyl group of an acid more readily than the hydroxyl
group of water or an alcohol. Both the electrostatic (inductive) effect and the resonance effect
operate to increase the ease of ionization of the proton from a carboxyl group. It is not known
which effect is the more important.
The resonance energy of the undissociated carboxyl group is much less than that of the
carboxylate ion, although the opportunity for overlapping of p orbitals might appear to be
identical (Fig. 44). Actually, however, in the undissociated carboxyl group (a) the p orbital of
Fig. 44. P Orbitals available for 1T bond
formation (a) in the undissociated carboxyl group and (b) in the carboxylate ion.
the hydroxyl oxygen overlaps that of the carbon atom much less than does the p orbital of the
other oxygen atom, because bond formation with the additional positive nucleus causes a
deficiency of electrons about the hydroxyl oxygen. In other words because the hydroxyl oxygen
has one less unshared pair of electrons, it is less able than the other oxygen atom to contribute
electrons to a 1T orbital. Therefore there is a greater tendency to form a dicentric orbital, that
is, an ordinary double bond, than to form a tricentric orbital. If the molecule is considered as
a resonance hybrid of the ordinary electronic valence structures, the second structure involving
", ..
O-H
O'
.. -
'\.+
a separation of charge within the molecule is much less stable than the first. 2 Hence there is less
2 The charges in these structures sometimes are called formal charges. They are arrived at by
assuming that each atom possesses all of the unshared electrons placed about it and half of
those in each shared pair. The difference between this number and the number of valence
electrons in the normal state of the atom is the formal charge. Thus the hydroxyl oxygen
possesses two electrons in the unshared pair and half of the three shared pairs or a total of five
electrons. Since the oxygen atom has six valence electrons, the hydroxyl oxygen has a deficiency
of one electron and bears a formal charge of + 1. The carboxyl carbon has half of four shared·
pairs of electrons, which is the same as the number of valence electrons of the carbon atom, and
the formal charge is O. The second oxygen atom has three unshared pairs and half of a shared
pair or a total of seven electrons. Therefore it possesses an excess of one electron and carries a
formal charge of -1.
A,'All \.....; .... 1 ......... '- . .,"'~.
Ace:
nate:
) (\ ~-b
~~.
\'81
tendency for a hybrid to be formed, and the resonance energy for such a system is small. The
'0'
. I'
. '1
structure R-C-OH IS St1 I less stable than that havmg both charges on the oxygen atoms,
because the p orbital of carbon is not being used at all. Consequently hybridization of this
structure with R-C--OH is still less. These views are confirmed by electron-diffraction data
which show two carbon-oxygen distances in monomeric formic acid or acetic acid, one
of 1.43 A and the other of 1.24 A, identical within experimental error with the single and
double bond interatomic distances.
" of Salts of Carboxylic Acids
General Reactions
1. Electrolysis (Kolbe Hydrocarbon Synthesis). If an aqueous solution of a
water-soluble salt of a carboxylic acid is electrolyzed, alkane and carbon dioxide
are formed at the positive electrode (anode) and hydroxide ion and hydrogen
at the negative electrode (cathode).
+ 2 H~O
2 RCOO-+Na
+ CO z + NaOH + H.
The carboxylate ions migrate to the anode and are discharged to give carbon dioxide and
hydrocarbon.
2 [RCOO-]
+ 2 [RCOO·J
R :R
+ 2 CO 2
Hydroxide ion and hydrogen are formed at the cathode.
+ 2e
2 [-OH]
2[H']
+ 2 [H .]
2. Reaction with Alkyl Halides. Reaction of a metallic salt with an alkyl
halide produces an ester and metallic halide.
RCOO-+M
RCOOR'
+ MX
This reaction follows the same course as other displacement reactions of alkyl
halides (p. 116).
Although sodium salts frequently give satisfactory yields, the use of the salt
of a metal such as silver or mercury which forms a nonionized halide usually
will improve the yield.
3. Decomposition of Ammonium Salts. When ammonium carboxylates are
heated, two reactions take place: dissociation into the acid and ammonia,
RCOO-+NHt
+ NH3
and decomposition with the formation of an amide and water.
R--C-O-+NH,
R-C-NH.
An amide
If the ammonium salt is heated with an excess of the free acid or in the presence
of ammonia, the dissociation is repressed. Removal of the water by distillation
gives good yields of the amide.
4. Reaction of Silver Salts with Bromine (Hunsdiecker Reaction). When silver
salts react under anhydrous conditions with a solution of bromine in carbon
tetrachloride, decarboxylation with the formation of an alkyl bromide takes
RCOOAg
+ Br2
RBr + CO 2 + AgBr
Iodine gives an alkyl iodide. Since one carbon atom is lost, this reaction is
useful for decreasing the length of a carbon chain.
These reactions are accelerated by light and appear to take place by a free-radical mechanism.
2 [Br·1
+ [Br·1
AgBr + [RCOO·J
[R .J
[R·J
+ CO,
RBr + [Br .J
Industrially Important Acids
Compounds of commercial importance frequently are made by special
reactions which are not applicable to other members of the homologous series.
The reason for this situation is that industry tries to use low-cost raw materials
and to find new ways of reducing the cost of indispensable materials. Hence a
compound may be of commercial importance because a special method has
been discovered by which it can be made cheaply. On the other hand the
intrinsic value of a compound may be such that a great deal of effort and money
have been spent to discover new ways of making it more cheaply than by the
general procedures.
Formic Acid. Sodium formate IS made by a special process from carbon
monoxide and caustic soda.
CO + NaOH
6-10atm.
HCOO-+Na
This reaction was one of the earliest used commercially for the synthesis of an
organic compound from carbon and salt as the raw materials. Formic acid can
be liber2ted from the sodium salt by adding a mineral acid. With the increased
uses for pentaerythritol, more than enough formic acid is available as a coproduct than is needed to meet the demand (p. 752).
Because the carboxyl group is united to a hydrogen atom, rather than to a
carbon atom as in all subsequent members of the series, formic acid undergoes
a number of special reactions. When heated with dehydrating agents it decomposes into carbon monoxide and water.
Reaction with phosphorus trichloride gives carbon monoxide and hydrogen
chloride because formyl chloride is unstable at ordinary temperatures.
3 H-C-OH + PCl 3
3CO+3HCl
The latter reaction is reversible and formyl chloride may be obtained from
carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride at the temperature of liquid air. When
sodium formate is heated, hydrogen is evolved and sodium oxalate remains.
COO-+Na
H.+ I
Like other compounds containing the H-C=O group (p. 212), formic acid is
a mild reducing agent.
[HOCOOH]
CO 2
Because formic acid is approximately ten times as strong an acid as its
homologs, it is used when an acid stronger than acetic acid, but not so strong
as a mineral acid, is desired. It is used also for the manufacture of its esters
and salts. Sodium formate is used to make formic acid and oxalic acid, and as
a reducing agent.
Acetic Acid. This organic acid is by far the most important from the standpoint
of quantity used. Production was 185 million pounds in 1940 and 524 million
pounds in 1955, exclusive of the amount produced in the form of vinegar.
The unit value was 8 cents per pound. It appears in the market largely as glacial
acetic acid of about 99.5 per cent purity, so-called because on cold days it
freezes to an ice-like solid. The melting point of pure acetic acid is 16. r.
Several methods for the preparation of acetic acid are in use.
1. ENZYME-CATALYZED OXIDATION OF ETHYL ALCOHOL. Acetic acid is the chief
component of vinegar. The alcohol in fermented fruit juices or fermented malt
(beer) in the presence of various species of Acetobacter and air is oxidized to
acetic acid.
CH.CH.OH
+O
(air)
In the barrel process the fruit juice is contained in barrels exposed to air, and
the bacteria form a slimy film on the surface known as mother of l'inegar.
Since the alcohol must come in contact with the oxygen and bacteria by
diffusion processes, oxidation is slow, and an acetic acid content of 4-5 per
cent is reached only after several months. In the quick process a vat is filled
with shavings or other porous material which is inoculated with the microorganism. A 12-15 per cent alcohol solution containing nutrient salts for the
growth of the bacteria is allowed to trickle over the shavings while a controlled
amount of warm air is forced up through the shavings. In this way a vinegar
with an acetic acid content of 8-10 per cent may be obtained, which is diluted
to 4-5 per cent for use. Vinegar produced by fermentation is used almost
exclusively as a preservative and condiment, its value for this purpose being
enhanced by flavors present in the cider, wine, or malt.
2. FROM PYROLIGNEOUS LIQUOR. Pyroligneous liquor from the destructive
distillation of wood (p. 89) contains 4-10 per cent of acetic acid which may
be recovered by neutralizing with lime and distilling to dryness. The gray
acetate of lime so obtained may be converted to glacial acetic acid by concentrated sulfuric acid. In recent years acetic acid has been recovered from
dilute aqueous solutions by extraction from the vapor state with tar oil (Suida
process), and by azeotropic distillation (p. 93) using ethylene chloride, propyl
acetate, or butyl acetate to form a constant-boiling mixture with the water
(Clarke-Othmer process). It may be recovered as ethyl acetate by esterifying
with ethyl alcohol.
3. FROM ACETALDEHYDE. In the United States, prior to 1952, most of the
synthetic acetic acid was made by the oxidation of acetaldehyde, which may
be produced either by the hydration of acetylene (p. 131), by the catalytic
dehydrogenation or air oxidation of ethyl alcohol (p. 105), or by the partial
oxidation with air of propane and butane (p. 220). Acetaldehyde absorbs
oxygen from the air rapidly to form peroxyacetic acid, a peroxide (p. 875),
which in the presence of manganous or cobalt acetate reacts with the acetaldehyde
to give acetic acid.
CHaC-O-OH
Peroxyacetic acid
CH3C-0-OH + CHaCHO
Mn(OCOCH 3 )2 or
Co(OCOCH a)2
2CHaCOOH
Using 99-99.8 per cent acetaldehyde, 96 per cent acetic acid is obtained, which
may be rectified readily to 99.5 per cent.
4. FROM BUTANE. Since 1952 increasing amounts of acetic acid have been
made by the air oxidation of butane in the liquid phase. A mixture of air and
a large excess of butane is passed into acetic acid containing dissolved manganese
and cobalt acetates maintained at 165 0 under 300 p.s.i. The rate of flow of
gases is such that the nitrogen and unreacted butane carry off the products as
fast as they are formed. The oxygenated products, chiefly acetic acid and methyl
ethyl ketone (p. 225), are washed out with water and separated by fractional
distillation. Methyl ethyl ketone in excess of demand is recycled.
CH aCH 2CH 2CH 3 + O 2
CH aCH 2COCH 3 + H 20
2 CHaCH 2COCH a + 3 O 2
4 CHaCOOH
Acetic acid is used where a cheap organic acid is required; for the preparation
of metallic salts, acetic anhydride (p. 164), and esters (p. 173); in the manufacture
of cellulose acetate (p. 403) and white lead; as a precipitating agent for casein
from milk, and for rubber or synthetic rubber from their aqueous emulsions
(p. 709); and for numerous other purposes. Sodium acetate is used to reduce
the acidity of mineral acids. Lead acetate, known as sugar of lead, and basic
lead acetate, Pb(OH)(OCOCH3 ), are used to prepare other lead salts. Verdigris
.is the basic copper acetate, CU(OH)2'2 Cu(OCOCH3 )2' and Paris green is a
mixed cupric acetate-arsenite. Aluminum acetate is used to impregnate cotton
cloth or fibers with aluminum hydroxide prior to dyeing, a process known as
mordanting (p. 674).
Other Acids. Propionic acid and butyric acid may be made by the oxidation
of the corresponding alcohols or aldehydes, or by special fermentation processes
from starch. They are used in the manufacture of cellulose acetate-propionates
and acetate-butyrates (p. 404). Calcium propionate is used in bread to prevent
molding and ropiness.
~_l
The higher normal acids having an even number of carbon atoms are obtained
by the hydrolysis of fats (p. 183). A few branched-chain fatty acids have been
isolated from microorganisms. Hydrolysis of the antibiotic from Bacillus
polymyxa gives 6-methyloctanoic acid. Tuberculostearic acid, from the fatty
capsule of the tuberculosis bacillus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is 10-methylstearic acid. In Germany during World War II, paraffin from the FischerTropsch synthesis (p. 83) was oxidized by air at 115°-125° in the presence of
manganese salts to give a complex mixture of higher acids which served as a
substitute for acids derived from natural fats.
ACYL HALIDES
Since acyl halides result from the replacement of the hydroxyl group by a
halogen atom, their structure is represented by the general formula R-C-X.
An inorganic acid halide such as phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, thionyl chloride, or sulfuryl chloride must be used to effect this
replacement. These compounds are the acid chlorides of phosphorous, phosphoric, sulfurous, and sulfuric acids, respectively. Their reactions with organic
acids take place according to the following equations.
RCOOH + PCI;
RCOOH + SOCI.
2 RCOOH + SO.C1.
RCOCI + POCI. + HCI
RCOCI + SO. + HCI
2 RCOCI + H.SO.
3 RCOCI
-)00
]f the sodium salt of the organic acid is used, phosphorus oxychloride also will
react.
2 RCOONa
+ POCl.
+ NaCl + NaP0 3
Hence when the sodium salt reacts with phosphorus pentachloride, three fifths
of the total chlorine is available instead of only one fifth.
+ PCI;
3 RCOCl
+ 2 NaCl + NaPO.
Thionyl chloride, SOCI 2 , has an advantage over other reagents in that the acyl
chloride is obtained in good yield and can be purified readily, the other products
of the reaction being gases. For these reasons thionyl chloride is used for small
scale preparations even though it is somewhat more expensive than the other
The acyl bromides may be made from organic acids and inorganic acid
bromides analogous to the preparation of acyl chlorides. Acyl iodides are made
ordinarily from the l1ey! chloridt: and calcium iodide or dry hydrogen iodide.
+ CaT.
ReOel + HI
--)'
2 RCOI
ReO!
+ CaCI.
Similarly acyl fluorides are made from acyl (chlorides and antimony fluoride or
hydrogen fluoride.
Acyl halides are named by dropping the ending ic acid from the name of the
corresponding acid and adding yl halide; for example CH 3 COCI is acetyl
chloride or ethanoyl chloride, and (CH3)2CHCOBr is i-butyryl bromide or
2_methylpropanoyl bromide. If common names are used for acyl halides having
more than five carbon atoms in the chain, the ending is oyl. Thus lauric acid
gives rise to lauroyl chloride. Where confusion may arise between common
names systematic names should be used.
Since the acyl halides do not contain hydrogen united to oxygen, no proton
bonding can occur; hence they have normal boiling points. For example,
acetic acid with a molecular weight of 60 boils at 118°, but acetyl chloride of
molecular weight 78.5 boils at 51°. This value is between the boiling points of
pentane (mol. wt. 72, b.p. 36°) and hexane (mol. wt. 86, b.p. 69°). Acyl halides
are insoluble in water, the covalently-bound halogen atom having the effect of
about two or three methylene groups in reducing the water solubility due to
the carbonyl group. The acyl halides have a sharp odor and an irritating action
on the mucous membranes.
1. With Water, Alcohols, and Ammonia. The acyl halides may be considered
as mixed anhydrides of a carboxylic acid and hydrogen halide and as such
react like anhydrides in general with water, alcohols, and ammonia, giving
acids, esters, and amides.
I+HOH
ReOCI
+ HNH2
RCOOR' + HCI
RCONH 2
NH.CI
In the last reaction two moles of ammonia are required, smce its rate of reaction
with hydrogen chloride is greater than its rate of reaction with acyl chloride.
The greater ease of hydrolysis, alcoholysis, and ammonolysis of acyl halides when compared
with alkyl halides may be ascribed to the inductive effect of the doubly bound oxygen atom
(p. 153), which causes a lower electron density on the carbonyl carbon atom. The rate of
reaction with electron-donating reagents is faster for acyl halides than for alkyl halides, even
though the same inductive effect decreases the tendency of the chlorine to leave as a chloride
ion.
.. 0II
~/
H-O: -+
H-~: C-R + [: C1-]
OT '"
HQ-C-R
The inductive effect of the oxygen also accounts for the greater ease of substitution of the
hydrogen by halogen, since the positive charge on the carbonyl carbon atom facilitates the
loss of a proton from the (:J. carbon atom (Sec. 3 below).
(:J.
2. With Salts of Carboxylic Acids. Acyl halides react with metallic salts of
organic acids to give carboxylic acid anhydrides.
RCOCI
NaOC-R'
----00-
RC-O-CR'
3. With Halogen. Acyl halides halogenate more readily than hydrocarbons
and free acids. Moreover only an (J. hydrogen atom, that is, one on the first
carbon atom adjoining the carbonyl group, is replaced readily.
RCH,COX
RCHXCOX
In actual practice free acids are used, the halogenation being carried out in the
presence of a small amount of phosphorus trihalide. The reactions then are
RCH 2COX + X.
RCHXCOX + RCH,COOH
3 RCH 2COOH
----00----00-
, + HX
RCHXCOOH + RCH,COX
3 RCH 2 COX
Because of the last reaction a small amount of acid halide is sufficient to permit
the direct halogenation of a large amount of acid. This procedure for making
halogen acids is known as the Hell- Volhard-Zelinsky reaction.
4. Reduction. (a) CATALYTIC REDUCTION TO ALDEHYDES (Rosenmund reduction).
Acyl chlorides can be reduced catalytically to aldehydes using a palladium
catalyst. The catalyst usually is partially poisoned by the addition of sulfur
compounds which renders it inactive for the catalysis of the further reduction
of aldehydes to alcohols.
+ Hz
I'd
When an ether
solution of lithium aluminum hydride is added to an acyl halide, reduction to
'" the alcohol takes place. The product is the lithium aluminum salt of the alcohol,
from which the alcohol is liberated by adding hydrochloric acid.
LITHIUM ALUMINUM HYDRIDE REDUCTION TO ALCOHOLS.
4 RCOCI + 2 LiAIH,
(RCH,O),LiAI -t- 4 HCI
(RCH,O),LiAI + LiAICI,
4 RCH,OH -'- LiAICI,
ACID ANHYDRIDES
Two general methods for the preparation of acid anhydrides may be used,
the first of which, from an acid halide and a salt, clearly defines the structure
J)f carboxylic acid anhydrides.
hSJlJJilarly
RCCI + Na+-OCR' ----00RC-O--CR' + NaCI
'Ydrogell /lcY/OIl • 'ld depends on the fact that an equilibrium exists between
ill/oriel Ol'ldes Jacid anhydrides.
) ..
'-CCHa
\.
0 0 '
RC-O-CR
+ 2 CHaCOOH
S'nce acetic acid boils at a lower temperature than any other component in the
;stem it can be removed by careful distillation and the reaction forced to
s ompl~tion. The first reaction may be used for preparing anhydrides in which
~he R groups are either alike or different. Although the second method is
suitable only for the preparation of anhydrides in which both R groups are
the same, it is preferred for this purpose because of the availability and low
cost of acetic anhydride and the excellent yields.
A member of this class of compounds is named by adding the word anhydride
to the name of the acid or acids from which it is derived. For example (CH3CO)20
is acetic anhydride or ethanoic anhydride, and (CH 3CO)O(COCH2CH 2CH 3) is
acetic butyric anhydride or ethanoic butanoic anhydride. Those anhydrides
having both R groups alike are called simple anhydrides whereas those with
different R groups are known as mixed anhydrides. The former are the more
important.
Anhydrides have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons but lower than
alcohols of comparable molecular weight. Acetic anhydride and its higher
homologs are insoluble in water. Like the acid halides, the volatile anhydrides
are irritating to the mucous membranes.
Acetic anhydride might be expected to be soluble in water because of the relatively large
amount of oxygen present. However the resonance energy arising from the interaction of the
p orbitals of the oxygen and carbon atoms is high (40 kcal.). Consequently there is little
tendency for the oxygen atoms to form proton bonds with water molecules.
The reactions of carboxylic acid anhydrides with water, alcohols, and
ammonia are identical with those of acyl halides except that an organic acid
replaces halogen acid as a product of the reactions.
R-C-O·-C-R
+ RCOOH
RCOOR' + RCOOH
RCONH 2 + RCOOH
RCOONH4
The reaction of anhydrides with sodium peroxide in aqueous solution gives
the acyl peroxides (p. 877).
2 (RCO)P
+ Nap2
RC-O-O-CR + 2 NaOCOR
Acetyl peroxide is useful as a source of free acetate and methyl radicals.
CHaCO-O-O-COCHa
2 [CHaCOO
.J
2 [CH a .J
+ CO2
It should be used with care and only in small amounts, because it explodes when heated.
eh.9
Acetic Anhydride
Acetic anhydride is the only important member of the series. When the
chief source of acetic acid was pyroligneous acid, from which it was recovered
as calcium or sodium acetate, the anhydride was prepared by the reaction of
sodium acetate with one half of the amount of sulfuryl chloride, or of sulfur
chloride and chlorine, necessary to form acetyl chloride. The acetyl chloride
thus formed reacted with the remainder of the salt to give the anhydride. With
the advent of synthetic acetic acid and other methods of recovery from aqueous
solutions, new methods of preparation of the anhydride were developed. In
one procedure acetic acid is added to acetylene in the presence of mercury
salts to give ethylidene acetate, which then is decomposed by heating with
acid catalysts such as sulfuric acid or zinc chloride to give acetaldehyde and
acetic anhydride.
OCOCH,
HC:::::::CH
+ 2 CH3COOH
JIg salts
H,C-CH
"-..
CH 3 CHO
or ZnCI 2
+ (CH,C0)20
OCOCHa
Ethylidene acetate
In a second process the anhydride is formed by the controlled air oxidation
of acetaldehyde. Some anhydride always is formed in the synthesis of acetic
acid from acetaldehyde, the intermediate peroxyacetic acid (p. 159) apparently
reacting with acetaldehyde to give anhydride and water.
CHa-C-O-OH
+ CHaCHO
(CH3CO).o
By using a cobalt acetate-copper acetate catalyst at 50°, increasing the speed of
oxidation, and using an entrainer such as ethyl acetate, it is possible to convert
two thirds of the acetaldehyde to acetic anhydride while one third is converted
to acetic acid. By distillation at reduced pressure the temperature is kept low
enough to permit removal of the aqueous azeotrope without hydrolysis of the
anhydride.
A third process of importance at present is the additi6n of acetic acid to
ketene (p. 760). Ketene is a gas prepared by the decomposition of acetic acid
or acetone. Acetic acid vapor containing ethyl phosphate is heated to 700°-720°,
or acetic acid vapor is passed over aluminum phosphate at 600°-700°.
CH 2=C=O
Ketene
The mixture of ketene, water, and acetic acid vapor is cooled quickly to condense
tpy,Jvater and unreacted acetic acid. The ketene then is absorbed in acetic acid
bromides h1?bing tower, giving acetic anhydride.
ordinarily frm .. , CH 2=C=O + HOOCCH a ~ CHaC-O-CCHa
e recovered by •
acetate of lime so 0",
centrated sulfuric acid~ure for the manufacture of ketene, acetone is decompose?
dilute aqueous solutions b J
. . "cru~), and by azeotropic o'J,I.. ~ CH.=C=O + CHt
\1\ '3. "
\"
AcetiC anhyd~ide is used chie~y to ~ake .esters that c~nnot be made by
d' ct esterificatIOn of alcohols wIth acetIc aCId. The most Important of these
. Ireellulose acetate. Production of acetic anhydride in the United States rose
}~o~ 250 million pounds in 1940 to 842 million pounds in 1955, when it was
valued at 15 cents per pound.
Most of the procedures for making esters have been described, namely direct
esterification between an acid and an alcohol (p. 160), the reaction of a metallic
salt with an alkyl halide (p. 153), the reaction of an acyl halide with an alcohol
(p. 161), a~d the reaction of an acid anhydride with. an alcohol (p. 163). A few
generalizatIOns should be made about these reactIOns. In the first place all
except direct esterification proceed practically to completion. However, side
reactions may take place, particularly with tertiary alcohols and tertiary alkyl
halides, which make the reactions useless unless special conditions can be found
that will produce satisfactory yields. In general the ease of loss of water from
alcohols or of halogen acid from alkyl halides is tertiary> secondary> primary
(pp. 104, 115). Therefore when a tertiary alcohol reacts with an acid anhydride,
which is a dehydrating agent, or when a tertiary alkyl halide reacts with a
sodium salt, which acts as a base, the rate of olefin formation is much greater
than the rate of ester formation and only olefin results.
The constitution of the carboxylic acid affects the rate of esterification. Thus
the rate of esterification of aliphatic carboxylic acids with methyl alcohol
decreases with increasing substitution by alkyl groups on the IX and fJ carbon
atoms of the acid.
The effect bears a rough relationship to the sum of the number of substituents on the oc and
f1 carbon atoms. For each of the following compounds, the first number in the parentheses is
the sum of the number of C( and fJ substituents, and the second is the relative rate compared to
acetic acid: dimethylacetic acid (2, 0.33); trimethylacetic acid (3, 0.037); di-n-butylacetic acid
(4,0.008); methyl-t-butylacetic acid (5, 0.0006); dimethyl-t-butylacetic acid (6, 0.0001). For
those compounds studied, the right order of magnitude is obtained if one assumes that beyond
t~o substituents, the rate is decreased to one seventh of the preVious value for each additional
substituent on a y or fJ carbon atom. If there are at least three substituents on y carbon atoms,
a further decrease in rate is observed. Groups on the oc and f1 carbon atoms block the approach
of an alcohol molecule, which must attack the carbon atom of the carboxyl group (p. 168). This
blocking effect of substituents is another example of steric hindrance (cf. p. 117).
When acetic acid is esterified with various alcohol~, little decrease in rate is
observed with increasing substitution in the alcohol. Such an effect might
become noticeable, however, if a more highly substituted acid were used.
Tertiary alkyl esters are cleaved very readily by hydrogen halides. Hence the
action of an acyl halide on a tertiary alcohol usually results in the formation
of the alkyl halide and the organic acid. A good method for preparing t-butyl
bromide is by the reaction of t- butyl alcohol and acetyl bromide.
(CHa)aCOH
+ BrCOCHa
(CHa)aC-O-COCHa
If the halogen acid is removed as fast as it is formed, fair yields of tertiary
esters may be obtained. For example when acetyl chloride reacts with t-butyl
alcohol in the presence of magnesium, the yield of t-butyl acetate is 50 per cent.
(CH3)3COH
+ CICOCH3 + ! Mg
(CH3)3C-O-COCH3
+! MgCl 2 + t
Similarly a 65 per cent yield can be obtained using an organic tertiary amine
base such as dimethylaniline (p. 488) in place of magnesium.
(CH3)3COH + CICOCH 3 + C.H.N(CH3l2
-\-
(CHahC-O-COCH3
+ [C.H5 N(CH 3l 2 H]C1-
Just as tertiary alkyl ethers can be made by the addition of alcohols to olefins
(p. 138), so tertiary alkyl esters can be made by the addition of carboxylic
acids to olefins.
CH3COOH
+ CH.=CCH
CH3COOC(CH,),
t-Butyl acetate
Methyl esters can be made readily by the reaction of carboxylic acids with
diazomethane (p. 266).
Direct esterification is a good example of a reversible reaction. The term
raersible reaction ordinarily is used to mean either that appreciable quantities
of the original reactants still are present when equilibrium between the forward
and reverse reactions is reached, or that the rate of attaining equilibrium, that
is, the mobility of the reaction, is so great that the reaction can be reversed
readily by altering concentrations.
The esterification reaction has been studied extensively to determine the
quantitative laws of reversible reactions, because no by-products are formed in
the reaction, the analytical procedures are simple and accurate, the reaction
takes place at a convenient rate for measurements, and the position of equilibrium is such that it can be determined accurately. The reaction may be
The velocities VI of the forward reaction and V2 of the reverse reaction are
proportional to the mole fractions of the reacting substances.
Vl = k,[RCOOH][R'OH]
v. =
k 2 [RCOOR'][H.O]
At the start of the reaction the concentrations of alcohol and acid are at a
maximum and those of the products are zero. Consequently Vi is at its maximum
and V2 is zero. As the reactants are used and the products are formed, Vi
decreases and V2 increases. A point eventually will be reached where Vi = V2 ,
which is the condition for chemical equilibrium. Therefore at equilibrium
k,[RCOOH][R'OH]
k 2 [RCOOR'][H 20]
k, _ [RCOOR'][H 20) _ K
k, - [RCOOH][R'OI-ij - E
KE is known as the equilibrium constant for the reaction.
When one mole of ethyl alcohol and one mole of acetic acid are allowed to react until
equilibrium is reached, two thirds of a mole of ethyl acetate and two thirds of a mole of water
are present in equilibrium with one third mole of ethyl acetate and one third mole of acetic
acid. Exactly the same equilibrium composition is reached starting with one mole of water and
one mole of ethyl acetate. Since there is no change in the total number of moles during this
reaction, one may substitute moles for mole fraction in the equation and calculate the equilibrium constant.
K = 2/3 x 2/3 = 4
1/3 x 1/3
Knowing the equilibrium constant, it is possible to calculate the equilibrium composition
starting with any mole ratio of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid.
The position of equilibrium is not affected by catalysts, since at this stage
catalysts affect the rates of the forward and reverse reactions to exactly the
same extent. Catalysts merely change the mobility of the system, that is, the
time required to attain equilibrium.
Although the mass law holds very well for the esterification reaction, the good agreement
probably is fortuitous because the solution is not ideal, a condition necessary for strict adherence
to the mass law. Nonideality also may account for the fact that the position of equilibrium is
not always independent of the presence of catalysts. Thus when the number of moles of
hydrogen chloride for one mole of ethyl alcohol and one mole of acetic acid is increased from
about 0.005 to 0.33, the apparent equilibrium constant changes from 4.3 to 8.8 because of the
change in the environment of the reaction.
The effect of temperature on the position of equilibrium is governed by the
principle of Le Chatelier. If heat is evolved in a reaction (exothermic reaction),
the position of equilibrium will shift to the left as the temperature is increased,
whereas if heat is absorbed (endothermic reaction), the reaction will go more
nearly to completion as the temperature is raised. The esterification reaction
is only slightly exothermic (DoH = ca. -I kcal.), and hence temperature has
practically no effect on the position of equilibrium.
Temperature, like catalysts, has a marked effect on the mobility of the
system. Roughly speaking, the rate of a chemical reaction increases from two
to three times for each rise of ten degrees in temperature. Pressure affects the
position of equilibrium only if a change in volume results during the course of
the reaction. Marked changes in volume occur only when one or more of the
reactants is a gas under the conditions of the experiment. Where gases are
involved, pressure also will affect the rate of attaining equilibrium, since increase
in pressure results in an increase in the concentration of the reactants.
The equation for the equilibrium constant indicates that the reaction may be
forced in the direction of forming more product by increasing the concentration
of either the alcohol or the acid. If the value of the denominator is increased
and KE remains constant, the value of the numerator also must increase. When
one reactant is very cheap and the other relatively costly, a large excess of the
cheaper compound may be used advantageously to force more complete
utilization of the more expensive one. Another way to force complete utilization
of the reactants is to remove one or both of the products, since a decrease in
the value of the numerator forces a decrease in that of the denominator. The
second procedure is the better, when it can be employed, because the reactants
can be used in stoichiometric proportions and complete conversion can be
obtained. When water is one of the products, it often may be removed readily
by azeotropic distillation (p. 93).
Superficially the reaction of an alcohol and an acid appears to resemble
neutralization of a base by an acid, but nothing could be further from the
truth. Neutralization is a reaction between ions, is almost instantaneous at
room temperature in the absence of a catalyst, and goes to completion. Esterification is a reaction between molecules, is slow even at elevated temperatures,
requiring a catalyst to attain a practical rate, and does not go to completion.
The mechanism of acid-catalyzed esterification is not thoroughly understood, but the
following series of equilibria give a picture of the complexity of the reactions takin~ place in
the esterification of a primary or secondary alcohol by a weak acid, and of t~e functIOn of the
catalysts. In the equilibria the convention has been adopted that the reagent IS placed above a
double arrow and the minor product below the double arrow (p. 138). If reagents are given both
above and below the same pair of arrows, the step is one of direct displacement with or without
Walden inversion (p. 116), or is one of proton transfer. Using this convention, it is possible to
avoid writing each step as a separate equilibrium.
+:O-R'
R-C=O
~a-
[Rr'H]
R'OH
+----
[H
R-LOH
H' ]
-- r- J
+B--
[R-~-OH
OR' 1
BHB
[ OR' ]
R-t=?H
OR.'
It frequently is argued that in writing intermediates of this sort the (+) charge should be
indicated outside of the bracket, since the intermediate is a resonance hybrid and the charge
is not on one oxygen atom any more than on the other but is distributed over the group as a
whole. Although the latter statement is true, in the structure as it is written the charge is
certainly on one oxygen atom and not on the other. If the charge is to be placed outside of the
bracket, the group should be represented by the symbolism for a resonance hybrid (p. 154).
The simple electronic valence structure is less cumbersome, however, and is satisfactory for most
Although a strong acid such as sulfuric acid is the actual material added, an equilibrium at
once is established in which all the bases present-sulfate ions, carboxylic acid molecules,
water, ester, and alcohol molecules-compete for the available proton. Accordingly the catalyst
is indicated as HB, where B is any base and may be a neutral molecule or a negatively charged
ion depending on whether HB is a positively charged group such as the ammonium ion, [NHt].
or a neutral molecule such as ilydrogen chloride, HC!.
The catalysis involve~ the transfer of the proton from one base to another, an. hence the
point of attack will be an electron-dense portion of the molecule. The first effective step is the
transfer of the proton to the carbonyl group of the acid (I) with elimination of another base.
Next the available electrons on an alcohol molecule satisfy the electron-deficient carbon atom
of II to give III. A base removes a proton from III to give an intermediate IV, which accepts a
proton from a proton donor to give V. Loss of water gives VI, which loses a proton to a base to
give the ester VII. The acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an ester is the exact reverse of this series
going from VII to I. From this series of reactions the over-all equation may be obtained by
cancelling reagents appearing both above and below the double arrows. The reactants are the
initial compound and the reagents remaining above the arrows, and the products are the final
compound and the reagents remaining below the arrows. The series of equilibria then reduces
RCOOH + HOR'
RCOOR' + H 2 0
Besides the equilibria indicated, numerous other proton transfer reactions are taking place
simultaneously which do not lead to new products. Moreover since all steps are reversible, not
every molecule which reaches an intermediate stage completes the series and ends up as product.
The final composition is dependent on the relative thermodynamic stability of the reactants and
the products. .
" .
This mechanism accounts for the fact that, In the estenficatlOn of pnmary and secondary
alcohols by weak acids, the oxygen atom in the eliminated Water molecule comes not from the
alcohol but from the acid (acyl-oxygen scission). Experimental evidence for this type of scission
was obtained first from the esterification of carboxylic acids with mercaptans, the sulfur analogs
of alcohols (p. 278). A rigid proof that alcohols behave in the same way results from the esterification of an acid containing ordinary oxygen with an alcohOl containing a high percentage of
the 0" isotope. The labeled oxygen becomes a part of the ester molecule and not of the water
molecule.
RCOOH + HOIBR'
Moreover alcohols such as neopentyl alcohol which normally rearrange if a hydroxide ion
becomes detached from the hydrocarbon radical (p. 105) esterify without rearrangement.
Imlications are that the esterification of tertiary alcohols takes pJace by a different mechanism
in which the oxygen atom eliminated as water comes from the alcohol (alkyl-oxygen scission,
p. 171). In fact four distinct types of acid-catalyzed esterification and hydrolysis have been
proposed.
Esters are named as if they were alkyl salts of the organic acids, because the
early investigators assumed that esterification is lmalogous to neutralization.
Thus CH 3COOC2H 5 is ethyl acetate or ethyl ethanoate. It is necessary to be
careful to recognize the portion of the molecule derived from the acid and that
from the alcohol, particularly in condensed structural formulas. For example
both (CH 3hCHOCOCH 2CH 3 and CH3 CH 2COOCH(CH3)2 are i-propyl
propionate and not ethyl i-butyrate. No difficulty will be encountered if it is
remembered that the oxygen of a carbonyl group usually immediately follows
the carbon atom to which it is attached and that the alkyl group from the
alcohol portion of the ester is joined to an oxygen atom. If it is necessary to
name esters as substitution products, the ester group is called an alkoxycarbonyl
group. For example COOCH3 is the methoxycarb()nyl group.
The esters have normal boiling points, but their solubility in water is less
than would be expected from the amount of ox.ygen present. Ethyl acetate
with four carbon atoms and two oxygen atoms dissolves to about the same
extent as n-butyl alcohol, which has four carbon atoms and one oxygen atom
(cf. acid anhydrides, p. 163). The volatile esters have pleasant odors which
usually are described as fruity.
The reactions of the esters depend for the most part on the scission of the
linkage between the carbonyl group and the alkoxy group (acyl-oxygen scission),
or between the alkyl group and the oxygen atom (alkyl-oxygen sciSSion). The
ease of scission of a carbon-oxygen bond and the type of catalysis which is
possible depend on the groups attached to the carbon atoms joined by the
oxygen atom. Ethers, R-O-R, having two alkyl groups joined by oxygen
are hydrolyzed least readily, and the hydrolysis is subject only to acid catalysis.
Esters, RCO-O-R, in which one acyl and one alkyl group are linked through
oxygen are hydrolyzed more readily, and both acids and bases catalyze the
reaction. Anhydrides, RCO-O-COR, having two acyl groups joined by
oxygen are most easily hydrolyzed, water alone bringing about the reaction.
I. Hydrolysis or Saponification. Esters may be split by water (hydrolysis) in
the presence of either acidic or basic catalysts.
[OH-j
t[OH-j
(RCOO-J
Alkaline hydrolysis frequently is referred to as saponification, because it is the
type of reaction used in the preparation of soaps (p. 188). The acid-catalyzed
reaction is exactly the reverse of acid-catalyzed esterification and either results
in the same equilibrium. The base-catalyzed hydrolysis goes to completion and
requires one equivalent of alkali for each equivalent of ester, because the acid
formed in the base-catalyzed equilibrium reacts irreversibly with the catalyst
to form a salt and water. The over-all reaction becomes
[RCOO-]Na+
+ R'OH
Because this reaction goes to completion, alkaline saponification is used as a
quantitative procedure for the estimation of esters. A weighed sample of the
unknown is refluxed with an excess of a standardized aqueous or alcoholic
solution of alkali. and the excess base at the end of the reaction is titrated with
standard acid using a suitable indicator, usually phenolphthalein (p. 700). The
equivalent weight as determined by saponification is called the saponification
equivalent of the ester.
Since in the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis the same position of equilibrium is
attained as in esterification, the effect of the constitution of the alcohol and of
the acid on the rate of hydrolysis is the same as their effect on the rate of
esterification (p. 165). In alkaline hydrolysis the substitution of hydrogen atoms
of both acetic acid and methyl alcohol by alkyl groups greatly decreases the
rate of reaction. Thus the rate of saponification for ethyl trimethylacetate is
about one hundredth of that for ethyl acetate, and the rate for t-butyl acetate
one hundredth of that for methyl acetate.
2. Alcoholysis. The alkoxy group of an ester of a primary or secondary
alcohol and a weak acid may be exchanged readily for that of another alcohol
using an acidic or basic catalyst.
+ HOR"
[H+j or [R'Oj-
RCOOR"
Both types of catalysis lead to the same equilibrium, since an acid is not one of
the products of reaction. Alkoxide ion, formed by the reaction of an active
Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives. Orrho Esters
metal, for example sodium, with the alcohol involved, is used as the basic
catalyst rather than hydroxide ion, because the latter would cause saponification
of the ester.
Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of an ester is merely the reverse of esterification (p. 168), and
acid-catalyzed alcoholysis is identical except that a second alcohol replaces water. It has been
mentioned several times that acyl-oxygen scission takes place during the esterification of
primary or secondary alcohols with weak acids. For esters of strong acids such as sulfuric or
sulfonic acids, or esters or tertiary alcohols, reaction with alcohols leads to ether formation and
not to transesterification. These reactions probably result from a displacement by the alcohol
on carbon, and if so, would be expected to proceed with alkyl-oxygen scission.
C,H, : 0:
CHa: 0 :
[C2 HO :
~ CH3] [:-? :SOaCHa]
Loss of proton from the oxonium ion would yield the ether.
Basic catalysis differs from acid catalysis in that the catalyst is an electron-rich group, and
the point of attack will be the carbon atom of the carbonyl group, which is deficient in electrons
because of the greater electron-attracting power of the oxygen atom. It has been shown that
the same intermediate is formed in alkaline saponification as in acid-catalyzed hydrolysis
(IV, p. 168).
R'O-C
[-ORI
BOR'
C-OH
The acid reacts irreversibly with hydroxide ion to form the salt.
+ [-OH]
[RCOO-]
These mechanisms agree with the fact that when either the alkaline saponification or the acidcatalyzed hydrolysis of an ester is carried out in water rich in 0'·, the 0'· isotope enters the
acid molecule but not the alcohol molecule formed on hydrolysis.
a ..
+H:O:H
?!
RC-OR'+
-"IS
RCOR'
?:
[:-?'~ H ]
LJ-o,._]
+ H 0'.
RCO'·H
3. Ammonolysis. Ammonia splits esters with the formation of amides.
RC-OR'
+ : NHa
RC-NH,
The mechaniim of ammonolysis probably is identical with base-catalyzed hydrolysis or
alcoholysis, the ammonia molecule taking the place of the hydroxide or alkoxide ion.
4. Scission by Acids. Dry hydrogen bromide, hydrogen iodide, and concentrated sulfuric acid split esters just as they do ethers (p. 140), the products
being the organic acid and the alkyl halide or alkyl hydrogen sulfate.
+ R'Br
The reaction is important principally in the determination of methoxyl and
ethoxyl by the Zeisel procedure (p. 140).
5. Reduction. The ester group, and thus indirectly the carboxyl group, can
be converted into a primary alcohol group by reduction either with sodium
and an alcohol, or catalytically. These reactions involve addition of hydrogen
to the carbonyl group and elimination of the alkoxyl group.
+ 4 Na + 2 R'OH
RCH.ONa
+ 3 NaOR'
Addition of water liberates the alcohol from its salt. Ordinarily in the sodiumalcohol reduction the methyl, ethyl, or n-butyl esters are used along with an
excess of the corresponding alcohol as solvent and source of hydrogen. Improved
yields are obtained if an equivalent amount of a higher boiling secondary
alcohol, such as the secondary hexyl alcohols or methy1cyc1ohexano]s (p. 841),
is used as the source of hydrogen in an inert solvent such as toluene or xylene
(p. 65). Lithium aluminum hydride, LiAIH4' in ether solution may be used as
a reducing agent instead of sodium.
4 RCOOR'
+ 2 LiAIH.
LiAI(OCH.R).
+ LiAI(OR').
One half mole or 19 g. of lithium aluminum hydride is equivalent in reducing
power to four atoms or 92 g. of sodium. The former is, however, a considerably
more expensive reagent, since it is made from lithium hydride.
4 LiH
+ AICla
LiAIH.
+ 3 LiCl
~n
the catalytic reduction of esters, a copper oxide-chromium oxide catalyst is
used with hydrogen in the absence of a solvent at 200 0 and 200 atmospheres.
CuO-Cr.O a
200', 200 at.
Catalytic reduction of esters is preferred to sodium-alcohol reduction for
large-scale laboratory preparations if suitable apparatus is available.
Acids may be reduced catalytically to alcohols at 350°_400° using a copper-zinc-cadmium
oxide-chromium oxide catalyst. The process has had some commercial application but is not
generally used in the laboratory. Likewise it is possible to reduce acids with lithium aluminum
hydride, but three moles of reagent is required for each mole of acid, because the first stage is
the formation of the salt of the acid with liberation of hydrogen.
(RCH.O).LiAI
+ 2 LiAIO. + 2 H.
The reduction of esters to alcohols is important for preparing higher alcohols from natural fat acids. Thus octyl, decyl, dodecyl (lauryl), tetradecyl
(myristyl), hexadecyl (cetyl), and octadecyl (stearyl) alcohols can be made
readily from the corresponding fat acids. The mixed alcohols formed by the
reduction of coconut oil are used in the manufacture of synthetic detergents
Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives. artho Esters
(p. 191). The reaction is important also because it is the last step in a series of
reactions which permits the continuous increase in length of a hydrocarbon
chain one carbon atom at a time.
~RCOOH
RCOOCHa
Repetition of the above series of reactions gives the higher homologs.
6. Reaction with Grignard Reagents. Grignard reagents add to a carbonyl
group (p. 123). When they react with an ester, the initial addition product
loses magnesium alkoxide to give a ketone which adds a second mole of Grignard
reagent. Therefore the final product of the reaction of an ester with a Grignard
reagent is the magnesium salt of a tertiary alcohol, which yields the alcohol
on decomposition with water.
OMgX
RJ-OR'
+ R"MgX
R-C-R"
R'OMgX
+ R-C-R"
R"1I1gX
OR'
~H
R-C-R" ~
~"
7. Acyloin Formation. When an ester in ether solution reacts with sodium,
condensation of two moles of the ester takes place with the formation of the
sodium salt of the enol form (p. 131) of a hydroxy ketone. Addition of water
gives the hydroxy ketone which is known as an acyloin.
2 RCOOC2 H 5 + 4 Na
-+ RC=CR + 2 CZH50Na
NaO ONa
2 NaOH
[Rr=?RJ
RC-CHR
An acyloin
8. Pyrolysis to Olefins. When esters having hydrogen on the (3 carbon atom
of the alkoxy group are heated to 500 a molecule of acid is lost with the
formation of an olefin. Esters of primary alcohols give l-alkenes.
RCOOCH 2CH 2R'
+ CH =CHR'
When esters of secondary or tertiary alcohols are decomposed, a primary
/) hydrogen is removed in preference to secondary and secondary in preference
to tertiary. This order is the opposite of that for the dehydration of alcohols
(p. 104).
By far the most important general use for esters is as solvents, especially for
cellulose nitrate in the formulation of lacquers (p. 402). For this purpose ethyl
acetate and butyl acetate are used to the greatest extent. Production of these
two esters in the United States in 1955 was 77 and 67 million pounds valued
at 10 and 13 cents per pound respectively. Ethyl formate is used as a fumigant
and larvicide for grains and food products. Higher boiling esters are used as
softening agents (plasticizers) for resins and plastics (p. 552), and a number of
the resins and plastics are themselves esters, such as polymethyl methacrylate
(p. 788), polyvinyl acetate (p. 736), cellulose acetate (p. 403), Dacron (p. 555),
and alkyd resins (p. 552).
Some of the volatile esters have specific fruit odors. For example, the odors
of i-amyl acetate, i-amyl valerate, butyl butyrate and i-butyl propionate resemble
the odors of banana, apple, pineapple, and rum respectively. Hence they are
used to a limited extent in synthetic flavors or perfumes. Natural odors and
flavors are the result of complex mixtures of organic compounds. Very careful
blending of synthetic compounds is necessary to imitate the natural product.
Table 12 summarizes the results of a careful analysis of the substances responsible
COMPOSITION OF THE VOLATILE OIL Of THE PINEAPPLE
WINTER fRUIT
SUMMER FRUIT
~----~---,----~----'----~~-
J_Mg. per kg.
---,-------
Mg. per kg.
-----------Total volatile oil
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Methyl II-valerate
Methyl i-valerate
Methyl i-caproate
Mcthyl caprylate
Total volatile oil
Ethyl acrylate
Ethyl i-valerate
Ethyl n-caproatc
60.5 _
for the odor and flavor of the pineapple. Both the amount of volatile oil and
its components vary with the time of the year at which the fruit is harvested.
The bouquet of fine wines has been ascribed to esters produced by the slow
esterification of organic acids during the ageing process.
Ortho acids are acids in the highest state of hydration; that is, they contain
the maximum number of hydroxyl groups. For example, orthoformic acid
should have the formula HC(OHh. However, compounds having more than one
hydroxyl group on the same carbon atom usually are unstable and lose water.
H-C-OH
If orthoformic acid exists at all, it exists only in aqueous solutions. When more
than one alkoxy group occurs on a single carbon atom, however, the compounds
are perfectly stable. The oxygen-alkyl derivatives of the ortho acids are known
as ortho esters.
Two methods commonly are used for the synthesis of ortho esters. The fi~st
was discovered by Williamson (p. 137) and is the reaction of a trihalide with
sodium alkoxide analogous to his synthesis of ethers. For example, e~hyl
orthoformate usually is prepared by the reaction of chloroform with sodiUm
ethoxide.
HCCla + 3 NaOC,Hs
HC(OC,H s)3
+ 3 NaCI
Although formally this reaction is analogous to the reaction of alkyl halides with s?dium
ethoxide, chloroform is about 1000 times more reactive than either carbon tetrachloride or
methylene chloride: It has been proposed that reactions involving chloroform and a strongly
alkaline reagent take place through the intermediate formation of the dichloromethylene
radical (dichlorocarbene).
+ [C,HsO-]
[-CCl a) + C 2 HsOH
[-CCI a]
[: CCl,]
+ 3 [C2H sO-]
[(C HsO)3 C : ] + C HsOH
+ [Cl-]
[(C HsO)3 C ~] + 2 [Cl-)
(C2HsO)3CH
CHCla
[ : CCl 2]
+ [C,H,O-]
The second method was developed by Pinner. When an alkyl cyanide reacts
with an alcohol and hydrogen chloride under anhydrous conditions, ~he
hydrochloride of the product of addition of one mole of alcohol to the cyamde
is obtained. The product is known as an imidoester hydrochloride (p. 2~8).
Methyl cyanide, for example, reacts with ethyl alcohol and hydrogen chlonde
to give ethyl imidoacetate hydrochloride.
CHaC:==:N
+ HOC,H, + HCl
On warming the imidoester hydrochlorides with an excess of al~ohol, ortllo
esters are produced.
[CHJH~C2HJ
[Cl-]
+- 2 HOC H s
CHaC(OC,Hs)a
orthoacetate
+ NH1Cl
These reactions of alcoholysis are analogous to the hydrolysis of nitriles to
amides and acids (pp. 253, 252).
The lack of a carbonyl group makes the ortho esters resemble ethers rather
than carboxylic esters in some of their chemical properties. Thus they are ~ery
stable to aqueous alkali but are hydrolyzed readily and irreversibly by dtlute
acid solutions.
RC(OC,Hs)3
[WI
RCOOC 2H s
+- 2 C 2H sOH
The carboxylic ester goes to reversible equilibrium with the alcohol and the
free acid. Grignard reagents replace one of the alkoxy groups by an alkyl groUp.
OC 2 H S
H-C-OC2H s + RMgX
OC,Hs
H-C-OC2HS
+ C 2H sOMgX
Use is made of this reaction for the synthesis of aldehydes (p. 196).
1. What are the most commonly used names for the normal carboxylic acids having from one
to eighteen carbon atoms?
2. How does the boiling point of acetic acid compare with that of alcohols and hydrocarbons
of approximately the same molecular weight? Explain.
3. Discuss the solubility of carboxylic acids in water and organic solvents; in dilute potassium
hydroxide.
4. Discuss commercial methods for the preparation of formic, acetic, propionic, and butyric
acids. What is the chief source of the higher normal carboxylic acids?
5. What is the chief difference in the preparation of esters by direct esterification and by the
use of acyl halides or anhydrides?
6. Compare the reaction of neutralization with that of esterification, and explain the difference.
7. What is meant by the terms reversible reaction and chemical equilibrium? What factors
markedly influence the rate of a chemical reaction? How may the position of equilibrium
be shifted?
8. Discuss the relative ease of hydrolysis of ethers, esters, and anhydrides.
9. Write condensed structural formulas for members of the following groups of isomeric
carboxylic acids and name each as a derivative of acetic acid and by the Geneva system:
(a) those having six carbon atoms ; (b) dialkylacetic acids having seven carbon atoms or less;
(c) trialkylacetic acids having eight carbon atoms or less; (d) dialkylacetic acids having two
four-carbon alkyl groups.
to. Using accepted structural theory, write formulas for all the possible compounds having the
molecular formula C2H.0 2 •
II. Give balanced equations for the oxidation of the following compounds to carboxylic
acids:
A. (a) n-Propyl alcohol with dichromate and sulfuric acid; (b) i-butyl alcohol with alkaline
permanganate; (c) 2-butene with acid permanganate; (d) I-octanol with nitric acid.
B. (a) I-Butanol with acid permanganate; (b) i-amyl alcohol with chromium trioxide in
acetic acid; (c) 3-hexene with alkaline permanganate; (d) l-hexanol with nitric acid.
c. (a) 4-0ctene with dichromate and sulfuric acid; (b) 2-methyl-l-butanol with nitric acid;
(c) n-amyl alcohol with alkaline permanganate; (d) i-hexyl alcohol with acid permanganate.
12. Write reactions for the preparation of the following compounds from any other organic
A. (a) Heptanoyl bromide; (b) n-butyric anhydride; (c) i-caproic acid; (d) n-valeramide;
(e) s-butyl propionate; (f) calcium acetate.
B. (a) i-Butyramide; (b) undecanoic acid; (c) acetic butyric anhydride; (d) barium heptanoate; (e) i-amyl propionate; (f) propionyl chloride.
C. (a) Pentanoamide; (b) n-valeric acid; (c) i-propyl i-butyrate; (d) i-butyryl chloride; (e)
zinc stearate;
propionic anhydride.
D. (a) 2-Methylbutyl acetate; (b) butanoic anhydride; (c) aluminum formate; (d) lauric
acid; (e) propionamide; Cf) n-valeryl bromide.
13. Give equations for the reaction of water, of ethyl alcohol, and of ammonia with each of
the following compounds, assuming, where necessary, that the reaction with water or
alcohol is acid-catalyzed:
A. (a) n-Butyryl chloride; (b) propionic anhydride; (c) ethyl palmitate.
B. (a) n-Butyl stearate; (b) heptanoyl bromide; (c) butanoic anhydride.
C. (a) i-Propyl valerate; (b) lauric anhydride; (c) 2-methylbutanoyl bromide.
D. (a) 2-Methylpentanoic anhydride; (b) i-valeryl chloride; (c) s-butyl propionate.
14. Devise a simple chemical procedure for distinguishing between the members of the following
groups of compounds:
A. (a) n-Butyl ether, ethyl butyrate, and acetic anhydride; (b) palmityl chloride, palmitoyl
chloride, and palmitic anhydride; (c) water, n-propyl alcohol, and acetic acid; (d)
aluminum hydroxide, aluminum acetate, and aluminum ethoxide.
B. (a) Formic acid, water, and methyl alcohol; (b) methyl palmitate, butyric anhydride,
and i-amyl ether; (c) lauroyl bromide, lauryl bromide, and lauric anhydride; (d) sodium
ethoxide, sodium hydroxide, and sodium acetate.
C. (a) Magnesium formate, magnesium methoxide, and magnesium hydroxide; (b) i-propyl
alcohol, water, and propionic acid; (c) caproic anhydride, n-butyl caproate, and n-hexyl
ether; (d) propionic anhydride, n-hexyl chloride, and hexanoyl chloride.
15. Give a series of reactions for each of the following conversions: (a) n-hexyl bromide to
heptanoic acid; (h) i-amyl alcohol to ethyl i-valerate; (c) methyl caprate to n-deeyl bromide;
(d) l-dodeeanol to n-docosane; (e) stearic acid to I-octadecanol;
ethyl myristate to
I-tetradeeene; (g) n-hexadecyl alcohol to n-pentadecyl bromide; (h) lauroyl chloride to
n-dodecyl iodide; (i) propionic acid to triethylcarbinol; (.i) 2-butene to 2-methylbutanoic
16. If X g. of a carboxylic acid required Y cc. of 0.1 N sodium hydroxide when titrated to the
phenolphthalein end-point, calculate the equivalent weight of the following acids:
17. For each of the following esters, calculate the equivalent weight of the alcohol with which
the acid was esterified if X is the saponification equivalent of the ester and Y is the
neutralization equivalent of the acid:
18. If in Problem 17 the acid is monobasic and the alcohol monohydric, what are the possible
structures for the ester?
WAXES, FATS, AND OILS
Waxes, fats, and oils are naturally occurring esters of higher straight chain
carboxylic acids. They usually are classified on a mixed basis including source,
physical properties, and chemical properties.
Waxes Vegetable
Nondrying
vegetable}SemidrYin g
A' I
LMarine
A practical definition of a wax might be that it is anything with a waxy feel
and a melting point above body temperature and below the boiling point of
water. Thus the term paraffin wax is used for a mixture of solid hydrocarbons,
beeswax for a mixture of esters, and Carbowax for a synthetic polyether.
Chemically, however, waxes are defined as esters of high molecular weight
monohydric (one hydroxyl group) alcohols with the common higher fat acids
(Table 10, p. 147). Hence they have the general formula of a simple ester,
RCOOR'. Actually the natural waxes are mixtures of esters and frequently
contain hydrocarbons as well.
Carnauba wax is the most valuable of the vegetable waxes. It occurs as a
coating on the leaves of a Brazilian palm, Corypha cerifera, from which it is
removed by shredding and beating of the leaves. It consists of a mixture of the
esters of the normal alcohols and fat acids having even numbers of carbon
atoms from 24 to 34, the C32 and C34 compounds predominating. Hydrocarbons
having odd numbers of carbon atoms from C 25 to C3l also are present. Because of
its high melting point of 80°_87°, its hardness, and its imperviousness to water,
carnauba wax is a valuable ingredient of automobile and floor polishes and
carbon paper coatings. Ouricuri wax from the leaves of the Brazilian palm,
Scheelia martiana, has about the same composition and properties as carnauba
wax. Beeswax is the material from which the bee builds the cells of the honeycomb. Its composition resembles that of carnauba wax except that the esters
on hydrolysis yield chiefly C 26 and C 28 acids and alcohols, and hence it has the
lower melting point of 60°-82°. Spermaceti is obtained from the head of the
sperm whale (Cetaceae). It is chiefly cetyl palmitate, Cl5H3lCOOCl6H33' and
melts at 42°-47°. Degras or wool grease is a complex mixture of waxes, alcohols,
and free fat acids recovered from the scouring of wool. Some of the acids
obtained by the hydrolysis of the waxes are unusual in that they have a methyl
Ch.lO
branch and contain both odd and even numbers of carbon atoms from C 9 to C Z7 '
Wool grease has the unusual property of forming a stable semisolid emulsion
containing up to 80 per cent water. A purified product known as lanolin or
lanum finds use as a base for salves and ointments in which it is desired to
incorporate both water-soluble and fat-soluble substances.
The constitution of fats and oils was investigated systematically first by
Chevreul.l They are esters of higher fat acids and a trihydric alcohol, glycerol,
HOCHzCHOHCHzOH. Esters of glycerol frequently are called glycerides.
They have the general formula RCOOCHzCHCHzOCOR' and are differentiated
OCOR"
solely by the fact that fats are solid or semisolid at room temperature, whereas
oils are liquids. Vegetable fats and oils usually occur in the fruits and seeds
of plants and are extracted (1) by cold pressing in hydraulic presses or continuous
expellers, (2) by hot pressing, and (3) by solvent extraction. Cold pressing gives
the blandest product and is used for producing the highest grade food oils
such as olive, cottonseed, and peanut oils. Hot pressing gives a higher yield,
but larger quantities of undesirable constituents are expressed, and the oil has
a stronger odor and flavor. Solvent extraction gives the highest recovery, and
in recent years the process has been so improved that even food oils may be
prepared which are free from undesirable odors and flavors. Animal fats are
recovered by heating fatty tissue to a high temperature (dry-rendering) or by
treating with steam or hot water and separating the liberated fat.
Fat Acids
Since all fats and oils are esters of glycerol, their differences must be due to
the acids with which the glycerol is esterified. These acids are both saturated
and unsaturated. Of the saturated acids the most important are lauric acid,
CH3(CH2)10COOH, palmitic acid, CH3(CH2h4COOH, and stearic acid,
CHiCH2h6COOH. The most important unsaturated acids have eighteen carbon
atoms, and one double bond usually is at the middle of the chain. If other
double bonds are present they lie further removed from the carboxyl group.
Oleic acid, CH3(CH 2hCH=CH(CH 2 hCOOH, has only one double bond;
linoleic acid (linolic acid), CH3(CH2)4CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2hCOOH,
has two double bonds separated by one methylene group; linolenic acid,
CH3CH2CH=CHCH2CH=CHCH2CH=CH(CH2hCOOH, has three double
bonds each separated by methylene groups; eleostearic acid, CH3(CH 2)3CH=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, also has three double bonds,
1 Michael Eugene Chevreul (1786-1889), professor of chemistry at Paris. He was among the
first to study the chemistry of complex natural products and isolated the glycoside quercitrin
(p. 698) in 1810. He is noted chiefly for his work on fats begun in 1811. He was the first to show
the nature of saponification, and from the hydrolysis products of fats he isolated caproic, capric,
palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids. In 1818 he discovered cetyl alcohol in the unsaponifiable
fraction of spermaceti and in 1834 isolated creatine (p. 322) from urine. He was an active
investigator until his death at the age of 102 years and 7 months.
Ch.l0
but they are conjugated; 2 licanic acid is 4-ketoeleostearic acid, CH3 (CH2)3CH=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH(CH2)4CO(CH2)2COOH; parinaric acid,
CH3CH2CH=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH=CH(CH2)7COOH, has four
conjugated double bonds.
Several other unsaturated acids are of interest. Ricinoleic acid, CH3(CH 2k
CHOHCH2CH=CH(CH2hCOOH, is 12-hydroxyoleic acid. In palmitoleic
acid, CH3(CH2hCH=CH(CH2hCOOH, petroselenic acid, CH3(CH 2)10CH=CH(CH2)4COOH, vaccenic acid, CH3(CH2)5CH=CH(CH2)gCOOH, and
erucic acid, CH3(CH2hCH=CH(CH2)l1COOH, the double bond is not at the
middle of the chain. Tariric acid, CHa(CH2hoC==C(CH2)4COOH, and erythrogenic (isanic) acid, CH2=CH(CH2)4C==C-C=::C(CH2hCOOH, contain triple
bonds. Of all the fat acids palmitic acid is the most abundant, and oleic acid
is the most widely distributed.
Fats and oils are chiefly mixed glycerides and not a mixture of simple
glycerides. The different fat acids are not wholly randomly distributed but are
divided as widely as possible among the glycerol molecules. Simple glycerides
occur in quantity only if more than two thirds of the acyl groups are of one
kind. The approximate relative amounts of the different acids obtained by the
hydrolysis of fats are given in Table 13.
In the acids obtained from fats, saturated acids predominate, but in those
from oils, unsaturated acids predominate. In other words unsaturation lowers
the melting point. Another factor which lowers the melting point is molecular
weight. The acids from low-melting fats such as coconut oil, palm oil, and
butter contain relatively small amounts of unsaturated acids but considerable
amounts of lower fat acids. Although classified as fats because they are solid
in temperate zones, coconut oil and palm oil were called oils because they are
liquids in the tropics where they are produced.
Individual Fats and Oils
Palm oil is obtained from the fruit of a species of palm, Elaeis guineensis,
native to Nigeria and the west coast of Africa and grown on plantations in
Sumatra. It is yellow to red in color and possesses a characteristic odor.
Hydrolysis yields chiefly palmitic and oleic acids. Palm trees on plantations
yield more fat per acre than any other agricultural crop. Average yields are
2500 pounds, whereas coconut yields 730 pounds, peanuts yield 360 pounds,
and soybeans yield 190 pounds. Coconut oil is expressed from copra, the dried
meat of the nut from the coconut palm, Cocos nucifera. It is imported into the
United States chiefly from the Philippines. The fat acids obtained on hydrolysis
contain for the most part less than sixteen carbon atoms. World production
is greater than that of any other vegetable fat or oil. Babassu oil from the seed
kernel of a Brazilian palm, Orbignya oleifera, closely resembles coconut oil.
Production could be greatly increased were it not for the difficulty of cracking
the hard shells, which is done entirely by hand. It has been estimated that
75,000 persons were engaged in the production of babassu oil before World
War II. Butter from milk is characterized by the liberation of appreciable
• H double bonds and single bonds alternate successively in a molecule, the double bonds are
said to be conjugated.
SAPONIFICATION AND IODINE VALUES OF FATS AND OILS AND THE COMPOSITION OF TIfE
FAT ACIDs OBTAINED BY HYDROLYSIS
FAT OR OIL
::I
~g
I!
.~
g.~
COMPOSITION Of FAT ACIDS (PERCENT)
...>.
.g
.;::
.§
.c..
II:>
ii5
:.:i
I"588_g E
8-10 17-20 4--10 ~I
~ o-~I_a_
245-55 10-18 15-20 6--9 3-6
12-18 1-3\ b
196--210 48-58 1-3 34-43 3-6
Butter - - - 216--35 26-45 7-9 23-2610-13 -5-130-40 4-5 l-c-
Animal fats
La;:ct----
--'j'--bD-
193-200 46--66
1-2 28-30 12-18 1-3 \41-48 -~7
2-3 24--3214-32 1-3 35-48 2-4
176--87
~ Olive
' ~
)_ _ Rape
185-95 83-98
0-1 - -
--I
5-15 1-41 0-1 69-84 4-12
6--9 2-6 0-1 50-70 13-26_L
94-106 0-2
188-93 116--30 0-2
0-1 ~~ _ _ 20-3810-15 _~_
7-11 3-4 0-2 43-4934-42
-----1------ -- -- -- ---- -----
Cottonseed
191-6 103-15
0-2 19-2411-2
4-1(}
Oiticica
189-96 170-204 1_ _ 4-7
Lard oil
190-95 1-46--70
Neat's-foot
Fish --1185-95 120-90
(a) 5-10 caprylic, 5-11 capric, and 45-51
lauric acids.
4--7 caprylic, 3-8 capric, 44-46 lauric
acids.
3-4 butyric, 1-2 caproic, 1 caprylic, 2-3
capric, and 2-3 lauric acids.
2 of C•• and C.. unsaturated fat acids.
80-92 ricinoleic acid.
2-5 arachidic and 1-5 tetracosanoic
1-2 tetracosanoic, 1-4 linolenic, and
43-51 erucic acid.
186--94 139-55
189-95 160-8~ _ _
I 2-5
_ _ 22-26115-17
17-1~1~~
0-2 23-3340-48--
6--10 2-4
--_-- --- ---
_ _ 9-38 3-43~_
_ _ 4--16 _0-1 _ ' _
8-1~=~
74--77 _ _
4--6 11-18 2-4 13-1833-38
6--8 10-1611-2 6--15 - - , - -
1 arachidic acid.
4-8 linolenic acid.
24 linolenic acid.
25-58 linolenic acid.
4-5 saturated acids and 74--91 eleostearic
(m) 70-78 Iieanie acid.
(n) 11-20 C2 • and 6--11 C.. unsaturated
(0) 24--30 C 18 , 19-26 C 20 , and 12-19 C••
unsaturated acids.
Ch. IO
quantities of butyric acid on hydrolysis. Lard from hogs and tallow from cattle
and sheep differ chiefly in the amount of combined oleic acid. When lard is
chilled and pressed in hydraulic presses, the lower melting fractions are removed
and constitute lard oil. The press-cake has a higher melting point than the
original material and is known as summer lard. The composition of animal
fats varies greatly with the diet. For example, hogs fed on corn give a lard of
higher melting point than do those fed on peanuts. Neat's-foot oil, obtained by
boiling the feet and shin bones of cattle, resembles lard oil in composition ..
Whale oil acids are characterized by the high percentage of unsaturated acids
containing twenty to twenty-four carbon atoms, as well as by a considerable
amount of palmitoleic acid. The chief fish oils are menhaden and pilchard oils
derived from several species of sardine. Clupea pilchardus is the European
sardine or pilchard, whereas Clupea menhaden is taken off the Atlantic coast of
North America. Clupea caerulea from the waters of the Pacific coast and Japan
closely resembles the European pilchard. The oils yield a complex mixture of
highly unsaturated acids, some containing up to four double bonds.
The classification of oils into nondrying, semidrying, and drying oils depends
on the ease of autoxidation and polymerization, which increases with increasing
unsaturation. The chief unsaturated fat acids from the nondrying oils (Table 13)
contain only one double bond; those from semidrying oils contain a higher
percentage of the doubly unsaturated acid, linoleic acid; the acids from drying
oils contain very little oleic acid but chiefly linoleic and the triply unsaturated
linolenic, eleostearic, and licanic acids. However there is no distinct line of
demarkation between the various types of oils. Olive oil, which is pressed from
the ripe fruit of the olive tree, Oleo europea, is characterized chiefly by the high
percentage of oleic acid in the acids formed on hydrolysis. Peanut oil from the
seeds of the legume, Arachis hypogaea, yields acids which consist of less oleic
and more linoleic acid. The world production of peanut oil approaches that
of coconut oil.
Corn oil from the seed germ of corn, Zea mays, cottonseed oil from the seed
of different varieties of Gossypium, and sesame oil from the seed of Sesamum
indicum have similar properties and contain larger amounts of linoleic acid
than peanut oil. Although world production of sesame oil approaches that of
olive oil, very little is imported into the United States. Most of it is consumed as
food in India and China where the plant has been cultivated probably as long
as rice. Sunflower seed oil from Helianthus annuus, and hemp seed oil from
Cannabis sa tim yield somewhat larger amounts of linoleic acid, and soybean
oil from the seed of the legume Glycine max gives a small amount of the triply
unsaturated linolenic acid. This acid becomes an important component of the
fat acids from linseed oil, the oil pressed from the seed of flax, Linum usitatissimum. Thus there is a gradual increase from olive oil to linseed oil in the
components giving rise to drying properties, and the classification into nondrying, semidrying, and drying is purely at:bitrary. For example soybean oil
originally was classed as a semidrying oil but now is classed as a drying oil.
Frequently some unusual fat acid will be characteristic of an oil. Castor oil
from the seed of the castor bean plant, Ricinus communis, yields fat acids
characterized by the high concentration of the hydroxy unsaturated acid,
ricinoleic acid. The purgative action of castor oil is caused by the irritation of
the walls of the intestines by the ricinoleic acid portion of the molecule. Rapeseed
or colza oil from the seed of Brassica rapa and related species yields large
amounts of erucic acid. Peanut oil acids are characterized by the presence of
arachidic acid. Tung or China wood oil from the seed of the tung tree, Aleurites
fordii, yields the triply unsaturated eleostearic acid. Oiticica oil from the seed
kernels of the Brazilian tree Licania rigida yields licanic acid.
ApPARENT CONSUMPTION OF FATS AND OILS IN
THE UNITED STATES IN 1954
AMOUNT IN
Whale and sperm oils
Reactions of Fats and Oils
The characteristic chemical features of the fats are the ester linkages and
the unsaturation. As esters they may be hydrolyzed in the presence of acids,
enzymes, or alkali to free fat acids, or their salts, and glycerol.
RCOOCH.
R'COOCH + 3 H,O
[H+] or
R"COOCH.
R'COOH
R"COOH
CH,OH
+ CHOH
+ '3 M+OH-
--+-
[RCOO-]M+
[R'COO-]M+
[R"COO-]M+
Since the fat acids differ in molecular weight, and since substances which do
not react with alkali, such as high molecular weight alcohols and hydrocarbons.
may be present, different fats will require different amounts of alkali for
saponification. Hence the amount of alkali required to saponify a given weight
of fat may be used as a characteristic of the particular fat. An arbitrary Unit
known technically as the saponification value is used, which is the number of
milligrams of potassium hydroxide required to saponify one gram offat. Table 13
shows that the fats containing chiefly CIS acids have almost identical saponifica_
tion values and the determination is useful only to identify or d~tect the presence
Ch.1O
of coconut oil and butter fat, or to determiJ1.P. whether these fats have been
adulterated with others having a lower saponification value, or with mineral
oils or greases.
The extent of un saturation likewise is characteristic of a fat and may be
determined by the amount of halogen which the double bonds will add. Iodine
does not ordinarily form stable addition products with the double bond (p. 54),
and chlorine or bromine substitute as well as add. In practice standardized
solutions of iodine monochloride (Wijs solution) or of iodine monobromide
(Hanus solution) in glacial acetic acid are used. However, the Wijs or Hanus
solution is standardized by adding potassium iodide and titrating the liberated
iodine with standard thiosulfate solution. The amount of reagent remaining
after reaction with a fat is determined in the same way. The difference expressed
in terms of grams of iodine (as if iodine had added) per 100 grams of fat
is known as the iodine value of the fat. The increase in iodine value with
increasing amounts of unsaturated acids is apparent in Table 13.
Thiocyanogen, (SCN)2 (p. 326), shows many of the properties of halogens.
It liberates iodine from potassium iodide, and also adds to double bonds. It
has been found, however, that whereas one mole adds to monoethylenic acids
such as oleic acid, only slightly more than one mole adds to the diethylenic
linoleic acid, and somewhat less than two moles to the triply unsaturated
linolenic acid. Solutions of thiocyanogen in glacial acetic acid are prepared by
adding bromine to lead thiocyanate and are standardized and used like Wijs
and Hanus solutions. The amount of thiocyanogen added expressed in terms of
grams of iodine per gram of fat is known as the thiocyanogen value. Since Wijs
or Hanus solution saturates all double bonds, it is possible to estimate the
composition of mixtures of oleic, linoleic, and saturated acids from the iodine
and thiocyanogen values or the amounts of oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids
if the amount of saturated acids is known.
The hydrogenation of oils is carried out technically on a large scale by bubbling
hydrogen through the oil containing a suspension of finely divided nickel. In
this process the double bonds of oleic, linoleic, linolenic, and eleostearic
glycerides are hydrogenated and the oils converted into the hard waxy tristearin.
By controlling the amount of hydrogen added, any consistency desired may be
obtained. Since people of temperate zones prefer fat to oil for cooking purposes,
and since fats are more useful than oils as soap stocks, hydrogenation greatly
increases the value of an oil.
Rancidity of oils is caused chiefly by air oxidation of the unsaturated acids,
which gives a complex mixture of volatile aldehydes, ketones, and acids. In
some cases rancidity may be caused by microorganisms. Fats which have been
freed of odor and undesirable tastes are now stabilized by the addition of
substances which inhibit oxidation (antioxidants, p. 886).
Waste or rags containing unsaturated oils is subject to spontaneous combustion
if air is not excluded, or if not enough ventilation is possible to prevent a rise
in temperature as the oil oxidizes. Any rise in temperature increases the rate
of oxidation, and the process is accelerated until the material bursts into flame.
Castor oil is characterized by the high percentage of ricinoleic acid, which
contains a hydroxyl group. The hydroxyl group may be acetylated and the
number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide that is needed to neutralize the
acetic acid liberated from one gram of acetylatM product is known as the acetyl
value. Castor oil has an acetyl value of 142 to 150, but other common fats and
oils range from 2 to 20. Substances other than ricinoleic acid, for example,
high molecular weight alcohols and partially hydrolyzed glycerides, also
acetylate and may account for all or part of the acetyl value.
A second double bond may be introduced into the ricinoleic portion of
castor oil by dehydration, giving rise to a mixture of linoleic acid and the
9, II-diunsaturated acid in which the double bonds are conjugated, thus changing
it from a nondrying to a drying oil. Moreover the high percentage of conjugation
that results makes the dehydrated oil resemble tung oil in its properties.
Transesterification is important technically for modifying the properties of a
fat. It is carried out under anhydrous conditions using sodium methoxide as a
catalyst. In the presence of methoxide ion the various fat acids randomly
exchange very rapidly with the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol molecules.
Since the fat acids in the natural fat are evenly distributed among the glycerol
molecules, treatment with methoxide ion gives random distribution and changes
the properties of the fat. Lard for example is unsatisfactory for making cake
because it tends to crystallize in large crystals. It is greatly improved by
redistribution of the fat acids among the glycerol molecules.
The equilibrium is so mobile that transesterification can be carried out at a
temperature such that the higher-melting saturated triglycerides crystallize
from the mixture. As they crystallize, the equilibrium shifts until most of the
saturated acids are removed from the liquid portion. After separation of the
crystallized material, the oil remaining is much more highly unsaturated. In
this way the drying properties of the oils are improved.
If the transesterification is carried out in the presence of glycerol, alcoholysis
occurs (p. 170). The triglycerides are thus converted to mono- and diglycerides,
useful as emulsifying agents (p. 188).
Reduction of fats to primary alcohols and glycerol can be carried out using
sodium and a secondary alcohol (p. 172). Alternatively the free acids may be
reduced catalytically to alcohols (p. 172).
For the laboratory isolation of individual fat acids for use as such or as a
means of estimating the relative amounts composing the fat, the methyl or
ethyl esters are prepared by alcoholysis (p. 170) and are fractionally distilled
. under reduced pressure. This procedure is useful only in separating acids
differing appreciably in molecular weight, and cannot be used to separate
different unsaturated acids having the same number of carbon atoms. The
esters are distilled rather than the free acids because the latter form mixed
double molecules which tend to smooth out the differences in boiling points
between the individual acids. Commercially the free fat acids are separated by
distillation or by solvent extraction processes. Saturated fat acids may be
separated from unsaturated acids by converting the mixture to the lead salts
and extracting with ether. The lead salts of unsaturated fat acids are much
more soluble in ether than those of the saturated fat acids.
Linoleic acid forms a tetrabromide, m.p. 115°-116°, and linolenic acid a
hexabromide, m.p. 185°-186°, which can be isolated and purified readily. The
linoleic and linolenic acids can be regenerated from their bromides by debromination with zinc dust in alcoholic solution (p. 128).
Oxidation of unsaturated acids with dilute permanganate solutions yields
solid polyhydroxy acids, two hydroxyl groups being introduced per double
Ch. ]0
bond (p. 57). These polyhydroxy acids are useful derivatives for identification
of the individual unsaturated acids.
Oxides of nitrogen from mercury and nitric acid (Poutet's reagent) convert
liquid unsaturated acids into solid isomers (p. 356). Oleic acid is converted
into elaidic acid and the process is known as elaidinization. Oils may be partially
solidified by the same reaction.
Uses of Fats and Oils
Food. From 25 to 50 per cent of the caloric intake of man consists of fats.
On combustion in animals, fats produce about 9.5 kcal. of energy per gram
compared to 4 kcal. per gram for carbohydrates or proteins. Fats in their
ordinary form cannot be absorbed through the walls of the intestine because
of their insolubility in water and their large particle size. In the small intestine
they are partially hydrolyzed in the presence of the enzyme catalyst, steapsin,
to di- and monoglycerides which, together with the bile salts (p. 869), can bring
about emulsification. Sufficient reduction in particle size takes place to permit
passage through the intestinal walls into the lymph ducts which discharge the
fats into the blood stream as a highly dispersed emulsion. The blood stream
transports them to the tissues where they are burned for energy or stored as
fat deposits for future use. From the standpoint of digestion one fat is as useful
as another unless its melting point is so high that when mixed with other fats
it does not melt or emulsify with the bile at body temperature, in which case
it passes into the feces unchanged. However, either linoleic or linolenic acid
must be supplied by the ingested fats to insure a healthy condition of the skin.
Although some of the fat consumed is mixed with the other foodstuffs, the
proteins and carbohydrates, a considerable portion first is isolated in a relatively
pure state and consumed as such in bread spreads or used for frying or as salad
oils and salad dressings such as mayonnaise. The relatively high cost of butter
has led to the development of a substitute generally referred to as oleomargarine.
Selected vegetable or animal fats and oils, which have been highly refined and
properly hydrogenated to give the desired melting point and consistency, are
emulsified with about 17 per cent by weight of milk which has been cultured
with certain microorganisms to give it flavor. An emulsifying agent such as a
monoglyceride (p. 192) or a vegetable lecithin (p. 753) usually is added as well.
Butter consists of droplets of water suspended in oil (w'1ter-in-oil type emulsion).
Oleomargarines may be either water-in-oil or oil-in-water types of emulsions
depending on the method of manufacture. Diacetyl, CH3 COCOCH3 (p. 771),
and methylacetylcarbinol, CH 3 CHOHCOCH3 , which account for the characteristic taste of butter, also may be added along with vitamins A and D. For
many years oleomargarine manufacturers were not permitted to add color to
their product unless an additional Federal tax of ten cents per pound was paid.
This law was repealed in 1950, and by 1953, the production of oleomargarine
exceeded that of butter. In 1953 six states still prohibited the sale of colored
oleomargarine, and coloring matter was packaged separately.
Protective Coatings. Glycerides of fat acids containing two or more double
bonds absorb oxygen on exposure to air to give peroxides, which catalyze the
polymerization of the unsaturated portions. As a result the oils become solid
or semisolid and are known as drying oils. If exposed in thin layers, tough
elastic waterproof films are formed. Paint is a mixture of drying oil, pigment,
thinner, and drier. The pigment is an opaque material having a refractive
index different from that of the oil film. It provides color and covering power,
and protects the oil film from the destructive action of light. The thinner is a
volatile solvent, either turpentine (p. 855) or a petroleum fraction called mineral
paint spirits (p. 82). It permits spreading and on evaporation leaves a thin
even film of oil and pigment that does not run. The drier is a solution of cobalt,
manganese, or Jead salts of organic acids, usually naphthenic acids from
petroleum (p. 839), which catalyzes the oxidation and polymerization of the oil.
The drying oil is known as the vehicle because after polymerization it holds or
carries the pigment. Linseed oil is the most widely used drying oil, although a
certain amount of tung oil in a paint gives it superior properties which seem
to be due to the conjugation of the unsaturation. Tung oil has been imported
chiefly from China, but the tree can grow in a rather limited belt extending
across southern United States, and plantations are in production. Dehydrated
castor oil (p. 185) has properties resembling tung oil and is used to replace
tung oil to a certain extent, especially when supplies from China are not
available. The amount of conjugation of the double bonds can be determined
from the ultraviolet absorption spectrum of the oil (p. 707).
Although soybean oil has in recent years been classed as a drying oil, it
formerly was classed as a semidrying oil, and as indicated by Table 13 its
composition is such that its. properties would be expected to be intermediate
between those of cottonseed oil and linseed oil. Its drying properties can be
enhanced, a procedure known as up-grading, by extraction with solvents which
separate the oil into fractions having varying degrees of unsaturation, or by
transesterification (p. 185). Another method of up-grading an oil consists of
liberating the mixed acids by hydrolysis and re-esterifying with alcohols having
a larger number of hydroxyl groups such a,s pentaerythritol, C(CH 20H)4
(p. 752), or sorbitol, CH20H(CHOH)4CH20H (p. 412). In this way molecules
having higher molecular weights than the glycerides are formed and less
polymerization is necessary to give a solid film. Such "synthetic" vehicles "dry"
much faster and may give superior films. In still another process the saturated
acids and oleic acid are removed as inclusion compounds with urea (p. 311),
and the remaining highly unsaturated acids are re-esterified with a polyhydric
alcohol. Many of the synthetic resins used for baking enamels contain unsaturated
acid residues in the molecule and depend on polymerization for the solidification
of the film (p. 553).
Varnish is a mixture of drying oil, rosin (p. 861), and thinner. The rosin
imparts hardness and high gloss to the dried film and may be replaced by other
natural or synthetic resins. Oil cloth is made by coating cotton cloth with a
mixture of partially oxidized oil and a pigment, and drying in warm chambers.
If the oil is more highly oxidized to a thick viscous mass, mixed with rosin
and ground cork or other filler, and rolled into a continuous sheet, linoleum is
produced. The sheet travels slowly through warm chambers to permit complete
polymerization.
Wetting Agents, Emulsifying Agents, and Detergents. If the attractive force
between water molecules and some surface is not sufficient to overcome the
surface tension of water, water will not wet the surface. If some third substance
is added which is adsorbed on the surface more strongly than water and which
provides a new surface which strongly adsorbs water, the surface will be wet
by water. Such substances are known as wetting agents.
Oil and water do not mix because there is a greater attraction of water
molecules for each other and of oil molecules for each other than of water
molecules for oil molecules. If the molecules of a third substance have a portion
which has a strong attraction for oil molecules and a portion which has a
strong attraction for water molecules, the substance can disperse in water to
give a colloidal solution, if the effect of the water-attracting portion of its
molecules is sufficiently great. The dispersed substance, however, has an
attraction for oil molecules also, and if an oil is shaken with the colloidal
solution, the oil will be dispersed into tiny droplets and an oil-in-water type of
emulsion results. On the other hand, if the effect of the oil-soluble portion of
the molecule having mixed properties is sufficiently great, the substance can
dissolve in oil. The water-solubilizing group, however, has an attraction for
water, and if the solution is shaken with water, the latter will be dispersed in
the oil to give 'a water-in-oil type of emulsion. Substances having the property
of facilitating the production of emulsions are called emulsifying agents. If a
substance lowers the surface tension of water, the solution foams readily. It
has been shown that oils concentrate in thin lines at the junctures of the film
surfaces. Hence lowering of the surface tension may facilitate emulsification on
agitation by spreading out the oils into thin lines.
Dirt adheres to fabric and other surfaces chiefly by means of films of oil,
and detergent action is largely the result of wetting and emulsification. The
adsorption of the detergent at the solid surface permits wetting of the surface
by the water and allows the oil film to roll up into small droplets. Agitation of
the oil droplets with the detergent solution causes emulsification of the oil,
which permits the oil and adhering dirt to be washed away from the surface.
If the detergent foams, the oil may be emulsified more readily, because it is
spread out into thin lines. It should be noted, however, that detergent action
is not dependent on the formation of foam, and that numerous nonfoaming
detergents are available and have distinct advantages over foaming detergents
in equipment such as automatic dishwashers.
The alkali metal salts of fat acids having from ten to eighteen carbon atoms
are known as soaps. They have a long oil-soluble hydrocarbon chain attached
to a water-soluble carboxylate ion, and hence act as wetting agents, emulsifying
agents, and detergents. Strictly speaking, only such salts should be referred to
as soaps. If the hydrocarbon chain of the alkali metal salts is less than ten
carbon atoms long, it does not cause emulsification of oil. If more than eighteen
carbon atoms are present, the salt is too insoluble in water to form a sufficiently
concentrated colloidal solution. The alkaline earth and heavy metal salts are
water-insoluble and hence useless as detergents. Hard water, containing calcium,
magnesium, and iron ions, precipitates insoluble salts when soap solutions are
added, and lathering does not take place until these ions are completely removed.
Moreover the scum of insoluble salts produced from the soap and inorganic
salts may be difficult to remove from the article being washed. The insoluble
salts have other uses, however (p. 192), and frequently are called soaps.
Ordinary soaps usually are sodium salts. Stocks containing mostly saturated
fats give hard soaps, whereas highly unsaturated fats give soft soaps. Low
molecular weight soaps, for example from coconut oil, are most soluble in
water and give a loose lather consisting of large unstable bubbles, whereas
higher molecular weight soaps, such as those from tallow, give a close lather
consisting of fine stable bubbles. Potassium soaps are more soluble than
sodium soaps but more costly. The fats and hydrogenated oils used in soap
manufacture are blended carefully for the particular type of soap desired.
About three-fourths of the hard soap is manufactured by the full-boiled or
t settled process. Three basic operations are involved, saponification, washing,
, and "fitting." The caustic soda solution (about 14 per cent sodium hydroxide)
and melted fat are run simultaneously into a large tank with a conical bottom
and boiled by steam in both open and closed coils in the bottom of the tank.
When the saponification is complete as indicated by control tests, the soap is
grained, that is, precipitated by the addition of salt. Soap is insoluble in strong
salt or sodium hydroxide solutions, probably because the carboxylate ion is
less heavily hydrated. After settling, the brine solution is drawn from the bottom
and the soap is boiled with water and again precipitated with salt and settled.
Next the soap is boiled with a 6.5 per cent caustic solution to insure complete
saponification. The lye is strong enough to prevent solution of the soap and is
drawn off to be strengthened and used on a new lot of fat. Finally the soap is
boiled with water to give a smooth mixture, a process known as fitting. On
settling, three layers are formed: an upper layer called neat soap containing
30-35 per cent of water; a middle layer called nigre, containing soap, soap
solution and some impurities; and a small lower layer of alkali. The alkali is
drawn from the bottom, and the melted soap is pumped from the top. The
remaining nigre may be worked into the next batch. The tendency has been to
make soap in larger and larger batches because of the smaller labor requirement
per pound of soap and because the settling operations proceed better. Soap
kettles holding a million pounds of liquid and producing a half million pounds
of soap are in use. The brine solutions are evaporated to recover the glycerol
and salt. More recently the washing of the soap has been carried out countercurrently to increase the recovery of glycerol and also to increase the concentration of glycerol in the spent lye. In the counter-current process as many as ten
washings may be used giving a recovery of 95 per cent of the calculated amount
of glycerol and a concentration of 10-15 per cent.
In the cold process the fats and lye are mixed in a mechanical mixer, known
as a crutcher, at 30°_40° until a homogeneous emulsion is formed, which then
is run into molds where completion of the saponification takes place. Either a
slight excess over the necessary amount of alkali is used to give a hard white
soap, or a 5-10 per cent excess of fat is used to give a smooth, translucent soap.
In either case all of the water, glycerol, and excess lye or fat remain in the soap.
Soap is easier to make by this process, but it requires better fat stocks, and if
an excess of lye is present, the product may be more irritating to the skin.
Castile and coconut castile soaps are made in this way, and also potassium
soaps, which cannot be salted out efficiently by potassium chloride because of
their greater solubility.
In the direct neutralization or carbonate process free fat acids are neutralized
with the calculated amount of either sodium hydroxide or sodium carbonate.
The latter is cheaper but the neutralization cannot be carried out as smoothly
because of the large volume of carbon dioxide liberated. The chief advantage
of this process is that neutralization of the free fat acids is more rapid than
saponification of the fat, and salting out and settling are avoided. A batch of
soap can be made in three to four hours compared to several days to a week
for the settled process. The free fat acids are obtained by the hydrolysis of fats
with or without acid or alkaline catalysts. In the Twitchell process, 30 per cent
sulfuric acid is used, along with 0.5-1 per cent of sulfonic acids which aid
emulsification of the fat and water. With two treatments 95 per cent hydrolysis
or better can be obtained. The free fat acids are washed and purified by vacuum
distillation. The water layer is neutralized with lime to precipitate calcium
sulfate, which is removed by filtration, and the glycerol is recovered by concentration of the filtrate. Not only does the filtrate contain from 15-20 per cent
glycerol, compared with 3-5 per cent in spent lye from batch washing or 10-15
per cent from counter-current washing, but no salt is present to complicate the
recovery. In the more modern continuous processes, fat and water without
catalyst are heated in coils at 260°. Operated counter-currently the process is
very efficient and recovery of glycerol greatly simplified. Because the fat acids
are distilled before use, lower grade fats may be used. In the past the production
of free fat acids has been largely for the manufacture of commercial stearic
acid. With the advent of continuous processes and better methods of purification
of the fat acids, direct neutralization may largely replace saponification of fats
for the manufacture of soap.
'Laundry soap is produced in largest amount. The yellow bar soap usually is
made from two parts of grease and one part of rosin, added as sodium resin ate
(p. 862). The rosin increases the solubility of the soap and its lathering properties,
and has some detergent action. White laundry soaps may contain sodium
silicate up to 12 per cent, sodium carbonate up to 5 per cent, or trisodium
phosphate up to 5 per cent. After mixing with the additives in the crutcher,
the soap is poured into molds, allowed to solidify by cooling, and cut or pressed
into slabs or bars. The finished product contains about 30 per cent water. If it
is dried and chipped to give soap chips, or spray-dried to form powdered soap,
the water content is 10-15 per cent. Soap powder is a spray-dried mixture
containing about 20 per cent soap, 40 per cent sodium carbonate, and 40 per
cent water. It is dry because most of the water is combined with the sodium
carbonate as the decahydrate, Na 2C03 ' 10 H 2 0. The consumer should be
aware of the difference between powdered soap which contains 85-90 per cent
soap, and soap powder which contains 20 per cent soap. Toilet soap is next in
volume. Better grade fats are used, and the desired solubility and lathering
properties are obtained by using about three fourths tallow or palm oil and
one fourth coconut oil. The kettle soap is shredded and dried to a water content
of 10-15 per cent, mixed by milling and plodding with perfumes and dyes, and
possibly whitening agents such as titanium oxide, and pressed into cakes. This
process produces a hard bar which is known as milled soap. Floating soaps are
made by blending in sufficient air in the crutcher to make the soap less dense
than water. The incorporation of air requires that the soap be semiliquid and
hence the finished product may contain 30-35 per cent water. In recent years
the water content has been reduced to below 25 per cent. Salt water soaps are
made by the cold process from coconut oil, because the sodium salts of the
lower fat acids are less readily salted out and the magnesium salts are more
soluble. Such soaps may contain up to SO-55 per cent water. They have an
irritating action on the skin, however, which is caused by the coconut oil, and
rCh.1O
it is for this reason that the coconut oil content of toilet soaps is kept to a
minimum. Liquid soaps contain 70-85 per cent water and are the potassium
salts of coconut oil acids. Shaving soaps are potassium soaps chiefly of palmitic
and stearic acid. The higher saturated fat acid soaps give a close stable lather,
and potassium soaps are used to obtain sufficient solubility.
Synthetic Detergents and Emulsifying Agents. In recent years numerous
synthetic compounds have become available which meet the general structural
requirements for a detergent or emulsifying agent, namely a water-soluble
portion and an oil-soluble portion. The earliest of these were the sulfated fats
and oils (formerly called sulfonated), which have been in commercial use for
over one hundred years. When an unsaturated fat is treated with sulfuric acid,
the double bonds add sulfuric acid to give the hydrogen sulfate of the hydroxy
acid. For example, the oleic acid portion reacts according to the equation
~H20CO(CH2)7CH=CH(CH')7CH3
CHOCOR
~H20CO(CH')7CH2~H(CH')7CH3
+ H,SOt
tH,OCOR'
OSOaH
CH~OCOR'
Neutralization gives the sodium salt, which provides the water-solubilizing
portion of the molecule. In the sulfation of castor oil, the hydroxyl group of the
ricinoleic acid portion of the molecule reacts more readily than the double
bond. If sulfation is carried out at a sufficiently low temperature, the double
bond is largely unaffected.
+ 3 H2S04
CaH. [OCO(CH2)7CH=CHCH2~H(CH2).CHaJ
CaHo [OCOCCH2),CH=CHCH2yHCCH2)SCH3]
Sulfated castor oil is known as Turkey Red oil because it was used in the
application of the dye alizarin to an aluminum mordanted cloth to give the
color known as Turkey Red (p. 688). Turkey Red oil should not be confused
with red oil, which is the technical name given to commercial oleic acid. During
1955 over 53 million pounds of sulfated oils were produced in the United States,
of which approximately 10 million pounds were from fish oils, 11 million
pounds from tallow, and 9 million pounds from castor oil.
In Europe a mixture of the sodium salts of secondary alkyl hydrogen sulfates
having from eight to eighteen carbon atoms is used as a detergent under the
name of Teepol. It is made by sulfating an olefin fraction obtained by cracking
the wax distillate of petroleum (p. 58).
Since 1930 the catalytic reduction of fat acids or the sodium-alcohol
reduction of fats (p. 172), especially coconut oil, has been used to produce
mixtures of higher alcohols which can be sulfated to produce detergents.
The number of synthetic surface-active agents has increased enormously in
recent years. Between 500 and 600 are available commercially. The most
widely used synthetic detergents in 1955 were the sodium salts of alkylated
aromatic sulfonic acids (p. 469), production of which amounted to 591 million
pounds. The use of products containing synthetic detergents has increased
rapidly. By 1954 the sale of synthetic detergents in the United States exceeded
that of soaps.
In contrast to the triglycerides, monoglycerides have free hydroxyl groups
which act as water-solubilizing groups, and hence they become emulsifying
agents. They have found extensive use particularly in the manufacture of
oleomargarine and in other food industries, and in the preparation of cosmetic
creams. They are mixtures prepared either by the partial esterification of
glycerol with free fat acids or by the glycerolysis of fats (p. 170). Almost 12
million pounds of glycerylmonostearate alone was produced in 1955. Acetylation
of the monostearate gives a product that shows promise as a flexible, nongreasy,
edible coating for foods.
Other Uses for Fat Acids. Free fat acids are used as softening agents for
rubber. Commercial stearic acid is a mixture of stearic and palmitic acids used
in the manufacture of candles, cosmetics, and shaving soaps. The aluminum,
calcium, lead, and other metallic soaps when heated with petroleum oils form
a gel and are used to thicken oils in the manufacture of lubricating greases.
Magnesium and zinc stearates are used in face powders and dusting powders,
and as lubricants to prevent sticking in the molding of plastics. Fat acid chains
are incorporated into the molecules of antiseptics, drugs, dyes, resins, and
plastics to modify their solubility and setting characteristics. Lately, fat acids
have been converted on an industrial scale into esters, amides, nitriles, and
amines, the last being particularly valuable as a starting point for the synthesis
of one type of antiseptic (p. 243) .
1. Define the terms wax, fat, and oil.
2. Give a classification of waxes, fats, and oils and list under each class and subclass the more
common representatives.
3. Discuss the composition of fats and oils. Give the names and structures of the more
important acids formed on the hydrolysis of carnauba wax, butter, lard, tallow, coconut
oil, olive oil, tung oil, and linseed oil. What is unusual about the naturally occurririg fat
acids?
4. What is meant by the terms saponification value; iodine value; acetyl value? How could
cottonseed oil be distinguished readily from lubricating oil; castor oil from olive oil;
coconut oil from lard; olive oil from linseed oil; spermaceti from tallow?
5. Discuss the manufacture of soap.
6. Give the principle and the method for converting oils into fats.
7. What so-called synthetic detergents are derived from fat acids and how are they made?
8. Calculate the volume (S.T.P.) of hydrogen that would be required to convert 500 g. of an
oil having the given iodine value into the completely saturated fat: (a) 90; (b) 105;
(c) 130; (d) 180.
9. The acids A, B, C, and D were isolated from the saponification products of natural fats and
their neutralization equivalents were determined by titration. The acids then were oxidized
vigorously with alkaline permanganate. Each gave two new acidic products which were
isolated and their neutralization equivalents determined. From the following data give a
likely structure for the original compounds:
Neutralization equivalent
of original acid
of oxidation products
94 and 130
10. How many pounds of sodium hydroxide would be required to saponify 10 pounds of a fat
having the given saponification value: (a) 250; (b) 210; (c) 175; (d) 190?
11. What would be the maximum yield of glycerol obtainable in each of the saponifications
indicated in Problem IO?
12. Calculate the weight of metallic sodium required to reduce 100 g. of a fat having the given
saponification value: (a) 260; (b) 205; (c) 185; (d) 195.
13. What would be the maximum amount of anhydrous sodium alkyl sulfate that could be
obtained from the reductions indicated in Problem 12?
ALDEHYDES AND KETONES
Both alcohols and ethers have the general formula CnH2"120. A less saturated
group of compounds is known having the formula C"H 2n O. Since the first
member of the series, CH 20, has only one carbon atom, the unsaturation cannot
be due to a carbon-carbon double bond. Therefore the only logical structure
satisfying the rules of valence is one in which the carbon atom is united to
the oxygen atom by a double bond. This functional group, C=O, which is
known as a carbonyl group, was present in the carboxyl group of carboxylic
acids, but its properties were masked by the presence on the same carbon atom
of a hydroxyl group. If only hydrogen or carbon atoms are united to the
carbonyl group, the group is characteristic of the compounds known as aldehydes
and ketones. The aldehydes have at least one hydrogen atom united to the
carbonyl group and are represented by the general formula RCHO. The ketones
have two carbon atoms united to the carbonyl group and are represented by
the formula RCOR. The methods of preparation and reactions are in agreement
with these structures.
1. Oxidation or Dehydrogenation of Alcohols. Aldehydes and ketones _are
formed by the oxidation or dehydrogenation of primary and secondary alcohols
respectively (p. 104).
R-~-H + H 0
R.CHOH
The oxidizing agent may be air in the presence of a copper or silver catalyst
at 550°-600°, or a chemical oxidizing agent such as sodium dichromate and
sulfuric acid (dichromic acid). The latter reagent is useful for the preparation
of the lower aldehydes only, because their low boiling points permit them to
be distilled from the reaction mixture as fast as they are formed. Otherwise
the aldehyde is retained and oxidized rapidly to acid (p. 212). The ketones
undergo further oxidation less readily, and the reaction is more generally
applicable for their preparation. The calculated amount of chromium trioxide,
CrOa, in glacial acetic acid also may be used for the conversion of secondary
alcohol groups to ketone groups. For the oxidation of the higher primary
alcohols to aldehydes, t-butyl chromate, prepared from t-butyl alcohol and
chromium trioxide, is a good reagent.
Catalytic dehydrogenation is a convenient process for the preparation of
aldehydes and ketones.
Cu·Zn
RCH 2 0H
(or R,CHOH)
(or R.CO)
Ch.ll
Because of the equilibrium the reaction does not go to completion, but the
product can be separated by distillation and the alcohol recycled. Copper
chromite, silver, or alloys of copper and silver, or copper and nickel, also have
been recommended as catalysts. It is from this first method of preparation
that the name aldehyde is derived (alcohol dehydrogenatum).
Heat is absorbed in dehydrogenation (endothermic reaction) but evolved in
the oxidation with oxygen (exothermic reaction). Technically the two processes
may be combined by using just enough air to supply the heat required for
dehydrogenation. In this way the operation may be carried out without the
necessity of adding or removing heat externally in order to maintain the optimum
temperature for the reaction.
2. Ozonolysis of Unsaturated Compounds. Addition of ozone to the carbon~
carbon double bond, followed by hydrolysis, yields aldehydes or ketones or
both (p. 56).
RCH=CR 2
'-....
+ HaO. + OCR.
To obtain maximum yields of aldehydes and ketones the decomposition is
carried out in the presence of a reducing agent such as zinc dust and acetic
acid, or hydrogen and platinum, to destroy the peroxides (p. 880) and prevent
the formation of organic acids. Whether aldehydes, ketones, or both are
obtained depends on the structure of the olefin from which the ozonide was
3. Pyrolysis of Carboxylic Acids. Pyrolysis of carboxylic acids over thoria
gives ketones (p. 152). The catalyst is deposited on a porous material such as
pumice and packed into a tube which is heated to the proper temperature.
The organic acid is run into the tube where it vaporizes and passes over the
catalyst. The exit gases are condensed and the product separated by distillation.
ThO.
By using a mixture of organic acids, mixed ketones can be obtained; or if a
mixture of formic acid with another organic acid is used, aldehydes may be
Th0 2
400°-450'
+ CO. + H.O
+ CO. + H O
The yields of mixed ketones and aldehydes are likely to be poor, because simple
ketones and formaldehyde also are produced, and formic acid decomposes into
carbon monoxide and water.
4. Addition of Water to Alkynes. The addition of water to acetylene leads to
the formation of acetaldehyde (p. 131). All other alkynes add water in accordance
with the Markovnikov rule and give ketones.
R-C-CH 3
Hg-HgS0 4
5. Hydrolysis of Acetals. One of the best laboratory procedures for the
synthesis of aldehydes consists of the reaction of ethyl orthoformate (p. 175)
with a Grignard reagent to give an acetal (p. 203), which can be hydrolyzed
by aqueous acids to give the aldehyde.
HC(OC.H.).
+ RMgX
RCH(OC.H.).
RCH(OCzH.).
An acetal
[RCH(OH).l
+ CZH50MgX
+ 2 C.H.OH
6. Addition of Grignard Reagents to Organic Cyanides. Grignard reagents
add to the triple bond of cyanides in the same way that they add to a carbonyl
group (p. 199), although much more slowly (p. 892). The product hydrolyzes
readily in acid solution to a ketone.
RC=N
H.0+2HX
~,
NMgX
+ NHtX + MgX.
I( the a. carbon atom of the nitrile carries a hydrogen atom, the chief product may be the salt
of the nitrile (cf. p. 200).
RCH.C-N
(RCHC=NJMgX
7. Reaction of Grignard Reagents or Alkylcadmiums with Acyl Chlorides.
Grignard reagents react with acyl chlorides at low temperature in the presence
of ferric chloride to give good yields of ketones.
FeCI.
+ R'MgCl
+ MgCI.
If the reaction is carried out at room temperature, the ketone reacts further to
give a tertiary alcohol (p. 199). Methyl ketones have been obtained in good
yields from Grignard reagents and acetic anhydride at low temperatures.
CHaCOR
+ CH.COOMgX
Alkylcadmiums (p. 893) also replace the halogen of acyl halides by alkyl,
but react less readily with the carbonyl group. The alkylcadmium solutions are
prepared from the Grignard reagents and cadmium chloride.
2 RMgCl
+ CdC!.
2 R'COCI
+ CdR.
+ 2 MgCI.
2 R'COR + CdCl.
CdR.
Alkyl cadmium compounds having primary alkyl groups are obtained in better
yield than those having secondary or tertiary alkyl groups.
Aldehydes. The common names of aldehydes are derived from the acids
which would be formed on oxidation, that is, the acids having the same number
of carbon atoms. In general the ic acid is dropped and aldehyde added, for
example formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and i-butyraldehyde corresponding to
the fact that they yield formic, acetic, and i-butyric acids on oxidation. Just
as more complex acids may be named as derivatives of acetic acid, aldehydes
may be named as derivatives of acetaldehyde; thus C2H 5 CH(CH3)CHO may be
called.methylethylacetaldehyde. In the Geneva system the aldehydes are named
by dropping the e of the hydrocarbon corresponding to the longest chain
containing the aldehyde group and adding al. The compound having the above
formula would be called 2-methylbutanal. The position of the aldehyde group
is not indicated because it always is at the end of the chain, and its carbon
atom is numbered one.
Ketones. The common names of ketones are derived from the acid which on
pyrolysis would yield the ketone. For example acetone, CH3 COCH3 , may be derived from two molecules of acetic acid, and i-butyrone, (CH3)2CHCOCH(CH3)2'
from i-butyric acid. A second method, especially useful for naming mixed
ketones, simply names the alkyl groups and adds the word ketone. For example
CH3 COC 2H 5 is methyl ethyl ketone. The name is written as three separate
words since the compound is not a substitution product of a substance ketone.
In the Geneva system the ending is one and the position of the carbonyl group
must be indicated by a number, unless the name is unambiguous without the
number. Thus methyl ethyl ketone may be called simply butanone, but ethyl
ketone, CH3CH2COCH2CH3 , must be called 3-pentanone to distinguish it from
methyl n-propyl ketone, CH3 COCH2CH2CH3 , which is 2-pentanone. Side
chains are named and numbered as usual.
If it is necessary to designate a carbonyl function when another functional
group is present, the doubly bound oxygen is called oxo. Thus CH3COCH2CH2COOH is 4-oxopentanoic acid. Generically, however, it is called a keto acid
rather than an oxo acid.
The aldehydes and ketones resemble the ethers in their solubility characteristics
and volatility, although aldehydes and ketones boil somewhat higher than
ethers having the same number of "arbon atoms. For example methyl ether
boils at -24° and acetaldehyde at +20°; methyl ethyl ether boils at 6°,
whereas propionaldehyde boils at 49° and acetone at 56°.
Thus far two sources of van der Waals forces have been considered, the London forces
resulting from the polarizability of the molecule (p. 39), and proton bonding (p. 87). Neither
of these attractive forces can account for the fact that aldehydes and ketones boil higher than
ethers of approximately the same molecular weight, because the polarizabilities should be
nearly the same, and proton bonding is not possible. Hence a third attractive force must be
present which either does not exist between ether molecules or is greater for aldehydes and
ketones than for ethers. This third attractive force is that caused by the presence of permanent
dipoles in the molecules.
In atoms the center of positive charge and the center of negative charge coincide; that is, the
probability of firiding an electron at any point about the nUtleus is the same as that of finding
it at the same distance away from the nucleus on the opposite side. The same situation exists
in diatomic molecules made up of like atoms, for example hydrogen or chlorine molecules, or
in symmetrical polyatomic molecules such as methane and carbon tetrachloride. However,
when unlike atoms are bonded to give an unsymmetrical molecule, the centers of positive and
negative charge in the molecule ordinarily do not coincide, and the molecule has a positive and
a negative end; that is, it is an electrical dipole. This dipole is a permanent one, in contrast to
the dipoles resulting from the transient polarizability of the molecule. Whenever such an unequal
.distribution of Charge occurs, an electrical moment, known as the dipole moment, exists. This
moment, which is the product of the charge at either end of the dipole by the distance between
the centers of charge, can be measured. These dipoles have a tendency to line up in an electric
field, and a gas with a permanent dipole will change the capacity of a condenser. The alignment
is opposed by the thermal agitation of the molecules, and the effect on the capacity of the
condenser varies with the temperature. From the variation in the dielectric constant of the
compound with temperature, it is possible to calculate the dipole moment, which is designated
by the symbol fl. The usual magnitude of the moment is of the order of 10-18 electrostatic units,
and this quantity is known as a debye unit, or simply a debye (after P. Debye, who first measured
electric moments), and is given the symbol D. Thus methyl ether has a moment of 1.3 D and
methyl ethyl ether one of 1.2 D. The moments of acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, and acetone
are respectively 2.7 D, 2.7 D, and 2.8 D. These permanent dipoles add to those caused by the
polarizability of the molecule and increase the attractive forces between the molecules. Thus
the higher dipole moments of the carbonyl compounds as compared to those for ethers can
account for the higher boiling points of the carbonyl compounds. The attractive forces caused
by dipoles are proportional to the square of the dipole moment rather than directly proportional
(p. 251). Hence their effect rapidly increases with increasing magnitude.
At one time it was assumed that the origin of the dipoles lay in the relative attraction of
different nuclei for the bonding pair of electrons, which in tum was related to the relative
charges on the nuclei and the relative distances of the valence electrons from the nuclei. Bond
moments were assigned to individual bonds and these bond moments were considered to be
additive vectorially. It now is believed that this view is an oversimplification and that at least
three other factors contribute to the origin of dipole moments. The older view not only may
lead to a discrepancy in the calculated magnitude of the moment of a molecule but to an
erroneous prediction of the direction of the moment. Thus, based on the relative electronegativities of carbon and hydrogen, it was believed that the dipole of the carbon-hydrogen bond
always had its positive end at hydrogen. It now is believed that in alkanes, the negative end is
at hydrogen, but that electron-withdrawing groups can reverse the polarity of the carbonhydrogen bond. For these reasons it seems advisable, at least for the present, not to assign bond
moments to individual bonds, but to deal only with the experimentally determined dipole
moments of molecules. There are times, however, when certain bond moments obviously may
be considered as the main source of the moment of a group or of the molecule as a whole, and
where the additivity of group moments may be applied (cf. p. 451).
In the carbonyl group, the carbon and oxygen atom are linked by a double
bond, and most of the reactions of aldehydes and ketones take place by addition.
Because the nuclear charge on oxygen is larger than that on carbon and because
the oxygen atom has unshared pairs of electrons, the carbon-oxygen double
bond is more highly polarized than a carbon-carbon double bond. Hence the
carbonyl group reacts with a greater variety of reagents. In general aldehydes
differ from ketones only in the relative rate of reaction and in the position of
equilibrium. Aldehydes usually react faster, and the reaction goes more nearly
to completion. The large variety of reactions makes it desirable to group them
into several divisions.
SIMPLE ADDITION
1. Hydrogen. Aldehydes on reduction yield primary alcohols, and ketones
yield secondary alcohols.
+ 2 [HI
+ 2 [H)
The reduction may be brought about catalytically with hydrogen and a platirJun.
palladium, or nickel catalyst, or by chemical reducing agents in ne\ltnU' or
llkaline solution, for example sodium and absolute alcohol, sodium amalgam
md water, lithium aluminum hydride (p. 172) in ether solution, or sodium
borohydride (NaBH4) in aqueous solution. Another method known as the
Meerwein-Ponndorf reduction depends on the equilibrium that exists between
alcohols and carbonyl compounds in the presence of aluminum alkoxides.
R'CHO
AI(OR)3
+ R.CHOH
R' .CO
R' .CHOH
If the alcohol used as the reducing agent is so chosen that the aldehyde or
ketone formed boils at a lower temperature than any of the other reactants, it
may be removed by slow distillation, and the reaction forced to completion.
For example, if ethyl alcohol and aluminum ethoxide, or i-propyl alcohol and
aluminum i-propoxide, are used, the low-boiling acetaldehyde or acetone is
removed. Ketones as well as aldehydes may be reduced. If the reaction is
carried out in such a way that it is used to oxidize an alcohol by means of a
ketone, it is called an Oppenauer oxidation.
Coordination of an unshared pair of electrons from the carbonyl group of the aldehyde or
ketone with the metal facilitates the transfer of a hydride ion from the primary or secondary
alkoxide group to the carbonyl group by means of a cyclic mechanism.
R'
R',C=O
+ MOCHR,
I t::\ I
R'-h
H-?-R
R'-C-H C-R
: 0)
: M/
"M'·
R',CHOM + OCR.
Only a small amount of metal alkoxide is necessary because of the equilibration of the alkoxides
with the alcohols.
R',CHOM + R,CHOH
R',CHOH + R.CHOM
1. Grignard Reagents. Addition of Grignard reagent,:> takes place as with
the carbonyl group of carbon dioxide (p. 123), that is, R to carbon and MgX
to oxygen. Formaldehyde yields primary alcohols, all other aldehydes yield
secondary alcohols, and ketones yield tertiary alcohols. This procedure is one
of the most important for the synthesis of complex alcohols, since by choosing
the proper R groups in the aldehyde or ketone and in the Grignard reagent
almost any desired alcohol may be synthesized, provided the R groups are not
too highly branched to cause steric hindrance and prevent addition.
H-?-H
+ HOMgXl
RCHR'
+ HOMgX
R-CH-R'
R,CO
RC-R'
'I
Cf. page 121.
Ch. II
Although the above reactions take place readily to give good yields of the products when
simple aldehydes or ketones or simple Grignard reagents are involved, branching of the alkyl
groups in either the carbonyl compound or the Grignard reagent or both may permit side
reactions to predominate. Other reactions that have been observed are as follows:
(a) REDUCTION. In this reaction the halomagnesium salt of the primary or secondary alcohol
is formed, and the alkyl group of the Grignard reagent forms an alkene.
R 2C=O
+ R'2CHCH.MgX
R 2CHOMgX
+ R'2C=CH.
Under certain conditions a Meerwein-Ponndorf type of reduction (p. 199) or pinacol
reduction (p. 217) may take place.
(b) SALT FORMATION. The Grignard reagent may remove a proton from an IX carbon atom
with the formation of the halomagnesium salt of the ketone (cf. p. 213).
R 2CHCOR
[ R2~CORJ MgX
Addition of water regenerates the ketone.
[R2~COR]
MgX
+ H20
Salt formation with ketones frequently is referred to as the ellolizillg action of the Grignard
reagent, because at one time it was believed that only in the enol form of the ketone would the
hydrogen be sufficiently acidic to produce hydrocarbons from Grignard reagents (cf. p. 213).
(c) CONDENSATION. Halomagnesium alkoxide formed by reduction (a) or oxidation (p. 122)
may catalyze an aldol-type addition (p. 205).
R C=O
+ R'CH 211CR"
RO~IgX
R C----tH-C-R"
These side reactions become so important with branched aldehydes, ketones, and Grignard
reagents that it is not possible to synthesize many alcohols by the reaction of a Grignard reagent
with an aldehyde or ketone. For example the reaction of trimethylacetaldehyde with t-butylmagnesium bromide gives almost exclusively neopentyl alcohol, and the reaction of di-t-butyl
ketone with Il-butylmagnesium bromide gives di-t-butylcarbinol. Frequently the desired alcohol
can be synthesized if an alkyllithium (p. 891) is used in place of a Grignard reagent.
The mechanism of the addition of the Grignard reagents to carbonyl groups is discussed on
page 123.
3. Hydrogen Cyanide. Anhydrous hydrogen cyanide adds to aldehydes and
ketones to give IX-hydroxy cyanides known as cyanohydrins.
R,C-CN
These compounds are named as addition products. For example that derived
from acetaldehyde is known as acetaldehyde cyanohydrin and that from acetone
as acetone cyanohydrin. As with any other nitrile, the cyanide group can be
hydrolyzed to a carboxyl group (p. 144). Hence the cyanohydrins are intermediates for the synthesis of IX-hydroxy acids (p. 781).
The reactivity of the carbonyl group depends on the ability of an electron-seeking reagent to
attack the oxygen atom or of an electron-donating reagent to attack the carbon atom. Thus it
was shown as early as 1903 by Lapworth 2 that the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes
and ketones is accelerated by the addition of bases but retarded by the addition of acids.
Therefore the active reagent is cyanide ion and not hydrogen cyanide.
R 2C-OH
+ [ : CN-]
4. Sodium Bisulfite. When shaken with a saturated aqueous sodium bisulfite
solution, most aldehydes and methyl ketones will react to form a slightly soluble
bisulfite addition compound in which hydrogen has added to oxygen and the
sodium sulfonate group to carbon.
+ NaHSO a
RCOCHa
If both groups attached to the carbonyl group are larger than methyl, the
addition compound does not form unless the groups are held out of the way
of the carbonyl group, as for example when they are part of a ring as in cyclohexanone (p. 793). Even if one of the groups is methyl, the reaction may be
very slow if the other group is branched, e.g., a I-butyl group. As to nomenclature,
the product from acetaldehyde is known as acetaldehyde sodium bisulfite or as
the bisulfite addition compound of acetaldehyde, that from acetone is acetone
sodium bisulfite or the bisulfite addition compound of acetone.
Since these compounds are salts, they are not soluble in organic solvents
and may be freed from other organic compounds such as hydrocarbons or
alcohols by filtering and washing with ether. The reactions are reversible, and
hence the carbonyl compound is regenerated by any reagent that reacts
irreversibly with bisulfite. Either alkali or acid can be used.
RCHOHSOaNa
+ NaCI + SO. + H 0
Acids have the disadvantage that sulfur dioxide must be removed from the
product. Alkalies have the disadvantage that they cause condensation reactions
with aldehydes (p. 205). As a result alkalies usually are used to. liberate ketones,
2 Arthur Lapworth (1872-1941), professor at the University of Manchester who held in
succession chairs in organic chemistry and in physical chemistry. He was a pioneer investigator
of the lTIechanisms of organic reactions. His ideas were so advanced that his early work received
little attention for many years. His investigations of the addition of hydrogen cyanide to
carbonyl compounds, of the bromination of ketones, and of acid and basic catalysis now are
considered classical.
and acids to liberate aldehydes. An alternate procedure consists of heating the
bisulfite addition compound with a slight excess of an aqueous solution of
formaldehyde.
+ HCHO
RCHO+H.C
SOa Na
R.CO + H.C
These exchange reactions take place because the position of equilibrium for the
reaction of formaldehyde with bisulfite is farther to the right than it is with
the other aldehydes and ketones. The chief importance of the bisulfite addition
compounds is their use in separating carbonyl compounds from mixtures with
other organic compounds.
5. Water. Although compounds having two hydroxyl groups on the same
carbon atom rarely can be isolated in the pure state, it appears that they may
exist in water solution. The familiar example is carbonic acid, 0=C(OH)2'
which behaves like a dibasic acid in aqueous solution but can be isolated only
in the form of its salts or esters or of its anhydride, carbon dioxide. Similarly
when aldehydes are dissolved in water, they may exist to a considerable extent
in the hydrated form. This condition is true particularly for formaldehyde whose
aqueous solutions appear to contain almost exclusively dihydroxymethane.
HCHO + HOH
H-l-OH
Acetone on the other hand does not add water at a measurable rate in the
absence of acids or hydroxyl ion.
Evidence for the almost complete reaction of formaldehyde with water is the absence of a
characteristic carbonyl absorption band (p. 665) in the ultraviolet for aqueous solutions.
Evidence for the nonreaction of acetone is the lack of exchange of the oxygen atoms of acetone
and water when acetone is dissolved in water containing an increased concentration of the
heavy oxygen isotope, 018. Exchange takes place at a measurable rate only in the presence of
acids or hydroxide ion. The mechanisms for the catalyzed reactions are expressed by the
following equilibria. (For conventions, see p. 138).
CH "
[CHa"
+] HOH [CHa" / OH]
[B-1
CH " / OH
C=O
C=OH
[OH-l
0-]
,,/
/ ' " OH
CH/C"'OH
In the presence of H 201S, the reverse processes lead to the enrichment of the acetone in the 018
isotope.
6. Alcohols. In the presence of either acidic or basic catalysts, aldehydes add
one mole of alcohol to form hemiacetals.
[li+]
[B-]
'" OR'
A hemiacetal
With an excess of alcohol and an acidic catalyst, water is eliminated and an
acetal is formed.
[li+l
"-OR'
"".OR'
Bases do not catalyze the formation or hydrolysis of acetals.
Acetal also is the specific name for the product from acetaldehyde and ethyl
alcohol. The product from formaldehyde and methyl alcohol has the common
name methylal.
If an excess of hydrogen chloride or hydrogen bromide is present, oc-halogen
ethers are formed instead of acetals.
The halogen in these compounds is very reactive and can be replaced by an
alkyl group by means of Grignard reagents to give mixed ethers.
An explanation of the fact that hemiacetal formation is catalyzed by both acids and bases,
whereas acetal formation is catalyzed only by acids, is of interest. In the basic catalysis of
hemiacetal formation, the alcohol must be the effective point of attack by the catalyst.
[on-]
[R'O-]
.. _]
RCH-O :
I..
HOIl
RCHOH
Although the carbon atom of the carbonyl group of the aldehyde may be attacked by a base,
this does not lead to the formation of a hemiacetal, but merely to the hydrated aldehyde.
[OH-]
.. _ ]
•.
[RCbHH-OH]
[OR-] or [OIl ]
In acid catalysis, however, the effective point of attack is the carbonyl group.
[I
+:O-R
[ll-]
The attack by the acid on the alcohol gives [ROH 2 +] which can do nothing but transfer protons
to the carbonyl group.
In the conversion of the hemiacetal to the acetal, bases are not effective catalysts, because
they can do nothing except attack the hydroxyl of the hemiacetal, which is the reverse of
hemiacetal formation (equation a). Acid catalysts, however, can initiate continuation of the
reaction to the acetal stage. If the acid attacks the alkoxyl group, it merely is catalyzing the
reverse of hemiacetal formation (equation c). When, however, it attacks the hydroxyl group,
acetal formation can result.
.. ]
HI H
R-C_:':_OH
HI +"H ]
R-C-OR
I ..
In the reaction of ketones with alcohols, the equilibrium is so far td the left
that ketals are not formed in any appreciable amount. They are made indirectly
by an exchange reaction with either alkyl orthoformates (p. 175) or alkyl
sulfites (p. 108).
+ (R'O).CH
""-OR'
+ (R'O).SO
""- OR'
+ S02
7. Acid Anhydrides. Aldehydes add acid anhydrides to give the ester Qf the
hydrated aldehyde. These compounds have been classified as acylals.
OCOR'
+ (R'CO).O
In'.
""-OCOR'
OCOCH•
CH.CHO
+ (CH.CO).O
CH.CH
""-OCOCHa
This reaction and the conversion to acetals may be used to "protect" an aldehyde
group while carrying out a reaction, such as oxidation or reduction, on another
part of the molecule. After the reaction has been completed, the alkoxyl Of
acyl groups are removed by hydrolysis.
+ 2H.0
[RCH(OH).]
OCOCH.
+ 2 NaOH
+ 2 HOR'
+ 2 NaOCOCHa
Although only acids catalyze the hydrolysis of acetals, the acylals are esters of
carboxylic acids and hydrolysis is catalyzed by either acid or base.
8. Acetylenes. Acetylenes add to aldehydes and ketones in the presence of
catalysts to give alkynols.
·R'
"c=o +
R"C=CH
R-~HC=CR"
Aqueous formaldehyde and acetylene at 100° and 6 atmospheres in the presence
of cuprous carbide (copper acetylide) gives 1,4-dihydroxy-2-butyne (butynediol).
2 HCHO
+ HC=CH
CuC 2
HOCH2C=CCH20H
Potassium hydroxide dissolved in ethers of ethylene glycol (p. 742) can be used
as a catalyst for those carbonyl compounds not affected by alkali. Thus methyl
ethyl ketone and acetylene give 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-l-pentyne (methylpentynol)
which is a useful soporific.
C 2Ho-C-C-CH
The HC=C group is the ethynyl group and its introduction by means of
acetylene is called ethynylation.
9. Aldol Addition. 3 In the presence of dilute aqueous alkalies or acids,
aldehydes and ketones having at least one oc hydrogen undergo self-addition
reactions. These reactions may be repeated, and under certain conditions
complex compounds are formed. In the presence of very dilute alkalies or acids,
the product of reaction of two moles of aldehyde or ketone can be isolated.
The reaction may be written as the addition of an oc hydrogen to a carbonyl
group, and carbon to carbon.
+ R'-CHCHO
RCH=O
RCHOHCHCHO
Since the product has both an alcohol and an aldehyde function, it is known as
an aldol. Acetaldol was synthesized by Wurtz in 1872 (p. 126).
CH 3CHO
[OH-] or [H+l
+-- CH3CHOHCH2 CHO
Acetaldol or aldol
Since an excess of aldehyde always is present during an aldol addition, the question
arises as to why the aldol first formed does not continue to react with aldehyde molecules and
.give polymeric products.
CHaCHOHCH2CHO
CH3CHOHCH2CHOHCH2CHO etc.
a This reaction usually is called an aldol condensation. The term condensation, however, has
been used very loosely by organic chemists. In this text it will be used only to mean the formation of a carbon-carbon bond with the elimination of some small molecule such as water,
alcohol, or a metallic halide.
It appears that condensation between more than two nlolecules is prevented by the formation
of a sesquiacetal between a molecule of aldol and one of acetaldehyde.
CHaCHCH,CHOH
CHaCHCH,CHO
"I
CH/
OCHCH a
Although the equilibrium is sufficiently mobile that acetaldehyde can be removed readily by
distillation, the position of equilibrium lies sufficiently far to the right to prevent further aldol
condensation. On long standing two molecules of aldol react to give paraldol, an analogous
CH,-CHOH
CH aCHCH 2CHO
o --CHCH,CHOHCH
OCHCH,CHOHCH a
Paraldol
With ketones the equilibrium is so far to the left that special means of shifting
it to the right must be employed to obtain practical amounts of product.
+ CHaCOCHa
(CHa),COHCH,COCH a
Diacetone alcohol
For the production of diacetone alcohol, the acetone is passed over an insoluble
catalyst such as calcium hydroxide or barium hydroxide and the unchanged
acetone separated by distillation and recycled.
The alkaline catalysis of aldol addition introduces a new point of attack for the catalyst in
carbonyl compounds, namely the hydr.ogen a.tom~ on a carbon atom IX to a carbonyl group.
The carbon atom of the carbonyl group IS defiCient In eleCtrons because of the electron-attracting
effect of the doubly-bound oxygen atom. The resulting positive charge in turn withdraws
electrons from the IX carbon atom and permits the removal of a proton by a base. The anion
thus formed attacks the carbonyl carbon atom of a second molecule, and the product is
stabilized by acquiring a proton from a water molecule.
CH,CHO
[OWl
[RI
: CHCHO
R'CH-CHCHO
Although the electrostatic effect of the oxygen atom should make the hydrogen attached directly
to the carbonyl group more acidic t~an that on the IX carbon atom, the ion [ R-CH2-~=0]
is not as stable as the ion
resonance (p. 154).
[R-~H-CH=O
because only the latter is stabilized by
In the acid-catalyzed reaction the carbonyl group is the first point of attack, and removal of
a proton from the IX carbon atom follows.
RCH.C=O
The product is known as the enol form of the carbonyl compound, and the process is called
enolization. In this process the equilibrium for simple aldehydes and ketones in the fluid state'
lies far to the left. 4 In the next stage of the reaction, the 11" electrons of the enol form attack
the electron-deficient carbon atom of a second molecule of the conjugate acid (p. 235) of
the carbonyl compound.
RCHCHO
RCH 2CHOH
The aldols are characterized by the ease with which they lose water. Heating
with traces of acid or iodine gives the IX,~-unsaturated aldehyde or ketone.
CH aCHOHCH 2CHO
(CHa)2COHCH,COCHa
[H+I
CHaCH=CHCHO
Crotonic aldehyde
(CHa)2C=CHCOCHa
Mesityl oxide
Iodine catalyzes the above dehydrations, because it is an electron-seeking reagent. Familiar
evidence for this statement is the greater solubility of iodine in potassium iodide solution than in
water because of the formation of triiodide ions by the reaction 12
+ [ : !:;-]
[Ia -j.
A related phenomenon is the brown color of solutions of iodine in alcohol in contrast to the
violet color of solutions in hexane (cf. p. 449).
Concentrated sodium hydroxide solutions convert aldehydes having at least
two IX hydrogen atoms to high molecular weight complex products known as
aldehyde resins. Aldol addition, dehydration, and polymerization types of
reaction probably playa part in their formation. The product from acetaldehyde
is a sticky viscous orange-colored oil with a characteristic odor.
Ketones are not affected appreciably by concentrated sodium hydroxide
solutions. The amide ion, however, is a stronger base than hydroxide ion, and
4 Spontaneously interconvertible isomers are called tautomers, and the phenomenon is
known as tautomerism (p. 822). Tautomerism is not to be confused with resonance. Tautomers have different structures, whereas resonance does not involve a change in the positions of the atoms in the molecule.
under anhydrous conditions sodium amide converts acetone into a cyclic
compound known as isophorone, which again is the result of a combination of
aldol addition and dehydration.
CR.
/"'OCR.
NaNH 2
O=C O=C
"'-CR. "'-CR.
Strong acids favor the trimerization of aldehydes (see 10) but lead to addition
and dehydration of ketones. For example, acetone yields mesityl oxide directly
in the acid-catalyzed reaction.
"'-C=O + CRaCOCRa
(CR3)2CORCR2COCRa
(CR.)2C=CRCOCRa
Under more vigorous conditions of catalysis and dehydration, higher condensation products are formed.
Dry HOI, ZnOl2'
or AlOia
(CH3)2C=CR-C0-CR=C(CR3)2
Phorone
RC~ ........... CR
0:::""" """'___CRa
CRa-~
ORaC
~-CRa
CH3C
~C/
CCH3
Mesitylene
The formation of mesitylene from acetone is an example of the synthesis of an
aromatic type compound (p. 416) from a member of the aliphatic series.
10. Cyclic Trimerization. Aliphatic aldehydes, but not ketones, undergo
acid-catalyzed addition to give cyclic trimers. The reaction also takes place
slowly in the absence of added catalyst.
3 RCRO
The trimer can be reconverted to the monomer by heating with or without a
catalyst and removing the lower-boiling aldehyde by distillation. Other types
of polymerization are discussed under the individual aldehydes.
The mechanism of the acid-catalyzed trimerization and detrimerization probably is as
R-C=O'.
[ R-C=O:H
R-C=O:
"'-/
/"'- OH
:0+
'-"+
R-C=O'
R-C-H
These trimers resemble the acetals in that there is no effective point of attack for basic catalysts.
Hence they are stable in neutral and alkaline solutions.
11. Addition of Aldehydes to Olefins. Aldehydes add to the carbon-carbon
double bond in the presence of acyl peroxides to give ketones. The carbonyl
carbon attaches itself to the olefin carbon atom having the most hydrogen.
+ CH2-CHR
RCOCH 2CH 2R
The reaction takes place by a chain mechanism catalyzed by free radicals. Initiation of the
reaction is due to methyl radicals produced by the decomposition of acetyl pe.roxide.
(CH3CO)202
2 CH 3COO .
+ CH3 .
+ CH 2=CHR
RCOCH 2CHR
+ RCHO
RCOCH 2 CHR
2 CH 3 .
+ 2 COs
+ CH4
+ RCO
Light also decomposes aldehydes into free acyl radicals which can initiate the addition.
ADDITION AND
1. Ammonia. Reaction products of aldehydes with ammonia have been
isolated which appear to result from the addition of ammonia to the carbonyl
group. The initial product, however, is unstable and loses water to give an
aldimine, RCH=NH, which polymerizes to a cyclic trimer.
[R~~H]
[RCH=NH]
NH.
3 [RCH=NH]
The product from acetaldehyde and ammonia, known as aldehyde-ammonia,
is a crystalline trihydrate of the cyclic compound. Ketones do not yield analogous
products, but the initial addition of ammonia to the carbonyl group undoubtedly
takes place in reactions such as the Strecker synthesis of IX-amino acids (p. 303).
Ketones may react with ammonia to give aldol-type condensation products
2. Hydroxylamine. Aldehydes and ketones add hydroxylamine, the hydroxy
derivative of ammonia, to give an unstable initial product analogous to that
formed by addition of ammonia to the carbonyl group, but the subsequent loss
of water gives a stable monomolecular product known as an oxime.
~ [R-i~H]
+ H.NOH
NHOH
Hydroxylamine
RCH=NOH
An aldoxime
[R.c/
"NHOH
R.C=NOH
A ketoxime
The product from acetaldehyde, CH3 CH=NOH, is called acetaldoxime, that from
acetone is acetoxime, and that from methyl ethyl ketone, CHaCC2H5)C=NOH,
is methyl ethyl ketoxime. Homologous compounds are named in the same
When oximes are heated with an excess of aqueous hydrochloric acid, they
are hydrolyzed with the regeneration of the aldehyde or ketone and hydroxylamine hydrochloride.
+ HCl + H.O
+ [HONHJ Cl-
The oximes are both weak bases and weak acids. They are more soluble in
cold dilute acids or cold dilute alkali than they are in water.
~HOH] Cl-
[RCH
NOH + NaOH
[RCH=NO-] Na+
However, the oximes are much weaker bases (Kb = 6 X 10- for acetoxime)
than hydroxylamine (Kb = 1 X 10-8 ). Use is made of this fact in a procedure
for the estimation of aldehydes and ketones. After reaction of the carbonyl
compound with hydroxylamine hydrochloride, the hydrogen chloride liberated
is titrated with standard alkali using a suitable indicator (Bromophenol Blue).
+ [H.NOH]Cl-
RCH-NOH
+ HCl + H 20
Oximes frequently are crystalline solids and thus are useful derivatives for
the identification of aldehydes and ketones. They are useful also for the synthesis
of primary amines (p. 232) and alkyl cyanides (p. 250), and as intermediates
in opening the rings of cyclic ketones (p. 841).
3. Substituted Hydrazines. Hydrazine has the formula H 2NNH 2, and although
it reacts with aldehydes an~ ketones, the final product may not be typical. The
substituted hydrazines having one free amino group (NH2 group) behave in a
regular fashion analogous to hydroxylamine.
R 2CO
+ H2N-NHR'
[RC HHNH-NHR']
RCH=N-NHR'
An aldehyde hydrazone
N-NHR'
A ketone hydrazone
The hydrazines most commonly used are (1) phenylhydrazine, C6H5NHNH2'
and substituted phenylhydrazines, the products being known as phenylhydrazones, and (2) semicarbazide (sometimes called semicarbazine) H 2NNHCONH 2,
the products being known as semicarbazones.
(CH3).CO
CH 3CH=O
H.NNHC 6H s
+ H 2NNHCONH
(CH3)2C NNHC6HS + H 20
Acetone phenylhydrazone
CH 3CH=NNHCONH 2 + H 20
Acetaldehyde semicarbazone
Whereas the simpler aldehydes and ketones usually are liquids, many of the
phenylhydrazones and semicarbazones are crystalline solids which can be
purified readily and have definite melting points. Like the oximes they are
useful derivatives for the identification of aldehydes and ketones.
The reactions of aldehydes and ketones with hydroxylamine and semicarbazine take place
most readily at a hydrogen ion concentration such that the reagent is half converted into its
salt. A satisfactory mechanism is one in which the reaction is catalyzed by acids, but the
reagent reacts by way of its free amino groups.
R 2C-OM
~HR
-..
[R 2C=OH]
[R'TJH]
("NHR
H2NR
[R2~-OH]
H2N-R
[R2C
+~HR
R 2C
Aldehydes are oxidized easily to acids even by mild oxidizing agents. However,
in the absence of other easily oxidized groups, the common oxidizing agents
such as nitric acid, chromic acid or potassium permanganate are used.
3 RCHO -I- Na.Cr.O, -I- 4 H.SO.
3 RCOOH -I- Na.SO. -I- Cr.(SO.).
Ketones on the other hand are fairly stable to oxidation. When oxidation is
fQrced by using strong oxidizing agents under vigorous conditions, the carbon
chain is broken and a mixture of acids having fewer carbon atoms is produced.
+ HOOCCH2R'
RCH 2COOH + HOOCR'
Little is known about the mechanism of oxidation of aldehydes and ketones to acids. It might
be expected to take place through the hydrate by a mechanism analogous to that for the
oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones (p. 106). However, a
study of the oxidation of the aromatic aldehyde, benzaldehyde, indicates that in acid solution,
permanganate ion attacks the carbonyl carbon atom, whereas a free-radical mechanism operates
in alkaline solution (p. 533).
Because of the difference between the ease of oxidation of aldehydes and
ketones, it is possible to choose oxidizing agents which will attack aldehydes
and not ketones, and to use the reaction as a distinguishing test. Some mild
oxidizing agents used for this purpose are: Fehling solution, an alkaline solution
of a cupric complex with sodium tartrate (p. 809); Benedict solution, a cupric
complex with sodium citrate (p. 810); and Tollens reagent, an ammoniacal
solution of silver hydroxide. All behave like solutions of the metallic hydroxides.
With Fehling and Benedict solutions, the copper is reduced to the cuprous
state, which does not form a stable complex with tartrate or citrate ion and
precipitates as cuprous oxide.
RCHO -I- 2 CU(OH)2
RCOON;
+ C1I20t + 3 H 20
Jf the precipitation of cuprous oxide takes place in the presence of protective
colloids, it is finely divided and yellow, but if formed in the absence of protective
colloids, it has a larger particle size and is red. With Tollens reagent, metallic
silver is the reduction product.
+ 2 Ag(NH3)20H
RCOO~IH.
+ 2 Agi- + H 0 + 3 NH3
If the vessel in which the latter reaction takes place is clean and the rate of
deposition slow enough, the silver deposits as a coherent silver mirror; otherwise
it is a gray to black finely-divided precipitate. s
Neither cupric nor silver salts will oxidize aldehydes rapidly in neutral or acid solution, and
alkali precipitates the very insoluble hydroxides. In order to keep the hydroxides in solution,
use is made of complex ion formation. For silver hydroxide, the complex used is Ag(NH.).OH.
Fehling solution is prepared from copper sulfate, sodium hydroxide, and sodium potassium
6 Tollens reagent should be freshly prepared and discarded immediately after use. On
standing, silver imide, Ag.NH, is formed along with some silver amide, AgNH. and silver
azide, Ag.N, all of which are violently explosive.
tartrate (Rochelle salts, p. 809). The reagent is not very stable, however, and the solution of
copper sulfate is not mixed with the alkaline tartrate solution UI1til just before use. Benedict
solution is prepared from copper sulfate, sodium citrate (p. 810), and a milder base, sodium
carbonate, and is indefinitely stable. The nature of the cupric ion complexes is discussed on
MISCELLANEOUS TESTS AND REACTIONS
I. Schiff Fuchsin Aldehyde Reagent. Fuchsin is a magenta dye (p. 681) which
can be decolorized in aqueous solution by sulfur dioxide. In the presence of
aldehydes, but not ketones, a magenta color reappears. The reaction is not
specific for aldehydes, since anything which removes sulfur dioxide, for example
mild alkalies, amines, or even heating or exposure to air, will regenerate the
color, but in the absence of such interferences it serves to distinguish aldehydes
from ketones.
The reaction with aldehydes is not merely a combination with sulfur dioxide
and regeneration of the original fuchsin. The color is due to a reaction product
of the aldehyde and the dye (p. 681). Thus the hue of the color produced differs
with different aldehydes; for example, the color produced by formaldehyde is
bluer than that produced by acetaldehyde. Moreover strong mineral acids
destroy the color produced by acetaldehyde but not that produced by formaldehyde.
2. Replacement of Oxygen by Halogen. When aldehydes or ketones react
with phosphorus pentachloride or phosphorus pentabromide, the oxygen of
the carbonyl group is replaced by two halogen atoms.
+ PXs -+
RCHX.
+ POXa
The fact that both halogens in the product are combined with the same carbon
atom is further confirmation that the oxygen atom in aldehydes and ketones is
attached by a double bond to a single carbon atom. The reaction is of little
importance otherwise.
3. Salt Formation. The hydrogen atoms on a carbon atom oc to a carbonyl
group are sufficiently acidic (p. 100) to react with alkali metals and form salts.
Thus acetone reacts readily with metallic sodium and hydrogen is evolved.
CH 3COCHs + Na
[CHaCOCH.-]Na
Because the product can act as a basic catalyst, it is accompanied by the alkaIicatalyzed condensation products of acetone (p. 208). Acetone is so weak an
acid that its salts are completely hydrolyzed by water.
The ion [RCOCH.] is a resonance hybrid (Fig. 45; cf. p. 154). As such it is identical with
~z
R-~_
Fig. 45. Resonance in the enolate ion.
the enolate ion, [R~~H'J' by which name it usually is known. At one time it was believed
that the ketone was isomerized to the enol form (p. 207) before reaction with the metal.
RCCHa
-~
In acid-catalyzed reactions, for example the acid-catalyzed aldol condensation (p. 207) or
the acid-catalyzed exchange of hydrogen for deuterium, the enol form undoubtedly is an
intermediate.
RCCH,R ~ [RCCH,RJ
oII
1IB
[RC=CHRJ
[B -1
[RCCHDR]
[B=J"
- - RCCHDR
1IB"0
In base-catalyzed reactions, however, such as the base-catalyzed aldol addition (p.206) or
the base-catalyzed deuterium exchange, the enol is not a necessary intermediate.
RCCHDR
4. Enol Acetate Formation. Aldehydes and ketones react with acetic anhydride
in the presence of potassium acetate or with acetyl chloride to give esters of
the enol form.
RCH.CHO + (CHaCO).O
CHaCOOK
RCCH,R + ClCOCHa
RCH=CHOCOCHa + CHaCOOH
RC=CHR + HCl
Hydrolysis of the ester regenerates the carbonyl compound, since the enol form
is not stable.
RCCH,R
RC=CHR + NaOH
5. Halogenation and the Haloform Reaction. The rJ. hydrogen atoms of
aldehydes and ketones, like those of acyl halides (p. 162), readily undergo
substitution by halogen.
RCH.CHO __ HX + RCHXCHO __ HX + RCX.CHO
RCOCH a
HX + RCOCH.X ~ HX + RCOCHX.
HX+ RCOCXa
In alkaline solution hypo halite ion also acts as a halogenating agent. After one
hydrogen is substituted, a second and third on the same carbon atom are
substituted with increasing ease. Hence substitution once started continues on
the same carbon atom until all of the hydrogen is replaced by halogen. The
trisubstitution product is not stable in alkaline solution, and a secondary
reaction follows in which the alkali gecomposes the trisubstituted molecule to
give a trihalogenated methane and the sodium salt of a carboxylic acid.
RCOCXa + HONa ~ RCOONa + HCXs
Trihalogenated me thanes yield formic acid on hydrolysis, which led Dumas to
give them the general name haloforms (chloroform, bromoform, and iodoform).
To obtain a haloform from a carbonyl compound, at least one group united
to the carbonyl group must be methyl. The other group may be hydrogen or
any group linked through carbon, provided that any hydrogen atoms remaining
on this carbon atom are not substituted more readily than those of the methyl
group, and provided that other substituents in the group do not reduce the
reactivity of the methyl group by steric hindrance. Acetic acid does not give a
haloform because the acetyl group is united to oxygen, which reduces the effect
of the carbonyl group on the IX hydrogen atoms by resonance (p. 154). Acetoacetic
acid, CH3COCH2COOH, substitutes on the methylene rather than the methyl
group to give CH3COCX 2COOH, which reacts with alkali to give the sodium
salts of acetic acid and a dihaloacetic acid (cf. p. 821).
CHsCOCX.COOH
CH.COONa
+ HCX.COONa + H.O
Pinacolone (p. 217) gives bromoform but does not give iodoform because the
highly branched I-butyl group prevents the reaction from proceeding beyond
the diiodinated stage.
(CH.).CCOCH s + 2 NaOI
(CH.)aCCOCHI.
Occasionally compounds not expected to react give iodoform. The reaction of acetoxime may
be explained by the fact that it is a nitrogen analog of a ketone or that hydrolysis to acetone
precedes formation of the haloform. The reaction of pulegone (p. 854) can be explained by its
decomposition by alkali to give acetone. 2-Methyl-2-butene probably is converted first to
methyl isopropyl ketone during the reaction (p. 742).
Not only do carbonyl compounds meeting the stated conditions undergo
the haloform reaction, but all substances which oxidize to such compounds
under the conditions of the reaction, for example properly constituted alcohols,
also yield haloform.
+ NaOX
RCOCH. + 3 NaOX
RCHOHCH.
+ NaX + H.O
HCX. + RCOONa + 2 NaOH
RCOCH.
The practical importance of the haluform reaction is its use to distinguish
between different possible structures. For example acetaldehyde is the only
aldehyde, and ethyl alcohol is the only primary alcohol which gives a haloform.
The two largest groups of compounds responding to the reaction are the methyl
ketones and alkylmethylcarbinols. For conducting such a test, the reaction
with alkali and iodine is used since iodoform is a yellow crystalline solid which
is identified readily by its melting point.
The halogenation of aldehydes and ketones is catalyzed by acids and by bases, and it has
been shown that it is the enol form or the enolate ion that reacts with the halogenating agent
(cf. p. 214). The rate of reaction is dependent on the concentration of the ketone and on the
concentration of the acid or base, but is independent of the concentration or the kind of halogen.
In the acid-catalyzed reaction the carbonyl group is the initial point of attack and the essential
steps may be represented by the following equilibria.
RCCH.R
[~~~H.RJ
RC-1HR
Tire effect of adding the proton to the carbonyl group is to increase its attraction for electrons
and hence make it easier for the rx hydrogen to leave as a proton. Since halogen also is electronattracting. a second hydrogen atom is replaced still more readily than the first hydrogen atom,
thus accounting for the unsymmetrical substitution. In basic catalysis the initial step is removal
of a proton from an rx carbon atom, and the chief halogenating agent is the hypo halite ion.
RCCHR
RCCHR]
)(.or HOX
[n-]
Here again after the first hydrogen atom is substituted by halogen, the electron-attracting effect
of the halogen makes the second hydrogen atom more readily removed than the first, and
unsymmetrical substitution results.
The substitution of the rx hydrogen of acyl halides by halogen (p. 162) undoubtedly follows
the same course as the acid-catalyzed haloform reaction. Monocarboxylic acids do not
halogenate readily because the electron-attracting effect of the carbonyl group is reduced by
resonance (p. 154). If, however, two carboxyl groups <ire present on the same carbon atom,
substitution proceeds rapidly (p. 303).
6. Reduction of the Carbonyl Group to a Methyl or Methylene Group. A
carbonyl group may be converted to a methyl or methylene group by reducing
first to the alcohol and then converting the alcohol to the halide and reducing
the halide to the hydrocarbon (p. 126); or the .alcohol may be converted to
the olefin and the double bond reduced catalytically (p. 127). However more
direct methods are possible. In the WolJf-Kishner reduction the aldehyde or
ketone is heated with hydrazine in the presence of sodium ethoxide at 200°.
The reduction presumably takes place by formation of the hydrazone, which
decomposes under the influence of the sodium ethoxide.
+ H.NNH.
+ RCH=NNH.
RCHa
+ N.
NaOC.Hs
.The Clemmensen reduction consists of refluxing the compound with concentrated
hydrochloric acid in the presence of amalgam:ued zinc. 6
+ 2 Zn(Hg) + 4 HCl
P.. 2CH 2
+ 2 ZnCl + H 0
6 A pair of metals in contact, one of which is above hydrogen in the electromotive series and
the other one below hydrogen in the series, is knowi1 as a couple. Common examples are
amalgam'l.ted aluminum, amalgamated zinc, aluminum'copper couple, and zinc-copper couple.
Usually the couples are more reactive as reducing agent~ than are the pure metals. The reducing
action of metals depends on the tendency of the metitl atoms to form positive ions, leaving
electrons available at the metal surface to be supplied to other ions or molecules and bring
about their reduction. The positive ions formed from the pure metals tend to be held by the
negative charge remaining, and the molecules or ions bei.ng reduced are prevented from reaching
the electrons left on the surface of the metal. If metals li.ke aluminum and zinc are involved and
the reaction is with water, the insoluble hydroxides prOduced form an adherent coating on the
surface of the metal, which stops the reaction. With the couples the electrons freed by solution
of the active metal are transferred to the less active metal, and reduction takes place at the
surface of the inactive metal, which is distant from the site of solution of the active metal.
Since sodium is one of the most active metals and SOljium hydroxide is very soluble in water,
reaction of sodium with water is violent. Here am"llgamation decreases the reactivity by
forming the much less reactive compound Na.Hg. As a result, reductions with sodium amalgam
may be carried out in aqueous and even slightly acidic: solutions.
It is easier to carry out than the Wolff-Kishner reduction but is not so satisfactory
for the reduction of aldehydes, because they undergo condensation and
polymerization reactions too readily in the presence of strong acids.
7. Reduction to Glycols and Pinacols. When sodium reacts with an aldehyde
in water-saturated ether, or with amalgamated magnesium, two moles couple
with the formation of a 1,2-dihydroxy compound known as a glycol.
+ 2 Na + H.O(in ether)
RCHOHCHOHR
The reduction with magnesium ordinarily is carried out under anhydrous
conditions, the salt of the glycol being obtained. The glycol is liberated by a
weak acid. Ketones behave similarly, and the ditertiary glycols produced are
called pinacols.
2 R.CO
2 CH,COOH
R 2C-O-J
Mg++
[ R.C-O-
+ Mg(Hg)~
R.COHCOHR.
+ Mg(OCOCH3).
The name pinacol is derived from the Greek word pinax meaning plate and
refers to the crystalline structure of pinacol itself, (CHa)2COHCOH(CHa)2' the
reduction product of acetone.
Strong acids cause dehydration and molecular rearrangement of pinacols to
ketones.
RaCCOR
Pinacol rearranges to the compound (CH3)3CCOCH3 known as pinacolone,
and the general reaction is called a pinacol-pinacolone rearrangement.
The mechanism of the rearrangement may be expressed by the following series of reactions.
CH 3 CHa
CHa-C--C-CH3
Pi naco I
CHa +OH
HiO
CH.-C-C-CHa
Iy-I
(1+ ~I
HO: :OH
CH3-C--C-CH3
CHa-C--C-CH.
/I
Pinacolone
Mechanism of the Reduction of Organic Compounds by Active Metals
Three types of reduction of carbonyl ::ompounds by active metals have been noted, namely
reduction to alcohols, reduction to pinacols, and Clemmensen reduction to the hydrocarbon.
An attempt to explain the formation of these different products is of interest.
Before considering the reduction of organic compounds. it may be well to discuss the reaction
of active metals with proton-donating liquids to form molecular hydrogen. The electromotive
series indicates the tendency of elements to lose electrons and form positive ions in solution.
Hydrogen united to an electron-attracting element such as oxygen can accept an electron from
any element above hydrogen in the electromotive series, the hydrogen atom leaving its electron
with the electron-attracting element; that is, it leaves the compound as a proton and becomes
a hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom is adsorbed on the surface of the metal by pairing its
electron with one from a metal atom. Simultaneously a metal cation goes into solution.
II: 0: II
Na+ : OH
It is not certain how molecular hydrogen is formed. In one likely mechanism it is assumed that
numerous hydrogen atoms may be adsorbed on the metal surface and that, because of the
mobility of electrons in a metal, the hydrogen atoms may migrate over the surface of the metal.
When two hydrogen atoms collide, a covalent bond may be formed between them and the
molecule desorbed as gaseous hydrogen.
Na+ :O:H
II:O:II
Na :H
Na I'
An analogous mechanism can be used to explain the various types of reduction of carbonyl
compounds. The doubly-bound oxygen atom in a carbonyl group makes the carbon atom
deficient in electrons, much as the hydrogen atom of a water molecule or alcohol molecule is
deficient in electrons. Accordingly this carbon atom is adsorbed at the surface of the metal just
as a proton would be. In the absence of a proton-donating molecule, two such adsorbed molecules on collision could couple, giving rise to the salt of a pinacol.
Na : C(CHa).
+ 2C(CHa).
C(CHa).
C(CH a)2
Na : C(CHa)2
Na+ :0:
In the presence of a proton-donating solvent, the adsorbed molecule of the carbonyl compound may react with an adsorbed hydrogen atom to give the alkoxide ion of the simple
Na+ -OR
Nal' + HOR
Na .
Na [.
Na : fR 2
:h. 11
In certain special cases the course of the reaction is different in slightly add solution than in
leutral solution. Here it may be assumed that the protonated rather than the free carbonyl
ompound is adsorbed, which could give rise to a differently oriented absorption complex.
+ CR.
+ O-H
Nal :H
Na'
I: I
The Clemmensen reduction takes place in the presence of concentrated aqueous hydrochloric
acid, and the best yield is obtained if the concentration of the ketone is kept low by dissolving
it in a water-immiscible solvent. It would appear that the high acid concentration leads to
adsorption of the oxonium salt on the metal surface. Satisfaction of the electron deficiency on
the carbon atom by adsorption permits the oxygen atom to react with another proton, which
permits elimination of the oxygen as a water molecule, solution of a zinc ion, and formation
of an adsorbed methylene radical.
Zn [:
_.
Zn : CR.
Zn ': CR.
Zn++
:O-H
: CR.
The adsorbed methylene radical may react successively with two adsorbed hydrogen atoms.
with the formation of the hydrocarbon and positive metallic ion. By keeping the concentration
of the adsorbed ketone low, the formation of bimolecular reduction products is decreased.
2fH+)
Zn :H
8. Cannizzaro Reaction. Those aldehydes that lack an (X hydrogen atom
cannot undergo aldol addition. When they are heated with strong alkali,
however, an intermolecular oxidation and reduction takes place in which one
molecule acts as a reducing agent and is oxidized to the acid, and the other
acts as an oxidizing agent and is reduced to the alcohol. In the presence of the
alkali, the acid appears as the salt.
2 HCHO + NaOH --+
HCOO-+Na + CHsOH
2 R 3 CCHO + NaOH --+
RsCCOO-+Na + RsCCH.OH
The mechanism of this reaction is discussed on page 535. Under certain conditions even
aldehydes having oc hydrogen undergo a Cannizzaro reaction. For example, if i-butyraldehyde
is heated with aqueous barium hydroxide in a sealed tube at 1500 • a quantitative yield of i-butyl
alcohol and barium i-butyrate is produced. Similarly i-valeraldehyde and n-heptaldehyde, when
heated for a few hours with calcium oxide at 100°, give the corresponding alcohols and calcium
salts as the chief products. With i-butyraldehyde an initial rapid reversible aldol addition takes
place, which is followed by the slower irreversible Cannizzaro re.action.
9. Tishchenko Reaction. When aldehydes are heated with an aluminum
alkoxide, usually aluminum ethoxide or isopropoxide activated by a small
amount of anhydrous aluminum chloride or zinc chloride, an intermolecular
oxidation and reduction similar to the Cannizzaro reaction takes place. However,
instead of the alcohol and acid appearing as such, the product is the ester.
Al(OR)3
2RCHO
RCOOR
Thus acetaldehyde gives ethyl acetate, and n-butyraldehyde gives butyl butyrate.
Industrially Important Aldehydes and Ketones
Formaldehyde was prepared first by Butlerov 7 in 1859, more than fourteen
years after the isolation of acetaldehyde by Liebig. In 1868 Hofmann (p. 229)
obtained formaldehyde by oxidizing methanol with air in the presence of a
platinum catalyst. Two methods of air oxidation are used commercially. In the
older procedure a rich mixture of methanol and air (l v. : 1 v.) is passed over
a silver catalyst at 635°. Practically all of the oxygen is used, and the off-gases
contain 18 to 20 per cent of hydrogen, indicating that the process is a combined
dehydrogenation and oxidation. The formaldehyde and excess methanol are
absorbed in water and the solution concentrated by distillation to 37 per cent
formaldehyde. The formaldehyde is present in solution as methylene glycol,
CH2(OHb and its polymers, HO(CH20)xH, where x has an average value of 3.
This solution is called formalin. Ordinary formalin contains 7 to 10 per cent
methanol in summer and 10 to 15 per cent in winter to prevent separation of
polymer. Formalin free of methanol also is transported for industrial use but
must be kept warm (ca. 30°) to prevent precipitation of polymer. In the more
recent process a lean mixture of air and 5 to 10 per cent methanol by volume
is passed over an iron oxide-molybdenum oxide catalyst. Formaldehyde almost
free of methanol is obtained and the off-gases contain oxygen and no hydrogen.
Formaldehyde also is formed during the controlled air-oxidation of natural gas
or propane-butane mixtures in the vapor phase at 350° to 450°. Methane yields
chiefly methyl alcohol and formaldehyde. Propane-butane mixtures give chiefly
formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, and methyl alcohol, together with acetone, propyl
and butyl alcohols, and organic acids.
Although formaldehyde can be liquefied readily (b. p. _21°), it cannot be
handled safely in this form because it polymerizes easily even at temperatures
just above its freezing point (-118°), and no effective stabilizers are known.
Besides the aqueous solution, formalin, formaldehyde is transported and stored
as the polymer known as paraformaldehyde, which is prepared by concentrating
7 Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828- J 886), eminent Russian chemist and professor at
the Universities of Kazan and St. Petersburg. He was the first to prepare aqueous formaldehyde,
paraformaldehyde, hexamethylenetetramine, and the carbohydrate mixture formed by the
action of dilute calcium hydroxide on formaldehyde. He was a strong advocate of the structural
concept of organic chemistry and was the first to use the expression "the chemical structure of
organic compounds." Butlerov prepared the first tertiary alcohol by the action of methylzinc
on acetyl chloride. His studies of the reactions of I-butyl alcohol led him to the preparation of
the isomeric butanes and butenes and to the discovery of the polymerization of isobutylene and
the acid-catalyzed equilibrium between the two diisobutylenes (p. 62).
formalin at reduced pressure. It is a linear polymer of the formula HO(CH20)xH.
where x has an average value of around 30. When x is less than 12, the product
is soluble in water, acetone, or ether, but the higher polymers are insoluble.
Slow solution of the higher polymers in water is accompanied by hydrolysis to
fragments of lower molecular weight.
Polymers having average molecular weights exceeding 150,000 have been
obtained from pure liquid formaldehyde at low temperature. Formaldehyde
also gives solid polymers when the gas comes in contact with solid surfaces at
temperatures below 137°. Gaseous formaldehyde is prepared most conveniently
by heating any of the solid polymers above this temperature.
When a 60-65 per cent aqueous solution of formaldehyde is distilled with
2 per cent sulfuric acid, the cyclic trimer (p. 208), 1,3,5-trioxane, may be
extracted from the distillate. It is a colorless highly refractive crystalline
compound melting at 62° and boiling without decomposition or depolymerization at 115°. It has a pleasant odor resembling that of chloroform, in contrast
to the sharp odor of formaldehyde, and is soluble in water and organic solvents.
Strong acids initiate depolymerization, as with all compounds of this type,
and it promises to be useful as a source of formaldehyde in reactions carried
out in nonaqueous solutIons.
Formaldehyde undergoes a number of reactions which most other aldeh~des
do not, because (1) it has only hydrogen atoms attached to the carbonyl group
and js more reactive than other aldehydes, just as the aldehydes are more
reactive than ketones, and (2) having only one carbon atom it does not have
!Y. hydrogen atoms and cannot undergo aldol-type additions with itself. For
example, reaction with ammpnia does not" lead to an aldehyde-ammonia.
Instead the initial addition product reacts further and a compound is obtained
which has the formula (CH2)6N4 and is called hexamethylenetetramine.
/C\
I "c~~/ C~21
CH z
~,/
This organic compound was the first whose structure, based on valence theory
and chemical reactions, was confirmed by X-ray diffraction.
Hexamethylenetetramine assumed importance during World War II as an intermediate for
the manufacture of the high explosive trimethylenetrinitramine (cyclonite, hexogen, RDX).
Nitration was carried out in the presence of ammonium nitrate or ammonium sulfate, which
permitted utilization of 80-90 per cent of the methylene groups.
['tH2'" / C([-
~IY
Trimethylenetrinitramine is one of the most powerful organic explosives and has a greater
brisance than TNT (p. 464). Up to 30 per cent was mixed with TNT to insure complete
detonation of large bombs and to increase the force of the explosion.
Lacking ex. hydrogen atoms, formaldehyde does not give aldehyde resins with
concentrated alkali, but undergoes the Cannizzaro reaction (p. 219). With dilute
alkali a complex series of self-additions (p. 386) produces a mixture of sugars
known as formose.
DU. Ca(OHa)
A specific test for formaldehyde is the production of a violet color with casein
of milk in the presence of ferric chloride and concentrated sulfuric acid. The
test is sensitive to one part of formaldehyde in 200,000 parts of milk. This test
was important in the enforcement of the law against the addition offormaldehyde
as a preservative. It can be used as a general test for formaldehyde simply by
adding to milk the material to be tested and then applying the test. Formaldehyde
can be estimated quantitatively by measuring the amount of hydrogen evolved
on reaction with alkaline hydrogen peroxide solution (p. 879).
2 CH.O
+ H 0. + 2 NaOH
2 HCOONa
+ 2 H 0 + H.
Formaldehyde has some use as a disinfectant and for the preservation of
biological specimens, but its chief use is for the manufacture of synthetic resins
by condensation with urea (p. 314), melamine (p. 321), or phenol (p. 511).
Frequently paraformaldehyde or hexamethylenetetramine may replace formalin
for this purpose. Formaldehyde is used also to make pentaerythritol which is
important for the manufacture of drying oils (p. 187) and the high explosive
pentaerythritol nitrate (PETN) (p. 752). Another high explosive, trimethylene
trinitramine (cyc1onite, RDX, hexogen), is derived from hexamethylenetetramine (p. 221). Hexamethylenetetramine when taken internally is excreted
in the urine and hydrolyzed to formaldehyde when the urine is acid. At one
time it was used medicinally as a urinary antiseptic under the name methenamine
or urotropin, but has been replaced largely by the sulfa drugs (p. 488) and
mandelic acid (p. 562). In the United States the production of formalin (37 per
cent) in 1940 was 181 million pounds and it increased to over 1.2 billion pounds
in 1955. The unit value is around 3 cents per pound.
Acetaldehyde is made commercially by the hydration of acetylene and by
the air oxidation of ethyl alcohol over a silver catalyst. Since 1945 large amounts
have been produced by the controlled air-oxidation of the propane-butane
mixture from natural gas (p. 220). Some acetaldehyde is obtained as a by-product
of the fermentation industries (p. 91). It boils at 20°, is miscible with water
and organic solvents, and behaves typically in all of its reactions. The chief
importance of acetaldehyde is its use as an intermediate for the synthesis of
other organic compounds, especially acetic acid (p. 159) and acetic anhydride
(p. 164) by air oxidation, n-butyl alcohol by condensation to crotonic aldehyde
followed by catalytic reduction,
DB.
on pumice
and ethyl acetate made by the Tishchenko reaction (p. 220). Acetaldehyde also
is used in the manufacture of rubber accelerators (p. 712), of the trimer,
paraldehyde, and of the tetramer, metaldehyde. Paraldehyde is a stable liquid,
b. p. 125°, which is depolymerized readily by heating with acids, and hence is a
convenient source of acetaldehyde. Paraldehyde first was used medicinally as a
sleep-producer (hypnotic or soporific) in 1882. It still is considered to be very
efficient and one of the least toxic hypnotics. The chief objections to its use
are that it is a liquid with a burning disagreeable taste, and that, bec~use it is
eliminated largely through the lungs, a patient's breath may smell of paraldehyde
for as long as twenty-four hours after actministration. Metaldehyde is formed
when acetaldehyde is treated with traces of acids or sulfur dioxide below 0°.
One of the catalysts used commercially is a mixture of calcium nitrate and
hydrogen bromide at -20°. The product is a solid tetramer which, like
paraldehyde, has a cyclic structure.
CH-O
Ca(NO a)•• HBr
4CH aCHO
at -20·
o/
CHCH.
I·
O-CH
Like paraldehyde it is depolymerized to acetaldehyde by heat. Since it is a
solid and has a fairly high vapor pressure in spite of its high melting point
(m.p. 246°, sublimes below 150°), it is used as a convenient solid fuel for heating
liquids or foods under unusual conditions when other fuels are not available
or not satisfactory. Large quantities are used also in garden baits, the vapors
being attractive and yet highly toxic to slugs and snails.
n-Butyraldehyde and i-butyraldehyde can be made by the dehydrogenation of
the alcohols. A more important method, however, is the oxo process based on
an American observation in 1929 and developed in Germany during World
War II. It consists of bringing a slurry of cobalt salt and olefin, or a solution
of preformed dicobalt octacarbonyl, Co 2(CO)s, and cobalt tetracarbonyl
hydride, HCO(CO)4 (p. 904), in contact with carbon monoxide and hydrogen at
150° and 200 atmospheres. Propylene gives n-butyraldehyde and i-butyraldehyde
in the ratio of 3 : 2.
In the commercial operation of this reaction, a mixture of octyl alcohols
containing chiefly 2-ethylhexanol also is produced. This alcohol probably arises
by aldol addition of two moles of n-butyraldehyde, dehydration, and hydrogenation.
CHaCH.CH.CHOHCHCHO
CHaCH.CH.CH=C-CHO
CHaCH.CH.CH.CHCH.OH
If one of the carbon atoms of the double bond is doubly substituted, only
one product is formed. For example, isobutylene gives only isovaleraldehyde.
(CH 3),C=CH, + CO + H. -+ (CH3)2CHCH2CHO
Moreover if the double bond is not terminal, isomerization to the terminal
position takes place before reaction. Thus the mixture of diisobutylenes (p. 62)
gives only 3,5,5-trimethylhexanal (so-called "nonyl aldehyde").
(CH.)3CCH,C(CH.)=CH,
(CH.)aCCH=C(CH 3),
+ CO + H,
(CH3)aCCH,CH(CH3)CH,CHO
The aldehydes produced by the oxo synthesis usually are reduced to alcohols
(p. 198) or oxidized to acids (p. 212). Thus a mixture of primary octyl alcohols
is produced from the catalytic reduction of the aldehydes made from mixed
heptenes. n-Butyraldehyde is used to manufacture rubber accelerators (p. 712)
and polyvinyl butyral (p. 737). Aldehydes having seven to sixteen carbon atoms
are used in perfumery. n-Heptaldehyde is one of the products of the destructive
distillation of castor oil (p. 789).
Acetone is by far the most important ketone. It formerly was obtained by
the destructive distillation of calcium acetate prepared from pyroligneous
liquor (p. 158) but now is produced chiefly by the dehydrogenation of i-propyl
alcohol. More recently a process has been reported in which the uncatalyzed
oxidation of isopropyl alcohol with air yields acetone and hydrogen peroxide
as the major products.
(CH 3),CHOH
(CH 3),CO
+ H,O,
It also is one of the products of the butyl alcohol fermentation of carbohydrates
(p. 96). The last process, in fact, was developed for the production of acetone
during World War I because other sources were inadequate to supply the needs
of the British for the manufacture of cordite, their standard smokeless powder
(p. 401).8 Since 1954 acetone has been obtained as a co-product of the synthesis
of phenol (p. 511) and p-cresol (p. 515).
The chief use of acetone is as a solvent for cellulose acetate (p. 403), for
cellulose nitrate (p. 401), and for acetylene (p. 134). In recent years large
quantities have been pyrolyzed to ketene, an intermediate in the manufacture
of acetic anhydride (p. 164).
CH.COCH.
CH.=C=O
CH,=C=O
+ HOCOCH3 -+
CHaCO-0-COCH3
Other uses of acetone are in the manufacture of other chemicals such as
diacetone alcohol, mesityl oxide, and phorone (p. 208). Production in 1955
amounted to over 539 million pounds of which 5 per cent was obtained by
fermentation, 81 per cent from i-propyl alcohol, and 14 per cent from other
sources. The unit value was 6 cents per pound.
8 Scientists rarely have influenced directly the decisions of politicians and statesmen, but it
has been stated that the Balfour Declaration establishing Palestine as a national home for the
Hebrews was the result of Lloyd George's gratitude to Chaim Weizmann (1874-1952) for
developing this process for the production of acetone. Weizmann later became the first president
of the new state of Israel.
Methyl. ethrl ketone is made by the. dehydrogenation of s-butyl alcohol and
by t~e oXldatIo? of butane (p. 159). It IS known technically by the initials MEK
and IS used chIefly as a solvent for dewaxing lubricating oils. Methyl i-butyl
ketone is made by the controlled catalytic reduction of mesityl oxide (p. 208).
1. What chemical evidence can be given for the presence of a carbonyl group in aldehydes
and ketones?
2. Compare the boiling points and solubilities of aldehydes and ketones with those of other
types of compounds discussed so far.
3. How does the Meerwein-Ponndorf reduction differ from the Oppenauer oxidation?
4. Compare the similarities and differences in the reactions of acetals and .ethers.
5. Discuss the applications and limitations of the Cannizzaro reaction.
6. Compare the reactions of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde with ammonia and with sodium
hydroxide solution.
7. Discuss the polymerization of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde and compare their behavior
with that of ketones.
8. Discuss the behavior of aldehydes and ketones to saturated sodium bisulfite solution. Of
what value is the reaction?
9. Describe three simple tests that may be used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
10. Write condensed structural formulas and give two names for each of the compounds
belonging to the following groups: (a) aldehydes having five carbon atoms or less; (h) ketones having three, four, five, and six carbon atoms; (c) dialkyl derivatives of acetaldehyde having seven carbon atoms or less; (d) dialkyl ketones having nine carbon atoms.
11. Give balanced equations for the following oxidations:
A. (a) Ethyl akohol to acetaldehyde with dichromate and sulfuric acid; (b) n-butyraldehyde
to n-butyric acid with alkaline permanganate; (c) lauryl alcohol to dodecanal with
t-butyl chromate; (d) 2-octanol to 2-octanone with chromium trioxide in acetic acid.
B. (a) i-Propyl alcohol to acetone with dichromate and sulfuric acid; (b) n-heptaldehyde to
n-heptoic acid with nitric acid; (c) 3-pentanol to diethyl ketone with chromium trioxide
in acetic acid; (d) hexadecanol to hexadecanal with,l-butyl chromate.
C. (a) Pelargonic aldehyde to pelargonic acid with alkaline permanganate; (b) n-propyl
alcohol to propionaldehyde with acid dichromate; (c) di-n-propylcarbinol to butyrone
with chromium trioxide in acetic acid; (d) ethyl ether to acetic acid with acid permanganate.
12. Starting with the proper aldehyde, give a reaction for the synthesis of the following
A. (a) DiethyIcarbinoI; (b) 2,5-dihydroxy-3-hexyne; (c) propiona1doxime; (d) 3-hydroxybutanaI; (e) I-heptano!.
B. (a) 3-Hydroxy-l-butyne; (b) i-butyl alcohol; (c) heptanaldoxime; (d) 2-pentanol; (e)
2-methyI-3-hydroxypentanaI.
C. (a) 3-Hydroxy-2-ethylhexanaI; (b) i-butyraldoxime; (c) 3,6-dihydroxy-4-octyne; (d)
3,5,5-trimethylhexanol; (e) 2-methyl-3-hexanol.
13. Starting with the proper ketone, give reactions for the synthesis of the following compounds:
A. (a) 2-Methyl-2-butanol; (b) diethylketoxime; (c) 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-I-pentyne; (d)
3,4-dimethyl-3,4-dihydroxyhexane; (e) methyl-i-propylcarbino!.
B. (a) 3-Pentanol; (b) 2,5-dimethyl-2,5-dihydroxy-3-hexyne; (c) 2,3-dimethyl-2-butanol;
(d) methyl-i-butyl ketoxime; (e) 4,5-dimethyl-4,5-dihydroxyoctane.
C. (a) 4,4-Dimethyl-2-pentanone oxime; (b) 3,4-diethyl-3,4-dihydroxyhexane; (c) 2,4-dlmethyl-3-hexanol; Cd) 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-l-butyne; (e) methyldiethylcarbinol.
A. (a) Methyl ethyl ketone and sodium hypoiodite; (b) acetone ~nd semicarbazide; (c)
propionaldehyde and acetic anhydride; (d) Clemmensen reductIOn of ~-nonano~e; (e)
2-octanone and hydrogen cyanide; if) acetaldehyde and t-butylmagneslUm chlonde.
B. (a) i-Butyraldehyde and hydrogen cyanide; (b) 2-pentanone and i-propylmagnesium
bromide; (c) 2-octanol and sodium hypochlorite; (d) n-butyraldehyde and acetic
anhydride; (e) diethyl ketone and hydroxylamine; if) Meerwein-Ponndorf reduction of
valerone.
C. (a) 3-Hexanone and phenylhydrazine; (b) diethylacetaldehyde and hydrogen cyanide;
(c) 3-hexanone and s-butylmagnesium iodide; (d) Wolff-Kishner reduction of butyrone;
(e) methyl isobutyl ketone and sodium hypobromite; Cf) i-butyraldehyde and acetic
Of the following groups of compounds, name the members that give a positive iodoform
test: (a) aldehydes and ketones having four carbon atoms or less; (b) five-carbon ketones;
(c) alcohols having four carbon atoms or less.
Describe a series of chemical tests that could be used to distinguish between the members of the following groups of compounds: (a) methyl-n-propylcarbinol, 3:pentanol,
n-amyl alcohol, and dimethylethylcarbinol; (b) ethyl-i-propylcarbinol, dimethyl-npropylcarbinol, methyl-i-butylcarbinol, and i-hexyl alcohol; (c) methyl alcohol, ethyl
alcohol, 2-propanol and t-butyl alcohol; (d) formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acetone, and
diethyl ketone.
Devise procedures for obtaining the components of the following mixtures in a reasonably
pure state: (a) nonyl alcohol, pelargonic aldehyde) and nonane; (b) 2-octanone t 2-octanol,
and capric acid; (c) I-nonanol, 5-nonanone, and I-nonyne; (d) lauryl alcohol, dodecanal, and hexyl ether.
Give reactions indicating how the following groups of compounds could be prepared from
the indicated compounds as the starting point: (a) n-butyl alcohol, n-hexyl alcohol,
n-butyraldehyde, n-hexaldehyde, and 1,3-hexanediol from acetaldehyde; (b) 2-ethylhexanol,
2-ethyl-I ,3-hexanediol, 2-ethylbutanol, and 2-ethyl-I )-butanediol from n-butyraldehyde or
n-butyraldehyde and acetaldehyde; (c) 5-ethyl-2-nonanol, 5,11-diethyl-8-pentadecanol, and
2-methyl-7-ethyl-4-undecanol from 2-ethylhexanal and acetone; (d) mesityl oxide, methyl
i-butyl ketone, di-i-butylcatbinol, and 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol from acetone.
Give a series of reactions for the following conversions: (a) n-butyraldehyde to n-hexane;
(b) i-butyl bromide to i-valeraldehyde; (c) heptanoic acid to 3-nonanol; (d) i-propyl ether
to i-butyl alcohol; (e) i-butyraldehyde to i-butyl iodide; (f) ethyl palmitate to hexadecanal;
(g) propionic acid to methyldiethylcarbinol; (h) I-pentene to 2-methyl-l-pentanol; (i)
diethyl ketone to 2-methyl-3-ethyl-2-pentene; (j) n-butyl alcohol to 2-ethyl-3-hydroxyhexanal; (k) propionaldehyde to n-propyl ether; (I) 3-pentanol to triethylcarbinol; (m)
ethyl alcohol to acetal; (n) ethyl butyrate to butyrone; (0) methyl ethyl ketone to 2-butene;
(p) methylacetylene to i-propyl alcohol; (q) heptaldehyde to i-propyln-hexyl ketone; (r)
s-butyl alcohol to 3,4-dimethyl-3,4-hexanediol; (s) acetic acid to pinacol; (t) 3-hexene to
3-hexanone; (u) acetylene to ethyl alcohol; (v) oleic acid to nonyl alcohol; (w) n-amyl
bromide to n-hexyl bromide.
A hydrocarbon having a molecular weight of 95 ± 5 decolorized aqueous permanganate
with the formation of a brown precipitate. After allowing the compound to react with an
excess of permanganate, two products were isolated, an acid having a neutralization
equivalent of 74 and a neutral compound that formed an oxime and gave a positive iodoform test. Give a structure for the hydrocarbon and balanced equations for the reactions
involved.
An unknown compound formed a monoxime, reduced Fehling solution, gave iodoform
on treatment with hypoiodite solution, and evolved methane on treatment with methylmagnesium iodide. Oxidation gave an acid which on purification and titration was found
to have an equivalent weight of 116. The acid still formed an oxime and gave a positive
iodoform test but no longer reduced Fehling solution. Write a possible structural formula
for the compound and show the reactions it undergoes.
Compound A evolved hydrogen when warmed wIth metallic sodium. When 0.2 g. was
treated with methylmagnesium iodide in a Zerevitinov apparatus, 34.5 cc. (S.T.P.) of
methane was evolved. When compound A was heated with sulfuric acid, it gave chiefly a
single lower-boiling compound, B, which decolorized bromine in carbon tetrachloride.
Ozonolysis of B gave two products, C and D, neither of which produced a color with
Schiff reagent and both of which gave iodoform when treated with sodium hypoiodite.
Reduction of D, the higher boiling of the two compounds, with hydrogen and platinum
gave an alcohol which was dehydrated to an olefin E. Ozonolysis of E gave two products,
one of which produced a color with Schiff reagent and the other did not. Give a structural
formula for A, and the reactions that are described.
23. An unknown compound A reacted with hot hydrogen bromide to form two different
halogen compounds Band C, which were separated by fractional distillation. Compound
B on treatment with moist silver oxide gave a compound D which did not react at once
with a cold mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride, but on standing
gave an insoluble liquid. Compound C likewise gave a new substance E on treatment with
moist silver oxide, but E did not react at all with cold hydrochloric acid-zinc chloride
mixture. Both D and E gave iodoform on treatment with iodine in alkaline solution. When
E was oxidized under the proper conditions, an aldehyde F was obtained, which on treatment with methylmagnesium iodide solution and decomposition with water gave a compound identical with D. Write the structural formula for A, and illustrate by equations all
of the reactions involved.
24. A compound having the molecular formula C 6 H 12 0 reacted with hydroxylamine but did
not reduce Tollens reagent. Reduction with hydrogen and platinum gave an alcohol which
was dehydrated to give chiefly a single olefin. Ozonation and decomposition of the ozonide
gave two liquid products, one of which reduced Tollens reagent but did not give a positive
iodoform test whereas the other did not reduce Tollens reagent but did give a positive
iodoform test. Give the structure of the original compound and show the reactions it
undergoes.
25. An alkyl halide A was converted into the corresponding Grignard reagent which was
allowed to react with i-butyraldehyde. After decomposition with water a compound B was
obtained which reacted readily with hydrogen bromide to give another alkyl halide C.
Compound C likewise was converted into the Grignard reagent and decomposed with
water to give a fourth compound D. When the original compound A was heated with
metallic sodium, a compound identical with D was obtained. Write a structural formula
for A and give all of the reactions involved.
26. A compound having the molecular formula C,H 160 did not react with sodium or phosphorus trichloride. After warming with concentrated sulfuric acid, diluting and distilling,
a mixture was obtained which could not be separated satisfactorily by fractional distillation.
After the mixture was oxidized by means of dichromic acid, an acidic product was isolated
having a neutralization equivalent of 74, and a neutral product which reacted with semicarbazine, but did not reduce Tollens reagent. Give the structure of the original compound
and show the reactions that took place.
27. A water-insoluble compound dissolved when boiled with aqueous sodium hydroxide. A
distillate from the alkaline solution gave a positive iodoform reaction. When the distillate
was heated with sodium dichromate and sulfuric acid and distilled again, the distillate gave
a positive Schiff reaction. When the alkaline solution was acidified, a water-insoluble
compound was formed which, when passed over thoria at 400 gave a product that no
longer was soluble in aqueous alkali but formed a semicarbazone. When this product was
refluxed with amalgamated zinc and hydrochloric acid, a product was formed identical
with that obtained by heating undecanal with hydrazine and sodium ethoxide. Give a
formula for the original compound and equations for the reactions involved.
ALIPHATIC NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
Structurally the organic oxygen compounds have been considered as derivatives
of the water molecule. Similarly many of the organic nitrogen compounds may
be considered as ammonia molecules in which the hydrogen atoms have been
replaced by other groups. Since nitrogen has three replaceable hydrogen atoms
instead of two as in water, the number of possible combinations is increased.
H 2O
RCOOCOR
RNH2
R2NH
R3 N
RC(NH)NH2
RCONHR
RCONR 2
RC(NH)OR
RCONHCOR
RCH=NH
R 2C'=NH
primary amines
secondary amines
tertiary amines
amides
amidines
N-alkyl amides
N, N-dialkyl amides
imido esters
imides
aldimines
ketimines
This list is not complete, but contains the types of compounds most frequently
encountered. Substituents on nitrogen other than hydrogen, alkyl, and acyl also
may be present as for example in the cyanides (p. 249), the isocyanides (p. 256),
the oximes (p. 210), the hydrazones (p. 211), and the nitro compounds (p. 258).
Aliphatic amines are alkyl substitution products of ammonia and are named
as such, ammonia being contracted to amine. Thus CH3NH2 is methylamine,
(CH3)2NH is dimethylamine, and (CH3)3N is trimethylamine. With mixed amines
the alkyl groups frequently are named in the order of increasing complexity,
for example CH3(C 2H 5)NCH(CH3)2 is methylethyl-i-propylamine. Compounds
in which the nitrogen atom is united to one carbon atom, RNH 2, are called
primary amines; to two carbon atoms, R 2NH, secondary amines; and to three
carbon atoms, RaN, tertiary amines; The terms primary, secondary, and tertiary
reJer here to the condition oj the nitrogen atom, whereas when used with alcohols
they referred to the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group was attached.
Thus although tertiary butyl alcohol, (CH3hCOH, is a tertiary alcohol, because
the carbon atom is united to three other carbon atoms, tertiary butylamine,
(CHa)aCNH 2, is a primary amine, because the nitrogen atom is directly united
to only one carbon atom. The NH z group is called the amino group, and primary
amines having other functional groups conveniently may be named as amino
substitution products; for example, CHaCHNH2 CH2CH2 0H could be called
3-amino-l-butanol.
MIXED PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY AMINES
1. From Alkyl Halides and Ammonia. Wurtz prepared the first amines from
alkyl isocyanates (p. 317) i" 1849, but the most direct method for the preparation
of amines is by the reactiL I of ammonia with an alkyl halide, reported by
Hofmann I in 1850. In this reaction the more basic ammonia molecule displaces
chlorine as a chloride ion, the alkyl group attaching itself to the unshared pair
of electrons of the ammonia molecule.
H:N:+R:X:
This initial reaction, however, is followed by a series of secondary reactions.
Just as ammonia may be liberated from an ammonium salt by reaction with a
stronger base,
NH.CI + NaOH
NHa
+ H.O + NaCI
the free primary amine can be liberated from the alkylammonium salt.
RNH3X + NaOH
RNH.
+ H.O +
Similarly the excess of ammonia present when the alkyl halide is reacting with
ammonia will compete with the primary amine for the hydrogen halide. Since
ammonia and the amine have about the same basicity, the reaction does not
go to completion, but an equilibrium is established.
RNH3X + NH3
RNH. + NH.X
Because of its unshared pair of electrons, the primary amine thus formed also
can react with a molecule of alkyl halide and give rise to a second pair of
reactions to form a secondary amine.
+ RX
R2NH.X + NHa
R.NH.X
R.NH + NH.X
Immediately ~third pair of reactions is possible giving a tertiary amine.
RX + R2NH
RaNHX
+ NHa
RaN + NH.X
Finally a single further reaction can take place giving a quaternary ammonium
RX + RaN
R.NX
The reaction stops at this point, because there is no hydrogen attached to
nitrogen in the quaternary ammonium salt (nitrogen united to four carbon
atoms), and hence no proton can be transferred to another base.
I August Wilhelm Hofmann (1818-1895), German chemist who received his training under
Liebig, and who was professor at the Royal College of Chemistry in London from 1845 to 1864,
and at the University of Berlin from 1864 until his death. He is noted particulary for his work
on amines and for his investigations of aromatic compounds. The latter work laid the basis for
the coal tar chemical industry.
Accordingly the reaction of alkyl halides with ammonia, known as the
Hofmann method for preparing amines, gives rise to a mixture of primary,
secondary, and tertiary amines, their salts, and the quaternary ammonium salt.
Addition of strong alkali at the end of the reaction liberates a mixture of the
free amines from their salts, but the quaternary salt is not affected. It is possible
to control the reaction to a certain extent. If a very large excess of ammonia is
used, the chance that the alkyl halide will react with ammonia molecules is
greater than that it will react with amine molecules, and chiefly primary amine
is produced. If increasing amounts of alkyl halide are used, more of the other
products are formed.
The order of reactivity of the alkyl halides with ammonia and amines is
iodides> bromides> chlorides, and methyl> primary> secondary> tertiary.
Alkyl sulfates may replace alkyl halides (cf. p. 137). Because of the ease with
which tertiary alkyl halides lose halogen acid, reaction with ammonia yields
only olefin and ammonium halide.
(CHa).CCI
CH.=C(CH a).
+ NH.CI
Compounds containing an amino group attached to a tertiary carbon atom may
be prepared by the Hofmann degradation of the proper amide (p. 231), which in
turn is prepared readily by the hydrolysis of the nitrile (p. 254). They may be
prepared also by the reaction of chloroamine with a tertiary alkyl Grignard
reagent (p. 233) or by the hydrolysis of the corresponding formyl derivative
2. Catalytic Reduction of Alkyl Cyanides. Addition of four atoms of hydrogen
to the carbon-nitrogen triple bond gives a primary amine.
RC:=N
+ 2 H2
Pt or Ni
Secondary and tertiary amines are formed at the same time by the addition of
amine to the intermediate imine, followed by loss of ammonia and further
reduction, or by reductive removal of the amino group.
+ H.NR
+ RCH=NR
R-CH-NHR
~H2 ~'(Pt
or Nil
H.(Pt or Nil
RCH.NHR
The secondary amine by a similar series of reactions gives rise to the tertiary
amine. The formation of secondary and tertiary amines can be suppressed
considerably by carrying out the reduction in the presence of a large excess
of ammonia.
3. Reductive Alkylation of Ammonia. Catalytic reduction of aldehydes or
ketones in the presence of ammonia gives a mixture of amines.
+ RCH=NH
Ha(Pt or Ni)
The secondary and tertiary amines are formed in the same way as in the catalytic
reduction of alkyl cyanides. Because of side reactions, the procedure is not
satisfactory when aldehydes having less than five carbon atoms are used.
Reductive alkylation of ammonia can be brought about also by heating
carbonyl compounds with ammonium formate (Leuckart reaction). Here the
reducing agent is formic acid.
R.CO
+ HCOONH.
R.CHNH.
The primary amine may alkylate further to a secondary or tertiary amine. The
primary and secondary amines are partially converted to the formamides, from
which the amine is obtained by hydrolysis. The best yields of primary amines
(25 to 75 per cent) are obtained from ketones boiling above 100°. The Leuckart
reaction is particularly useful if other functional groups are present that would
be affected by the sodium-alcohol reduction of an oxime (p. 528).
Formaldehyde and ammonium formate give trimethylamine (EschweilerClarke reaction), and formaldehyde can be used to methylate primary or
secondary amines in the presence of formic acid.
HCHO
+ HCOONHaR
CH3NHR
PURE PRIMARY AMINES
When only one type of amine is desired, reactions that do not give mixtures
are of value. In the following reactions only the primary amine is formed.
1. From Amides (Hofmann Rearrangement). When an amide is treated with
an alkaline solution of sodium hypochlorite or sodium hypobromite, a primary
amine is formed which has one less carbon atom than the amide.
RCONH.
+ NaOX + 2 NaOH
+ Na.C03 + NaX + H.O
Several steps are involved which are discussed under the reactions of amides
When the Hofmann rearrangement is carried out in the presence of sodium hypohalite and
sodium hydroxide, a side reaction takes place with the higher primary amines, for example with
pentadecylamine from palmitamide, in which the amine is oxidized to a cyanide.
RCH.NH.
+ 2 NaOCI
+ 2 NaCl + 2 H.O
This reaction can be circumvented by using bromine and sodium methoxide as the reagents in
methyl alcohol solution, when the methyl ester of a substituted carbamic acid (p. 315) is
+ Br. + 2 NaOCHa
RNHCOOCH a + 2 NaBr
+ CH30H
Hydrolysis of the methyl ester with aqueous hydrochloric acid yields the carbamic acid, which
spontaneously loses carbon dioxide. In the presence of hydrochloric acid the amine hydrochloride (p. 234) is produced.
RNHCOOCH a + H.O
[RNHCOOH]
RNHaCl
+ CHaOH
+ CO.
Addition 01 a strong base liberates the free amine.
RNHaCI
+ NaCl + HIO
2. From Carboxylic Acids (Schmidt Reaction). Carboxylic acids that are stable
to concentrated sulfuric acid can be converted to primary amines having one
less carbon atom by means of hydrazoic acid (p. 267).
+ HNa
Since hydrazoic acid is volatile and very poisonous, it is more convenier.t to add
sodium azide to a mixture of sulfuric acid and a solution of the compound in an
inert solvent such as chloroform. The Schmidt reaction yields the same product
as the Hofmann or the Curtius (p. 268) rearrangements but is preferred for small
scale preparations because it is more direct and the yields usually are better.
3. Chemical Reduction of Alkyl Cyanides. This reaction resembles the reduction
of esters to alcohols (p. 172). The usual reagent is sodium and absolute alcohol.
+ 4 Na + 4 C.HsOH
+ 4 C.HsONa
4. Reduction of Oximes. Oximes of aldehydes or ketones also may be reduced
by sodium and alcohol to give good yields of primary amines.
+ NaOH + 3 C.HsONa
This reaction provides a method for converting aldehydes and ketones to
primary amines. Lithium aluminum hydride may be used as a reducing agent
instead of sodium and alcohol.
5. From Hexamethylenetetramine (Delepine Reaction). Reaction of hexamethylenetetramine (p. 221) with primary alkyl halides yields the quaternary
salt which can be hydrolyzed by aqueous acid to the primary amine.
[(CH.).N R]+X- + 6 H.O + 3 HX
(CH.).N4
[(CH.).N4R]+X-
RNHaX
+ 6 CH.O + 3 NH X
The amine is liberated from its salt by the addition of sodium hydroxide.
6. Other Methods. Pure primary amines can be prepared also by the reduction
of nitro compounds (p. 262) and by the hydrolysis of p-nitroalkylacetanilides
PURE SECONDARY AMINES
1. From Sodium Cyanamide and Alkyl Halides or Sulfates. Sodium cyanamide
(p. 320) reacts with alkyl halides or sulfates like many other salts, the metallic
ion being replaced by covalently bound alkyl groups.
+ Na+.[~N-C=N]
R.N-C=N
+ 2 NaX
The dialkylcyanamide hydrolyzes readily with aqueous acids or bases giving the
N,N-dialkylcarbarnic acid, which loses carbon dioxide (p. 315).
[R.NCOOH]
R.NH
In acid solution carbon dioxide is evolved and a mixture of the amine and
ammonium salts is obtained, whereas in alkaline solution the free amine,
ammonia, and alkali carbonate are formed.
2. From Chloroamines andJGrignard Reagents. Chloroamines are produced
readily from amines by the action of. sodium hypochlorite.
RNH z + NaOCl
~eplace
RNHCI
RNHCl
the chlorine. by an alkyl group.
RNHR'
+ MgClz
The reaction is particularly useful' for preparing amines containing tertiary
alkyl groups, for example di-t-butylamine, which cannot he prepared by the
reaction of tertiary halides with ammonia because of olefin formation. The
dialkylmagnesium (p. 892) may give better yields than the alkylmagnesium
chloride. The reaction also can be used, to prepare primary amines from chloroamine, ClNH2, and tertiary amines from dialkylchloroamines, CINR 2 •
3. Other Methods. Secondary amines can be obtained also by the dealkylation of tertiary amines (p. 239) and by the hydrolysis of p-nitrosodialkylanilines (p. 481).
PURE TERTIARY AMINES
Pure tertiary amines can be prepared from dialkylchloroamines and Grignard
RzNCl
RzNR'
+ MgCl z
More frequently a secondary amine is allowed to react with an excess of alkyl
halide, and the tertiary amine is separated from the accompanying quaternary
Water, ammonia, and methane have very nearly the same molecular weights,
but their boiling points are 100°, - 33°, and -161 0, respectively. The abnormally
high boiling point oLwater is explained by proton bonding between hydrogen
united to oxygen, and the un shared pair of electrons on the oxygen atom
(p. 86). The boiling point of ammonia indicates that it is not so strongly
associated as water. The nitrogen atom is nearer the center of the periodic table
than oxygen and hence has less attraction for electrons (p. 235). Therefore the
hydrogen atoms attached to nitrogen have less tendency to leave nitrogen as
protons or to be shared with other atoms than do those joined to oxygen. On
the other hand the un shared pair of electrons on nitrogen is shared more readily
with other atoms than those on oxygen. The decrease in tendency to lose a
proton accounts for the smaller degree of association.
Primary and secondary amines also are associated. Methylamine (mol. wt.
31) boils at _7° and dimethyl amine (mol. wt. 45) boils at +7°, but trimethylamine (mol. wt. 59) boils at +4°. Thus even though its molecular weight is
greater than that of dimethylamine, trimethylamine has the lower boiling point.
The explanation is that trimethylamine no longer has a hydrogen atom capable
of proton bond formation, and hence it is not associated.
There is nothing to prevent the un shared pair of electrons of tertiary amines
from forming proton bonds with water molecules, and all types of amines of low
molecular weight are soluble in water. Since amines have a greater tendency to
share their unshared pair of electrons than do alcohols, they form stronger
proton bonds with water and are somewhat more soluble. For example, n-butyl
alcohol dissolves in water to the extent of about 8 per cent at room temperature,
but n-butylamine is miscible with water; and although less than 1 per cent of
n-amyl alcohol dissolves in water, this degree of insolubility is not reached in the
amines until n-hexylamine. Like the alcohols and ethers, simple amines are
The lower amines have an odor resembling that of ammonia; the odor of
trimethylamine is described as "fishy." As the molecular weight increases, the
odors become decidedly obnoxious, but they decrease again with increasing
molecular weight and decreasing vapor pressure.
I. Basic Properties. For many purposes it is sufficient to define an acid as a
substance which yields hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, and a base as a
substance which yields hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. A more general
concept is useful in organic chemistry, because acid-base reactions are carried
out in many solvents other than water. Usually an acid is considered to be any
substance which can lose a proton, and a base is any substance having
an unshared pair of electrons which can combine with a proton. Reaction of
an acid with a base consists of the transfer of a proton from one base to
another. For example when hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, the proton is
transferred from the very weak base, chloride ion, to the stronger base, the water
[H:~ ~ H] :~I -:
Hydronium chloride
If :vnmonia is added to the water solution of hydrogen chloride, the proton is
transferred from the water molecule to the stronger base, the ammonia molecule.
[NH, +]
Similarly the hydroxide ion displaces the weaker base, ammonia, from the
ammonium ion.
+ [ -: ~H]
In general the aliphatic amines are slightly stronger bases than ammonia and
form salts with acids in aqueous solution. They are liberated from their salts
by stronger bases such as aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide.
The amine salts are named either as substituted ammonium salts or as acid
addition products; for example CH3NH3CI may be called methyl ammonium
chloride or trimethylamine hydrochloride. In the older literature the amine
salts frequently are represented by formulas such as CH3NH2'HCI, which is
equivalent to writing ammonium chloride as NH3·HCl.
In the same manner as ammonia forms an insoluble salt with chloroplatinic
acid, (NH4)2PtCIs, so the amine salts, for example (RNH3)2PtCls, are insoluble
and are used for analytical purposes. To determine the equivalent weight of an
amine, it is necessary only to ignite a weighed sample of its chloroplatinate and
weigh the residue of platinum.
Calcium chloride may not be used for removing water from amines, because
it is solvated by them just as it is by water and ammonia. Arnines usually are
dried with potassium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, or barium oxide.
General Concepts of Acids and Bases
If a base is defined as a substance having an unshared pair of electrons which can combine
with a proton, then differences in basicity are due to the relative availability of the
unshared pair of electrons for filling the orbital of a proton. The more strongly the pair is held
by the base, the weaker the basic properties of the substance; the more loosely the pair is held,
the stronger the basic properties of the substance. Conversely if the pair of electrons is shared
with a proton, the more strongly the pair is held by the base, the easier it is to lose a proton and
the stronger the acidic properties of the substance; the more weakly the electrons are held by
the base, the more difficult it is to lose a proton and the weaker the acidic properties of the
substance. For example the acidity of the hydrides of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine
increases from left to right across the periodic table. For those hydrides having an unshared
pair of electrons, the basicity decreases from ammonia to water to hydrogen fluoride. Of the
ions CH 3-, NH,-, OH-, and F-, met hide ion is the strongest base and fluoride ion the weakest.
The order of basicity or acidity within a given series is due to the increasing charge on the
nucleus of the central atom, which exerts an increasingly stronger pull on the electrons and
holds them more strongly. Similarly the ions are more basic than the respective neutral molecules, because the negative charge on the ions makes the electrons less strongly held than in the
case of the neutral molecules. In a series H.O, RCH.OH, R,CHOH, R.COH; or RCH,O-,
R 2CHO-, R 3CO-; or NH 3, RNH2 , R,NH, R3N; or NH,-, RNH-, R,N-, if R is an alkyl
group, which has an electron-donating effect (p. 60), it would be expected, in the absence of
steric effects (p. 117) or solvation, that in each series the basicity would increase and the acidity
decrease. That other factors do playa part is shown, for example, by the order of basicity of
ammonia and the methylamines in aqueous solutions which is NH3 < (CH3)3N < < CH.NH. <
(CH 3),NH (cf. p. 896). Substituents in the R group affect the acidity depending on whether
the substituents are electron-attracting or electron-repelling. A few common types of molecules
and ions are listed in the order of increasing acidity and in the order of decreasing basicity.
INCREASING STRENGTH
AS ACIDS
R.NH, RNH.
R 3COH, R.CI-ioH, RCH.OH
R3NH+, R.NH.\ RNH3+
NH.+
H 2C0 3
R.OH+, ROH.+
H30 +
RCONH 3+
RCOOH s+
DECREASING STRENGTH
AS BASES
CH 3R.N-, RNHNH.RaCO-, R.CHO-, RCH.OOHCNRaN, R.NH, RNH.
HCO aRCOOR.O, ROH
X-
Acids and bases related to each other, such as ammonia and ammonium ion, or hydroxide
ion and water, are said to be conjugate to each other. Thus ammonia is the cOnjugate base of
ammonium ion, and ammonium ion is the conjugate acid of ammonia; hydroxide ion is the
conjugate base of water, and water is the conjugate acid of hydroxide ion.
This concept usually is called the Bronsted 2 theory of acids and bases although Lowry 3 had
published a paper expressing similar views several months before Brensted. It is of interest that
Lewis 4 in his book on the theory of valence, which was copyrighted in 1923, the same year that
the papers of Lowry and Bronsted were published, states that "the definition of an acid or a
base as a substance which gives up or takes up hydrogen ion would be more general than the
one used before, although it will not be universal." Thus Lewis considered the concept at least
as early as Lowry and Bnmsted, but discarded it in favor of a more general one.
The fundamental process being considered is the union of a proton lacking a pair of electrons
with an ion or molecule that has an unshared pair of electrons.
[H:ttH]
H: 0: + [H+]
[H':~H]
H: N: + [H+]
[H :
~ -: ]
Entirely analogous processes, however, can take place between any ion or molecule lacking a
pair of electrons in its valence shell and any ion or molecule having an unshared pair of electrons.
Ammonia, for example, forms a stable complex with boron chloride.
H:N: +B:CI
H:N:B:CI
H CI
Accordingly Lewis classed boron chloride as an acid and defined an acid as a substance which
can fill the valence shell of one of its atoms with an unshared pair of electrons from another
molecule. In favor of this concept is the fact that substances such as boron fluoride, aluminum
chloride, zinc chloride, or stannic chloride can catalyze the same types of reaction, for example
polymerization of olefins (p. 63) or the formation of ethers (p. 138), as can a proton.
Lewis revived his ideas in a paper in 1938, and such compounds often are called Lewis acids.
When this definition of an acid is used, it should be remembered that hydrogen chloride, sulfuric
acid, acetic acid, and in fact any of the countless number of substances that from the beginning
of chemistry have been called acids, are not acids under the Lewis definition. The acid as
defined by Lewis is the bare unsolvated proton, which is practically incapable of existence.
Moreover substances such as cupric ion, which seldom are considered as acids, are acids in the
Lewis sense, because they can fill their valence shell with unshared pairs from other molecules,
as when cupric ion reacts with ammonia molecules to give the cupric-ammonia complex ion.
Cu++ + 4 NH3
]++
HaN : ~u : NH.
2 J. N. Bronsted (1879-1947), director of the Fysisk-Kemiske Institute of Copenhagen.
chief contributions were in the fields of electrolytes and reaction kinetics.
3 Thomas Martin Lqwry (1878-1936), professor of physical chemistry at Cambridge
University. He is noted for his investigations in the fields of optical rotatory power and of
proton transfer reactions.
4 Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875-1946), professor of physical chemistry at the University of
California. He is noted for his development of the electronic theory of valency, for his work
in chemical thermodynamics, and for his investigations of deuterium and the absorption spectra
of organio compounds.
Instead of calling all types of compounds capable of accepting a pair of electrons acids,
Sidgwick 5 in his book on valency published in 1927 called them electron-acceptors, thus leaving
the term acid for those compounds capable of transferring a proton to a base. Perhaps a better
term than electron-acceptor for reagents, such as boron trifluoride, aluminum chloride, stannic
chloride, or zinc chloride, that behave like a proton, would be protonoid or protonoid reagent.
This term would imply properties similar to those of a proton but would not group these
compounds with the substances commonly called acids.
2. Alkylation. Since ammonia reacts with alkyl halides to give a mixture of
primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, and quaternary ammonium salt
(p. 229), amines also can react with alkyl halides to give secondary or tertiary
amines, or quaternary salts.
3. Acylation. Acyl halides, acid anhydrides, and esters react with primary and
secondary amines, just as they do with ammonia, to give amides. Tertiary
amines do not give amides, because they do not contain a replaceable hydrogen
+ R'COX
RNHCOR'
+ RNHaX
+ R'COOH
+ R"OH
2 RNH.
R'COOR"
The reaction with acyl halides requires two moles of amine, only one of which
can be acylated because the second mole combines with the hydrogen halide.
Although an acid is formed in the second reaction, it is a weak acid, and the
salt of a weak base and a weak acid dissociates sufficiently to produce the
acylated amine when heated with an excess of anhydride. Hence all of the amine
can be converted into amide by this procedure.
The products formed are known as N-substituted amides, the N referring to the
nitrogen atom of the amide. Thus the reaction product of methylamine with
acetic anhydride, CH3 CONHCH3 , is called N-methylacetamide. Secondary
amines in the above reactions yield N,N-disubstituted amides. i-Butyryl chloride
and diethylamine give N,N-diethyl-i-butyramide, (CH 3hCHCON(C 2H 5 )2'
An important application of the acylation reaction is the separation of tertiary
amines from a mixture with primary and secondary amines. After acetylation
with acetic anhydride, the unchanged tertiary amine may be separated from the
higher boiling amides by distillation, or by extraction with dilute acid. The
tertiary amine is basic and forms water-soluble salts whereas the amides are
neutral. Similarly acylation can be used to distinguish tertiary amines from
primary or secondary amines.
4. Isocyanide (Carbylamine) Test for Primary Amines. When a primary amine
is heated with chloroform and a few drops of an alcoholic solution of sodium
hydroxide, an isocyanide (isonitrile or carby/amine) is formed.
+ CHCla + 3 NaOH
+ 3 NaCl + 3 H 0
Reactions involving chloroform and strong alkali appear to take place by way of the highly
reactive dichloromethylene radical (p. 175).
[ : CCl,]
+ KCI + H,O
5 Nevil Vincent Sidgwick (1873-1952), professor of chemistry at Oxford University. His
writings did much to disseminate ideas arising from the application of physical methods to
organic chemical problems.
In the presence of a primary amine an inner salt is formed which resembles an ylide (p. 243).
RNH,
+ [: CCI,]
[Rr;m. g ~CI.J
Loss of two moles of hydrogen chloride gives the isocyanide.
[R~H2 g ~CI2J
+ 2 KOH
2 KCl
In the electronic structure of the isocyanide, the nitrogen atom shares with the carbon atom
one pair of electrons that in the amine were owned exclusively by nitrogen. Hence nitrogen
acquires a unit positive charge and the carbon atom a unit negative charge, and the formula
may be written R-N+=-C. Sometimes it is written R-N~C to indicate that one pair of
electrons came from the nitrogen atom. A covalent bond in which one atom has supplied both
electrons thus giving rise to a difference in charge of one electron between two atoms in the same
molecule is known as a semipolar bond, dative bond, or coordinate covalence. The ammonia-boron
chloride complex (p. 236) also contains a semipolar bond.
+_
o·
Cl, HaN-BCla, or HaN -+ BCla
However, the bond formed when an ammonia or amine molecule combines with a proton is
not a semi polar bond, because the proton carries with it a positive charge which neutralizes
the negative charge it otherwise would have acquired by sharing half of the pair of electrons
belonging to the nitrogen atom.
H: N:
Thus only the nitrogen atom carries a positive charge and the four N-H bonds are all
equivalent covalent bonds.
The isocyanides are characterized by a very disagreeable odor which can be
detected in minute amounts and which makes the reaction suitable to distinguish
primary amines from secondary and tertiary amines. When combined with the
acylation reaction, which differentiates primary and secondary amines from
tertiary amines, a procedure is available for distinguishing between the three
types. Because of the sensitivity of the isocyanide test, secondary amines may
contain enough primary amine to give a positive test. If the test is made on a
sufficiently small amount of amine (less than 1 mg.), a primary amine will give
a positive test, but a secondary amine containing 2 per cent primary amine as
impurity will not. The sensitivity of the test naturally depends on the volatility
of the isocyanide produced. A more satisfactory method for distinguishing the
three types of amines is discussed on page 471.
5. Reactions with Nitrous Acid. The behavior of amines toward nitrous acid
depends on the conditions of the reaction and on the type of amine. In the
absence of a strong acid, all types of amines yield amine nitrites.
RNHrNO.
The reaction may be carried out by passing carbon dioxide into a suspension of
finely divided sodium nitrite in a solution of the amine in methyl alcohol.
Di-i-propylammonium nitrite and dicyclohexylammonium nitrite (p. l>43) are
used as rust inhibitors. They volatilize slowly by dissociation into the free amine
and are used in the packaging of machinery and parts.
In the presence of a strong acid, primary amines react with nitrous acid with
the evolution of nitrogen. The other products of the reaction depend on the
structure of the alkyl group. Usually a mixture of substances is obtained which
may contain the expected alcohol or rearranged products, an olefin, an alcohol
derivative such as an ether or, if the reaction is carried out in the presence of
halogen acid, an alkyl halide.
(HX)
Alcohol, ether,
alkyl halide,
or olefin mixture
+ N2 + H 20
Ethylamine, for example, gives 60 per cent ethyl alcohol and traces of ethers;
n-propylamine gives 7 per cent n-propyl alcohol, 32 per cent i-propyl alcohol,
and 28 per cent propylene; n-butylamine gives 25 per cent n-butyl alcohol,
13 per cent s-butyl alcohol, 8 per cent n- and s-butyl chlorides, and 36 per cent
1- and 2-butenes. Although the complexity of the reaction makes it of little
value for preparative purposes, the evolution of nitrogen can be made quantitative, and the reaction is used to estimate primary amino groups.
In strongly acid solutions, the nitrosating agent probably is chiefly the nitrosonium ion
formed from the nitrous acid.
HONO
+ 2 [X-] + [+NO]
Addition of the nitrosonium ion to the unshared pair of electrons of the amino group and loss
of a proton yields the nitroso derivative which rearranges to the unstable diazohydroxide.
+ [+NO]
+ [RNHNO]
[RN
NOH]
Loss of nitrogen gives the alkyl carbonium ion.
[RN=NOH] + HX ~ [R+] + N2 + H 20 + [X-]
The carbonium ion can be stabilized by loss of a proton arid give the olefin, or it can, before
or after rearrangement, combine with [X-] or abstract [OH-] from a water molecule or [-OR]
from an alcohol molecule to give alkyl halides, alcohols, and ethers.
Secondary amines yield nitrosoamines, which are yellowish in color. Since
they are amides of nitrous acid, they are non basic and insoluble in dilute
acids (p. 246).
Tertiary amines remain in solution as their salts, from which they can be
recovered by the addition of alkali. If the reaction of tertiary amines with nitrous
acid goes beyond salt formation, it is complex, the chief products being aldehydes
and the nitroso derivatives of secondary amines.
6. Conversion of Tertiary Amines to Secondary Amines (von Braun Reaction 6 ).
Tertiary amines react with cyanogen bromide (p. 319) to give quaternary salts
which decompose spontaneously into dialkylcyanamides.
RaN:
Br: CN
[RaN-CN]Br-
R 2N-CN
+ RBr
• Julius von Braun (1875-1939), professor at Frankfurt University. His work dealt chiefly
with organic nitrogen compounds. Several methods of opening nitrogen heterocycles bear his
name, and he was the first to synthesize a ten-membered ring and a ring bridging the meta
positions of a benzene ring (p. 848).
If the alkyl groups are not alike, the smallest group is eliminated preferentially
as alkyl halide. Hydrolysis of the cyanamide gives the carbamic acid, which
loses carbon dioxide spontaneously, forming the secondary amine (p. 232).
7. Oxidation of Tertiary Amines. When tertiary amines react with aqueous
hydrogen peroxide, amine oxides are formed.
The mechanism of this reaction appears to be the simple displacement of hydroxide ion from
a molecule of hydrogen peroxide followed by removal of a proton from the hydroxyal1l11t08ium
ion (p. 279).
[OH
[RaN: OR]
RaN : O
Like the isocyanides (p. 238), the amine oxides contain a semipolar bond or coordinate
covalency. Here it is between nitrogen and oxygen, and the formula may be written RaN+--O or
RaN -+ O. The presence of the semipolar bond gives rise to a high dipole moment (p, = 4.87 D)
which in turn causes the boiling point to be abnormally high. Trimethylamine oxide of
molecular weight 75 does not distill at temperatures up to 180°, where it decomposes, whereas
dimethylethylamine of molecular weight 73 boils at 38°.
The amine oxides are less basic than amines but form salts with strong acids.
Trimethylamine oxide has been isolated from the muscles of several varieties of
marine animals such as the octopus and the spiny dogfish.
Individual Amines
Methylamine, dimethyl amine, and trimethylamine occur in herring brine and
are distributed widely in other natural products, probably as the result of
the decomposition or metabolism of nitrogenous compounds. They are
manufactured commercially by passing a mixture of methyl alcohol and ammonia
over heated alumina.
CHaOH
CHaaR
This procedure has not been practical for alcohols that can be dehydrated
because they yield chiefly olefins. Methylamine hydrochloride is formed along
with some di- and trimethylamine hydrochlorides when a solution of ammonium chloride in formalin is evaporated to dryness.
NH4CI
+ 2 HCHO
CH.NH a+Cl-
+ HCOOH
If solid ammonium chloride and paraformaldehyde are mixed and heated,
trimethylamine hydrochloride is formed.
2 NH4CI
2 (CHs).NHCI
+ 3 COl + 3 HIO
These reactions probably are reductive alkylations (p. 230). Trimethylamine also
can be prepared by the dry distillation of beet sugar residues which contain
betaine (p. 785).
2 (CH.).N+CH 2COO-
2 (CH.)"N
+ CH2=CH2 + 2 CO 2
Although all three amines are obtained in the commercial synthesis, dimethylamine is the most important. U.S. consumption in 1954 was over 14 million
pounds. The three chief uses were for the preparation of dimethylamine salts of
2,4-D and 2,4,5-T used as herbicides (p. 514), of ultra accelerators for rubber
vulcanization (p. 324), and of dimethylformamide (p. 247) used as a solvent in
the spinning of acrylic fibers (p. 788). Originally dimethylamine was used chiefly
as a dehairiI1g agent for kid hides. The total quantity used for this purpose has
remained about constant, but it now accounts for only about 2 per cent of
production. There are numerous minor uses for methylamine but most of it is
recycled. The chief use for trimethylamine is for the manufacture of choline
chloride (p. 243) used in animal feeds. Excess trimethylamine may be utilized by
conversion into dimethylamine and methyl chloride, or into ammonium chloride
and methyl chloride.
(CHs)sNHCI
(CHs)"NHCI
NH4Cl
3 CH"Cl
n-Butylantines are prepared commercially from butyl chloride and ammonia,
and the amyl amines from amyl chlorides and amJJlonia. All have a wide variety
of uses, for example as antioxidants and corrosion inhibitors, absorbents for
acid gases, and in the manufacture of oil-soluble soaps. Higber normal amines
are made by the reduction of nitriles obtained from fat acids through the
amides (p. 254).
QUATERNARY AMMONIUM SALTS
The end-product of the reaction of ammonia or of an amine with an alkyl
halide is a quaternary ammonium salt (p. 229). The properties of these salts are
quite unlike those of the ~amine salts, since the nitrogen no longer carries a
hydrogen atom. They do not dissociate into amine and acid on heating, and
strong alkalies have no effect on them. When a £'ol\ltion of a q\laternary ammonium halide is shaken with silver hydroxide, or when a quaternary ammonium
acid sulfate solution reacts with barium hydroxide, the insoluble silver halide
or barium sulfate precipitates leaving the quatemary ammonium hydroxide in
AgOH
[R 4N+jOH-
+ Ba(OHh
[R4N+jOH-
+ BaS04 + H 20
[R4N+jX-
[R4N+jS04H-
The quaternary ammonium hydroxide dissociates completely into its ions in
aqueous solution, and hence it has the same basic strength in water as sodium or
potassium hydroxide. For example glass is etched by solutions of quaternary
ammonium hydroxides just as it is by solutions of sodium hydroxide. When a
quaternary ammonium salt is decomposed by heat, it dissociates into tertiary
amine and alkyl halide. In other words the reaction for the formation of
quaternary salts can be reversed at high temperatures.
lR4N+]X-
llea\
----+-
Chemistry of Organic Compound'}
An analogous reaction can be used for the esterifkation of sterically hindered
acids. The acid is converted to the quaternary ammonium salt which is
decomposed by heat.
[(CH,),N+][OOCCR,]
(CHa)3N
+ CH aOCOCR 3
When tetramethylammonium hydroxide is heated, the products are trimethylamine and methyl alcohol.
[(CH 3),N+]OH-
(CH 3laN
+ CH 30H
If an alkyl group capable of forming an olefin is present, a tertiary amine,
olefin, and water are formed.
[(CH3)aNC.H.]OH-
(CH 3).N
+ C.H, + H.O
This reaction is useful for introducing the double bond into complex compounds and for opening the rings of nitrogen heterocycles (p. 621).
In the dissociation reactions of the quaternary compounds the negative ion merely displaces \
the amine from the ammonium ion.
+~:Rl
CH3 . ~ ~ CHa
. X: R-;- :N:R
H:O:CH,+
N: CHa
However, when a group is present which is capable of forn1ing an olefin, a reaction analogous
to the formation of an olefin from an alkyl halide takes place (p. 118). The hydroxide ion
removes a proton from the f3 carbon with simultaneous elimination of the tertiary amine.
+ : N(CH 3h
The positive charge on the nitrogen atom facilitates the removal of a proton just as the electronattraction of a halogen atom does in an alkyl halide.
A characteristic feature of the decomposition of quaternary ammonium hydroxides IS that
if there is more than one {J carbon atom and more than one type of (3 hydrogen is available, the
order of ease of elimination is primary> secondary> tertiary (Hofmann rule). For example.
the decomposition of s-butyltrimethylammonium hydrol<ide yields I-butene rather than
2-butene.
CH 3CH.CH=CH. + N(CH a)3
This course is the opposite of that which takes place in the dehydration of alcohols or in the
removal of halogen acid from alkyl halides, where the order for removal of hydrogen is
tertiary> secondary> primary (Saytzev rule), although a similar type of mechanism is
proposed in all three cases.
trimethyl-(2-hydroxyethyl)-ammonium
chloride,
[(CH3 hNCH2CH 20H) Cl-. Its quaternary ammonium ion, commonly called
choline, is an extremely important factor in biological processes and must be
supplied by the diet of the animal organism. It has been shown to be a factor
which (1) is necessary for growth, (2) affects fat transport and carbohydrate
metabolism, (3) is involved in protein metabolism, (4) prevents hemorrhagic
kidney disintegration, and (5) prevents the development of fatty livers in
depancreatinized dogs. It also is the precursor in the animal organism of
acetylcholine ion, [(CH3 hNCH 2CHPCOCH31, commonly called acetylcholine,
which is extremely important in controlling the functions of the body.
Nerve impulses arriving at the end of a motor nerve liberate a chemical which transmits the
impulse to another nerve or muscle fiber by acting on the dendrons of a postganglionic fiber
at a ganglion cell or on the end-plate region at the synapse with a muscle cell. One of these
chemical transmitters is acetylcholine and the other, called sympathin, is a mixture of epinephrine and norepinephrine (p. 529) in varying amounts. Sympathin stimulates muscular
activity whereas acetylcholine causes relaxation. The action of acetylcholine is confined to
the site where it is liberated, because the blood contains an esterase (an enzyme that catalyzes
the hydrolysis of esters) which almost immediately converts acetylcholine into the practically
inactive choline. The most toxic substances known (p. 520) are those which deactivate acetylcholine esterase and hence permit the distribution of acetylcholine throughout the organism,
thus leading to total muscular relaxation and paralysis.
Excessive activity of the sympathetic nervous system can lead to high blood pressure and
nervous irritability. It can be relieved by blocking the function of the nerve ganglia by the
administration of quaternary ammonium salts. Tetraethylammonium bromide was used first for
this purpose but has been replaced by hexamethonium (hexamethylene-bis-triethylammonium
bromide), [(C2H5)3N(CH2)6N(C2H5).]Br2-. Succinylcholine, [(CH 3).NCH 2CH 20COCH 2- ] 221-, is used instead of curare as an adjuvant in ether anesthesia (p. 652).
Quaternary ammonium salts in which one of the alkyl groups attached to
nitrogen is a long chain hydrocarbon group, such as cetyltrimethylammonium
chloride, [C16H33N(CH3)31 Cl-, have properties similar to soaps and are known
as invert soaps or cationic detergents, because the detergent action resides in a
positive ion rather than in a negative ion as is the case with ordinary soaps.
Many of these invert soaps have high germicidal action.
Many attempts have been made to obtain pentacovalent nitrogen compounds but without
success. Thus the reaction of a quaternary ammonium salt with an organolithium compound
(p. 889) might be expected to replace the halogen by an organic group.
[(CH 3).N+]Br-
+ RLi
(CH 3).NR
+ LiBr
Instead a proton is removed to give an inner salt which is called an yUde. Thus tetramethylammonium bromide yields trimethylammonium methylide.
[(CH 3).NCH 3][Br-]
(CH3)3N-CH2
+ RH + LiBr
The structure of the ylide is indicated by its reaction with methyl iodide to give trimcthylethylammonium iodide.
(CH3laN-CH2
+ CH31
[(CH3)3NCH2CH31[I-]
The monoacyl derivatives of ammonia, primary amines and secondary amines,
having the general formula RCONH 2, RCONHR, or RCONR 2 , are known as
am ides. Diacyl derivatives of ammonia, (RCOhNH, and of primary amines,
(RCOhNR, also are known and are called imides. Except for cyclic imides
(pp. 553, 797) their preparation usually is more difficult because the first acyl
group greatly reduces the basicity of the nitrogen. The preparation of triacylamines is still more difficult. From structural theory, isomeric forms of the
amides should be possible, but such isomers are tautomeric (p. 207) and have not
been isolated.
R-C-NH2
Most of the methods for preparing amides have been discussed under the
reactions of acids and acid derivatives and are merely summarized here.
1. From Acyl Halides and Ammonia or Amines (pp. 161, 237).
RCONH 2 + NH 4CI
+ 2 H2NR
RCONHR + RNHaCl
+ 2 HNR2
RCONR 2 + R 2NH 2Cl
RCOCl + 2 NHa
These reactions go to completion at room temperature. Two moles of ammonia
or amine are required per mole of acyl halide because of the inappreciable
dissociation of the amine halide at the temperature of reaction.
2. From Acid Anhydrides and Ammonia or Amines (pp. 163, 237).
RCONH. + RCOONH4
RCONHR + RCOONHaR
RCONR 2 + RCOONH 2R 2
(RCO)20 + 2 NHa
Although these reactions take place as indicated in the presence of an excess of
ammonia or amine, it is possible to convert all of an amine into amide in the
presence of an excess of anhydride because of the ease of dissociation of the
ammonium carboxylates.
RCOONHaR'
(RCO)20 + H2NR'
RCOOH + H2NR'
RCONHR' + RCOOH
Because of their greater basicity, amines react with acetic anhydride much
more rapidly than does water. Hence amines can be acetylated in aqueous
3. From Esters and Ammonia or Amines (pp. 171,237).
RCOOR' + NHa
RCONH 2 + HOR'
+H 2NR
RCONHR + HOR'
+ HNR2
RCONR 2 + HOR'
The rate of ammonolysis of an ester, like the rate of hydrolysis (p. 170),
depends on the amount of branching in the alkyl groups of the ester. It also
varies with the structure of the amine. The reaction of esters with amines is
catalyzed by ammonium chloride.
4. From Ammonium Salts by Thermal Decomposition (p. 156).
------Heat
RCOONH.
+HO
RCOONHaR
RCOONH 2 R 2
Water is removed at the temperature of decomposition, forcing the reaction to
completion. The reaction usually is carried out in the presence of an excess of
the carboxylic acid to minimize the dissociation of the salt.
5. From Other Amides by Acid Exchange. When amides are heated with
carboxylic acids, an exchange reaction takes place leading to an equilibrium
mixture of two amides and two acids.
+ R'CONH2
] f urea, the amide of carbonic acid (p. 310), is heated with a carboxylic acid
the unstable carbamic acid that is formed decomposes, and the reaction goes to
completion.
CO(NH2h
+ [H NCOOH]
6. Other Methods. Amides can be prepared also by the partial hydrolysis of
nitriles (p. 253) and by the addition of olefins to nitriles (p. 254).
The simple amides are named by replacing ic acid or oic acid in the name
of the acid by amide. Thus HCONH 2 is formamide or methanamide, and
(CH3)2CHCONH2 is i-butyramide or methylpropanamide. Amides derived
from amines are named as nitrogen substitution products; for example
CH3CONHCH3 is N-methylacetamide, or N-methylethanamide.
Most amides containing the CONH 2 group are solids. Formamide melts at 2°.
The N-alkyl substituted amides of the aliphatic acids usually are liquids. Amides
are associated by proton bonding and have high boiling points. Since they also
form proton bonds with hydroxylic solvents and other oxygenated molecules,
amides of monocarboxylic acids containing five carbon atoms or less are soluble
in water. The liquid amides are excellent solvents for other organic compounds.
1. Basic and Acidic Properties. In contrast to ammonia and the amines, the
amides do not form salts that are stable in aqueous solution; that is, the replacement of a hydrogen atom of the ammonia molecule by an acyl group gives a
compound that is a weaker base than water. This effect is in harmony with the
effect of replacement of a hydrogen atom of a water molecule by an acyl group.
The carbonyl group exerts an electron-attracting effect which increases the ease
of ionization of the remaining proton of carboxylic acids and decreases the
ability of the nitrogen atom of amides to share its unshared pair. If two hydrogen
atoms of ammonia are replaced by acyl groups, the attraction for electrons is
sufficient to pem>it the remaining hydrogen to be removed as a proton by strong
bases in aqueous solution. In other words the imides are weak acids.
(RCO)aNH + NaOH
(RCO)aN-+Na + HaO
2. Hydrolysis. The hydrolysis of amides produces the acid and the amine.
Like the hydrolysis of esters, the reaction is catalyzed by both acids and bases.
However, with esters only the basic catalyst reacts with one of the products,
whereas in the hydrolysis of the amides both the acid and basic catalyst react with
one of the products, thus causing both reactions to go to completion.
RCONHa + NaOH
RCOONa + NHa
RCONH z + HCI + H 20
RCOOH + NH4CI
The mechanism of the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of amides appears to differ from that of
esters (p. 168) in that no oxygen exchange with water takes place during the hydrolysis. It is
postulated that ammonia is displaced directly from the protonated amide.
RC-NHa
R-~-OH2 ~ R-~-OH
R-C-NHa
+ [NHJ
An objection to this postulate is that the proton would be expected to add to the oxygen atom
of the amide rather than the nitrogen (p. 312).
Oxygen exchange during basic hydrolysis indicates that the mechanism is analogous to the
basic hydrolysis of esters.
The acid reacts irreversibly with hydroxide ion to give the salt.
RCOOH + [OH-]
[RCOO-] + H 20
3. Dehydration. Distillation of a mixture of an unsubstituted amide with a
strong dehydrating agent yields an alkyl cyanide (p. 250).
RCONH2 + P20.
RC=N+2HPO s
RCONHa + SOCia
Rc=N + SOa + 2 HCI
4. Reaction with Nitrous Acid or Dinitrogen Tetroxide. Like primary amines,
unsubstituted amides react with aqueous nitrous acid with evolution of nitrogen.
RCONH. + HONO
RCOOH + N.
Mono-N-substituted amides yield nitroso derivatives.
RCONHR + HONO
RCO~R + H 20
This reaction is slow and takes place only if the N-alkyl group is primary.
Dinitrogen tetroxide, N 20 4 , reacts rapidly even at 00 , and the N-alkyl group may
be secondary as well as primary. Sodium acetate is added to prevent reversal by
the nitric acid.
RCONR + HN0 3
NaN03 + CH3COOH
HN03 + NaOCOCH3
',:w~ N-alkyl-N-nitroso amides are heated they decompose to give chiefly
the ~er and nitrogen.
i,'I,
RCONR'
RCOOR'+ N2
Since the ester can be hydrolyzed to the alcohol, a convenient path is provided
for converting a primary amine, R'NH2' into the corresponding alcohol, R'OH.
5. Hofmann Rearrangement. One of the methods for the preparation of pure
primary amines is the reaction of amides with alkaline solutions of sodium
hypochlorite or hypobromite (p. 231).
RCONH 2 + NaOX + 2 NaOH
RNH2 + Na 2C03 + NaX + H 20
Actually several steps are involved, namely halogenation of the amide, removal
of halogen acid and rearrangement to the isocyanate (p. 317), and hydrolysis of
. the isocyanate to the amine and carbonic acid.
RCONH. + NaOX
RCONHX + NaOH
R-N=C=O + NaX + H 20
An isocyanate
Although the series of reactions taking place is rather complex, it can be
carried out in a single operation by adding halogen to a mixture of amide and
alkali. The reaction is of some importance not only because it can be used to
prepare primary amines but because it provides a method for removing one
carbon atom from a carbon chain. A limitation of the reaction as a preparative
method for primary amines is discussed on p. 231.
6. Reaction with Grignard Reagents. Amides having hydrogen on nitrogen
react with Grignard reagents to give the hydrocarbon, but the N,N-dialkyl
amides add the reagent to the carbonyl group. Hydrolysis of the addition
product yields an aldehyde-ammonia, which loses dialkylamine to give an
aldehyde or ketone.
+ HCN(CH )a
+ R'CN(CH
RCHN(CH3)a
+ (CH3)aNH.CI + MgX.
6MgX
R-CN(CH3).
/"'-OMgX
Most of the simple aliphatic amides are of little commercial importance.
N, N-Dimethylformamide and N, N-dimethylacetamide are used as solvents for
spinning acrylic fibers (p. 788). Since many amides are solids that can be
crystallized readily and have characteristic melting points, they are used as
derivatives for the identification of carboxylic acids, esters, acid halides, and
nitriles. Of the more complex amides, urea and its derivatives (p. 310) are the
most important.
IMIDO ESTERS AND AMIDINES
Although the difference in basicity between oxygen and nitrogen prevents the
existence of an appreciable amount of the tautomeric form of the amides,
RC-OH, the corresponding O-alkyl derivatives, RC-OR, are known and are
called imido esters (less correctly imino esters or imido ethers). They are prepared
most readily by passing dry hydrogen chloride into a mixture of an alkyl
cyanide and an alcohol in ether solution, when the imido ester hydrochloride
precipitates.
+NH.
+ HOR' + HCI
R~-OR'
If the hydrochloride is neutralized with sodium carbonate in the presence of
ether, the free imido ester is formed and goes into solution in the ether.
+flH 2 ]
[ RC-OR' Cl-
+ Na 2C03
flH
+ NaCl + NaHC03
Addition of water hydrolyzes the imido ester hydrochloride to an ester.
+~H. ]
[RC-OR'
[Cl-] + H 20
When the hydrochloride is warmed with an excess of alcohol, an orthoester
(p. 175) is formed.
+NHa
Reaction of an imido ester with ammonia yields an amidine.
+ NH.
RC-NH2
The amidine hydrochlorides can be obtained by heating alkyl cyanides with
ammonium chloride.
In contrast to the amides, which are very weak bases having a basic dissociation constant of
about 10-15 (p. 246), the amidines are strong bases with a basic dissociation constant of about
JO- 2 • The high stability of the salt has been explained as the result of its high resonance energy,
the contributing resonance structures being identical.
RC=NH 2
{RC-NH2
In the amides resonance contributes very little to the stability of the cation, because the possible
structures are not identical.
R~-NH2
Any resonance effect is greatly outweighed by the inductive effect of the oxygen atom (p. 153).
In neither the amides nor the amidines is there any tendency for a proton to combine with an
NH2 group, since the resonance of the amide or amidine group would be destroyed without
producing a more highly stabilized ion (p. 312).
ALKYL CYANIDES (NITRILES)
The alkyl cyanides, RC==N, are alkyl derivatives of hydrogen cyanide and
generally are named as if they were salts; for example CH3CN is called methyl
cyanide. Organic cyanides also are called nitrites. The common names are
derived from the common names of the corresponding carboxylic acids. They
are formed by dropping ic acid and adding nitrile with a connective 0; for
example methyl cyanide, which yields acetic acid on hydrolysis, is called
acetonitrile. In the Geneva system the longest chain having the nitrile group
as a terminal group determines the parent name. Thus CH3(CH2)llCN is
tridecanenitrile. When it is necessary to express the C==N group as a substituent,
it is called eyano; for example, N==CCH2COOH is cyanoacetic acid.
The common methods of preparation already have been mentioned in
connection with the reactions of alkyl halides, amides, and aldoximes.
1. From Alkyl Halides (or Sulfates) and Sodium Cyanide.
+ NaCN
R 2S04 + NaCN
ROSOaNa
+ ROSOaNa
RCN + Na S04
The reactions are carried out in alcoholic or aqueous alcoholic solution.
Tertiary alkyl cyanides cannot be prepared by this reaction because tertiary
halides lose hydrogen halide to give olefin, sodium halide, and hydrogen
cyanide. They may be prepared by the reaction of the halide with mercuric
cyanide, by the alkylation of primary or secondary alkyl cyanides (p. 254), or
by the addition of hydrogen cyanide to olefins (p. 255).
In the reaction of alkyl halides with sodium cyanide, a small amount of isocyanide, RN=C
(p. 256), also is formed. The reactive agent is cyanide ion, ( : C=N : )-, which has unshared
electrons on both carbon and nitrogen. Hence when it displaces the ~alide ion from the alkyl
halide, either the carbon atom or the nitrogen atom may form a bond with the alkyl group. The
latter process leads to the formation of isocyanide (cf. p. 259).
( : C=N : )-
: C==N : R
+ :X :
The isocyanide may be removed from the mixture by making use of the fact that it is more
readily hydrolyzed than the cyanide.
2. Dehydration of Amides. Amides may be converted to nitriles by heating
with dehydrating agents. Either phosphorus pentoxide or thionyl chloride is
the usual reagent.
RCONH 2 + P 20 S
RCONH 2 + SOCl 2
+ 2 HPOa
+ S02 + 2 HCI
When phosphorus pent oxide is used, the nitrile is distilled from the reaction
mixture. If thionyl chloride is used, the mixture is heated under a reflux condenser,
and sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride are evolved. Amides may be dehydrated
also by passing the vapor over a catalyst such as boron phosphate at 350°
(p. 799) or alumina at 425°. The higher carboxylic acids or their amides can
be converted quantitatively into nit riles by heating at 300° in a stream of
ammonia with continuous removal of the water that is formed.
3. Dehydration of Aldoximes. The usual reagent for removing the elements of
water from an aldoxime is acetic anhydride.
+ (CHaCO)20
RC==N
Other dehydrating agents such as phosphorus pentoxide, phosphorus pentachloride, and phosphorus oxychloride may be used.
4. Addition of Hydrogen Cyanide to Olefins. Hydrogen cyanide adds to
olefins in the gas phase at 350° in the presence of activated alumina, or homogeneously at 1300 in the presence of dicobalt octacarbonyl (p. 904). Thus
isobutylene gives t-butyl cyanide (pivalonitrile).
RCH-CH z + HCN
RCHCN
The yields are best from olefins having a terminal double bond;
Nitriles have abnormally high boiling points. Thus ethyl cyanide of molecular
weight 55 boils at 97°, whereas trimethylamine of molecular weight 59 boils
at +4°.
The abnormally high boiling points of nitriles in the absence of the possibility
of proton bonding may be ascribed to the large dipole moment of the molecule.
Table 15 lists a group of compounds of approximately the same molecular
BOILING POINTS AND DIPOLE MOMENTS
n-Butane
Trimethylamine
Methyl ethyl ether
Ethyl isocyanide
Ethyl cyanide
CH.(CH.).CH.
(CH.).N
CH.OC.Hs
C.HsN-C
C.HsC==N
weight which cannot form proton bonds. The differences in their boiling points
therefore should be caused chiefly by differences in dipole association. The
boiling points do rise with increasing dipole moment. An even more striking
correlation appears on plotting the data. Figure 46 shows that the rise in
I:)
:J
Fig. 46. Dependence of the boiling point on the dipole moment of the molecule
in the absence of proton bonding.
boiling point is not directly proportional to the increase in dipole moment,
but rises much more rapidly. Since the attraction is between two molecules,
it would not be expected to be proportional to the dipole moment of a single
molecule, but to the product of the dipole moments of two molecules. In Fig. 47,
where the square of the dipole moment is plotted against the boiling point, a
fairly satisfactory straight line is obtained, in spite of the numerous minor
factors that have some effect.
Cyanides are less soluble in water than amines having the same number of
carbon atoms. Hydrogen cyanide and acetonitrile are miscible with water, and
propionitrile is fairly soluble, but the higher nitriles are only slightly soluble.
The decreased tendency to form proton bonds with water can be ascribed to
the reduced basicity of the nitrogen atom (reduced tendency to share the
un shared pair of electrons). The cyanides do not dissolve in aqueous acids
because they are tOQ weakly basic to form salts.
ETHYL ISOCYANIDE 0
o ACETONE
DIPOLE MOMENT~
Fig. 47. Dependence of the boiling point on the square of the dipole moment.
The statement that alkyl cyanides are weaker bases than amines can be expressed in another
way, namely that the conjugate acid of the nitrile, RC-N : H, is a stronger acid than the
conjugate acid of the amine, RaN: H. This behavior undoubtedly is related to the increased
acidity of acetylene compared with that of ethane (p. 132). Considering only inductive effects,
the accumulation of electrons between two atoms should make electrons more readily available
on the atoms and hence reduce the tendency to lose a proton and increase the tendency to share
an unshared pair. However, in the cyanides, as in acetylene, the increased acidity coincides
with a change in bond type from Sp3_S to sp-s (p. 129); that is, in the amine salt the nitrogenhydrogen bond is formed by the overlapping of an Sp3 orbital of nitrogen with an s orbital of
hydrogen, whereas in the nitrile salt the overlap is between an sp orbital and an s orbital.
Moreover just as ethylene is more acidic than ethane, so the imino compounds, RCH=NR,
are less basic than the corresponding secondary amines, RCH.NHR, and the oximes,
RCH NOH, are less basic than the hydroxylamines, RCH 2 NHOH. The increase in acidity
or decrease in basicity here coincides with a change in bond type from sp'-s to sp-s. That
the effect is not merely coincident with the presence of a double or triple bond is indicated by
the fact that the basicity of ketones, R 2C=O, is not greatly different from that of secondary
alcohols, R.CHOH. In both R.C=O : Hand R 2CHO : H the oxygen-hydrogen bonds are of
the p-s type. Quantum mechanical calculations indicate that for triply bound atoms, a fourth
pair of electrons is localized about the atom and hence not readily available for covalent bond
formation (p. 132).
Physiological Action
Pure alkyl cyanides have a pleasant odor and are only slightly toxic. Usually,
however, they are contaminated with the disagreeably odorous and highly
toxic isocyanides. IX-Hydroxy and IX-amino nitriles are toxic, probably because
of easy loss of hydrogen cyanide.
The more important reactions of alkyl cyanides already have been used to
prepare other compounds.
1. Hydrolysis to Acids.
RCN + 2 H.O + HCI
RCN + H.O + NaOH
RCOOH + NH.Cl
The mechanisms of acid- and base-catalyzed hydrolyses of nitriles undoubtedly are very
similar to the acid- and base-catalyzed hydrolyses of esters (p. 171).
Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis:
--HB
--HOH
[RC=NH]
[:B-]
[RiNH]
[R~~NH]
+:0: H
:OH
R-C_::H}
II ..
Base-catalyzed hydrolysis:
R-C-NH-}
:0:.
The mechanism of the hydrolysis of the intermediate amides is discussed on page 246. The rate
of hydrolysis of the amides usually is so much faster than the rate of formation from the nitrile
that the amides cannot be isolated as intermediates under the usual conditions of hydrolysis.
For example, the rate of hydrolysis offormamide is 14,000 times faster than the rate offormation
from hydrogen cyanide. Exceptions are the t-alkyl cyanides, hydrolysis of which stops at. the
amide stage. Amides can be isolated from other alkyl cyanides by heating them with one mole
of water at 200 in the absence of added catalysts, or by hydrolysis with alkaline hydrogen
peroxide.
A peculiarity of the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is of interest. At low concentrations all strong
acids are equally effective as catalysts, the rate being governed by the hydronium ion concentration. At high concentrations, however, hydrogen bromide is only one tenth as effective as
hydrogen chloride, and sulfuric acid is a very poor catalyst. Therefore the anion of the acid
must playa part as. well as the proton, and the proposed mechanism probably is valid only at
low acid concentrations.
2. Hydrolysis to Amides. Alkaline hydrogen peroxide converts nitriles into
amides in excellent yields.
+ H 0.
+!O
Hydroperoxide ion is the effective reagent in this reaction. The proposed steps are
RC=N-
RC=NH
O-OH
RC-NH.
+ O2 + [H+]
Tertiary alkyl cyanides can be hydrolyzed readily to the amide by boiling
with 80 per cent sulfuric acid, since the second stage of hydrolysis to the acid
is sterically hindered.
80 per cent H 2 SO ••
3. Alcoholysis to Esters. To convert nitriles into esters, it is not necessary
first to prepare the acid. If the nitrile is refiuxed with absolute alcohol and
anhydrous acid, the imido ester salt is formed (p. 248). Addition of water gives
the ester.
+~H.
+ CHaOH + HC)
[RC-OCHa
Imido ester
hydrochloride
[CI-) ~ RC-OCH3
If some water is present in the alcohol or acid, the ester is obtained directly.
4. Reduction to Primary Amines. Nitriles may be reduced to primary amines
in the same way that esters are reduced to alcohols, that is, by adding metallic
sodium to a refiuxing solution of the nitrile in absolute ethyl alcohol.
+ 4 Na + 4 C2H sOH
+ 4 NaOC2HS
Catalytic reduction leads to a mixture of primary, secondary, and tertiar~
amines, but if the reaction is carried out in the presence of an excess of ammonia
good yields of primary amines are obtained (p. 230).
RC:==:N
Raney Ni
(+ NHa)
5. Alkylation. Primary and secondary nitriles are alkylated readily by heatin!
with an alkyl halide in the presence of finely divided sodium amide.
RCH.CN
+ R'X + NaNH.
R.CHCN
R.CCN
+ NaX + NHa
This reaction provides the most satisfactory general method for preparin!
tertiary alkyl cyanides.
6. Addition of Olefins. Dialkylethylenes add to nit riles in the presence 01
sulfuric acid in glacia