Explanations, sketches, and occasional obscure musings about human muscular and skeletal anatomy for the figure artist.
Review Time: Combining Mind and Body!
I think one of the loveliest things about being an artist is simply experiencing life as a member of the art community. As part of this creative and diverse demographic, I've met hundreds of different artists, each with his or her own unique characteristics, both artistically and personally. This year has been no exception, particularly after joining a few different social drawing groups and breathing new life into my personal drawing time. Creating illustrations for clients is one thing— it earns that all important thing known as A Living. But those drawings are for other people, and throughout 20 years or so of making art for other people, I had, to some extent, lost touch with the pleasure of drawing just to draw.
As you can see, not only were we lucky enough to draw Kate in these poses, but we were also given the opportunity to shoot photos of her to use as drawing references later.
The first thing I thought as Kate effortlessly arranged herself into one elegant posture after another was, "Yeah, I can see pretty much all her muscles and I really want to diagram them all RIGHT NOW." Doesn't everything think this? No? Oh well. I couldn't resist, so my next few posts will focus on this. The wonderful thing about these poses, aside from their yoga-related benefits, is that each one beautifully highlights a specific area of the surface anatomy. Visualizing what's under the skin is a great help to drawing the body's surface appearance.
Now let's look at the shapes on their own before we zoom in for a closer look.
I've left out the head and face muscles and anything behind the clothing. But we can see anterior neck muscles, arm muscles, abdominal muscles and leg muscles from both medial and lateral views. The labels on the entire image show just how much can be identified. Structures will be identified by these numbers in the close-up views later in this post.
So... let's zoom in to each area for a closer look. We can start with the anterior neck. These close-up images have the structures drawn in. Compare them to the photo up above with no muscles drawn in to see how clearly each shows on the surface. Some are barely visible while some make themselves quite apparent. The clarity of each structure on the body's surface depends on many variables— the amount of body fat on the individual, the position of the body, and even the lighting in the room.
There are three major anterior neck muscles that are commonly visible on the surface. One, the platysma muscle, can't be seen here because it usually only makes itself known when its owner is under strain. Kate pretty much didn't have to strain at all to make it into these poses, so the platysma is not making an appearance. We can, however, see other two prominent anterior neck muscles, the sternocleidomastoid muscle (1) and the sternohyoid muscle (28). Both muscles are named for their origins and insertions (sternocleidomastoid originates on the sternum (sterno-) and the clavicle (cleido-) and inserts on the mastoid process of the temporal bone (mastoid) tucked just behind the ear. The sternocleidomastoid muscles form sort of a V-shape on the anterior neck, while the thiner sternohyoid muscles between them run more parallel to one another down the center of the anterior neck. We can also see the clavicle itself (2) and the acromion process of the scapula, with which the clavicle articulates laterally. Most of the trapezius muscle stretches across the upper back, but one small portion of it can be seen from the anterior side of the shoulders, and a little bit of it is peeking out here (29).
For more on the anterior neck, check out The Anterior Neck: Theme and Variations, and Sternocleidomastoid: Don't Forget the Cleido!
Next let's take a look at the upper arm muscles.
Kate's deltoid muscle (4) is defined nicely on both arms, as is the deltoid furrow-- the crease between the deltoid (4) and pectorals major muscles. You can also see the deltopectoral triangle-- an area at which the deltoid furrow broadens, which appears as a small inverted triangular depression just inferior to the clavicle.
Moving distally from the shoulder, we can see Kate's biceps brachii muscles (6), and, peeking out from behind biceps, the brachialis muscle (7) and the lateral head of triceps brachii (5) peeking out behind that! On Kate's left arm, you can see the long head of her triceps brachii (32) and a TEENY TINY bit of her brachialis on that side (33). Did you notice all these muscle names have the Latin root "brach" in them? That's because this root means "upper arm." Nice, huh? Anatomical terminology is pretty logical. If you'd like, you can read more about that here.
And for more on the upper arm muscles, check out The Deltoid Area: Soft Shoulder and Varied Terrain.
Moving down into the forearm, things get a little crazy.
The forearm is a beautiful, complex arrangement of multiple long, thin muscles, most of which twist gracefully down the arm and taper into long tendons that insert on the various wrist and hand bones. And yes, it's pretty crazy. But that's what makes it so awesome. On both of Kate's arms, we have a good view of most of the extensor/supinators, which lie primarily on the dorsal surface of the forearm, and most of which originate on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus (9), a bony bump on the lateral elbow. The three muscles in this group that we can see most clearly in this photo are the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle(37), the extensor digitorum muscle (36), the extensor digit mimimi muscle (8), and the anconeus muscle (38).
On both forearms, you'll notice the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle (37) lies right up against the crest of the ulna (hence it's name!) and, as we cross over the ulna, we enter the territory of the forearm flexors. These lie mostly on the ventral side of the forearms, which we can't see much of in this photo, but I was able to label two of them-- the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (39) and the palmaris longus muscle (40) which I can't really see clearly here at all, but I know would be right behind flexor carpi ulnaris from this view… that is IF Kate has this muscle, seeing as it's missing in 12–15% of the human population!
The Ventral Forearm: What Are Those Tendons?
The Dorsal Forearm, Part 2: Which Side Are You On, Anyway?
A Banjo Player's Forearm: Let's Get Lost!
Now we can move down to the abdominal muscles, which are among the easiest to see here.
The abdomen has several layers of muscle to compensate for its lack of bony protection, but only two abdominal muscles can be seen clearly on the body's surface. Down the center of the abdomen is the rectus abdominis muscle (42), a muscle known for its six-pack appearance. This segmentation is caused by the linea alba (43), a long midline tendon that bisects rectus abdomens bilaterally, and the interrupting tendons, which run horizontally and divide it up further.
On either side of the rectus abdomens muscle, we can find the wide, flat external oblique muscles (41), named for their oblique fibers and for the fact that they each have counterpart oblique muscles (that are more internal, and as such are called internal obliques.) There's not much to see in external oblique other than the way it sort of bulges out over the iliac crest, which we can see slightly here.
For more on the abdominal muscles, go to The Anterior Torso Muscles: Peel Away The Layers.
So let's move on to the thighs!
We have a good view of Kate's anterior and lateral right thigh muscles, starting with the tensor fasciae latae muscle (13), which inserts into the iliotibial band (15), a wide, flat tendon that travels down the lateral thigh. Just anterior to that, we can see most of the muscles of the anterior thigh muscle compartment, including the rectus femoris muscle (20) which is centered over the patella (18) and attaches to it via the quadriceps tendon (shown on the other leg with number 48). Other muscles of the anterior thigh compartment we can see are the vastus lateralis muscle (17) and the sartorius muscle (21), which is the longest muscle in the human body. Just distal to vastus lateralis, we may see or feel a bony lump, which would be the lateral epicondyle of the femur (19).
On Kate's left thigh (to our right) we can see a few medial compartment thigh muscles, including the gracilis muscle (44). Also on her left leg, we can see the remaining anterior thigh compartment muscle, vastus medialis (46) and the medial epicondyle of the femur (47). We can see sartorius on this side as well (45).
For more information on the anterior and medial thigh muscles, check out Batman's Anterior Thigh Compartment and The Lateral Knee: A Change of Scenery.
Last, let's take a look at the lower legs.
Same image as above, but we'll focus below the knee now. We have a good lateral view of Kate's right leg (to our left) and a good medial view on Kate's left leg (to our right.) Starting with her right leg, we can see both muscles in the lateral leg compartment, the peroneus longus muscle (16) and the peroneus brevis muscle (12). We can also see the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle, as well as the soleus muscle (14), which lies just deep to gastrocnemius and peeks out on either side.
We can also see the tendons of both the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis muscles wrapping around the back of the lateral malleolus of the fibula (11). The interesting thing here is that, while both tendons run around the back of the malleolus, that of the peroneus longus show superficially when proximal to the malleolus, but that of the peroneus brevis shows superficially when distal to it! The sort of change places as they run past the malleolous. For more on this check out A Lateral Ankle Tendon: Peroneus Longus or Brevis?
Finally, on Kate's left leg (to our right) we have a good view of the medial leg compartment. We can see the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle (27) and just about the entire length of the tibia (25). The tibia is completely exposed on its medial side because no muscles obscure it here. The tibia's lateral side, on the other hand, is covered by the tibialis anterior muscle (26), which we can just barely see here. The tibialis anterior muscle is clearly visible on the anterior side of the leg, particularly when the foot is dorsiflexed (pointed up.) Its body, as mentioned above, covers the lateral side of the tibia, but as it extends distally and travels toward the foot, its tendon (24) crosses over to the medial side of the foot and inserts on the distal end of the first metatarsal. We can see that tendon running diagonally across the ankle, especially the foot is dorsiflexed and/or inverted (turned inward.) For more on the tibialis anterior muscle, go to Anterior Leg, Part 2: It's Lonely At The Top.
There are a few more tendons we can just barely see on the dorsal surface of Kate's left foot. Just lateral to the tibialis anterior tendon (24) we can see the extensor hallucis longus tendon, leading directly to its insertion point on the dorsal side of the big toe. Just lateral to that, we can see a few extensor digitorum longus tendons (22) of which there are four; they lead to and insert on all the digits other than the big toe.
For more information on the dorsal foot, check out How Do I Love Thee? Let Me Count Your Tendons.
I just want to say thanks and HAPPY BIRTHDAY to Kate (yes, this post is going up on her birthday!) and invite you to also check out Kate's blog, Yoga Badassery, Kate and her friend Bleu Caldwell's podcast Pages, and also the wonderful yoga studio, Bikram Yoga Andersonville, to which Kate has introduced me and many others is the recent past. We love you, Kate!
I hope you enjoyed this review of the entire body. Until next time!
The next Anatomical Figure Drawing workshop at the Palette & Chisel Academy of Fine Arts has been scheduled! This workshop will focus on the anatomy of the hips and legs, which includes bony landmarks of the pelvis, femur, tibia, and fibula and the beautiful and complex muscle groups of the hips and legs. This workshop will be held on Sunday, November 16, from 9:30 a.m. until 12:30 p.m.
Like the others, this workshop includes three hours of intensive figure drawing from a live model and a simultaneous lecture on the associated anatomy, including identification of bony and muscular surface landmarks, comparison of these to anatomical images, and discussion of each feature's variations. We will have a fantastic, very defined model.
The hip and leg workshop is coming up soon. Register here.
Each workshop is $40, which covers the instruction, the space, and the model. Class size is limited to 12, and a supply list will be emailed to you upon registration. I would love to see you there! To register, go to the sign-up page here, or click on the image above.
The Palette and Chisel is located at 1012 N. Dearborn in Chicago. It is easily accessible from either the red or brown el trains and from the CTA bus. Parking within a few blocks is also fairly easy on Sunday mornings.
For more information about this workshop series, check out the original post about it.
The next Anatomical Figure Drawing workshop at the Palette & Chisel Academy of Fine Arts has been scheduled! This workshop will focus on the anatomy of the posterior torso, which includes bony landmarks of the spine and scapula and the complex musculature of the back. It will be held on Sunday, March 23 from 9:30 a.m. until 12:30 p.m.
Like the others, this workshop includes three hours of intensive figure drawing from a live model and a simultaneous lecture on the associated anatomy, including identification of bony and muscular surface landmarks, comparison of these to anatomical images, and discussion of each feature's variations. We will have a fantastic model with a very defined physique.
Hello all! Just a quick post to say my next Anatomical Figure Drawing workshop at the Palette & Chisel Academy of Fine Arts has been scheduled. Like the other workshops, this includes three hours of intensive figure drawing from a live model and a simultaneous lecture on the associated anatomy, including identification of bony and muscular surface landmark, comparison of these to anatomical images, and discussion of each feature's variations.
This workshop will focus on anatomy of anterior torso, which includes rib cage, clavicular, and sternal features and well as muscles of the chest and abdomen. It will be held on February 23 from 9:30 a.m. until 12:30 p.m. (Again, coffee is available just a few doors down!) We will have a fantastic model with a very defined physique.
Human Anatomy for the Artist Workshop Series in Chicago!
Happy 2014, everyone! I hope you all had a lovely 2013 that included plenty of friends, family, fun, and, of course, figure drawing. We Chicagoans are greeting the new year in bitter cold; we woke up to a soul-gripping (not to mention nostril-gripping) -9° this morning. I'm grateful to have a break from teaching for another few days. But as tempting as it is to stay home and huddle over the warmth of my laptop, this time of year also makes me want to gather together with friends and colleagues more often. Perhaps this is an instinct that we're more likely to survive this weather in the warmth of a group?
In any case, I'm happy to say I will be hosting a series of Anatomical Figure Drawing Workshops at the Palette and Chisel Academy of Fine Arts here in lovely Chicago throughout this winter! There will be six workshops total, each focusing on a different area of the body. Each workshop is $40, which covers three hours of intensive figure drawing from a live model and a simultaneous lecture on the associated anatomy, including identification of bony and muscular surface landmarks, comparison of these to anatomical images, and discussion of each structure's variations.
Check out my flyer! My friend Michael Franck did this. Click on the image for easy-peasy sign up!
The first workshop will focus on the head and neck anatomy, and it is scheduled for January 26 from 9:30 a.m. until 12:30 p.m. (Side note: Coffee is available a few doors down!) We will have a head model with no hair so we can see every bony and muscular landmark of the head, not to mention a gland or two and a few superficial veins. Now that, to me, is just as nice as a mug of hot chocolate and a warm fire!
Later workshops will include Anterior Torso (the chest and abdomen), Posterior Torso (the back), Shoulders and Arms, Hips and Legs, and Hands and Feet. They will fall approximately one month apart and their dates will be announced as they are scheduled.
The Palette and Chisel is located at 1012 N. Dearborn in Chicago's lovely Gold Coast neighborhood. It is easily accessible from either the red or brown el trains and from the CTA bus. Parking within a few blocks is also fairly easy on Sunday mornings. And, as mentioned above, there is a little store a few doors down where you can get a fresh cup of coffee before class!
Class size is limited to 12, so sign up early! Go the Palette & Chisel's "Class Schedule" tab to sign up, or just use this link. A supply list will be emailed to you upon sign up (it's not much-- just note-taking and gesture drawing materials and other rendering materials of your choice for longer poses.) I hope very much to see some of you there. I would love to meet some local fans of Human Anatomy for the Artist!
and labeled. The extensor group is shown in blue, and a small portion of the flexor group is shown in green.
This arm, readers, is that of one of my beloved music teachers, Steve Rosen, as he plays his banjo during the Old Time Ensemble at the Old Town School of Folk Music here in Chicago. As he played on this balmy summer evening, his forearm extensors danced. How could I help but dig out my phone to catch a quick photo?
Don't you love that feeling of complete absorption in an activity? Being so consumed, so lost in your work, that hours pass unnoticed? I often feel this way about this blog. And about playing music. If you don't know this feeling, I highly recommend you find a way to experience it. Love of your subject, intense concentration, and a sense of productivity is a combination difficult to match.
I think the reason anatomy blogging, art, and music all fall into category for me is that all three of them combine a puzzle-like quality with a wide degree of latitude for creative expression. Learning an instrument is an especially difficult puzzle, but it can still be solved in a number of ways. There is no single correct solution. There's room to experiment, embellish, and make any tune your own. It's no wonder it's so easy to become entranced in the process.
I'd have never learned any instruments in the first place if it wasn't for the talented and diverse faculty at the Old Town School. Of all the wonderful instructors in this fine institution, I've taken the most courses from Steve (above) and Paul Tyler, including fiddle, guitar, banjo, and a group course called the Old Time Ensemble.
This is a shot from last summer's class, at the end of which Paul and Steve celebrated with a little cherry cheesecake! The Wednesday evening section of this class has been team taught by these two for years, Entertaining and informative, it's a popular class that is taken repeatedly (sometimes for years) by many of Paul and Steve's devoted students and fans. Each of these gentlemen has an extensive background in Old Time string music, including time together in the Volo Bogtrotters, a... well... modern day Old Time string band. Watch them play a wonderful tune, Lost Indian, here.
I promised I'll get off forearms next time! Again, to learn more about Steve, go here. Better yet, treat yourself to a little of his banjo playing here.
I was sorting through student work from last Spring and I happened upon several anatomical pencil drawings by a former student, Roberto Almanza. They needed to be shared, so tonight's quick post is just for this purpose.
The first piece shows the posterior torso. Notice the protruding spinous process of the C7 vertebra jutting out in the center of the trapezius muscle's tendinous floor. Also notice how Roberto renders the trapezius muscle's undulations as it wraps over the infraspinatous muscles on either side. I also like that he rendered the deltoid muscle's separate sections, and (this is my favorite part) he has included the posterior portion of the serratus anterior muscle as it shows through the latissimus dorsi muscles. Most artists forget this. We can also see teres minor, teres major, the lumbar sheath (and the bulge of the sacrospinalis muscle deep to it) and a small portion of the external oblique muscles. To read more about the posterior torso muscles, go to The Posterior Torso Muscles: Let's Go Back in Time and The Posterior Back Muscles, Part 2: Under the Radar.
Next we have the anterior torso muscles. I like the way Roberto has shown the cut away and peeled back rectus sheath, allowing the rectus abdominis muscle, just deep to it, show clearly. Also seen here are the sternocleidomastoid muscles, the pectoralis major muscles, the serratus anterior muscles, the external obliques, and the right iliac crest. Read more about this part of the body at The Anterior Torso: Peel Away the Layers.
I only required the students to label one of these drawings, and Roberto chose to label this one of the head and anterior neck. This one is mostly bone oriented, but we also see several anterior neck muscles, including sternocleidomastoid, sternohyoid and omohyoid. We also can see the thyroid and cricoid cartilages at the proximal end of the trachea, peeking out just between the sternohyoid muscles. Read more about the anterior neck in Anterior Neck: Theme and Variations and more about the head at The Head: Part 1 of Oh My Gosh, Who Knows?
Next we have the muscles of the dorsal forearm.
And here's a close-up, in which we can more clearly see the muscles brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor digitorum, extensor carpi ulnaris, abductor pollucis longus and extensor pollucis longus. Read more about the forearms in The Dorsal Forearm, Part 1: Compartment Search, The Dorsal Forearm, Part 2: Which Side are You On, Anyway?, and The Dorsal Forearm, Part 3: The Final Chapter.
Many thanks to Roberto Almanza for these images. Please do yourself a favor and check out Roberto's illustration work here.
I think I will get caught up on the elbow joint next. Until next time!
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This blog is an unfunded labor of love, and I'm eternally grateful for donations.
I have been a freelance medical illustrator since 1993, and I also teach anatomy and digital illustration at a private art college in Chicago. I attended the Biomedical Visualization graduate program at UIC where I dissected cadavers, attended surgeries, stared into microscopes, and spent many late nights doing 2D and 3D renderings and animations of anatomy, cell structure, pathologies, and surgical procedures. I'm still illustrating, but have recently fallen in love with teaching, in particular helping artists understand the structure of the human figure. I'm glad you are here!


While there's no cure for rosacea, treatments can control and reduce the signs and symptoms. If you experience persistent redness of your face, see your doctor for a diagnosis and proper treatment.
You're likely to start by seeing your family doctor or a general practitioner. However, in many cases when you call to set up an appointment, you may be referred to a skin disease specialist (dermatologist).
There's no specific test for rosacea. Instead, doctors rely on the history of your symptoms and a physical examination of your skin. In some cases, your doctor may need to rule out other conditions, such as other forms of acne, psoriasis, various forms of eczema or lupus, which can sometimes cause similar signs and symptoms.
Acne drugs. If antibiotics don't work, your doctor might suggest trying isotretinoin (Amnesteem, Claravis, others). This powerful drug is most commonly used for severe cystic acne, but it also often helps clear up acne-like lesions of rosacea. Don't use this drug during pregnancy as it can cause serious birth defects.
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Many alternative therapies — including colloidal silver, emu oil, laurelwood, oregano oil and vitamin K — have been touted as possible ways to treat rosacea. However, there's no conclusive evidence that any of these alternative therapies are effective.
If you're considering dietary supplements or other alternative therapies to treat rosacea, consult your doctor. He or she can help you weigh the pros and cons of specific alternative therapies.
Rosacea can be distressing. You might feel embarrassed or anxious about your symptoms and become withdrawn or self-conscious. You may be frustrated or upset by other people's reactions. Talking to a counselor about these feelings can be helpful.


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President of India Visits Dr Babasaheb Ambedkar Memorial at Ambadawe Village in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra
The President, Shri Ram Nath Kovind addressing the gathering during his visit Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Memorial at Ambadawe village, in Ratnagiri, Maharashtra on February 12, 2022.
DELHI, FEBRUARY 12: The President of India, Shri Ram Nath Kovind visited Ambadawe village (ancestral village of Dr B.R. Ambedkar) in the Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra today (February 12, 2022) where he performed pooja of the Asthi Kalash of Dr B. R. Ambedkar and paid floral tributes to Lord Buddha, Dr Ambedkar, Smt Ramabai Ambedkar and Ramji Ambedkar.
Speaking on the occasion, the President noted that in schools of Maharashtra, 7th November – the day on which Babasaheb had enrolled in the school in year 1900 – is celebrated as Student's Day. He appreciated this effort of the government of Maharashtra and said that every program associated with Babasaheb inspires us to realize the vision of a compassionate and egalitarian society. He said that we could consider celebrating 7th November as Student's Day across the country to commemorate Babasaheb Ambedkar's devotion and importance he attached to education.
Noting that Ambadawe village has been given the name of 'Sphurti-Bhoomi', the President said that it is apt to call the ancestral village of Babasaheb 'Sphurti-Bhoomi' as he contributed in various fields throughout his life with full energy. According to the ideal of 'Sphurti-Bhoomi', there should be a social system in every village based on values like harmony, compassion and equality that Babasaheb always cherished.
The President was happy to note that the Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DICCI) in association with Khadi Village Industries Corporation, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technical University and Bank of Baroda has undertaken various initiatives to make Ambadawe village self-reliant, apart from doing relief work for villagers affected by the Nisarga cyclone in June 2020. He expressed confidence that this collective effort to make people self-reliant by promoting small enterprises in the villages would prove to be transformative and there would be a substantial change in the lives of the villagers. He said that development and self-reliance should spread in the same way in other parts of rural areas of India. When our villages would be self-reliant, then only the resolve to build a self-reliant India would be fulfilled in the true sense.
The President said that Babasaheb advocated self-employment. He set up a firm to do business as a consultant in the trading of stocks and shares. He submitted a memorandum to Viceroy Linlithgow in 1942, demanding the participation of the underprivileged in the tenders of CPWD. Due to his extensive social and political responsibilities, Babasaheb could not give time to his entrepreneurial side. In the Constitution drafted by Babasaheb, opportunities are available to the youth of every section in every field.
Click here to see President's Speech
Tagged as: Ambadawe village, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Memorial, india, PIB, president, Shri Ram Nath Kovind
Remarks by Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi at the One Ocean Summit
Putin, Biden plan high-stakes phone call in Ukraine crisis

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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This set of Analog Circuits Multiple Choice Questions & Answers (MCQs) focuses on "Voltage-Ampere Characteristics of Diode – 1".
Explanation: PIV stands for Peak Inverse Voltage. It is the maximum reverse bias voltage which a diode can bear without breakdown.
2. What is meant by the PIV rating of a diode?
Explanation: PIV rating indicates the maximum allowable reverse bias voltage which can be safely applied to a diode. If a reverse potential is greater than PIV rating then the diode will enter reverse breakdown region.
Explanation: The voltage after which a diode increases rapidly is known as the offset voltage, threshold voltage, firing potential and cut-in voltage. Beyond this voltage, the forward bias voltage overcomes the potential barrier and rapid conduction occurs.
Explanation: Diode equation is I=IO(eqV/kT – 1). It is applicable in all bias condition that is forward, reverse and unbiased states.
Explanation: Emission coefficient or ideality factor accounts the effect of recombination taking place in the depletion region. The range of factor is from 1 to 2.For Germanium it is 1.
Explanation: Emission coefficient or ideality factor accounts the effect of recombination taking place in the depletion region. The range of factor is from 1 to 2.For silicon it is 2.
7. What is the value of the voltage equivalent of temperature at room temperature (27oC)?
Explanation: Voltage equivalent of temperature VT is equal to the product of Boltzman constant (J.K-1) and temperature in Kelvin. At a temperature of 27°C, it's value is VT=KT/q=26mV.
8. What happens to cut-in voltage when the temperature increases?
Explanation: As temperature increases the conductivity of a semiconductor increases. The diode conducts smaller voltage at larger temperature. Therefore, cut-in voltage decreases.
Explanation: As temperature increases the conductivity of a semiconductor increases. Reverse saturation current increases as temperature increases.
To practice all areas of Analog Circuits, here is complete set of 1000+ Multiple Choice Questions and Answers.


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FCC Proposes More 6 GHz Spectrum For Unlicensed Use
Enterprise & IT Oct 23,2018 0
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) proposes a regulatory approach that addresses the growing need for Wi-Fi spectrum capacity.
The FCC proposed to make up to 1200 megahertz of spectrum available for use by unlicensed devices in the 6 GHz band (5.925-7.125 GHz).
In the past 20 years, the demand for Wi-Fi connectivity has increased manifold while unlicensed access to critically important mid-band spectrum has remained relatively unchanged. With today's action, the FCC took step towards preserving broadband wireless connectivity for Americans and creating new opportunities for the next generation of Wi-Fi.
The proposed rules are designed to allow unlicensed devices to operate in the 6 GHz band without interfering with the operation of the licensed services that will continue to use this spectrum. In those portions of the 6 GHz band that are heavily used by point-to-point microwave links, the FCC proposes to allow unlicensed devices to operate where permitted by an automated frequency coordination system and invites comment as to whether this is necessary for devices operated only indoors.
In the other portions of the band where licensed mobile services, such as the Broadcast Auxiliary Service and Cable Television Relay Service, operate, the unlicensed devices would be restricted to indoor operations at lower power.
These proposed rules will allow a valuable spectrum resource to be more intensively used to benefit consumers while allowing the existing licensed uses of the 6 GHz band to continue uninterrupted.
Tags: FCCWi-fi 6
HP Launches Powerful 14-inch Spectre Convertible
Latest Firefox Brings Enhanced Tracking Protection
Qualcomm Launches New Portfolio of Wi-Fi 6E Solutions for Networking and Smartphones
FCC Scrutinizes Four Chinese Companies Providing Telecommunication Services in the U.S.
FCC Provides a Boost to Wi-Fi by Unleashing 1,200 MHz of Spectrum For Unlicensed Use
FCC Chairman proposes New Rules For the 6GHz Band
FCC Announces $200 Million COVID-19 Telehealth Program
Nokia Introduces New Wi-Fi 6 Mesh Router
Samsung 8K QLED Models Receive Wi-Fi 6 8K Certification
FCC to Auction Spectrum for 5G, Relocaties Existing Satellite Operations to Different Band


text:
Q: Does the main function of a C program ever reclaim the stack? I am working through the OverTheWire wargames and one of my exploits overwrites the return address of main with the address of system. I have then used the fact that at the point main returns, esp is still pointing at one of my local variables and hence I can fill it with the command I want system to run (e.g. sh;#).
My confusion comes from that I thought functions in C reclaim the stack before returning and hence at the point the return address is called the stack pointer would be pointing at the return address rather than at the local variables. However, my exploit works so it seems that my stack pointer is pointing at the local variables when the return address is called.
The main thing I have noticed about this particular challenge compared to others is that it calls exit(0) at the end, instead of just ending, so the assembly doesn't end with leave, which may be the reason for this behaviour.
I haven't included the actual code since it's quite long and I was hoping there was a general explanation for what I am seeing, but please let me know if the assembly would be useful.

A: #include <stdio.h>
int main ( void )
{
    printf("hello\n");
    return(0);
}

the interesting relevant parts.
0000000000400430 <main>:
  400430:   48 83 ec 08             sub    $0x8,%rsp
  400434:   bf d4 05 40 00          mov    $0x4005d4,%edi
  400439:   e8 c2 ff ff ff          callq  400400 <puts@plt>
  40043e:   31 c0                   xor    %eax,%eax
  400440:   48 83 c4 08             add    $0x8,%rsp
  400444:   c3                      retq
  400445:   66 2e 0f 1f 84 00 00    nopw   %cs:0x0(%rax,%rax,1)
  40044c:   00 00 00
  40044f:   90                      nop

0000000000400450 <_start>:
  400450:   31 ed                   xor    %ebp,%ebp
  400452:   49 89 d1                mov    %rdx,%r9
  400455:   5e                      pop    %rsi
  400456:   48 89 e2                mov    %rsp,%rdx
  400459:   48 83 e4 f0             and    $0xfffffffffffffff0,%rsp
  40045d:   50                      push   %rax
  40045e:   54                      push   %rsp
  40045f:   49 c7 c0 c0 05 40 00    mov    $0x4005c0,%r8
  400466:   48 c7 c1 50 05 40 00    mov    $0x400550,%rcx
  40046d:   48 c7 c7 30 04 40 00    mov    $0x400430,%rdi
  400474:   e8 97 ff ff ff          callq  400410 <__libc_start_main@plt>
  400479:   f4                      hlt
  40047a:   66 0f 1f 44 00 00       nopw   0x0(%rax,%rax,1)

For the most part there is nothing special about main nor printf, etc these are just functions that conform to the calling convention.  As re-asked SO questions will show sometimes the compiler will add extra stack or other calls when it sees a main() that it doesnt otherwise.  but still it is a function that needs to conform to the calling convention.  As seen in this case where the stack pointer is put back where it was found.
Before an operating system (Linux, Windows, MacOS, etc) can even think about running a program it needs to allocate some space for that program and tag that memory for that program in some way depending on the features of the processor and the OS, etc.  Then you load the program from whatever media, and launch it at the binary file specified and/or well known entry point.  A clean exit of the program will cause the operating system to free that memory, which the .text, .data, .bss and stack are the trivial/obvious ones that just go away as their memory just goes away.  Other items that may have been allocated and associated with this program, open files, runtime allocated (not stack) memory, etc can/should also be freed, depends on the design of the os and/or the C library as to how that happens.
In the above case we see the bootstrap calls main and main returns then hlt is hit which this is an application not kernel code so that should cause a trap that causes the OS to clean up.  An explicit exit() should be no different than a printf() or puts() or fopen() or any other function that ultimately makes one or more syscalls to the operating system.  All that you can possibly find for these types of operating systems (Linux, Windows, MacOS) is the syscall.  The release of memory happens outside the program as the program does not have control over it, would be a chicken and egg problem, program frees mmu tables that is using to free mmu tables...
compile and disassemble the object for main rather than the whole program
0000000000000000 <main>:
   0:   48 83 ec 08             sub    $0x8,%rsp
   4:   bf 00 00 00 00          mov    $0x0,%edi
   9:   e8 00 00 00 00          callq  e <main+0xe>
   e:   31 c0                   xor    %eax,%eax
  10:   48 83 c4 08             add    $0x8,%rsp
  14:   c3                      retq

no surprise there same as before, all we needed to see to understand that the stack was cleaned up before return.  and that main is not special:
#include <stdio.h>
int notmain ( void )
{
    printf("hello\n");
    return(0);
}

0000000000000000 <notmain>:
   0:   48 83 ec 08             sub    $0x8,%rsp
   4:   bf 00 00 00 00          mov    $0x0,%edi
   9:   e8 00 00 00 00          callq  e <notmain+0xe>
   e:   31 c0                   xor    %eax,%eax
  10:   48 83 c4 08             add    $0x8,%rsp
  14:   c3                      retq

Now if you are asking if there is an exit() within main then sure it wont hit the return point in main so the stack pointer is offset by whatever amount.  but if main calls some function and that function calls some function then that function calls exit() then the stack pointer is left at the stack frame point of function number two plus whatever the call (this is an x86) plus the exit() stack frame adds to it.   You cannot simply assume that when exit() is called, if it is called, what the stack pointer is pointing at.  You would have to examine the disassembly around that call to exit() plus the exit() code and anything it calls, to figure this out.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Meghan nails it with Givenchy gown -the bride wore an elegant AESTHETIC IMPECCABLE TAILORED AND RELAXED DRESS= Cloth and beauty are signature of Venus.
And… their big day event was grand and likely came with a BIG PRICE TAG = money expenses and trade are signature Venus.
Creation and Destruction… with the hope we are able to overcome anger to love more!
I felt the good side of the change last night when a saw the clever way to sell London – I think Tourism will increase for the Britain! The Monarch showed they have moved with the change merging with culture and be beyond race and religion.
The Wedding was well selected time at 12:00 pm with the Sun in the Midheaven and the first planet to Ascend is Jupiter bringing Luck and Abundance. But the best is the Moon in Cancer and Venus at the last degree of Gemini in the house of goals and objectives!!! The public will love them!!! She is a Leo Girl and Moon in Libra: she looks stunning! Prince Harry is a Virgo with Moon in Taurus and his Venus in Libra definitively fell in love with this gorgeous girl!


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"The country's property market is booming, transforming the Philippines into a real estate investment hotspot."
Thanks to regulatory reforms which have come to fruition over the past 15 years, the Philippines' real estate landscape has turned into a haven for foreign investors and local buyers alike. 4 years ago, the Philippines began to make a name for itself as a highly reputable market among the Big Three credit rating agencies, first Fitch, the Standard & Poor, and finally Moody. With its new status came new success, and since then, the Philippines' real estate market has been flourishing. In spite of natural disasters over the years, the Philippines has shown itself to be highly resilient.
Two years ago, global real estate consulting firm JLL recognized Metro Manila as one of its Top 30 Real Estate Investment Cities in the world in its Commercial Attraction Index. According to JLL, the key qualities that make a city successful in real estate are sustainable momentum, adaptability, and the ability to reinvent itself. Metro Manila definitely possesses these qualities.
By 2030, JLL predicts that Manila will be one of the world's top 18 cities in terms of GDP.
Mostly, it looks back at 2015 vs 2016, and discusses trends, and facts that are well-known by now.
The paper then goes on to talk about the Demographics of Lamudi Users.
The revolt of OFWs based in SG haha. ..
SMDC getting a bashing on the forums after inviting people at the Novotel to a Property Event showcasing new line up of projects.
It's a comical read, but it's in English and Tagalog.
to follow SS 's warning, yung mga OFW na makikipagmeet sa mga ahente ng mga real-estate company sa Pinas for Condo "investment", eto yung mga dapat niyo bantayan sa mga sasabihin nila sa inyo.
Claim: Yung monthly amortization ma cocover ng rental income the moment ma transfer na sa inyo yung unit at napaupahan na.
Fact: Sa dinami dami ng condo na para ng kabute sa metro manila,...t. At ang rental rate ay most likely hindi sapat to cover yung monthly amortization ng loan, dahil nga sa sobra ang demand ng units, ang baba ng rent. Kaya yung iba sa Airbnb ang bagsak, at tanungin niyo yung management ng condo niyo kung i-allow ba nila ang Airbnb, kasi yung iba ayaw gusto nila sila mag manage ng pagpapa upa.
Fact: Strict rules ... invite sa amenities.
Rude pa ang mga guard at mga tao sa management office ng condo na daig pa mga may ari ng unit kung umasta, tratuhin kang tenant instead of resident.
Claim: Investment, maibebenta ng malaki after X years.
Sounds like buyers have been unhappy with SMDC's quality, management, and after-sales service.
Also (without translating the Tagalog), it sounds like the Rental Income, is NOT COVERING the loan installments.
Can Manila Bay really attract so many new tenants, so quickly? I truly doubt it.
However that Mak.CBD # does not include The Rise & Air Residences.
THAT much may be manageable, but will bring some temporary hiccups, I reckon.
The huge jump in Manila Bay may be more problematic IMHO.
In one year (2018, with 8,500 units) M-Bay will add as many units as they have now!
Can the rise in M-Bay tourism really absorb that? It might really hit the hotels.
"Higher gross yields from the Philippines property market continue to entice foreign investors,a recent study by property consultancy firm Colliers International shows"
Ayala Land Inc., which built Manila's financial district, is expanding into workers' dormitories as developers target people fed up with battling some of the world's worst traffic.
The company is investing 3 billion pesos ($58 million) building five dormitories on four sites in the Makati and Taguig business districts, comprising 1,500 units that can house as many as 6,000 people, President Bobby Dy said in an interview. The first dormitory will be ready next year, and has received interest from firms wanting to lease entire floors to keep workers close, he said.
FALLING YIELDS - again in Q3-2017. How savvy are the buyers?
Since the recent peak Yields of 7.02% - in Q4-2015 when Rent's peaked at P883 psm.
Rents have fallen by 8.4% to just P 809 per sqm.
Nevertheless, Condo Buyers ignored the trend in Rents, and kept bidding up the prices of new condos. In the same period, the average Condo in the index was up from P151.2k to P167k psm, a rise of 10.4%.
Consequently, Yields have fallen even more than Rents.
Meantime, prices keep rising, and interest rates are stable-to-rising.
Who propping this market up?
Probably potential own-use / family-use buyers from the OFW, and Mainland Chinese who are buying (somewhat naively?) for safe-haven reasons.
"Modest decline in rents as prices still on a plateau The additional supply and rising vacancy have pushed rents down as the rental market has become more competitive. Options within and outside CBDs have increased and have provided alternatives to tenants in the market. Among the three top locations for prime condominium units, Makati showed the biggest decline in rents, albeit still a modest 1.0% decline quarter on quarter to P809 per sq m per month (1.50 USD per sq ft per month). It was followed by Rockwell which declined by 0.50% to P886 per sq m per month (1.65 per sq ft per month) and Fort Bonifacio by 0.12% to P811 per sq m per month (1.51 per sq ft per month).
Among the three locations, Rockwell Center commands the most expensive rent. Understandably, the contained environment of Rockwell Center has largely kept the consistency of products within the area, softening rental impact through time. Meanwhile, the sizeable stock in both Makati and Fort Bonifacio has tightened competition among various developments.
The secondary market prices in major CBDs continued plateauing. Although still in an uptrend, the velocity of capital appreciation slowed down in recent quarters"
they are lower at 11.5% in Rockwell, and lower still, at just 6.4% in Ortigas), but a slowing of Condo completions in 2018, may turn these figures around and bring them lower in 2018 and 2019, in Makati at least.
Colliers still expects Rents to continue to fall "for years", but the falls may be highest in the 3BR and above size range. I am seeing signs of stable and even rising rents in the Studio size range. As an example of this, Avida has NO STUDIOS available for rent in Makati, as I was writing this.
A strong position thing is that Household formations in PH are continuing to rise faster than Condo completions of Metro Manila as a whole.
TELLING Turns (in stock prices) maybe?
Prices were up both inside (+2.0%) and outside (+1.8%), the NCR. Single detached & duplex homes were down in the NCR, but the rises in prices of townhouses and condos, dragged the NCR average into the positive region.
The secondary market is NOT in these prices. The BSP watches new homes most closely because 76.7 percent of mortgage loan are secured on New homes. By type of housing unit, 48% of residential property loans were for condos, and 41% were on single family detached homes.
Too bad that prospective, buyers, lenders, and the BSP have such little good data on the secondary market.
"The country's housing deficit is estimated to reach a staggering 7.67 million by 2022... according to the Organization of Socialized Housing Developers of the Philippines." - at a Lamudi forum.
+ Within that, homes prices at P1.7 - 3 Million are called "low cost housing"
+ Homes at P450k - P1.7 million are called "economic housing"
+ Under P450,000 is called "socialized housing"
+ Living spaces at P3 - 6 million are called "mid-cost", and those costing over P6million are called "high-end". These top two segments are where most of the bank lending is going.
Banks find it very difficult to lend in the lower end "affordable housing", and especially in the (<P450K / ie <$9k) "socialized housing" sector. No doubt the potential headaches of monitoring loans and foreclosing, if needed, make this uneconomic for most banks.
There seems to be an obvious "fix" imho.
Have you seen the chart for Century Properties recently?
MEG is also near a low for THIS year, 2018.
Filinvest Land is near recent Lows, & only about 10% off 2017's Lows.
ALI 's chart is more healthy. They are a Blue Chip developer. Along with SMPH.
ALI announced its profits for 2017 yesterday : Up 21% to 25.3 Billion. Properties revenues rose 13% for the year, with growth accelerating (+17%) in Q4.
It is TIME - to make the Bear Call!
The Bear Case looks compelling now... Very!
The growth rate of prices of condominium units in NCR = YoY 15pct, QoQ 10.9pct.
This is the highest growth rate I believe since they have created this index.
Maybe this coincided with the top in the equity markets in late january and we could go down hard from here.
"There has been an "OFF THE RICHTER SCALE" price increase in condominium prices in the MM NCR.
aware that they pay maybe 20-40pct more for new construction than a few years ago.
Ang swerte ng mga early buyers nito. We got in really very late in the game.
24sqm 1 bedroom is priced at 5.3M (deducted na yung 10% promo nila now). Even if, we still reserved a unit..
Just hope na Shore2 will still command good rental investment in future.
So there are the stories of real people who admit and know that they re paying more for new units from the developer than a few years ago.
Firstly and without a doubt, 2015 was the best time to buy especially Off Plan upmarket Condos. The average price for such a condo was around PhP 130,000 (USD $2,600) per square meter and in 2017 it's now PhP 200,000 (USD $4,000) per square meter or higher with Ayala Land Premier and Rockwell Proscenium selling at an estimated PhP 270,000 per square meter and above. However, the average rental price for these condos is the same as 2015 and could even be argued that it is less, as more and more Pre-Selling Condos complete and their inventory becomes available on the market. For example, the Milano Residences, a Century City property, and the Park Terraces, an Ayala Land Premier property, both in Makati are good indicators of this.
So what does this mean for a real estate investor?
In simple terms, it means that in 2015, a real estate investor was getting about 8% net Yield and today an investor is probably getting only about a 5% net yield or even less if they buy at Rockwell or Park Terraces"
HOUSE PRICES rose faster in 2017's last three months from a year ago, marking the biggest increase in three quarters as duplex and condominium prices surged by double-digit pace, according to data the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) released on Wednesday.
Prices rose by 5.7% year-on-year from October to December, clocking the fastest pace since a 6.5% climb in 2017's first quarter, according to the latest BSP residential real estate price index (RREPI). The 2017 fourth-quarter pace compares to the preceding three months' 1.8% and the year-ago 3.3% rise.
On average, housing prices rose by 3.6% for the entire 2017, roughly flat from 2016.
Central bank officials have noted sustained strong demand for commercial and living space in the Philippines, showing that price increases are driven by actual demand and allaying fears of a bubble. A bubble forms as a perceived rising demand for houses drives developers to build more units, and is said to "burst" as consumption stagnates and causes an abrupt drop in prices that could jolt exposed banks.
The BSP limits a bank's real estate exposure to 20% of its total loan portfolio. Philippine banks handed out P1.801 trillion in real estate loans last year, with home loans accounting for a third at P608.142 billion, according to latest available BSP data.
I went to visit Mall of Asia, to have some food yesterday.
While there, I could not resist stopping by the SMDC showroom.
I found the prices rather shockingly high, since they were maybe 20-25% lower than the last time I had seen them.
There are still better deals available on the secondary market.
Many Breeze residences units (27sq m units ) are sold on the secondary market for 3,6 - 3,7 - 3,8 million PHP, around PHP145K to PHP150K per square meter, (according to OLX.ph) while the official price is around PHP6- 6,2Million for units facing amenities/MNL Bay.
The price per square meter around MOA is perhaps around PHP170K to PHP180K and likely not more for the moment.
Anybody who is paying these developer prices is at risk of a big loss if the market heads south.
It s an almost 50pct price difference between PRIMARY and SECONDARY markets, IMO.
and which are shared amongst these BROKERS.
Especially when you can get something NEW or ALMOST NEW from the secondary market.
The question is: WHAT IS THE BEST WAY to access the Secondary Market.
basically, incomes and rents have to rise to sustain the higher prices.
Real Estate "Breaking Point" - Prices MUST go Down!
Dr Bubb, when is the Philippine Real Estate market going to run out of bigger fools???
Is there a way to measure the number of bigger fools in PH real estate? I read somewhere that around 400,000 people could already qualify for a PHP1, TO php1,5Million loan, but for bigger amounts, you are looking at a very small number of bigger fools. (I mean local Philippines based individuals).
Dr Bubb is a "numbers guy". Maybe he knows the exact number of bigger fools and based on this number one/he might be able to predict when the market will fall.
Of course, it is made more difficult by the "international" fools who also operate in this market.
For example, if a 1 BR unit in the Manila Bay, which SMDC sells Today for P7.4 million (or P280k psm), could go back to the P3.5 million level where it was just 2-3 years ago.


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Session exploring the concept of going to university and the value of a higher education qualification. Aims to break down barriers, raise pupils' awareness and aspirations of HE.
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Talk focusing on the opportunities available in higher education and what pupils can be doing in Year 12 to prepare themselves for applying to university.
Session focusing on the transition to university and the steps that Year 13 pupils can take to prepare for undergraduate study and student life. Highlights the opportunities available to first year HE students and discusses possible challenges and realistic solutions.
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These whipped shortbread cookies are buttery and just melt in your mouth with every bite. Just 3 ingredients and one bowl to make these light and tender cookies that everyone will remember you for.
The first time I had whipped shortbread cookies was during the holidays at my very first job out of University. I was working as a sales rep for a chemical company and the Lab Manager, Robin LeSage, had brought in these wonderful cookies to share with the office. I was amazed by how light and delicate the cookies were, yet rich and buttery at the same time. They literally just crumble and melt in your mouth. I still have the original email he gave me with the recipe courtesy of his wife. It's dated November of 2002 (yes I'm old). And for that holiday season, instead of buying Christmas gifts for all my clients, I made a plate of these whipped shortbread cookies for every single one of my customers. I can't tell you how much butter I went through that year, but it was a lot. I remember my mom complaining that the house smelled like butter all the time. I think she was worried she was getting fat from just the smell lol.
The original recipe is just butter, powdered sugar, and flour. The vanilla is optional, but I always add it. The only change I made to the original recipe this time around was I added a little extra flour because I wanted a firmer dough that didn't spread as much.
I like to use my stand-mixer with the paddle attachment to make these cookies. That way all I have to do is dump all of the ingredients into the bowl and let the mixer do all of the whipping and beating (sorry if that sounds kind of dirty).
These whipped shortbread cookies are incredibly light and tender. They are full of vanilla and a buttery taste. They are so easy to make and are a perfect addition to any holiday cookie tray. They are also perfect for gifting.
These whipped shortbread cookies are buttery and just melt in your mouth with every bite. Just 3 ingredients and one bowl to make these light and tender cookies.
Preheat oven to 300F and line two baking sheets with parchment paper.
Using an electric mixer or stand mixer with paddle attachment, beat the butter and powdered sugar until light and fluffy, about 3 minutes. Add the vanilla if using and beat for another minute.
Stir in half the flour until just combined. Repeat with the rest of the flour.
Lightly dust your hand with powdered sugar and roll the dough into small balls, about 1 tablespoon each. Use the tines of a fork that has been dipped in powdered sugar to slightly flatten the cookie doughs. Add some sprinkles on top if desired.
Bake for 15-20 minutes until the edges just start to brown. Let cool completely on the baking sheets.


text:
Dr Tim Wells
School of Biosciences
wellst@cardiff.ac.uk
Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff, CF10 3AX
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Golding, D.et al. 2017. Paradoxical leanness in the imprinting centre deletion mouse model for Prader-Willi syndrome. Journal of Endocrinology 232(1), pp. 123-135. (10.1530/JOE-16-0367)
Navein, A. E.et al. 2016. Disrupted mitochondrial function in the Opa3L122P mouse model for Costeff Syndrome impairs skeletal integrity. Human Molecular Genetics 25(12), pp. 2404-2416. (10.1093/hmg/ddw107)
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Man, P., Wells, T. and Carter, D. A. 2014. Cellular distribution of Egr1 transcription in the male rat pituitary gland. Journal of Molecular Endocrinology 53(2), pp. 271-280. (10.1530/JME-14-0158)
El-Kasti, M. M., Wells, T. and Carter, D. A. 2012. A novel long-range enhancer regulates postnatal expression of Zeb2: implications for Mowat-Wilson syndrome phenotypes. Human Molecular Genetics 21(26), pp. 5429-5442. (10.1093/hmg/dds389)
Wells, T.et al. 2012. Opa3, a novel regulator of mitochondrial function, controls thermogenesis and abdominal fat mass in a mouse model for Costeff syndrome. Human Molecular Genetics 21(22), pp. 4836-4844. (10.1093/hmg/dds315)
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The focus of my laboratory is on the endocrine and neuroendocrine actions of ghrelin. A variety of contemporary technologies are employed to investigate the way in which ghrelin interacts with the brain and peripheral tissues to regulate adiposity and the secretion of pituitary hormones. This research falls into the following areas:
Ghrelin and Obesity
Ghrelin stimulates fat deposition. Following our landmark publication showing that ghrelin has a direct adipogenic (increases the number of fat cells) action in bone marrow (Figure 1), we have established the mechanisms by which ghrelin induces an increase in abdominal adiposity. Using MRI we have shown that this effect of ghrelin increases the volume of adipose tissue locations associated with the development of the metabolic syndrome (Figure 2).
We have shown that this effect is:
Due to an increase in adipocyte size (Figure 3)
Probably due to a reduction in lipid export.
Dependent upon expression of the recognized receptor for ghrelin, GHS-R1a.
Also seen in liver2.
We have used microarray analysis to investigate why specific adipose tissue depots respond differently to ghrelin exposure. This analysis suggests that depot-specificity arises from differences in signal transduction and lipid handling2. A complete dataset from this microarray analysis is available here.
Coupled with evidence that circulating ghrelin is suppressed by feeding and that ghrelin stimulates food intake (especially the ingestion fat), our data indicates that:
Ghrelin may restrict lipid loss during food deprivation.
Interrupting ghrelin signalling may be an essential component of any programme of sustained fat loss.
Ghrelin and Growth Hormone Secretion
Ghrelin was first identified as a hormone that stimulates GH secretion and might therefore be useful in accelerating skeletal growth in a particular group of GH-deficient children. We used the Tgr rat, a model of hypothalamic GH deficiency, to demonstrate that the growth promoting potential of ghrelin is also dependent upon the pattern of treatment. We are currently investigating the effect of continuous exposure to ghrelin and unacylated ghrelin (UAG) on spontaneous GH secretion. Interestingly, although GH-deficiency is usually associated with obesity, the profoundly GH-deficient dw/dw rat is surprisingly lean.
Ghrelin and Reproduction
Ghrelin is now thought to provide a metabolic signal to delay the development of reproductive function. In this context we have shown that:
Ghrelin (and UAG) suppresses gonadotrophin secretion even in the hypergonadotrophic Tgr rat.
Circulating ghrelin is not increased consistently during pregnancy and is not responsible for the elevation in baseline GH secretion. Pregnancy is accompanied by a marked polarisation of GH secretory granules towards the vasculature (Figure 4).
Interactions Between Adiposity Status and the Growing Skeleton
Given the interactions of ghrelin, GH and adiposity we are also investigating the influence of these variables on bone formation. We have now used in vitro strength testing and µ-computer tomography (µ-CT) to demonstrate that:
The impairment of bone strength in the Tgr model of moderate GH-deficiency is more profound than in the severely deficient dw/dw rat.
The impairment of bone strength and microarchitecture in these models of GH-deficiency is not related to the accompanying adiposity status, or the secretion of leptin.
The Ipsen Fund
Prof David Carter, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University.
Dr Helen Christian, Oxford University.
Dr Karen Coschigano, Ohio University, Ohio, USA.
Dr Jeffrey Davies, University of Swansea.
Dr Bronwen Evans, school of Medicine, Cardiff University.
Dr Sam Evans, School of Engineering, Cardiff University.
Dr Evelien Gevers, National Institute of Medical Research, London.
Prof John Kopchick, Ohio University, Ohio, USA.
Prof Agneta Mode, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
Prof Iain Robinson, National Institute of Medical Research, London.
Dr Manuel Tena-Sempere, University of Cordoba, Spain.
Dr Jeffrey Zigman, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, USA.
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