More than half a century has elapsed since Kevin Lynch's classic work The Image of the City (1960) provided a framework for decoding how urban actors conceptualize, orient and navigate their cities. While the relationship of the individual to the city had long been a central theme of urban sociology (see Simmel 1903), the accessibility of Lynch's classification of urban environments into five distinct elements endured and influenced several generations of designers and planners (Laurence 2006; Pearce and Fagence 1996). Beyond these 'home' disciplines, Lynch's imaging framework and cognitive mapping methodology also impacted discourse in geography, anthropology, environmental psychology and cognitive psychology (see Milgram 1970). More recently, urban imaging has been actively applied to contexts as diverse as virtual environments (Morello and Ratti, 2009) and real-world tourism branding and marketing (Hospers 2010).
To be sure, Lynch's urban imaging framework has also been subject to significant critique. From the perspective of urban semiotics, Raymond Ledrut (1973) criticized the psycho-biological undertones of Lynch's assumptions of image-based adaptation to the environment. Ledrut noted that far from simply reacting and adapting like goal-oriented laboratory rats caught in a maze, urban actors actively use and produce the urban milieu. Roland Barthes (1970) accepted classification into discreet units (paths, nodes, edges, landmarks and districts) as semantically sound practice, but critiqued the disjunction between Lynch's pursuit of a reductive study technique whilst believing the human environment as a whole to be qualitatively greater than its parts.
Mark Gottdiener and Alexandros Lagopoulos (1986) posited that the use of cognitive mapping as an objective mechanism fails to acknowledge its ideological representation of signific and symbolic urban processes. Indeed, when reflecting on the original study a quarter of a century later, Lynch (1984A) himself acknowledged the limitations of having subjects use the difficult task of drawing maps to capture deeply lodged mental images. Fredric Jameson (1991) took this a step further, questioning whether the subject-centred travel itineraries that Lynch's subjects drew actually qualify as maps. More generally, Lynch's methodology has been critiqued for privileging vision, and in particular the abstract detachment of the planimetric view whilst ignoring the place-making influence of other senses such as smell (Landry 2006) and the corporeal act of walking (see De Certeau 1984). Lastly, urban imaging has been criticized for ignoring the role that media plays in constantly implanting dynamic mental images of cities, including zones that are yet to be physically visited (Warner and Vale 2001; Vale 1999).
Addressing some of these critiques and disregarding others, urban imaging continued to be applied, developed and refined over time. Analysis of diverse physical environments and cultural contexts across the globe reinforced the apparent universal applicability of Lynch's framework (Kaplan and Kaplan 1981). While Lynch's original study sought to understand the problem of disorientation that he found so detrimental to effective urban life, designers and planners interpreted its apparent universality as a normative template for structuring well-ordered cities (Sternberg 2000; Debord 1994). Indeed, Lynch's later work on urban form also contributed to this interpretation (Lynch 1984B). As a consequence, urban legibility emerged as a core objective for urbanism, both in the context of physical planning and through modes of representation of the city.
Given the urban transformations that have occurred since the mid twentieth century, it is remarkable just how intact Lynch's core premises have remained. To be certain, cities are still largely comprised of the same physical ingredients. For instance, the suburban template of car-oriented peripheral expansion (that continues to challenge urban designers) was well established by the late 1950s. As evidenced in Lynch's case study of Los Angeles, even the disorienting qualities of freeways had already significantly pervaded the post-WWII city. As Robert Venturi (1972) observed, whereas the crossroad once reconfirmed spatial orientation, enormous signs now direct drivers through freeway 'cloverleafs' at high speed, as they veer right in order to turn left. Moreover, the post-WWII motorists' experience follows the inherent disorientations of subterranean urban rail, which had existed in several major US cities since the turn of the century (see Maffi 2004).
However, while their fundamental physical ingredients may be similar, contemporary cities have changed manifestly from the ones Lynch studied. Today, the unbounded scale, speed and complexity that characterize urban milieus challenge traditional modes of imaging and mapping. At once both urban and landscape, planetary urbanization dissolves clear categories of city, periphery and region (Dettmar and Weilacher 2003; Brenner 2014). This dispersed, undifferentiated, edgeless "post-urban condition" (Koolhaas 1997: 585) is more effectively described through remote satellite sensing and ecological metaphors, than through the traditional figure/ground plans that Lynch and several generations of urban designers used to describe urban form (see Waldheim 2011) (figure 1).
Figure 1. Satellite image of urbanization of the Pearl River Delta, China (© 2003 Landsat 7, NASA/GSFC, reproduced in accordance with NASA/GSFC non-commercial use policy).
In this post-urban environment, the efforts of planners and designers to make cities more structurally legible and orienting generally met with limited success. Instead, as cities became increasingly complex and confounding, more sophisticated imaging techniques and way-finding navigation devices emerged to augment the cognitive maps of urban actors. Initially constituted as vehicular satnav systems, specialist navigation apparatus became widely accessible through GPS-enabled smartphones. As a consequence, urban imaging and navigation is no longer primarily constructed through bodily senses, dead reckoning and cognitive and physical maps. Urban actors heavily subsidize these tactics with an augmented landscape of location-specific information that substitutes traditional bricks-and-mortar landmarks with triangulation off invisible satellites and cell phone towers. In this milieu, the navigator becomes more immersed in the virtual space of the map than in the cues, features and textures of the physical space that they are traversing (see Grabar 2014).
These recent digital transformations of urban life challenge the continued relevance of established city-imaging paradigms (as originally codified by Lynch). Indeed, with technology readily at hand for extraction from any disorienting predicament, do urban actors still need to image urban environments? This paper is constructed on the assertion that imaging does remain essential for constructing a sense of place. That is, as a fundamental foundation of meaningful urban life, place making remains contingent on forming an environmental image that extends well beyond an actor's immediately perceivably location.
Situated in this context, the paper specifically explores the potential for innovation in modes of urban mapping and representation to adapt more traditional city representation techniques to the place making challenges of the contemporary metropolis. Towards this goal, the research draws on the established interdependencies between cartographic representation (maps created for a particular purpose), cognitive mapping (neurological representation of spatial information), mental mapping (physical maps constructed from memory), city imaging (individual and collective) and urban structure (both physical and cultural) (Golledge 1999). Methodologically, the research fits within an interpretive framework that places phenomena in context through an iterative mediation between theoretical understandings and empirical observations (Swaffield and Deming 2011).
The paper contributes to the wider adaptation of urban theory and design to digitally propelled shifts in contemporary urban life. In urban theory and design, urban delineation is indissolubly integral to processes of understanding and ultimately projecting visions for the city. And although the history of urban theory and design is characterized by the recurrent innovation and continual evolution of modes of urban mapping and representation, the field remains strongly grounded in established analogue traditions. While these traditions continue to serve the enduring nature of urban form, there is a growing necessity for alternative urban mapping techniques that more wholly assimilate the potential of digital methods into urban design within the challenging milieu of planetary urbanism.
Three decades ago, Jameson identified the physical and existential loss of orientation as a key condition of postmodern urbanism. Jameson observed that the individual human body is losing the capacity "to locate itself, to organise its immediate surroundings perceptually" and to "cognitively map its position within a mappable external world" (Jameson 1984: 83). To engage this condition, Jameson called for the invention and projection of a new aesthetic of cognitive mapping to coordinate the existential subject within an abstract totality. In framing this challenge, Jameson leveraged the everyday role of cognitive mapping as enabling the "situational representation on the part of the individual subject to that vaster and properly unrepresentable totality". Jameson defined the "unrepresentable totality" as the "ensemble of society's structures as a whole" (Jameson 1991: 51).
Since cognitive mapping is defined as the internal neurological formation of spatial information (Golledge 1999), it is assumed here that Jameson uses the term more broadly to refer to mapping of/for cognition, thereby incorporating the agency of cartographic representation. With this caveat, Jameson's call fits within a long tradition of efforts to reveal cartographically society's structures at multiple scales within the city. In the mid eighteenth century, Giambattista Nolli's map of Rome revealed in great detail the configuration of public and semi-public space across the streets, squares, colonnades and foyers of the metropolis. In the 1930s, Chicago School urban sociologists empirically mapped specific socio-spatial relationships, with Shaw and McKay's maps of juvenile delinquency, and Faris and Dunham's mental illness maps epitomizing this approach (Shaw and McKay 1942; Faris and Dunham 1939). Although some of the theoretical positions of Chicago School sociologists were later critiqued for oversimplifying and naturalizing social relations (Braun 2005; Vasishth and Sloane 2002), the potency of their maps endures. And from the 1970s, a new wave of urbanists and urban designers revisited the agency of urban social mapping, as evidenced in the observational cartographies of William H. Whyte and Jan Gehl (see Gehl 1979; Whyte 1980).
Set within this tradition and trajectory of urban delineation, Jameson's postmodern call for a new cognitive mapping aesthetic remains relevant to the contemporary post-urban condition. Responses to Jameson's challenge take a variety of forms, with some of the most persuasive emerging from the fields of urban data-visualization and counter mapping. Given that the complexity of information systems and urbanism are increasingly analogous, it follows that the spatialization of data becomes consonant with city mapping. Influenced by post-structuralist geographies such as Manuel DeLanda's (1997) re-conceptualization of urban history as the convergence of matter and energy, cities are re-visualized as matrices of flows, associations, and connections. Enabled by the increase in spatial data, these "shimmering" cartographies seek novel and enigmatic windows into the invisible city-structuring flows of information (Doel 1999; see Amoroso 2010) (figure 2).
Figure 2. Data mapping: flow map illustrating tourist hotspots of London generated by compiling publically available geotagged photographs from flicker.com (© 2015 Eric Fisher/Mapbox).
By Illuminating hidden structures, urban-data mappings either explicitly or implicitly address half of Jameson's challenge to represent the "properly unrepresentable totality […] of society's structures as a whole" (Jameson 1991: 51). Similarly, some data-maps might be argued to address the critique from urban semiotics: potentially resynthesizing the fragmentary nature of Lynch's methodology (as Barthes notes), or avoiding the subjective pitfalls of individual cognitive maps based on physical landmarks and movement. Moreover, augmenting visual information with rich flows of interactive non-visual data conceivably addresses the simple image-based adaptation that Ledrut found to be problematic with Lynch's methodology (see Russell 2004). However, although effective at illuminating informational convergences within the vaster totality, urban data-mapping projects generally apply a very abstract threshold to the 'situational representation' component of Jameson's new aesthetic of cognitive mapping.
In contrast to the structural or top-down scale that typifies urban-data mappings, counter-mapping approaches urban imaging from the ground up, or inside out. Counter-mapping draws on the postmodern dissolution of binaries such as object/subject, reader/author and within/without (Soja 1996: 116). Within this approach, the selectivity of mapped information, the privileged interpretive viewpoint of the 'skilled map reader', and the marginalizing human cost of the inaccuracies of representation are interrogated and deconstructed. This interrogation takes a variety of forms, including social mapping, everyday mapping, insurgent mapping, resistance mapping, map hackings and other personal, creative and dissident projects (Crampton and Krygier 2006; Holmes 2006; Pinder 2007) (figure 3). Across such a diverse range of approaches, counter-mappings prioritize the mapping of individual experience over accurate spatial surveying or efficient navigation (Casey 2007).
Figure 3. Counter mapping: "Night Sky" (© 2010 Denis Wood, reproduced with permission).
Overall, counter-cartographies dislodge the traditional position of placeless suspension above the field of survey in favour of a multiplicity of maps constructed from within. From this position, counter-mapping arguably addresses half of Jameson's challenge to enable the "situational representation on the part of the individual subject" (Jameson 1991: 51). The trade-off is that insider-mapping projects are typically too internally referent to fulfil the other component of Jameson's challenge to represent the "totality of society's structures as a whole".
When examined along side one another, data-mappings and counter-mappings perpetuate the modern dichotomy between planimetric projections and ground-level points of view that persist in the analysis and representation of the urban landscape (Stevens 2006). That is, between the conventional Cartesian gaze that remains typical of data mapping, and the limited horizon of the immersive, localized and individualized point of view that is typical of user-based counter mappings and projections. Along with recent technological developments, it is this deficiency in radically novel modes of urban mapping that cultivates the parallel re-emergence of the anachronistic bird's-eye view.
Seeking an overview is a recurrent objective in the history of imaging and mapping urban environments. Beginning with oblique vantage points from hilltops and cathedral steeples, a century and a half of progressively higher and more systematized flight reinforced the vertically downward view. Passing from balloons, to kites, camera-pigeons and planes, this progression reached its apotheosis in the 'whole-earth' images of the Apollo Moon missions (Cosgrove 1999). Retreating from this maximum distance, the eye-in the-sky settled into the low-Earth orbits that facilitate high-resolution satellite imagery.
Today, ubiquitous satellite imagery and mapping is habituated as an extension of the self in urban imaging and way finding (Kurgan 2013). However, the seductively systemic abstraction of satellite (and aerial) imagery also reveals the limitations of modern cartography's capacity to represent coherently the contemporary urbanized landscape and render legible the scale of everyday life. From orbit, an individual loses track of their place within urban agglomerations, which appear naturalized in their resemblance of bacterial blooms (Wang 1991). When zoomed right in (at ever-increasing resolutions), familiar features are registered in planimetric forms that often fail to resonate with an individual's established perception of their place in the world (Mitchell 1992).
The recent re-emergence of the anachronistic bird's-eye view in media and online map applications can be interpreted as a reaction to these limitations. Angled obliquely down and across, the lower altitude vantage point of the bird's-eye view provides spatial qualities that more closely align with the scale of every day life (figure 4). This in-between angle combines a structural view from above with the promise of walking and discovering the landscape at close range (Hunt 2000). Typically, the horizon adumbrates and calibrates this synthesis of the ground-aerial landscape (Casey 1993). Indeed, in the sense that one imagines the future as being dispensed from over the horizon, the bird's-eye view is inherently anticipatory. That this 'optimistic' angle remains popular indicates the fragility of two centuries of retraining our scopic regimes to conform to the planimetric Cartesian construction of the Earth (Pickles 2004). Amid the rapid adoption of cutting-edge automated consumer drone technologies that further promote and facilitate the low aerial bird's-eye view, this revival is likely to gain further momentum (Kullmann 2017).
Figure 4. Revived bird's-eye view: "New Presidio Parklands Project," San Francisco (by James Corner Field Operations 2014 for The Presidio Trust).
This raises the question of whether the innate characteristics of the anachronistic—but renascent—bird's-eye view might be harnessed to address the city imaging limitations of both conventional cartography and the new wave of user-based and data-mapping projects. While some of these mapping examples may lay justifiable claims to fulfilling parts of a new aesthetic for mapping the image of the city, it is difficult to argue that any fulfil the dual terms of Jameson's challenge for enabling the situational representation of the individual within the vaster totality. Situational is more comprehensively interpreted as representation that acknowledges its own selective and incomplete point of view and includes richness, diversity and a degree of material immediacy (Söderström 1996). Now largely absent from modern cartographic conventions, these situational characteristics are reflected in the relegated mapping practice of chorography.
In Claudius Ptolemy's classical ternary representational hierarchy, chorography is the most grounded of the three modes of the natural order. Chorography is situated below the Euclidean projections of geography and the grand structure of the (geocentric) universe as established by cosmography. Revived following the fifteenth century Latin translation of Ptolemy's Geographia, the remit of chorography is the local region, where it registers features at the near scale in which human life takes place (Moll 1709; Cosgrove 2008). The Greek root chôra denotes a definite piece of ground, a place (Casey 2004; Olwig 2008). Of the three representational orders, this root positions chorography closest to the modern usage of landscape, which traces Germanic etymology. Unlike geography—which eschews likeness for the abstraction and precise location of features—the near scale of chorography permits a qualitative and sensory approach to the representation of the particularities of the landscape (Cosgrove 2008).
Whereas quantitative geographical methods seek to eliminate the vagaries of interpretation, chorography admits the creative contribution of the individual surveyor (who was often depicted in the foreground of the representation in the third-person) (figure 5). Nevertheless, Renaissance chorography remained more map than painting, with sixteenth and seventeenth century examples containing both quantitative and pictorial information about the land. Map space was scaled and proportioned according to a complex scaffolding of traverses and offsets or triangulations, whose constructions are often superimposed into the representation (Cosgrove 1999). However, unlike the cartographic pursuit of Euclidean consistency, chorographic constructions did not seek to depict all features equally. Despite this elasticity, chorography fulfilled the original sense of surveyable space, where the surveyor is situated within the same space that is being mapped (Casey 2002).
Figure 5. Renaissance chorographic survey of a region: Leonhard Zubler, 1607. "De Instrumenti uſu in deſcribenda totâ Regione, & Pagorum ejus / Instruments used in the description of the whole region and its districts." Fabrica et vsvs instrvmenti chorographici: qvo mira facilitate describuntur regiones & singulae partes earum, veluti Montes, Vrbes, Castella, Pagi, Propugnacula, & simila (Creative Commons License 2016, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Library).
Although initially displayed alongside geographic projections, from the eighteenth century chorography was usurped by the more spatially consistent military cavalier projections, and eventually by the plan (Bios 1981). As cities and land-holdings extended well beyond the horizon—and could no longer be seen in their entirety from cathedral towers or hilltops—the problem of establishing both limits and continuity rendered the scope of chorography inadequate (Nuti 1999). Whereas chorographic maps reach their limits at a forest, ridge, or horizon, geographic (Cartesian) maps are circumscribed only by the immaterial map frame, which can be infinitely extended, rescaled and tessellated. Through this mathematical division of the Earth's surface from overhead, geography eventually assumed the role of urban delineation. Precision supplanted resemblance, as the planimetric view ascended over time to represent—and ultimately embody—the rational order of modern city planning (Pickles 2004; Hinchcliffe and Deriu 2010).
In the nineteenth century, chorography underwent a minor second rehabilitation at the hands of the German geographer Ferdinand von Richthofen. Along with the related practice of chorology (the study of causal relations), Richthofen sought to standardize chorography as a specialization of geography focused on field observation of local attributes (Kasai 1975). With this distinction failing to gain wider traction, chorography continued to relinquish the duties of measurement and topographic representation to geography. Ultimately, the practice devolved into the scenic city-branding panoramas that were popular in the nineteenth century and still frequent tourist maps today.
Given their historical connection, the potency of the recently revived bird's-eye view suggests potential for probing deeper into the genealogy of chorography for characteristics relevant to the contemporary challenge of situational/totality urban representation (and by association, imaging). To be certain, Jameson clarifies that novel situational/totality mappings should avoid returning to the traditional machinery of a "reassuring perspectival or mimetic enclave." Cognizant of this caveat, the rationale for re-envisioning chorography is grounded in the potential for digital techniques to resolve historical deficiencies of the practice. Three key characteristics that traditionally curtailed chorography are digitally reinterpreted here as opportunities for city mapping and imaging.
First, although multiple viewpoints were traditionally combined into a single chorographic composition, the static nature of the medium necessitated that these angles be oriented in the same general cardinal direction. As a consequence, viewing the map from alternative directions destabilized the overall composition (Nuti 1999). In digital form, a multitude of angles may be conveyed through subject-centred mapping to reconfigure dynamically a map representation to respond to the map-user's point of view (Hackenberry et al 2006). Granting the map-user active input potentially enhances the historical essence of chorography as analogous to a highly malleable lens that continuously changes viewpoints (Nuti 1999).
Second, in comparison with the uniformity of geographic projections, chorographic representations suffered from spatial inconsistencies. However, while problematic for translating mathematical distances between the map and the terrain, the spatial variability of chorography is suggestive of the elasticity that is integral to individual cognitive mapping and imaging (Golledge 1999). Whereas exaggeration in one part of the universal grid of Cartesian projections is necessarily offset by compression elsewhere, the customized constructions and limited extents of chorographic space are more able to absorb plasticity. Therefore, instead of removing chorographic distortion through geometric correction, distortion is potentially digitally amplified to record or invoke a range of more subjective spatial experiences.
Third, although individual choreographies provided useful representations of well-defined landscapes, assembling numerous overlapping, elastic, disjointed or distinctive maps into a coherent whole proved problematic. Digital stitching techniques for integrating large quantities of disparate imagery into coherent configurations suggest a technological solution to the historical problem of chorographic continuity. Calibrating digital stitching techniques to retain the integrity of the edge upholds the internal distinctiveness of each map. Given that the scope of chorography relates to the scale at which the landscape is perceived, this technique potentially delineates a local sense of place whilst simultaneously connecting the representation to the broader structure.
Applying these digital characteristics to the challenge totality/situational representation, the following section explores three motifs for re-envisioning a 'third chorography'.
The first level of chorographic integration of the situational and totality comprises compositing two or more distinct projections into a single map/representation. Numerous historical examples suggest precedents for this amalgamation. In the 17th century, the French landscape designer Andre Le Nôtre combined the ground plan and related perspectival projections into a "mixed perspective" drawing of Versailles (Weiss 1998: 49). In the 19th century, Peter Joseph Lenné combined plan and elevation in the masterplan for Berlin's Tiergarten. And in the 1960s and 1970s, the speculative architecture studios Archigram and Superstudio blurred the customary segregation of plan, section and perspective in conceptual analogue collages. In these examples, elements of Donald Appleyard terms "multilevel comprehension" are evident, whereby multiple projections create associations between "simple abstractions" and the "complex texture of experience" (Appleyard 1977: 61). Nevertheless, the graphical assemblage of mixed projection remains tentative, with each example vulnerable to deconstruction to its constituent parts in the eyes of the viewer (see Kullmann 2014).
Two examples suggest more advanced compositing that instigate higher degrees of integration of the situational with the totality (and prefigure subsequent chorographic categories). First, Barbara Stauffacher Solomon's representation of the Palazzo Rossi combines three distinct projections into the single composition (figure 6). In the image, a low aerial constructed perspective of the palace and grounds folds up at almost 90 degrees to reveal the same setting in planimetric view. Behind this plan view, the projection appears to fold back down into a more traditional chorographic representation of an agrarian hinterland. Second, M. Razvan Voroneanu's representation of future Manhattan recomposes similar projective components to Palazzo Rossi, albeit in an alternative order (figure 7). Dominating the centre of the image, a bird's-eye view of a portion of the city grid folds backwards towards the viewer, culminating in a perspectival plan view of a street (from directly overhead). In the distant background, at a location that just obscures the horizon of the bird's-eye view, the image folds up abruptly at 90 degrees to reveal the grid in full planimetric projection. Although presented as a static image with a self-consciously analogue patina, there is a dynamic aspect to the composition that appears poised to reconfigure to the motion or memory of the viewer.
Figure 6. Composited chorography: "Palazzo Rossi" (© 1988 Barbara Stauffacher Solomon, reproduced with permission).
Figure 7. Composited chorography: "Of Urban Islands, Rhizomes, and Other Archaeologies" (© 2011 M. Razvan Voroneanu, reproduced with permission).
Building on the above examples of chorography composited using seamless interfaces, the second level of chorographic integration more comprehensively blends distinct projections through bending and warping surfaces. This manoeuvre is memorably embodied in a scene of the Hollywood film Inception (2010), where the urban fabric of the 15th arrondissement in Paris bends upwards and almost back onto it itself (figure 8). As the streets and buildings curve upwards during the mind-bending dream-event, the structure of the surrounding city is revealed while the environment of the immediate streetscape remains stable and situated.
Figure 8. Bowed chorography: still from the film Inception (© 2010 Warner Bros and Legendary Pictures, reproduced under fair use for scholarly critique).
Inception's dream-altered Paris is reflected in the BERG Collective's contemporaneous Here & There map of Manhattan. Utilizing a similarly extreme curvature of the ground plane, this 'horizonless projection' fuses the representation of the viewer's immediate environment with a wider overview (figure 9). In explaining this dual experience that bridges the Cartesian and perspectival worlds, the creators of Here & There note that "the ability to be in a city and to see through it is a superpower, and it is how maps should work" (Jack Shulze 2009, added emphasis). Achieving this transparency—without revealing such a depth of visual information that the representation diffuses into incomprehensible noise—is an aspiration that is highly analogous to an urban actor's formation of an image of a city.
Figure 9. Bowed chorography: "Post-Industrial Fish Village Revitalization" (© 2013 Shi Chen, reproduced with permission). Reproduced here to illustrate the projection style of "Here and There: Horizonless Map of Manhattan" (© 2009 BERG).
Just as the Inception example is literally a film still in a cinematic sequence, the "Here & There" curved chorography may be interpreted as a moment in a (yet to be developed) dynamically altering subject-centred map construction. Nevertheless, in practice, the explicit goal-orientation of subject-centred mapping constrains this dynamic interpretation. Although the destination-focus supplies the map user with abundant information about where they are headed, less serviced is information pertaining to where the subject has been, aspires to go, or will never go; all of which are critical in the formation of a meaningful image of a city. Placed within the tradition of bird's-eye views, this temporal aspect appears even more linear and predetermined, as urban actors react to a future that appears to be dispensed at them from over the forward horizon. In contrast, the horizonless projection of "Here & There" suggests an alternative, temporally relational state. Simultaneously immersed both within and above the map, and without a horizon to reference, time is construed neither as a goal to be reached nor as events to be reacted to. Rather, map-space approximates the state of memory (the essence of city imaging) wherein time is fluid and explored in all directions (see Kullmann 2016; Cache 1995; Arakawa and Gins 1994).
Where composited and curved choreographies respectively blend and bend established projections, the third category stitches disparate chorographies into a patchwork. This approach leverages recent digital advances in drone-based photogrammetry and laser scanning. Topographic features of an environment (including buildings, infrastructure and landscapes) are recorded in overlapping detail with camera or laser equipped drones and converted using stereophotogrammetry into orthorectified and georeferenced three-dimensional point cloud maps. Imagery captured and processed in this way provides an unparalleled overhead window onto the nuances and details of the landscape that closely correlate with the clarity of the world as perceived from the ground (see Rekittke et al 2013).
The Landscape Modelling and Visualization Lab at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich applies this method to a multivalent natural, infrastructural and industrial site (figure 10). Topographic features are rendered as a continuously crumpled quilt-like surface, irrespective of whether those features are constructed or grown, or whether they form intentional or circumstantial aspects of the represented landscape. This representational mechanism is appropriate to a relational rather than oppositional reading of contemporary urbanism, wherein the city is understood more as a continuous fabric than as a figure/ground collection of discrete buildings. As a by-product of the imaging process, the representation deteriorates at the edges as surfaces are omitted from the topographic mesh. As a consequence, the representation is topographically delineated (as was characteristic of Renaissance chorography) rather than geometrically framed (as is characteristic of Cartesian maps). This use of topographic delineation potentially establishes differentiation within an edgeless, undifferentiated post-urban condition.
Figure 10. Crumpled chorography: point cloud representation of a hybrid landscape comprised of natural, infrastructural and industrial elements (© 2017 Landscape Modelling and Visualization Lab, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, reproduced with permission).
In contrast to the problem of limits that curtailed Renaissance chorography, the full potential of this approach is accessed through the assemblage of multiple crumpled chorographies. In principle, digital stitching facilitates the accumulation of personal maps, which are captured through many uncoordinated individual drone excursions and amassed into a digital patchwork. Over time, the accrual of crumpled chorographies onto this thickened patchwork suggests an overlapping multilayering process that is analogous to accumulated leaf litter on a forest floor. In this metaphor, each crumpled leaf represents a physiognomic digital chorography of a particular terrain that is situated loosely amongst myriad other chorographic leaves. En masse, the leaves are not intrinsically fused into a single authoritative map; instead, the vestiges over, under and in between chorographies offer a multitude of overlapping images of places.
Although Lynch could never foresee a world in which nearly one third of the global population carries a device equipped with GPS and satellite maps, he did comment on the risk of relying on "orientation machines" such as the "directomats" installed in Manhattan in the 1950s (Lynch 1960: 11). While accepting their utility for targeted way finding, Lynch warned of the precariousness of relying on a device that could be lost or fail. For Lynch, myopically following simplified directions diminishes the construction of a reliable image of an urban environment, and leaves no orienting strategy to fall back on. Half a century later, Lynch's apprehension resonates with cultural commentary debating the opportunities and obstacles of smartphone navigation (see Grabar 2014). Nonetheless, even as the cultural implications of these 'digital directomats' remain contested, they indisputably augment and amplify the virtual/real image of the city. Indeed, GPS equipped devices are merely the latest in a long succession of navigation and mapping technologies that facilitate novel cognitive relationships with the totality. From the compass to the sextant to the theodolite, each new technology captures the imagination of a society seeking to know its place (see Virilio 1995; Jameson 1991).
In this virtual/real urban milieu of delocalized and dematerialized flows, it has been argued that urban actors supplant fixed objects as the new landmarks (Fattahi and Kobayashi 2009A; 2009B). Here, establishing an image of the city through a sense of time becomes more relevant than establishing a sense of place in the traditional manner. In this setting, Jean Baudrillard's conjectured absence of a "sovereign difference" between the map and its ground appears increasingly apposite (Baudrillard 1994: 2). Nevertheless, (for the time being at least) people continue to inhabit the ground more so than they inhabit maps. Therefore, a corporeally founded sense of place remains broadly fundamental to the formation of meaningful urban life. Moreover, the act of place-making remains contingent on the formation of an environmental image that extends well beyond an actor's immediately perceivably location in both time and space.
In combination with memory, maps (both mental and representational) are a primary medium through which the wider image of place is formed and influenced. Ideally, representational maps also act in reverse, re-morphing in response to the subject's cognition of place. Fulfilling this facility requires dynamic mapping that is simultaneously structural and situational. Although data-mappings and counter-mappings typically achieve one or the other, few attain the dual terms of Jameson's challenge for the situational representation of the individual within the vaster totality. Taking an alternative position, a new aesthetic of cognitive mapping is potentially derived from re-envisioning the relegated mapping practice of chorography through advanced digital imaging technologies. This amalgamation leverages (1) the capacity of the chorographic to combine grounded and aerial angles at a scale and detail that is pertinent to place making, and (2) the capacity of the digital to coordinate and dynamically reconfigure multivalent representations of the urban landscape.
Recalibrating the image of the city through representational mechanisms—as opposed to reinventing city imaging itself—is appropriate to the layered and residual nature of urbanism. Cities simultaneously transform and stay the same; buildings are actually amongst the most transitory elements of the urban fabric, whereas other micro and macro features (such as property boundaries, trees, landform, roads and even kerbs) typically endure over longer time frames (Cosgrove 2008). This thickened temporality substantially explains the tentative relationship between digital technologies and urban design in comparison with other design fields that embrace planned obsolescence. But rather than construing the digital as a navigational countermeasure to the tangible problem of endless undifferentiated planetary urbanism, the digital becomes integral to its representation. How the city is represented is in turn fundamental to how urban actors image it, act in it and create it through time.
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 Lynch is likely to have been influenced by Kenneth Boulding's (1956) account of experiential image formation.
 Lynch was actually distrustful of the nascent discipline of urban design, viewing it as a project-based architectural activity (Lynch 1984C).
 The actions and artworks of the avant-garde Situationist International movement epitomize this type of mapping (see Sadler 1998).
 This disjunction is memorably explored in Michel De Certeau's (1984) juxtaposition of the tactically immersed Manhattan pedestrian against the strategic "Concept-city" as witnessed from the 110th floor of Two Word Trade Center.
 Georeferenced orthorectified oblique aerial photography includes Bing Bird's Eye™ and Google Maps 45°™.


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text:
Q: using csurf with session in express I'm writing a single page application with MEAN stack, and using express-session with redis for session management.
I want to use scrf token in my client's cookies.
the problem is when I add csurf middleware, it set a session with name csrfSecret in redis, but how can I send it in cookie to client?
middlewares :
 app.use(csrf({}));

 app.use(function(req, res, next) {
     res.cookie('csrf-token', req.csrfToken());
     return next();
 });

and csrf-token is sending to client but it don't do anything.and I receive 403 error from module.
thank you for any answer or idea.

A: If you want to create a csrf cookie in the client you have to use the following:
app.use(csrf({ cookie: true })

This will create a token in the client. If you do not pass any options to the csrf function it will use req.session. If you want to save the cookie client-side, remember that you will need to use cookie-parser module.
You can find more information in the github link to the project: https://github.com/expressjs/csurf

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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UCLA astronomers report the discovery of a remarkable star that orbits the enormous black hole at the center of our Milky Way galaxy in a blistering 11-and-a-half years—the shortest known orbit of any star near this black hole.
"The exciting thing about seeing stars go through their complete orbit is not only that you can prove that a black hole exists but you have the first opportunity to test fundamental physics using the motions of these stars," Ghez said. "Showing that it goes around in an ellipse provides the mass of the supermassive black hole, but if we can improve the precision of the measurements, we can see deviations from a perfect ellipse—which is the signature of general relativity."
More information: "The Shortest-Known–Period Star Orbiting Our Galaxy's Supermassive Black Hole," by L. Meyer et al., Science, 2012.
... therefore not only slows down the flow of time but also stretches or shrinks distances.
RealityCheck - you need a reality check dude. Are you seriously trying to somehow dispute Einsteins theory of gravitation? It may be true than an editorial like this one uses the same sort of geometric metaphors that Einstein used in explaining his theories, but that neither negates or changes ANYTHING that was said. It certainly doesn't suggest some sort of "Establishment Myth".
Who are you to say what is and isn't shrunk to the other observer?
What makes your reference frame a spacial case?
Who are you to say what is and isn't shrunk to the other observer?...What makes your reference frame a spacial case?
VD and RC two things you don't want in sensitive areas....like the physorg comments. Ruins the whole equilibrium. To top it all off it's just one guy agreeing with himself.
RealityCheck, what about the Lorentz mass increase that is routinely observed (in particle accelerators, particularly)? If that is as real as it seems to be, then why discard the other result of the Lorentz equations: length decrease?
If a massive star gains mass as it gains speed in approaching a black hole, what do you suppose the result would be? I dispute general and special relativity. There are no black holes, no expanding universe, no big bang, no time dilation, and no warping of space time. Read my theories at http://www.scribd...heories.
...what about the Lorentz mass increase that is routinely observed (in particle accelerators, particularly)? If that's as real as it seems to be, then why discard the other result of the Lorentz equations: length decrease?
You still need to explain why, then, there is mass/energy increase AND time slowing (as demonstrated by cosmic-ray mesons lasting long enough to reach detectors on the ground), but NOT length decrease. As I said, all three of these come out of the Lorentz equations.
Support your claims with actual mathematics (or links thereto).
In a highly competitive field, this comment might actually win the award for the most anti-intellectual, pseudo-scientific, unlettered and rambling stream of barely sentient consciousness I have ever come across in my 38 years on this planet.
My 8 year old nephew would be able to articulate a more coherent critique of this article by banging a keyboard with no vowels with a stick. In the dark. On a skateboard.
I can not respond since your comments are too incoherent.
Well, if a particle is moving fast enough, then if Relativity both increase that particle's mass and decreases it's length, then when it is moving fast enough it would become a disk-shaped black hole in one reference frame, while appearing unchanged in another reference frame.
For example, if a particle is moving 0.999c it will have 22.366 times the mass, and 0.0447 of the length, therefore 0.0447 of the volume, therefore the density of such an particle becomes roughly 500 times the original density in one reference frame, while being unchanged in a co-moving reference frame.
As you can see, tack on a few extra "9's" for accelerator speeds, and the particle should become a microscopic black hole.
In order to make a black hole with schwartzchild radius equal to one nanometer requires a mere 8.3408e-17 kg.
Now that's ten orders of magnitude.
Every 2 "9's" in the decimal as a fraction of the speed of light causes Lorentz formula to increase the mass by an additional order of magnitude, AND reduce the length by roughly 1.5 orders of magnitude.
So the density of the proton would go up by a factor of roughly 500 for every two "9's" in the decimal place.
Length: 0.00447 * original length.
i.e. One nanometer becomes 4.47 picometers, one picometer becomes 4.47 femtometers, and one femtometer becomes 4.47 attometers.
Since it's an exact metric, you can predict the next pair of "9's" by factors of 10 and 100 respectively.
Density: 5,000,000 * original density.
When I plug this value into the Lorentz equation, I getthe following mass and length scaling factors for the "other," co-moving reference frame.
"proper Radius" of proton: 0.8768 fm or 8.768e-16 m.
This is still 17 orders of magnitude too large, HOWEVER, because the length goes down by a factor of 10 for every two 9's and the mass increases likewise, the schwarzchild radius increases with V.
The scharzchild radius for a relativistic proton increases by a factor of 100 for ever two 9's in the decimal place of the velocity as a fraction of c, therefore a proton moving with 9 additions "9's" in it's velocity would become a black hole.
I used comas to help count, even though I'm not sure if that's proper. That's 32 i's and a 51.
This looks like a lot, but if they detected a proton with 9 fewer 9's for it's velocity, then I see no reason why "somewhere" and "somehow" in the universe there wouldn't be a proton with this much velocity. It would seem like there would have to be such particles somewhere.
1, So then how would we detect them?
2, are they large enough to consume other sub-atomic particles, or are they too small to interact?
It turns out this is, within margin of error of the numbers cited by wiki, the exact speed at which a proton should become a black hole, and it's also the exact speed at which the proton's length becomes exactly twice the Planck length, or it's radius in the direction of motion is compressed to Planck length.
Surely this would be a microscopic black hole, but I don't think our accelerators have gotten that fast.
You can't do the math for this in a calculator, because the calculator doesn't have large enough variables to save the values to enough significant digits to do it with enough precision to be useful.
This is what happens when scientific 'establisment' becomes an incestuous circle of 'believers' in their own nonsense fairy stories about the actual observations.
No, this is what happens when popular press authors dumb science down to the point where it has more in common with discredited nineteenth century concepts than current theories. "Caveat Emptor!" indeed.
You have the problem the wrong way round, Einstein's actual theory is purely geometrical. The idea of "time slowing down" or "distance shrinking" is the metaphor.
Most of the posts in this thread are based on misconceptions.
Relativity says that mass is invariant, it does not change with speed. It also says that, in their own rest frame, moving objects do not shrink and clocks tick normally. All the effects observed are geometric in origin and result from projection of values in one coordinate frame onto a different set of axes.
Lorentz Aether theory says objects shrink when moving relative to the aether, moving clocks tick slower and mass increases.
Both theories result in the same maths in flat space (the Lorentz Transforms) hence cannot be distinguised experimentally or by thought experiments, you are wasting your time trying.
The reason why relativity is overwhelming accepted is that it was extended to GR which models gravity. In GR, the geometrical basis of special relativity is modified to include 4D curvature driven by the stress-energy tensor (for example in the form of mass). There has never been an aether-based equivalent and the limit of GR as the mass tends to zero is the geometry of the Minkowski Metric, i.e. special relativity. GR is of course extraordinarily well supported by experiment and observation.
Who's relativity are you using?
Einstein's relativity most definitely says that mass is variant from one reference frame to another, and it varies by a scale of 1/(sqrt(1-(v^2/c^2))).
Therefore if a proton is moving at the velocity I gave above, with the 32 "9's," as measured in some reference frame "A," then in the co-moving reference frame, that is the frame where the proton appears stationary, the proton will be a black hole, at least based on the VARIABLE mass and length predicted by Einstein's and Lorentz equations combined with the escape velocity equation (to find the schwartzchild radius.
The variance of mass is one of the primary reasons accelerating a star ship to relativistic speeds is widely considered to be impossible or nearly so, and in the realm of science fiction/fantasy. This is why scientists attempt to solve alternative field problems like gravity manipulation or EM manipulation to warp space itself instead of "propulsion".
Truth be told, we couldn't accelerate a ship anywhere near the speed of light, even if only Newton's mechanics were true, nevermind Einstein's relativity, because the variance of mass really doesn't become logistically significant until 0.3c anyway. If you can accelerate to 0.3c in Newton's mechanics, then the extra ~5% mass predicted by Relativity equations is not that big of a deal after all, and only requires a relatively small increase in fuel to fix.
When you get to like 0.6c, you're an extra 80% of mass. As I recall, the fuel requirement of an ideal rocket goes up by power of 1.5, so needs ~2.42 times fuel of Newton's mechanics.
All of that being said, we can't even get to 0.1c, and relativity has almost no effect at or below 0.1c, an increase of only 0.5% of mass.
This means that contrary to popular understanding, further increases of our rocket ships velocity is not significantly impacted by the Theory of Relativity AT ALL until at least about 0.3c to 0.4c, which we are nowhere near achieving.
The limits of Newtonian mechanics alone is far more than we have ever come close to overcoming.
This is 14,278 times less than the speed of light, or ~1,428 times less than 0.1c.
0.1c is the slowest that you could theoretically travel in a colony ship to make it between two nearby stars in one "generation," as used for the unit corresponding to about 40 years.
Since mass is only affected by one half of one percent at this velocity, then Relativity is not the main prohibition to interstellar travel, because we can't even move fast enough for it to be a factor.
After watching Through the Wormhole I read these articles with Morgan Freeman's voice.
Relativity says that mass is invariant, it does not change with speed.
How is it possible, after then, the electrons in outer shells of heavy atoms are moving with relativistic speed and their orbitals are relatively smaller, after then? For example they yellow http://www.fourmi...n_glow/, low melting point of mercury and/or high oxidation potential of lead dioxide is explained just with larger mass of outer electrons, which is routinely attributed to relativity.
As I said, the two approaches result in identical equations so in every situation, they both make identical predictions. SR can never be distinguished from LET directly (but GR reduces to SR, not LET).
The idea of "time slowing down" or "distance shrinking" is the metaphor.
What else remains measurable from general relativity theory, after then? Most of experimental evidence of general relativity is based just on these "metaphoras".
All the effects exist and are measurable but they are geometric in GR. Time doesn't "slow down", it simply maps to different coordinate durations due to geometric projection.
No, it is a single set of self-consistent equations but different authors explain it in different ways. Words are a poor substitute for maths.
Of course, just project between the coordinate axes.
I am discussing standard undergraduate relativity as it is taught as a precursor to GR. See Taylor & Wheeler "Spacetime Physics" for example.
Exactly, it would be paradoxical for it to be a proton in one frame but a black hole in another. The real science is unambiguous, a proton is a proton regardless of the frame of the observer.
The variance of mass is one of the primary reasons accelerating a star ship to relativistic speeds is widely considered to be impossible ..
The energy required rises non-linearly to infinity when v=c. You can treat that using the Newtonian equation for kinetic energy and infer that mass increases but the geometric understanding of relativity merely uses a more complex equation with invariant mass.
There's nothing wrong with using relativistic mass as long as you are careful to account for all effects but you need to understand the invariant approach too if you want to go on to understand GR.
Einstein identified the existence of gravity with the inertial motion of accelerating bodies (i.e. bodies in free-fall) whereas contemporary physicists identify the existence of gravity with space-time curvature (i.e. tidal forces). The interpretation of gravity as a curvature in space-time is an interpretation Einstein did not agree with.
..the proton will be a black hole, at least based on the VARIABLE mass..
Don't be silly, you know perfectly well there is no such thing as "AWT".
The interpretation of gravity as a curvature in space-time is an interpretation Einstein did not agree with.
Similarly, Newton wrote in the Scholium of the Principia that space was absolute and there was such a thing as absolute motion relative to that space, but in the mechanics he derived from that notion, any hint of absolute motion disappears and is replaced by Galilean Relativity. Einstein's experiments on the photoelectric effect were the basis for QM (Planck's original understanding was that EM radiation was bursts of waves rather than particles) yet Einstein never accepted QM. It is not unusual for scientists to be responsible for breakthroughs with which they are subsequently uncomfortable.
However, that is all irrelevant, it is a matter of fact that the equations of GR are purely geometric and Newtonian mechanics is Galilean invariant regardless of the preferences of their authors.
Before YOU can have a theory, you must first have some piece,,, some infinitesimal part, some fragment,,,, no matter how small,,,, of the reality we find ourselves in to base your theory on.
Your reality is in some universe completely outside of the universe you are finding yourself stranded in. I can see why you are a failed science FICTION writer.
Oh yeah, I almost forgot,,,, please never, ever, help your kids with their homework,,, otherwise they will find themselves the objects of ridicule and derision.
Read my theories at http://www.scribd...heories.
P.S. Good move taking down your "theories". I don't blame you for not wanting to endure the reviews of your "theories".
Strip the trailing period off his malformed link and you can witness the firepower of his fully armed and operational battle station of love.
Thanks, that is more fun than a person deserves in this life. The "Yarbrough Paradoxes" are a hoot. They sound like the writings of a person with a sever delusional disorder fueled by some sort of illegal substance. If he had spent the time required to write all that drivel actually reading and studying, he would be a post-doc by now.
I bookmarked for when we need a good laugh at work.
"Later studies indicate that the top cruise velocity that can theoretically be achieved by a thermonuclear Orion starship, assuming no fuel is saved for slowing back down, is about 8% to 10% of the speed of light (0.08-0.1c). An atomic (fission) Orion can achieve perhaps 3%-5% of the speed of light. A nuclear pulse drive starship powered by matter-antimatter pulse units would be theoretically capable of obtaining a velocity between 50% to 80% of the speed of light. In each case saving fuel for slowing down halves the max. speed."
-Like I say google is your friend. Your only friend.
Muons created in lab have lower velocity than one created by incoming cosmic ray hitting high in atmosphere, so its internal decay-processes (like a clock tick rate) proceed at faster rate than those of much higher energy muon.
That is just the LET interpretation of the effects. To explain the MMX, you also need length contraction and to explain the reduced acceleration of high speed electrons in electric fields measured by Thomson you need relativistic mass but taken together these ad hoc phenomena produce identical results to SR.
As I said in a previous post, it is only when you move on to GR that the interpretations can be distinguished.
...To explain the MMX, you also need length contraction and to explain the reduced acceleration of high speed electrons in electric fields measured by Thomson you need relativistic mass but taken together these ad hoc phenomena produce identical results to SR.
Or "relativistic mass" as it is usually known. You also need length contraction and since these are observer independent effects, the cause needs to be velocity relative to some reference, the substance commonly called the "luminiferous aether".
As I said, you are simply restating Lorentz's aether theory.
Graphic at top of article looks wrong to me, shouldnt the laser adaptive optics "star" beams be parallel?
This is demonstrated by the clocks on fast planes experiments.
The difference between clocks in relative motion is observed, internal changes is one interpretation but it also matches SR's geometric explanation.
So why "you also need contraction"?
Because the amount of clock slowing observed on planes is the square root of the total effect in the MMX. You need length contraction by an equal amount to explain the null result of the MMX. Put those together and you get LET.
I'm not sure why you say "no", I wasn't disagreeing with the fact that it is observed, just noting that it doesn't distinguish between the interpretations.
MMX results also support MY TOE perspective that space/aether does NOT COUPLE physically to photons, ..
I think you need to look up the experiment, to explain the null result, aether theory needs to assume that the material of the arms of the interferometer is length-contracted, not the photons. Materials such as invar alloy or fused quartz have been used for example.
The dilatation of time can be modeled easily with spreading of transverse ripples at the water surface. This doesn't imply the existence of reference frame, just because the transverse waves are background independent in all material media, including the vacuum. The surface ripples don't care about motion of water, until they're actually transverse.
Hi Fleetfoot. The "no" was to your "relative" and "indistinguishable" interpretation. Pointing out that the differing clock 'absolute counts' were just that, "absolute cumulative count values" and not "relative" to anything.
Ah, ok, thanks for clearing that up. When we say a clock on a plane is slowed due to speed, that means it produces fewer ticks over some arbitrary duration than a clock which is not moving, i.e. it is relative to a "stationary" clock.
Such assumed/interpreted "contraction/dilation" of particles, distances (interferometer "arms" etc) or time is not necessary ..
It may not be a necessary part of your ideas, but it is necessary experimentally. If length contraction doesn't come out of your maths as well as clock slowing, it will fail to predict the null result for the MMX.
The dilatation of time can be modelled easily with spreading of transverse ripples at the water surface. This doesn't imply the existence of reference frame, just because the transverse waves are background independent in all material media, including the vacuum. The surface ripples don't care about motion of water, until they're actually transverse.
Rubbish, the wave motion is the vector sum of the motion of each point on the wave relative to the source plus the flow of the water. Try adding a flow of the medium to your animation and see what happens.
Hi Fleetfoot. :) Again, "no". The clock counts reflect absolute changes in the state of the SAME clock under different 'speed' runs. No need for another clock, just take same clock at one non-relativistic) speed over a course; then at another significantly different (non-relativistic) speed and just compare accumulated absolute counts from 'reset-zero' of each run. See? Absolute counts in same clock at different runs of different speeds. No other clock to be 'relative' to. Nothing else need be involved except one clock at different-speed runs over same-energy-space.
Hi Fleetfoot. :) Again, "no". The clock counts reflect absolute changes in the state of the SAME clock under different 'speed' runs. No need for another clock, just take same clock at one non-relativistic) speed over a course; then at another significantly different (non-relativistic) speed and just compare accumulated absolute counts from 'reset-zero' of each run. See? Absolute counts in same clock at different runs of different speeds. No other clock to be 'relative' to.
And the MMX interpretation as "also requiring contraction" is an unnecessary 'artifact' of the abstract/theory ..
No, it is nothing more complex than Pythagoras theorem. Try working it out yourself, there are plenty of explanations all over the web.
No. The artificial star is created by disturbing the air with the energy of intersecting laser beams. Each beam causes disturbance all along its length, but the disturbance at the intersection point (which is set at the desired altitude) makes the reference "star".
Try adding a flow of the medium to your animation and see what happens.
The spreading of transverse waves doesn't depend on the "flow of the medium". Until these waves are transverse, then the motion of their environment has no meaning by the whole definition of the "transverse" word. Actually the tiny capillary waves at the water surface aren't affected with motion of underwater very much, as they're driven with surface tension of water nearly completely. Therefore my model remains physical even from the water surface perspective.
Then you have no way of determining the duration over which the counts occur. You need two.
Oh, I see what you're getting at. :) All that the plane needs is the usual speed indicator system (Pitot Tube or whatever) already calibrated for speed readout during two runs over same route distance. Two different 'Pitot Tube indicator' speeds over same route will do. The 'standard run' is set with the first run, and the second run will tell what's what when compared. The test clock's 'absolute counts' just have to be sufficiently different for each run to show the speed-related 'tick process slowing' for the faster speed run.
Oh, I see what you're getting at. :) All that the plane needs is the usual speed indicator system (Pitot Tube or whatever) already calibrated for speed ..
Unless you compare two clocks, you don't have an unambiguous result.
Re MMX: Pythagorean theorem doesn't involve "distance contraction", ..
Correct, it it just tells you the length of the hypotenuse given the other two sides, but the point is that that is all the "complex maths" you need to show that there would be a fringe shift in the MMX if clocks slow but the arms don't contract. As I said, look up the analysis and try it for yourself, you'll find you cannot get a null prediction without length contraction.
Nope, the motion is simply the vector sum of the two motion components (wave and medium) for gravity waves and capillary. Liquids don't support transverse modes (i.e. HORIZONTAL displacement of the surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation).
Re MMX: But there is no 'clock' and hence no 'contraction' element in MMX setup or analysis assumptions. Hence no need to include any 'time' or 'contraction' in analysis of results. Just behaviour of the photons.
But not necessarily the same distance, that's why I emphasised "unambiguous".
The cycles of the light act as a clock. As I said, try doing the calculation, you will find you cannot make it work without length contraction. This was known in the 19th century, it is a really trivial piece of maths and written up in many web sites.
The route distance is between markers for different runs over same route. No need to invoke subtle assumptions about such gross start-end points for same clock count start-end over same route for slow/fast runs.
Re MMX: No need for 'cycles' to be clocks. The leading and trailing edge of beams/waveforms is what it is. Direct overlay between split beam components will tell absolute beam/waveform differences (if any) by that overlay (interference indicates difference, no interference indicates no difference in waveform (leading-edge to trailing edge for each 'leg' beams). No need to introduce 'timing' of events or any 'contraction' to explain something that is not inherently required for the 'events' to take place and compared absolutely between split beam fronts/rears at overlay stage for extracting 'interference (or not) information in absolute pattern terms. No maths/clock/other abstract assumptions/analysis required.
No, each beam creates its own reference by exciting sodium atoms in the ionosphere, they are in fact essentially parallel.
Thanks for the correction, Fleetfoot. I *thought* I was correctly remembering a description of the artificial-star technique, but I should have investigated further.
Not the point, you need to prove it doesn't change, you can't just assume success.
Re MMX: No need for 'cycles' to be clocks. ... No maths/clock/other abstract assumptions/analysis required.
Sorry, the onus is on you to prove your theory. The hint is - if you try, you'll find you can't do it.
[Not the point, you need to prove it doesn't change, you can't just assume success.
Sorry, the onus is on you to prove your theory. ..
I think you have that back-to-front, mate.
The observed distance markers are the same for each run (unless the earth's diameter shrunk between runs ;-) And since it is others' theories that assume/posit change (contraction), then the onus is on those with those theories who must 'prove' it does change.
Fair point but they did that a century ago, both LET and SR are self-consistent theories and match the relevant observations. Now it's your turn.
What you claim is that motion relative to causes clocks to slow down by a certain amount. The MMX observationally produces a null result when moving relative to the same which means the speed of light is invariant. The onus is on you to explain that null result, and since you use the same clock slowing factor as used by LET, I think you will find you have to have the same formula for length contraction to achieve that.
Hi Fleetfoot. Reality also self-consistent. :) For clocks to change motion from existing state with respect to energy-space, we add energy in one direction or another which either slows or speeds up that prior motion with respect to energy-space. Hence slowing/accelerating tick rates observed in reality. However, light in energy-space we cannot speed up or slow down, it travels at light speed limit at emission. MMX photons remain as emitted until reception irrespective of the 'leg' they traveled. Hence null result. Once emitted, only by changing receiving conditions (dopplering motion of receiver OR receiver at different gravitational potential (altitude) from emitter in gravity well) will photon be received as 'different'. No change in MMX emitter/receiver motion/position, hence null result.
For clocks to change motion from existing state with respect to energy-space, we add energy in one direction or another which either slows or speeds up that prior motion with respect to energy-space. Hence slowing/accelerating tick rates observed in reality.
There is no "hence" in what you say, just an ad hoc assumption but no matter, LET was always empirical.
However, light .. travels at light speed limit at emission. .. Hence [the MMX] null result.
Ah, the penny drops, your "hence" is justified this time but that's a different model originally proposed by Ritz in 1908. It was clearly disproved by Sagnac in 1913 (although other observations such as binary star systems made it untenable before it was published).
I hadn't realised you were cherry-picking phenomena from different conflicting models, clock slowing doesn't happen in Ritz's "ballistic" theory but Sagnac rules it out with or without that effect.
Hi Fleetfoot. No cherry-picking at all. Mere observation without theoretical overlays. In light ring experiments, rotation makes doppler effects one way (wavelength increase) and opposite way (wavelength decrease) the other, as the reflections are made while the mirrors/glass surfaces/emag fields are moving around as they rotate with respect to inertial energy-space frame. All these other theoretical overlays are quite silly. They 'require' so called 'space contraction' and 'time dilation' instead of just looking at the reality of MOTIONS/ENERGY involved and direct effects of same (be it on clock tick rates, mirror-photon dopplering etc etc). It's not me that is 'cherry-picking' things from theory to overlay on the reality observations as they are. Why try to 'fit' these real observed facts into standard and non-standard pet theories requiring contortions of that reality in order to 'fit'. No need for it. Reality is enough to be going on with. Cheers!
In light ring experiments, rotation makes doppler effects ..
That's a common mistake, there are doppler effects if viewed from the lab but in the Sagnac experiment, the interferometer is also on the table and rotating at the same rate as the source so there is no Doppler between them. If there were, the fringes would move at a common rate but they are actually static.
The interferometer actually measures the phase difference, not frequency and if Ritz's theory were correct, there would be no shift (if neither distance nor speed relative to the source are changed, neither is the time delay hence the phase on arrival). In reality, there is a fringe shift proportional to the angular velocity which cannot be explained by Doppler. Again, this is common knowledge if you do a little research, it's been known since 1913.
The effect is used in optical gyroscopes in aircraft and inertial navigation systems and could not exist if the ballistic model were correct.
I already agree with you. The Doppler shifts cancel out, ..
Excellent, no disagreement there then.
The phase shift is what tells that the emag field with the mirrors is moving and the absorption/reemission is ADVANCED ALONG WITH the ring rotation one way while it is RETARDED AGAINST the ring rotation the other way.
That's a bit ambiguously stated but I think you have it the wrong way round, in reality, the beam going the same way as the rotation is retarded because it has farther to travel (in the lab frame). They both travel the same distance in the rotating frame hence ballistic theory predicts no phase difference.
The only way to CANCEL THAT effect (like cancelled Dopplering in the one ring) is to have a DOUBLE RING "figure eight" .. I will be carrying out that experiment ..
That would cancel it out in all the models so doesn't give any new information, what you need to do is explain (show by calculation) why there is a fringe shift in Sagnac's setup.
Hi Fleetfoot. I haven't fully described the proposed setup(s) using double/multiple rings. They allow things which the single ring setups cannot.
Explaining the existing results remains your first challenge, if you can't do that, you don't have a base from which to extend the experiment.
I'm getting very busy organising some events next month too, it's been fun. Good luck.


Ravenstruther is a coal loading terminal on the WCML between Carstairs and Motherwell.
East Coast services between Glasgow Central and London Kings Cross.
Virgin West Coast services between Glasgow Central and London Euston using Pendolinos.
Arriva Cross Country services between Glasgow Central and various locations around England.
ScotRail services between Glasgow Central and Carstairs/Edinburgh/North Berwick (only a handful of services a day with either a 318, 334 or 322).
Freight: - A wide variety of freight passes here.
DB Schenker and Freightliner Heavy Haul both load coal at Ravenstruther for Millerhill and power stations in England such as Cottam and Drax.
Passing freight includes Securicor parcel services (with class 67s), Freightliner services to and from Coatbridge (either pairs of 86s or 90s), engineering trains, car trains and enterprise services. 60s, 66s and 92s can all be seen.
This is an open field next to the railway line, although it is partly sheltered by the road climbing up over the railway to the north west.
Take the A70 east towards Carstairs. You should pass over the Lanark branch about a mile before Ravenstruther. Just before crossing over the WCML, there is a gated entrance to a field on your right that looks out across towards Ravenstruther. You can then cross the field and up to the fence which gives a good view of any train coming out of the terminal.
You can park your car by the entrance to the field.
The location is a field, the nearest amenities are in Carstairs.
For taking photos of trains in the terminal, anywhere along the fence line is good. When under the terminal they have their slow speed control active, so you can easily take a selection of photos as the train crawls along. When heading south, the train has to reverse out onto the Down line, and run wrong line towards Carstairs. This means that you can get some good close up shots of the loco as it reverses and then waits to depart south.
Passing trains can be photographed in either direction, depending on the time of day, although as the line is running south east - north west, you are usually ok from late morning until late afternoon. Between the line up to the loading terminal and the mainline, there is a slight hillock which lifts you above track level giving a good vantage for Glasgow bound trains. Between here and the A70 (facing towards Glasgow), the ground drops below track level providing an interesting perspective.
You will need to watch your timing when taking photos, as the line speed is over 80mph and there is OHLE to avoid. But it is fairly easy to get photos between the masts.
Looking towards Carstairs at a Glasgow bound Voyager from the trackside.
Looking across the fields to an MGR waiting to reverse .
An MGR reversing out onto the Down line.
Across the field to the mainline.
A train draws slowly under the loading facility.


text:
Amazon video download pages discovered pre-launch
Web developer Alan Taylor has used some creative thinking and the power of Google to unearth what appears to be a series of pages from Amazon.com's forthcoming video download service – Amazon Unbox. Amazon announced in late July that they would begin offering video downloads in mid August. The company said that the service would be called Amazon Digital Video, would be subscription driven and would use a desktop client.
Now the unearthed pages indicate that the service will be called Amazon Unbox. Taylor found a main page and pages for Twentieth Century Fox, the Sci-Fi genre (see also this discovered page titled Lumier Digital Video) and a page for downloading the desktop player. The player is sparse looking but includes a tab labeled "devices," downloaded videos will be viewable on PCs, TVs and portable devices. It will be very interesting to see how the portable devices play turns out.
TV shows will be offered for $1.99 per episode, DVD movies for between $9.99 and $14.99.
While you're checking out Alan Taylor's page, see also his del.icio.us linkbacks bookmarklet – long one of my favorites.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
require 'view_spec_helper'

describe 'layouts/_menu' do
  it 'must build ul menu' do
    grouped_menu_items = [[[ 'new game', new_game_path, id: 'new_game']]]
    render :partial => 'layouts/menu', :locals => {:grouped_menu_items => grouped_menu_items}
    within('ul.nav') do
      rendered.should have_css("a#new_game[href='#{new_game_path}']")
    end
  end

  it 'must group 2 links into first li if shorter than 20 characters' do
    grouped_menu_items = [[['new game', new_game_path, id: 'new_game'],
                           ['buy', root_path, id: 'buy']]]
    render :partial => 'layouts/menu', :locals => {:grouped_menu_items => grouped_menu_items}
    within('li.item1') do
      rendered.should have_css("a#new_game[href='#{new_game_path}']")
      rendered.should have_css("a#buy[href='#{root_path}']")
    end
  end

  it 'must work with text markup' do
    grouped_menu_items = [[['Hello']]]
    render :partial => 'layouts/menu', :locals => {:grouped_menu_items => grouped_menu_items}
    within('li.item1') do
      rendered.should have_css("a#grant[href='/speelman']")
    end
  end
end

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
package uk.gov.hmrc.ct.ct600.v2

import uk.gov.hmrc.ct.box.CtBoxIdentifier

abstract class B157 extends CtBoxIdentifier(name = "Multi line address")


text:
Harikrishna is India No. 1 on the live rating list
by Sagar Shah - 16/03/2016
In 1986, with a rating of 2405, Vishy Anand shot ahead of all his compatriots at the end of the 23rd National A. This India number one post he preserved right until the 15th of March 2016, until that fateful game in which he lost against Sergey Karjakin. Pentala Harikrishna who has been hovering around the 2760 Elo mark for quite some time now, finally made the leap and became India number one based on the live Elo rankings.
Pictures by Amruta Mokal
After almost 30 years of being India number one on the FIDE rating lists, on 15th of March 2016, Vishy Anand slid to the second spot. Anand lost the fourth round game of the Candidates tournament 2016 to Sergey Karjakin.
The game on 15th of March 2016 that made Anand lose five Elo points
The cat and mouse race between Anand and Harikrishna had been going on for quite some time and reached its climax on 21st February 2016 when Anand and Harikrishna faced off against each other in Bundesliga. That game ended in a draw and was reported on our newspage.
After that game Anand still had a 3.3 Elo point lead over Harikrishna
Things started to look good for Anand as he won the first round of the Candidates 2016 by beating Veselin Topalov. This win gave him 5.3 Elo points. Draws against Aronian and Caruana gave him an additional 0.7 points. The gap between the two had widen to 9.3 Elo points. However, when Anand lost to Karjakin, he shed 5 points and slid to India number two on the live ratings list.
But wait, isn't 9.3-5 = 4.3 Elo points in the favour of Anand? Shouldn't Anand still be ahead of Harikrishna? Well, Hari was also busy playing in the Bundesliga and scored wins over Alexander Donchenko (+2.7) and Pavel Tregubov (+2.6) to forge ahead. The difference is only 0.3 because of the round up difference of 0.7 points that occurred at the end of February. This is how things stand on 16th of March 2016:
Harikrishna is 0.3 points ahead of Vishy Anand
After almost three decades there has been a change of guard and Pentala Harikrishna is India number one
Harikrishna (left) taking baby steps towards becoming India number one! (picture from Hari's facebook page)
Says Kameswaran Venkatachalam, who has been Anand's trainer and has accompanied him on many events when he was young, "According to available records at home (Anand's profile, album etc.) Anand shot up to 2405 at the close of the 23rd Natl-A, Bombay 1986 and with 2405 he went ahead of all his compatriots."
This means that Anand reigned over the Indian number one spot for almost thirty years! From 1986 to 2016!
ChessBase India congratulates Harikrishna for this achievement and at the same time wishes Anand the best in the fifth round at the Candidates 2016. Today he faces Hikaru Nakamura and every Indian including Harikrishna would be hoping for his victory.
Special thanks to www.2700chess.com for maintaining all the informatiom of 2700+ rated players.