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Habitat associations, community dynamics and diversity of fishes
Fish physiology
Population demographics of fishes
Resilience of reefs and fishes
Connectivity and recruitment of fishes
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EFFECTS OF CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE ON MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS| 15 March 2010
Crucial knowledge gaps in current understanding of climate change impacts on coral reef fishes
S. K. Wilson,
S. K. Wilson *
Marine Science Program, Department of Environment and Conservation
Kensington, WA
*Author for correspondence (shaun.wilson@dec.wa.gov.au)
M. Adjeroud,
M. Adjeroud
UMR 5244 CNRS-EPHE-UPVD, Centre de Biologie et d'Ecologie Tropicale et Mediterranéenne, Université de Perpignan Via Domitia
D. R. Bellwood,
D. R. Bellwood
School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University
Townsville, Queensland
ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, James Cook University
M. L. Berumen,
M. L. Berumen
Thuwal
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
D. Booth,
D. Booth
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Technology
Y.-Marie Bozec,
Y.-Marie Bozec
Agrocampus Ouest, Laboratory of Computer Science
P. Chabanet,
P. Chabanet
A. Cheal,
A. Cheal
Australian Institute of Marine Science
J. Cinner,
J. Cinner
M. Depczynski,
M. Depczynski
Australian Institute of Marine Science, c/— The Oceans Institute, University of Western Australia
Crawley WA
D. A. Feary,
D. A. Feary
United Nations University, International Network on Water, Environment and Health
M. Gagliano,
M. Gagliano
Centre of Evolutionary Biology, University of Western Australia
N. A. J. Graham,
N. A. J. Graham
A. R. Halford,
A. R. Halford
Marine Lab, University of Guam
Mangilao, Guam
B. S. Halpern,
B. S. Halpern
National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis
A. R. Harborne,
A. R. Harborne
Marine Spatial Ecology Lab, School of Biosciences, University of Exeter
A. S. Hoey,
A. S. Hoey
S. J. Holbrook,
S. J. Holbrook
Department of Ecology, Evolution and Marine Biology, University of California
G. P. Jones,
G. P. Jones
M. Kulbiki,
M. Kulbiki
Y. Letourneur,
Y. Letourneur
Centre d'Océanologie de Marseille, Université de la Méditerranée
T. L. De Loma,
T. L. De Loma
Centre de Recherches Insulaires et Observatoire de l'Environnement
Moorea, French Polynesia
T. McClanahan,
T. McClanahan
Marine Programs, Wildlife Conservation Society
M. I. McCormick,
M. I. McCormick
M. G. Meekan,
M. G. Meekan
P. J. Mumby,
P. J. Mumby
P. L. Munday,
P. L. Munday
M. C. Öhman,
M. C. Öhman
Department of Zoology, Stockholm University
M. S. Pratchett,
M. S. Pratchett
B. Riegl,
B. Riegl
National Coral Reef Institute, Nova Southeastern University
M. Sano,
M. Sano
Department of Ecosystem Studies, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo
R. J. Schmitt,
R. J. Schmitt
C. Syms
Accepted: 03 Nov 2009
J Exp Biol (2010) 213 (6): 894–900.
https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.037895
A related article has been published: Survival in a changing world
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S. K. Wilson, M. Adjeroud, D. R. Bellwood, M. L. Berumen, D. Booth, Y.-Marie Bozec, P. Chabanet, A. Cheal, J. Cinner, M. Depczynski, D. A. Feary, M. Gagliano, N. A. J. Graham, A. R. Halford, B. S. Halpern, A. R. Harborne, A. S. Hoey, S. J. Holbrook, G. P. Jones, M. Kulbiki, Y. Letourneur, T. L. De Loma, T. McClanahan, M. I. McCormick, M. G. Meekan, P. J. Mumby, P. L. Munday, M. C. Öhman, M. S. Pratchett, B. Riegl, M. Sano, R. J. Schmitt, C. Syms; Crucial knowledge gaps in current understanding of climate change impacts on coral reef fishes. J Exp Biol 15 March 2010; 213 (6): 894–900. doi: https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.037895
Expert opinion was canvassed to identify crucial knowledge gaps in current understanding of climate change impacts on coral reef fishes. Scientists that had published three or more papers on the effects of climate and environmental factors on reef fishes were invited to submit five questions that, if addressed, would improve our understanding of climate change effects on coral reef fishes. Thirty-three scientists provided 155 questions, and 32 scientists scored these questions in terms of: (i) identifying a knowledge gap, (ii) achievability, (iii) applicability to a broad spectrum of species and reef habitats, and (iv) priority. Forty-two per cent of the questions related to habitat associations and community dynamics of fish, reflecting the established effects and immediate concern relating to climate-induced coral loss and habitat degradation. However, there were also questions on fish demographics, physiology, behaviour and management, all of which could be potentially affected by climate change. Irrespective of their individual expertise and background, scientists scored questions from different topics similarly, suggesting limited bias and recognition of a need for greater interdisciplinary and collaborative research. Presented here are the 53 highest-scoring unique questions. These questions should act as a guide for future research, providing a basis for better assessment and management of climate change impacts on coral reefs and associated fish communities.
ecosystem management, fisheries, coral reef ecology, physiology, behaviour, conservation, global warming, ocean acidification, coral bleaching
Coral reefs are among the most diverse of all ecosystems and provide goods and services to millions of people (Moberg and Folke, 1999). However, coral reefs are also highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change. Survival of scleratinian corals, the prominent builders of reef habitat, is threatened by sustained increases in sea surface temperatures (SST), which cause coral bleaching (Glynn, 1996; Brown, 1997; Hoegh-Guldberg, 1999), increase the severity of tropical storms (Webster et al., 2005) and may be linked to outbreaks of coral disease (Harvell et al., 1999; Harvell et al., 2002; Bruno et al., 2007). Furthermore, rapidly increasing levels of atmospheric CO2 and the consequent acidification of the marine environment can reduce the growth of coral skeletons and their capacity to contribute to reef accretion (Kleypas et al., 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007; De'ath et al., 2009). These climate change-associated stressors are contributing to declines in coral cover at regional scales (Gardner et al., 2003; Bellwood et al., 2004; Bruno and Selig, 2007) and are fundamentally altering the benthic composition of coral reef habitats.
Sustained changes to the composition of reef benthos have major implications for reef-associated communities. One of the most widely studied of these communities are the reef fishes, owing to their importance as a protein source for human societies living close to tropical coastlines (Pauly et al., 2002; Bell et al., 2009) and their functional ecological roles on reefs (Bellwood et al., 2004). Recent reviews have focused on the effects of habitat disturbance on coral reef fishes (Jones and Syms, 1998; Wilson et al., 2006), some specifically addressing the influence of coral bleaching (Pratchett et al., 2008; Pratchett et al., 2009). In addition, Munday et al. present a holistic prediction of climate change impacts on coral reef fishes, considering both the indirect effects associated with changes to habitat and oceanic currents as well as the direct effects on fish physiology and demographics (Munday et al., 2008a). Here we present a list of research questions that, if addressed, will advance our understanding of how climate change will affect reef fishes and improve the capacity of managers to mitigate such impacts.
A comprehensive range of research objectives was obtained by inviting scientists to submit five questions that represented feasible research projects and information gaps on climate change impacts on coral reef fishes. Each of the invited scientists had considerable expertise on the topic, having authored or co-authored three or more papers on the effects of environmental parameters, such as habitat and temperature on coral reef fishes. Of the 43 scientists invited to contribute, 33 provided 155 questions. This represented expert opinion from people working in 10 countries and 23 institutions, conducting research in all oceans. The majority of these institutions were universities; however, there were also participants from resource management agencies, research and non-government organisations.
To assess the breadth of knowledge canvassed and how this may have influenced the distribution and evaluation of questions, each scientist was asked to identify their areas of research interest relevant to climate change impacts on coral reef fishes. The same research areas were used to categorise the posed questions. As both the research interests of scientists and questions covered multiple topics, both researchers and questions could be assigned to more than one category.
Contributing scientists were then asked to evaluate the quality of all of the submitted questions. Questions were placed in a random order and scientists asked if each question: (i) identified a gap in our current knowledge base, (ii) was achievable, (iii) was of broad ecological scope (applicable to multiple species and coral reefs globally), and (iv) was of high priority needing to be answered immediately. Each of these question attributes was rated as: very low, low, medium, high, or very high, which corresponded to a score between 1 and 5. Of the scientists that submitted questions, 31 provided scores for all 155 questions. In addition, one scientist that did not submit questions completed the survey (see Table S1 in supplementary material).
More than 70% of scientists identified community dynamics, habitat associations, diversity and distribution patterns of reef fish as areas of research interest (Fig. 1). By contrast, less than 20% of contributors listed physiology, productivity and disease as research interests. Scientists' interests influenced the type of questions proposed, with a positive correlation detected between the number of scientists interested in a topic and the number of questions presented on that topic (F1,11=4.47, P=0.05, R2=0.29). However, scientists tended to score questions from different topic areas evenly, suggesting research background did not unduly bias assessment of question quality (Fig. 2). The median response for questions within all categories was 'high' with respect to identifying knowledge gaps and 'medium' with respect to achievability. Question scope and priority were also similar between categories, although studies on fish disease and behaviour were considered to be of slightly lower scope and priority. These results suggest that although there are relatively few researchers working on topics like physiology of coral reef fish, most recognise that more work is required in these areas. Physiological studies in particular are identified as high priority, and a comparatively high level of achievability suggests scientists believe we already have the ability to address many of these questions. Importantly, a greater knowledge of reef fish physiology will underpin ecological understating and improve management capacity. Clearly there is a need for more interdisciplinary studies and greater collaboration between scientists of different research backgrounds and expertise if we are to progress our understanding of climate change effects on reef fishes.
Research interests of 33 scientists and categorisation of the 155 questions they posed to improve understanding of climate change impacts on coral reef fish.
The final list of 53 questions represents a comprehensive and refined list of objectives that should steer future research. Only questions that the majority of scientists classified as 'high' or 'very high' in terms of identifying a knowledge gap were included whereas questions the majority deemed of 'low' or 'very low' achievability, scope or priority were excluded. In some cases, the same question was posed by multiple scientists, although phrasing of questions differed between scientists. For example, 10 scientists asked how changes in oceanic currents will alter connectivity and recruitment patterns of fish. All 10 of these questions were given median ranks of 'high' in terms of identifying a knowledge gap and scope and 'medium' scores in terms of achievability. Thus, scientists believe our understanding of how climate change affects currents and connectivity is rudimentary but they also realise that these questions are not easily addressed. The standard scoring of similar questions also indicates that scientists were not overly influenced by question phrasing. Nonetheless, there were slight differences in the overall score of similar questions, and where there was replication the question with the highest overall score was retained. If questions were subtly different (e.g. assessing temporal vs spatial trends) information was amalgamated to create a single question. Questions are presented below under the research areas used to classify them although, as previously mentioned, some questions transcend a single topic and could be placed under multiple headings.
Median score of questions from 13 research areas. Each question was scored from 1 to 5, where 1 represented very low and 5 very high.
(1) While it is clear that fish species that specialise on corals for food or habitat are impacted by coral mortality (Wilson et al., 2006; Pratchett et al., 2008) the effect of coral loss on other fish species, particularly cryptic and rare species, is poorly understood (but see Bellwood et al., 2006). How does coral mortality influence the capacity of a wide range of fish populations, with differing life-history traits, to persist?
(2) Sublethal changes in the condition of reef fish associated with live coral cover have been observed weeks to months after live coral reductions (e.g. Pratchett et al., 2004; Feary et al., 2009). How do sublethal effects vary between species? Are juveniles more susceptible than adults? What are reliable metrics to measure sublethal impacts of climate change on fish?
(3) Very few studies have documented the effects of coral recovery on the short-, medium- and long-term structure of the fish communities (but see Halford et al., 2004; Berumen and Pratchett, 2006). How dependent on coral is the post-disturbance recovery process of fish communities? How will recovery rates of reefs and fish vary due to different disturbance types, e.g. bleaching vs storm damage? Which fish species are diagnostic markers of reef regeneration?
(4) Losses in live coral and structural complexity have been shown to cause losses in fish diversity and abundance (Jones et al., 2004; Graham et al., 2006; Wilson et al., 2006); however, little is understood regarding a loss of functional diversity in the fish assemblage or how such a loss may affect coral recovery potential. How is fish functional diversity impacted on degraded coral reefs and how does this interact with benthic recovery dynamics?
(5) It has been shown that different genera of corals vary in their susceptibility to climate change (Baird and Marshall, 2002). Unless rapid adaptation takes place, shifts in coral species dominance will occur (Riegl and Purkis, 2009), most likely away from branching species to more massive and encrusting species. How will this shift in ecosystem engineers, potentially across wide geographical scales, affect reef fish communities? Can we develop a model of what reef fish communities will look like in 10, 25 or 50 years?
(6) What effects will ocean acidification have on coral habitats and how will this affect reef fishes? Much of the work in this domain has focused on the effects of bleaching, due to the historically greater awareness of the issue, but acidification may be the stronger, more critical, impact on habitats and hence on fishes.
(7) Climate change appears to be a major driver leading to the loss of structural complexity on reefs (Alvarez-Filip et al., 2009), which may alter the diversity and composition of fish communities (Sano et al., 1987; Graham et al., 2006). Some reef-associated fish species exhibit a non-linear relationship with structural complexity (Pittman et al., 2009). Do species-specific threshold effects exist beyond which structure no longer supports certain species? What ecological processes and aspects of fish behaviour do loss of structural complexity affect?
(8) Herbivorous fishes often increase in abundance following extensive coral loss (Wilson et al., 2006; Pratchett et al., 2008; Pratchett et al., 2009). At the same time metabolic rate and consumption are expected to increase with temperature, until optimum or threshold temperatures are exceeded (Munday et al., 2008b). How will the rate of feeding and erosion by herbivorous fish (and other bioeroders) be affected by increasing temperatures? To what extent will this process hasten the rates of reef erosion and loss of structural complexity?
(9) Collapse in the physical matrix of the reef following coral mortality has been shown to cause a reduction in the abundance of smaller size classes of large-bodied reef fish (Graham et al., 2007) (Wilson et al., 2010). What are the long-term implications of this for ecological function and fishery resources?
(10) Coral reefs are often a component of a larger ecological system, which incorporates elements such as seagrass, mangroves and algal beds. Changes in temperature, sea level and storm dynamics are likely to affect all of these habitats, the interactions between them and the interactions with terrestrial habitats (e.g. erosion). As many fish undertake ontogenic and trophic migrations between habitats (Nagelkerken et al., 2000; Mumby et al., 2004), how will changes in the composition and cover of habitats adjacent to coral reefs influence fish behaviour, recruitment and abundance?
(11) Much of our focus on coral reef degradation has related to the loss of live coral, and associated structural complexity, and an increase in algal cover. Many other alternate states have been identified, such as those dominated by soft corals, sponges or corallimorphs (Norström et al., 2008). These changes are likely to influence those species that directly rely on these resources (e.g. species that feed directly on soft corals or sponges). How will such changes influence the overall diversity and functioning of reef fish communities?
(12) Climate change could result in increased incidence of disturbances, such as severe storms, or changes may be more gradual, such as gradual declines in pH. Low-level, but persistent, disturbances can still drive changes in community structure (e.g. Berumen and Pratchett, 2006). How does the speed, acuteness or severity of a disturbance influence the resulting fish communities?
(13) How will short- and long-term organic productivity on coral reefs be affected by bleaching? Moreover, as increased water temperature will affect rates of metabolism, digestion and growth, how will this influence the rate at which energy flows through food webs and the productivity of reef fish, particularly species targeted by fishers?
(14) Can fishes adapt to changing temperature and pH regimes? How will the rate of change in temperature, CO2 and acidity affect fishes' abilities to adapt? Our understanding of the ability of marine fishes to adapt to rapid environmental change is rudimentary. Many fishes have large geographical ranges spanning a temperature gradient at least as large as projected increases in average SST; therefore, some capacity for adaptation to higher temperatures should be possible, especially in high latitude populations currently living at the lowest temperatures (Munday et al., 2008a). By contrast, there is likely to be much less capacity to adapt to rapid increases in ambient CO2 (Munday et al., 2009b).
(15) How do fish communities respond to interactions or synergies among various climate change-associated environmental drivers (e.g. rise in temperature, ocean acidification)? Are synergistic effects of SST rise and ocean acidification predicted by their independent effects? Similarly, how does the interaction between habitat degradation and fishing or other anthropogenic pressures affect fish?
(16) Ocean warming and acidification can have a direct effect on coral reef fish (Munday et al., 2008a) and may play an increasingly important role in structuring communities (Poloczanska et al., 2007). How do the direct effects of climate change on fish populations and communities compare with the indirect effects, typically mediated through habitat alteration? Are there other effects associated with climate change (e.g. harmful algal blooms) that may become increasingly important in structuring fish communities?
(17) Recent research has identified an optimal temperature for the damselfish Acanthachromis polyacanthus, beyond which growth declines, especially if resources are limited (Munday et al., 2008b). What is the typical optimal temperature for coral reef fishes, and is it likely to be exceeded given sustained ongoing climate change? To what extent are larger and commercially important reef fishes (e.g. Plectropomus spp.) affected by projected changes in temperature?
(18) The effects of increased levels of dissolved CO2 and reduced ocean pH on non-calcifying marine species are poorly understood. Although some research indicates that fishes are tolerant to relatively small increases in CO2 (Ishimatsu et al., 2008; Munday et al., 2009a), one recent study found that elevated CO2 exacerbated the effects of increased water temperatures on the aerobic performance of two reef fish species (Munday et al., 2009d). How will performance be affected across a broad spectrum of reef fish species, life stages and genotypes? How will this affect reproductive performance, growth and survival of fishes?
(19) Increasing acidification of marine waters will reduce calcification (mostly aragonite) of marine organisms (Kleypas et al., 1999). What impact will this have on the development of calcified parts of fish, such as otoliths? Could the aragonite be replaced by vaterite or calcite as found in otoliths of some stressed fish?
(20) What are the physiological thresholds at which the functional behaviour and demographics of an animal is compromised or become decoupled? For example, Pomacentrus ambionensis adults can sustain 34°C but reproduction is reduced and eggs fail to survive at 31°C (Gagliano et al., 2007).
(21) Animal physiological processes and the maintenance of homeostasis are strongly influenced by temperature and pH. Gametes and embryos have the most poorly developed homeostatic mechanisms. How will increased water temperature and acidification influence gamete viability, performance (e.g. sperm activity) and fertilisation success?
(22) The intrinsic capacity to withstand stressful conditions varies among reef fish species (Gagliano et al., 2009; Nilsson et al., 2009). But how are intrinsic physiological capacities shaped by ecological demands? How similar is the physiological capacity to deal with stress among members of the same functional group or species with comparable life-history traits?
(23) Because fish are poikilotherms and their metabolic rates are driven by ambient environmental conditions, temperature has a potentially large impact on growth rate and yield. How will growth rates of fishes and fisheries productivity change with respect to temperature shifts?
(24) The upward trend in water temperature could have either a positive or negative effect on the reproductive success of reef fishes that use temperature to cue breeding (Munday et al., 2008a). How will increased temperature affect the reproductive timing/season of marine fishes and the subsequent development, survival and behaviour of larvae?
(25) Parental effects strongly influence the links between ontogenetic stages in a fish's life cycle (McCormick and Gagliano, 2009). Recent studies show that these links are disrupted through maternal stress (McCormick, 1998; McCormick, 2006). How will habitat degradation influence maternal stress and offspring quality, and how will this link influence the size of the population effectively breeding and the number of larvae that replenish local populations?
(26) What would the effect of plastic or inherited life-history changes be on the role of fishes in the community and their role as an extracted marine resource? There are a range of demographic and life-history characteristics that may covary with ecological and anthropogenic effects, and a relatively sound theory of the direction in which variables such as age and size at maturity, mortality, growth and reproduction trade-offs are likely to change (Stearns, 1992). In coral reef fishes understanding these characteristics is made more complicated by the large number of hermaphroditic species in functionally and economically important groups.
(27) Research suggests that food availability becomes limiting to population processes in low latitudes (Jones and McCormick, 2002). If increased temperature increases metabolism, how will the energetic requirements be met at low latitudes? If food is limited, what life process will be traded-off against metabolism?
(28) Life-history theory suggests that in order to maximise reproductive fitness, females will adopt either one of two tactics: investing greater amounts of energy into producing a large quantity of offspring, or producing fewer offspring but investing greater amounts of energy to each individual (Stearns, 1992; Einum and Fleming, 2000). Theory suggests that the allocation strategy adopted depends upon the predictability of the environment (Marshall and Uller, 2007). Will species-specific allocation strategies developed over long time frames be sufficiently flexible to adapt to rapid environmental change, and what are the ramifications of this potential mismatch for recruitment success?
(29) Many coral reef fishes undergo sex change, and the ratio of males and females strongly influences the social organisation of populations. Recent studies have shown that the identity of the individuals that become males (i.e. individuals with highest fitness) depends upon their characteristics at hatching and in the larval phase (Walker et al., 2007) (M.I.M., personal observation). How will climate change influence fitness of early life-history stages and how will this affect social organisation of fish populations.
(30) Which species are really specialists? Theory (Vazquez and Simberloff, 2002) and limited empirical data (e.g. Munday, 2004; Berumen and Pratchett, 2008; Pratchett et al., 2008; Wilson et al., 2008) suggest specialist species are more susceptible to disturbance than generalists. However, the characterisation of reef fish as specialists and generalists is still unclear. There needs to be a detailed and multi-factorial assessment made of the plasticity in resource use inherent in reef fish.
(31) Are fishes necessary to maintain coral-dominated systems? There is a general assumption that reefs without fishes decline. But this is often an all-or-none scenario and, beyond herbivores, few groups have been shown to have a significant role in supporting coral reefs. Herbivores may represent a crucial functional group (Bellwood et al., 2004; Mumby, 2006) but are there any others? Which of the fishes on a reef are drivers vs passengers (sensuWalker et al., 2004), and to what extent are drivers vulnerable to climate change? What physical and biological attributes make some reefs more resilient to disturbance than others?
(32) Habitat degradation caused by coral bleaching is recognised as a major threat to coral reef fishes. Following widespread coral mortality the dead coral skeletons are rapidly colonised by algal turfs, subsequently increasing the algal production per unit area. The ability of the reefs, and hence fish communities, to reassemble following disturbance may be dependent on herbivorous taxa compensating for this increased algal production. What are the thresholds for this positive feedback? Is there a critical biomass of grazing taxa beyond which the reef will start to shift to later successional stage algae? Does this relationship vary spatially? Do any particular taxa play a disproportionately important role in this process?
(33) Water temperature has a significant effect on the growth rate and other life-history traits of pelagic fish larvae (Sponaugle and Pinkard, 2004; Sponaugle et al., 2006). Fish grow faster in warmer water but may settle when smaller and be more susceptible to predation. Faster growth and earlier settlement will potentially reduce larval connectivity among reefs by reducing pelagic larval duration (O'Connor et al., 2007). How will changing water temperature affect the physiological condition and survival of fish larvae settling onto reefs?
(34) Faster growth of larval fish must be supported by higher rates of food intake. In food-limited environments, this has the potential to detrimentally alter recruitment patterns to reef populations (Munday et al., 2009c). How will productivity and availability of oceanic food resources to larval fish be affected by climate change?
(35) Reliable estimates of oceanic currents' response to global warming, at spatial scales relevant to larval dispersal, are urgently needed to better predict the impacts on connectivity among reef fish populations (Munday et al., 2009c). To what extent will current hydrodynamic regimes persist in a warmer climate, and how much will they need to change to affect larval delivery? How will changes in dispersal and connectivity affect fish assemblages within marine protected areas (MPA)? Will MPA designs need to be modified?
(36) Coral mortality attributable to climate change may increase the distances between habitat patches and reduce the 'target' size for larval fish attempting to recruit back to reefs (Munday et al., 2009c). How may loss and fragmentation of reef habitats impair connectivity?
(37) Some fish species recruit to live coral but have no apparent affinity with coral during later life-history stages (e.g. Feary et al., 2007). This may partially explain why the diversity and abundance of reef fish declines after extensive coral mortality (Jones et al., 2004). Most work on juvenile habitat associations of coral reef fish has focused on a few families (e.g. pomacentrids), and there is a need to assess coral specialisation among a broader range of juvenile fish. What other fish recruit to live coral?
(38) What is the role of habitat attributes, such as structural complexity and habitat diversity, for fish recruitment? How will climate-related changes in these habitat attributes influence the settlement, subsequent survival and regional geographical distribution of a wide range of species?
(39) Larval fish may be attracted to reefs through chemical cues (e.g. Atema et al., 2002). How will increased coral bleaching and perturbation on reefs change the 'chemical' environment? Will warmer or more acidic waters increase the rate at which chemical cues break down? How will this affect orientation of pelagic fish larvae?
(40) Could an increase in SST facilitate the role of pathogens (abundance, activity, etc.) interacting with fish, as found with Vibrio spp. in Mediterranean gorgonian and tropical corals?
(41) Elevated CO2 [1000 p.p.m. (parts per million)] impairs the ability of clownfish larvae to distinguish olfactory cues from preferred settlement sites (Munday et al., 2009b) and to avoid the chemical cues of predators (Dixson et al., 2010). What other species are similarly affected, and at what levels of CO2 do behavioural responses manifest? How might this impact future recruitment patterns?
(42) Little is known beyond small-bodied specialised species of fish, regarding how far fish move to escape coral bleaching events (i.e. loss of local habitat) (Samways, 2005; Feary, 2007). Corals can survive in so called 'depth refuges' below thermal thresholds during a bleaching event (Sheppard and Obura, 2005). To what extent do a wide range of reef fishes move, both horizontally and with depth, during a bleaching event, and is such a strategy successful?
(43) A recent study has found that bleaching and coral death leads to changes in phenotypic selection of fishes (McCormick, 2009). How will changes in selective mortality impact the range of phenotypic and behavioural traits of fishes entering the reproductive life stages? These shifts in the nature of mortality may have impacts on the fundamental links between life-history stages and the evolution of life-history strategies (Podolsky and Morany, 2006).
(44) Selection of settlement habitat by olfactory cues may be influenced during early development by acidification (Munday et al., 2009b) but it is currently unclear how other behaviours that require olfactory information may be disrupted. Given the recent finding that chemical alarm cues play an important role in risk assessment and the learning of the identity of predators on coral reefs (Larson and McCormick, 2005; McCormick and Manassa, 2008), how will modified olfactory sensitivity impact predator recognition and predator—prey interactions?
(45) Changes in environmental conditions are expected to facilitate colonisation of species in marginal areas, particularly at higher latitudes (Cheung et al., 2009). On some reefs this will affect invasion vs extinction processes, with subsequent modifications in the relative dominance of exotic vs native species within local fish communities. Which species are most likely to be affected, to what extent will they be affected and how may research institutes collaborate better to monitor shifts in species ranges?
(46) Following extensive habitat loss and changes in environmental conditions local extinctions are inevitable (Munday, 2004). But will local extinctions extend out to regional or even wider-scale extinctions?
(47) At what spatial and temporal scales should correlative and experimental studies address potential climate change effects? There is a broad need to place climate change studies into a suitable temporal and spatial context. Clearly fish assemblages have existed in a fluctuating environment with oceanic oscillations on temporal scales from a few years (e.g. El Niño/La Niña) to multi-decadal regime shifts and longer (e.g. Chavez et al., 2003). Is it sufficient to restrict studies to small areas without considering the larger effects? How relevant are short-term laboratory experiments?
(48) Much reef/climate research has focused on the potential impact of gradual increases in climate-related factors (temperature, acidification, etc.) but changes in the nature of irregular but dramatic climatic events such as El Niño/La Niña have the potential for rapid broad scale effects. For example, El Niño/La Niña events have been shown to synchronise reef fish population dynamics over large spatial scales (Cheal et al., 2007) but the synchronising mechanisms during these events are unclear. Which aspects of El Niño/La Niña cycles are capable of driving broad scale changes in fish communities? How will forecast changes in these major climatic events effect fish populations over large areas?
(49) Spatial variations in coral reef fish assemblages are apparent at regional (Atlantic—Caribbean/Indian/Pacific oceans) and even local scales. Similarly, the effects of climate change will vary over large and small spatial scales. Geographically which fish communities are most susceptible to climate change? Will the impact on community variables (species richness, density, trophic structure, etc.) vary geographically?
(50) What are our goals: coral-dominated reefs, high fish biodiversity, attractive coral dwelling species, resilience or food security? Can we assume that any of these are correlated or causally linked and if so why? For example, one interpretation of recent evidence (Sandin et al., 2008) is that reefs with top predators are healthier or more resilient than reefs without top predators, and that this means that top predators are essential for ecosystem processes. An alternative interpretation is that reefs that are healthy are also able to retain sharks, i.e. sharks are an indication of, not a requirement for, healthy reefs. How can we separate correlation from causation? If climate change leads to a loss of species does this matter? What is the primary focus of our concern, the fishes, certain types of fishes or their ecological roles?
(51) Is there more we can do to manage climate change impacts on fish and coral reefs than just reduce greenhouse gas emissions? How might we 'enhance reef resilience'? Do existing management strategies contribute to the resilience of reef fish to climate impacts? If so, do they do so beyond just enhancing overall ecosystem resilience? Do no-take areas contribute to reef resilience, make no realistic difference or are they overwhelmed by the effects of climate stressors?
(52) Millions of people rely on coral reef fish for food and livelihoods. How will climate change affect coral reef fisheries? Other than reducing fishing pressure, what can we do to sustain reef fisheries?
(53) Global climate change will impact on human population and socio-economic processes, through population migration, food security, resource availability, etc. These changes will require new approaches for coral reef management and governance (Mumby and Steneck, 2008). How will these modifications in management and governance practices affect fish communities, and how important will they be relative to other physical and biological effects of climate change?
Climate change is already having significant impacts on coral reef ecosystems and coral reef fishes (Pratchett et al., 2008; Pratchett et al., 2009; Munday et al., 2008a; Wilkinson, 2008), and will continue to do so as temperatures increase and oceans become more acidic. Because some of the most dramatic consequences of climate change are yet to occur, there is significant potential for many unknown effects. Yet we currently know enough to anticipate some of these changes and, more importantly, to identify the most pressing (and tractable) research directions to help better address the impacts of climate change in the coming years and decades. The aforementioned questions provide a framework to progress our knowledge of climate change-related effects on fish and fisheries. Although such a process is always evolving, and new pressing research questions may arise through unexpected change in identifying and ultimately filling the above research gaps, we hope to acquire the knowledge necessary to best mitigate the impacts of climate change on reef fish assemblages. Moreover, although we have focused on the effects of climate change on coral reef fishes, many of the posed questions are applicable to other organisms and systems and may act as a general guide for research on climate change.
Questions from L. McCook and comments from C. Simpson and two anonymous referees improved the quality of this paper. R. Lawton, B. Radford and A. Smith provided advice on the scoring of questions and designing an online survey.
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Behaviourally mediated phenotypic selection in a disturbed coral reef environment
Carry-over effects-the importance of a good start
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Changes in tropical cyclone number and intensity in a warming environment
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2008
Townsville, Australia
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network and Reef and Rainforest Research Center
Multiple disturbances and the global degradation of coral reefs: are reef fishes at risk or resilient?
Emslie
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R. A.
Cakacaka
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Home / Blog / Can A 4 Degree Temperature Difference Kill Fish in the USA
Can A 4 Degree Temperature Difference Kill Fish in the USA
What temperature change will kill fish?
Water temperatures below 40°F for extended periods may kill fish. Fish are especially sensitive if temperatures drop quickly; however, if they have a chance to acclimate and move to warmer water, they have a greater potential to survive.
How much temperature difference can fish tolerate?
Tropical fish, for example, do best between 75° and 80°F, goldfish and other "cold-water" species prefer temperatures below 70°F, and temperate fish can be found in habitats that overlap tropical and cold-water realms.
Can sudden temperature change kill fish?
A sudden change of the water temperature can often prove fatal to fish, especially small fish or fry. In general it is the drop in temperature that is more common than a rise and more likely to kill the animal.
What temperature is too low for fish?
Once you get up to 85 degrees Fahrenheit (35 °C), the bacteria begin to die, which can lead to a spike in ammonia levels within the tank, subsequently harming your fish's health. On the other end of the scale, lower temperatures under 60 degrees Fahrenheit can cause your bacteria to become less active.
Can water temperature change kill fish?
The answer is yes, but not because water changes are inherently bad. Because the fish live in the water, and the changes happen slowly, they adjust to it. When a sudden, large water change occurs, it causes such a drastic shift in the makeup of the water that the fish often cannot tolerate it and they die.
What temperature do freshwater fish live in?
Even so, most species kept in home aquariums are either native to the tropics or temperate regions of the world. Tropical fish make the majority of them though. Aganist this background, the best temperature range for an average freshwater fish tank is anywhere from 72°F to 80°F.
What will happen to the fish if the temperature drops?
If that night the room temperature drops into the 70s, the water in the tank could drop to 75 F. This sudden drop in temperature will compromise your fishes' immune systems making them more prone to parasitic infections such as ich. Each heater can only raise the temperature of the aquarium a certain number of degrees.
How do I know if my fish is too hot?
The first sign of stress to your fish during hot weather is rapid gill movement or gasping for air at the surface. Corals and anemones will close up and their polyps or tentacles will retract. Algae growth may increase, and the water may begin to turn cloudy due to a bloom of heterotrophic bacteria.
How do I know if my fish are too cold?
If your tank temperature is too cold, then your fish's metabolism will slow down, which leads to your fish becoming sluggish and sleepy. On the flipside, water that is too warm causes your fish's metabolism to speed up. Your fish will become more lively or even hyperactive.
How can you tell if a fish is in shock?
If your fish is swimming frantically without going anywhere, crashing at the bottom of his tank, rubbing himself on gravel or rocks, or locking his fins at his side, he may be experiencing significant stress. Talk to your veterinarian about treatment and look into what may be causing the stress and alleviating it.
Why are my fish acting weird after water change?
Osmotic shock may be the reason why fish suffer when you remove a large portion of the Nitrate ions through changing the water in their tank. Impaired osmoregulation may also explain why your fish are swimming erratically and acting stressed after a water change. This weird behavior may even be accompanied by spasms.
How do you treat a fish with temperature shock?
If you think your fish has succumbed to rapid cold temperature shock then you should try to warm the water up as quick as possible. If after, a few minutes he starts moving again then you've just saved his life.
What temp should my fish tank be?
A good range is 76° to 80°F (25° to 27°C). A few species need to be kept several degrees warmer, and some species require temperatures a few degrees cooler. A thermometer is vital. A stick-on type enables you to check the temperature whenever you look at the aquarium.
What temp should my fish tank be at?
Most tank fish do well at temperatures from 75-80 degrees Fahrenheit (23-27 degrees Celsius), but the needs of specific fish can vary. If your tank is home to just one or two types of fish, it is best to investigate their preferred temperature range and take steps to keep your tank in the middle of that range.
How cold can fish survive?
"They might be just found at around 25 C (77 F) and above, whereas coldwater fish may have their optimal conditions at 10 C (50 F)." Outside of their optimal temperature range, fish must make adjustments to survive.
Do fish feel sad when another fish dies?
Researchers say this behavior is probably due to stress hormones released into the water by the dying fish. Few studies have looked into whether fish actually mourn their dead, but this seems conceivable – at least for fish that live in pairs, like the French angelfish.
How do I know if my fish is dying?
Loss of appetite. Weakness or listlessness. Loss of balance or buoyancy control, floating upside down, or 'sitting' on the tank floor (most fish are normally only slightly negatively-buoyant and it takes little effort to maintain position in the water column) Erratic/spiral swimming or shimmying.
How does water temperature affect fish?
While some fish prefer warmer temperatures, water that is too warm can be lethal to any fish. Higher temperatures increase the demand for oxygen and decrease its supply. As temperatures rise, toxicity of the water may also increase, as toxic substances become more soluble.
What temperature do guppies?
The optimal temperature range for a guppy's water is between 74 and 82 F (23 to 28 C). This is the ideal temperature range for most fish tanks, which is part of the reason why they can easily cohabitate with other fish.
What temperature should my fish tank be for goldfish?
Goldfish Water Requirements Considered cold water fish, goldfish can also be kept in heated aquariums. The optimum temperature for fancy goldfish is 68° to 74° F, while comets and shubunkins should be kept between 60° and 70°F. pH is not critical, but ideally should be between 7.0 and 8.4.
Do fish go deeper when it cold?
As it gets colder, though, fish tend to migrate in schools to deeper water. As the depth increases, temperature stabilizes and it's easier for them to do their version of light hibernation. As an added bonus, fish of most species typically hold in tighter groups when the water's cold.
Do fish bite when the temperature drops?
The key is where your lake water temperature starts from on a daily or at worst a weekly basis; short drops of 5 degrees or so from high 70 or low 80-degree temperature will turn the bite on. As the temperature changes and gets closer to the mid 60's the drops will change the bite in a negative way.
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How Long To Blacken Fish On The Grill in the USA
Bykevin October 4, 2022
How long does it take to grill fish on a grill? Per inch of fish, the general rule is to allow 8-10 minutes of grill time. So, if your fish is two inches in thickness, grill each side for about six to eight minutes. But its always a good idea to check the instructions on…
Read More How Long To Blacken Fish On The Grill in the USAContinue
How Long Is A Betta Fish Pregnant in the USA
How long do Betta fish carry eggs? A Betta fish female will only carry eggs in her ovipositor for one to two weeks. This short timespan is normal, considering the eggs are not developing into Betta fish young while they are inside her. Once released, the Betta eggs will develop and hatch into fry over…
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How Long Will Fish Stay Good In The Freezer
When vacuum-sealed and properly stored in the freezer, fish can last for as long as two years. If frozen fish is properly thawed, there should be little to no difference in texture when compared to fresh fish. Does fish go bad in the freezer? First, it is important to know that frozen fish doesn't "go…
Read More How Long Will Fish Stay Good In The FreezerContinue
How Much Do Mature Coy Fish Sell For in the USA
It depends on a number of factors. Usually, the pond quality Koi costs around $50 – $150, depending on the size, color, shape, and variety. However, there are some show-quality varieties that would cost more than $10,000. How do I know what my koi fish is worth? The saturation of color, its consistency and how…
Read More How Much Do Mature Coy Fish Sell For in the USAContinue
Can Betta Fish Survive Without A Heater in the USA
Though people don't often think of them this way, bettas are tropical fish. That means they live in warmer water in the wild. They require temperatures from the mid-70s, up to around 80 degrees. If your room temperature is consistently in the mid-70s at the lowest, you can get by without a heater. How can…
Read More Can Betta Fish Survive Without A Heater in the USAContinue
How Long Do Fish Take To Bake in the USA
How long does fish go in the oven for? Cut fish fillets into 4 serving pieces if needed. Place pieces, skin sides down, in the pan, folding thin ends under if necessary for even thickness. Mix remaining ingredients; drizzle over fish. Bake uncovered 15 to 20 minutes or until fish flakes easily with fork. How…
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Tuning in to transition
A new small-screen ten-part series promises to keep the nation hooked on a thrilling drama that highlights the challenges Veterans face in their transition back to civilian life,
but what's the reality, asks Rhicha Kapila, partner and head of the military department at London-based law firm Bolt Burdon Kemp
Hot on the heels of gripping BBC drama Bodyguard, which shone a light on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a new military-focused A-list drama, Homecoming, is set to debut on Amazon on Friday 2 November.
In the series, the character of Heidi Bergman, played by Julia Roberts (Pretty Woman, Erin Brockovich), is a caseworker at Homecoming Transitional Support Centre, a Geist Group facility that helps soldiers transition back to civilian life. Walter Cruz (Stephen James) plays a charming soldier back from war in desperate need of such help. The facility is overseen by an ambitious businessman who appears more concerned with defence funding than actually committing to helping soldiers. Four years later, it transpires Heidi starts a new life and begins to question why she left the Homecoming facility in the first place. The psychological thriller continues as Heidi begins to realise that there's a whole other story behind the one that she's been telling herself. It's a tantalising storyline.
There is little dispute in reality that, after a period of active duty, rehabilitation is crucial for Service personnel, but there isn't a perfect retreat or support centre actively in situ upon return or discharge to address those challenges. The reality is that most Service men and women have to find their own way.
Being part of the Armed Forces becomes a way of life for many, and although they are highly skilled in their professional roles, they are often not prepared for the return to civvy street. There is often a period of cultural readjustment that is somewhat daunting, but it is important to keep a channel of communication open with other Veterans who have gone through a similar experience.
In reality, those with injuries – both hidden and physical – face additional challenges during their transition period, not just a cultural adaptation. This is normally because the injury has forced an early retirement, which means less time to gain additional military skills, qualifications and resettlement opportunities. Further, there is less time to process the emotional and practical considerations during a forced transition, not just for those serving, but also for their families.
In the trailer Heidi is shown saying to Walter during a counselling session, 'Homecoming is a safe space for you to process your military experience and to think about what happens next.' The concept of a 'safe space' is an attractive one. It is important for injured Veterans to pause and allow some time out for self-care and rehabilitation, to re-value and think through their next steps before embarking on a second career and lifestyle. It is all achievable with the right support.
Homecoming has made me consider whether our British soldiers are receiving enough transitional support. We know that the new Defence National Rehabilitation Centre, Stanford Hall Estate, promises great things. There are more than 2,000 military charities and organisations to help with issues such as finance, housing, employment, CV writing, interview tips, and physical and mental health. It's picking the right support for the individual that's tricky, but the Veterans Gateway aims to deliver on that. While many Service personnel leaving the military may initially struggle, with appropriate support most do make the transition successfully.
The solution to a positive civilian transition probably isn't based on a thrilling drama focused on a privately run counselling retreat for returning war Veterans, but Homecoming will certainly deliver in terms of raising awareness of the support that is currently accessible to our British Armed Forces personnel and what other steps could be taken to help in that transition. It really is a must-watch.
Jel Bearder
How ex-soldier Jel Bearder made the leap to a new career in fitness – with the help of Veterans' Gateway
Richard Kear
with RAF Aircraft Engineer, Richard Kear


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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If you start a blog that then becomes successful in a profitable niche, you'll have the potential of earning unlimited income.
Yes, you'll have to put some hard work into your blog, but the sky is the limit. Blogging presents opportunities that can be used in multiple ways to make money online.
Are you looking for a job that lets you work at home, set your own hours and work form any where in the world?
Blogging is the perfect choice.
You'll have the freedom to work from any location in the world that has internet connection, whether it's from your home office or while you're on the road.
If you wish you had more time to spend with your family or more time to enjoy life, blogging offers an excellent money making opportunity to do both.
You'll have a lot more flexibility with your time when you run a successful blog. You set your own hours hence you won't miss special moments with your family.
Are you thinking about giving affiliate marketing a try?
There are many reasons why affiliate marketing is such a great business model.
If you're ready to put in an effort and focus in building an audience and keeping your website relevant, you'll enjoy a rather lucrative income as a result of your online activities.
So what is online affiliate marketing?
Affiliate marketing is essentially a glorified form of word-of-mouth advertising. Companies are willing to pay a commission on sales made through referrals.
An affiliate marketer publishes product reviews on his or her website or blog and places ads or links to direct readers to merchant's website from where they can purchase the product.
By joining the best affiliate marketing programs, affiliate marketer earns a commission for every sale made by directing readers to merchant's website.
In this sense, affiliate marketing gives you a lot of flexibility.
You can focus on a small audience or you can go international. It all depends on your strategy and the amount of money you're willing to make as an affiliate marketer.
With a little effort, consistency, good training and access to the right tools, anyone can be successful with affiliate marketing.
You have to focus on growing your audience and becoming an expert within the respective niche. By building a quality website and establishing your loyal audience, you increase the chance of generating serious income through referrals.
Affiliate marketing has limitless potential because it's not local and it's not even national. Besides language barrier, it's possible to reach a global audience.
Many of the products that companies advertise through affiliates are digital and downloadable. Such products can be sold to customers regardless of their geographical location.
If you choose the right products, know how to keep your audience engaged and know how to boost conversion rate… The monetization potential of affiliate marketing is unlimited.
Stock trading might seem complex! Stock trading was once considered to be the foundation of Wall Street. For years, the bar had been set too high for most ordinary folks to trade in stocks.
Today, that bar has been lowered, thanks to the power of the internet.
In today's world of technological advancement and innovation, individuals all around the world are able to execute the buy orders and sell orders of stocks with ease due to brokerages that offer online services. Stock trading has become exceptionally easy and affordable.
Trading stocks can be tricky! You can easily lose your money.
You need to have good knowledge about how the stock market operates. You must be able to analysis and interpret stocks using different tools of stock trading. That way, you'll be able to make informed decision regarding the type of stocks to buy and sell and, at the right time.
Not only do you have to work smart but you also need to have up-to-date stock market information about daily accurate reports of stocks you'll be trading.
There is a lot that goes on in the stock exchange market. You can learn how to trade stocks and become a successful stock trader. It's all about learning, acquiring skills and experience!
The internet offers a vast array of information about stocks, companies and vital tools needed for trading stocks online.
One of the top reasons to trade online is the fundamental factor of being able to research quickly. It is now easier than ever before to find information you need to make a highly informed decision about the stocks you're interested in.
You now have the ability to control how you trade online, when you trade and where to trade online.
Today, you may trade stocks online through any type of mobile device, tablets, laptops and any other types of computing devices that is connected to the internet.
It is easy to find affordable online brokerage services.
You must pay special attention to your risk tolerance level. Depending on that risk, you have the potential to build a vast amount of wealth in a short time trading stocks online!
On the internet, things are a little bit different!
There are hundreds of thousands of small online stores that sell products of all sorts.
One of the best ways of making money online is by selling physical or digital goods online.
If you're already selling a specific product offline, then your next logical step is to start selling online. Remember, you don't have to create your own product to sell online. You can set up a lucrative online business selling other people's products.
Why start selling physical or digital goods online?
Customers all over the world are looking for specific products online and setting up a simple online store on a website or blog gives a vendor access to a tremendous global audience.
The vast majority of customers search online for information regarding a given product before making a purchase. This is why it's important to start an ecommerce site. Learn how to start an online store.
If you own a local store and you still don't have an ecommerce website, chances are... your product won't be found. Consequently you're limiting your reach and the potential to grow your brand.
Starting an Ecommerce store is a separate operation from running a regular brick and mortar store.
You need someone to process the orders, someone to do the marketing and someone to update the website frequently. In doing so, you'll be creating new jobs to people.
Selling digital or physical goods online is an opportunity for your business to grow and acquire a new customer base.
Apart from having to hire a few people to work in the field, you'll enjoy limited upfront investment linked to getting the ecommerce portion of your business growing.
Did you know that establishing an Online presence is one of the most important aspects of managing your brand?
Selling physical goods online enables you to create a brand that is seen as modern and trendy. By establishing your reputation online, you'll find it a lot easier to interact with and engage your audience and turn them into loyal customers.
Ever since "the search engine" was invented, people are always searching for information.
Some people search for information about a product. Other folks search for a service they are interested in. And then, there are those people who are actively searching for a particular online course. People searching for online tutorials and courses want to acquire a particular set of skills or knowledge.
People want new knowledge. They want to solve a particular problem.
People are willing to pay money for quality online tutorials or a worthwhile online course.
Can you make money online teaching online courses and tutorials?
Online tutorials are recorded or interactive activities designed for self-study.
Online courses are typically short and highly detailed with very clear instructions that center around one specific skill. Tutorials usually involve an audio narration presenting a set of steps explaining ideas along with a visual demonstration of the process.
If you're skilled in a particular field, for instance you're a software engineer or an online marketer, why not share that skill with others by teaching an online course and earn money in the process?
You're in complete control of your work schedule. When you start teaching online courses, the traditional nine to five weekly schedule stops applying to you.
As long as you put the work in and get the job done, it doesn't matter when and how you're working because there are no rules when it comes to running your online business.
The amount of money you make teaching online courses is only limited by your niche and the size of your audience.
You're not limited to solely working with students in your own country. If you come up with a lucrative niche that isn't overly-saturated, you will get an opportunities to make a lot of money teaching online tutorials in the entire world.
There's no boss who can fire you! The amount of money you make will depend entirely on the niche itself, audience level and the expert level of the course.
Because you're working on something that you enjoy doing, you'll be 100 percent passionate and committed. You'll enjoy the process and the likelihood of giving up is very low. You get a better job security, teaching online courses.
Earn 25-75% Commissions. Work From Home!
If you have a passion for writing and a desire to experience the freedom and flexibility of being your own boss, a freelance writing business is the perfect online opportunity waiting for you!
Numerous benefits abound for those that elect to work in the freelance writing field.
If you have a passion for words, enjoy linguistics and want to work as a self-employed writer, why not become a freelance content writer and get paid to write content on the internet!
If you have a knack for writing, you will be pleased to know that this highly-diverse and increasingly popular career path offers a unique way to make money online.
Not every website owner or blogger has the skill to create high-quality and engaging content. That opens up a fantastic pool of work for aspiring writers on every level.
There are now many online writing job opportunities for freelance writers to create content for different sorts of websites, local newspapers, magazines and similar publications.
Start a freelance writing business today and you could be cashing in on this great source of income.
As a freelance writer, you work only on projects you elect to work on and you are passionate writing about .
You are no longer bound by the daily 9 to 5 grind. Long gone will be the days where you work a pre-arranged schedule and time for a person or company you care less about.
As a freelance writer, you have the unique ability to choose the jobs that you want to take and have control over the clients that you work with on a regular basis.
If you prefer to write about online business opportunities instead of content on the automotive industry, you may do so! If you enjoy writing about information products and not about online services…It is YOUR business. You choose to write about what you like to write about!
You Are Your Own Boss. There Is No Other To Be Accountable To!
We all work and aspire to be our own boss and non other!
By simply engaging in an activity that you enjoy, you will finally be in that spot where you only have yourself to answer to! You're your own boss.
If you are looking for legit ways to make money online, you are sure to absolutely love this simple business opportunity of flipping websites for profit! All it takes is a little knowledge about website development, SEO, a few bucks and a little bit of creativity to generate an immense amount of profits.
This is the business and/or art of purchasing websites that already exist online and then developing or improving those websites with a sole purpose of reselling those sites in order to obtain a profit.
Website flipping works just like real estate flipping.
A real estate investor buys property at undervalued prices, makes improvements and then re-sells that property for a maximum profit.
You can do the same thing with virtual real estate.
A website flipper finds sites that have potential but are undervalued in some way. He or she buys those sites, improves them and then sells them for a profit. Learn more about how to make money online by flipping websites for profit.
While websites aren't tangible products, they can hold very real value.
Every website is essentially a piece of virtual real estate. Buying and selling websites, also known as "website flipping", is one of the cheapest legitimate ways to make money online.
Did you know that you don't need to spend a lot of money in order to make profits flipping websites?
In fact, in some instances, you could purchase a website for $50.00 – $150.00, make improvements and turn around and sell it for hundreds or even thousands of dollars!
Flipping websites for a profit is much easier business model to start compared to traditional brick and mortar businesses that cost a vast amount of start-up money to start.
Everyone that has ever flipped a website agrees that this is an online business opportunity that has a high ROI (return on investment). Flipping websites has the potential for one to earn high profits with minimal amount of risk at stake.
To improve ROI before flipping a website, you may have to create compelling content, redesign the whole property, create logos, promote the website and much more.
Many website flippers have discovered their untapped talent and creativity they didn't know they have when redesigning the virtual properties that they invested in.
Once upon a time, multi-level marketing (MLM) had some pretty shady reputations. Most people tended to veer away from MLM programs. It was seen as a pyramid scheme.
If you've read the shocking story of Ponzi scheme, then you know what I'm talking about.
Getting anyone interested to join a network marketing was always a hard sell.
That was back then. Nowadays because of the internet, multi-level marketing has changed.
Local and international companies are looking up for folks interested in joining their online network marketing departments. Big companies like, Mary Kay Cosmetics, Avon, Amway and even Tupperware are utilizing multi-level marketing business model as a marketing strategy.
Why are folks joining network marketing to make money online?
Network marketing is exceptionally popular among those that are seeking to have a high level of flexibility in their work schedule and/or need a supplemental income source.
Multi-level marketing no longer operate solely on the basis of bringing in new recruits.
If you've come across MLM companies, you can rest assured that most are perfectly legitimate businesses. They provide people with a legal way to make money online.
There are millions of people that have created a full-time professional career by joining the best online network marketing companies in a given niche. Through hard work, they earn commissions on the products they sell and by recruiting other people to join them.
A network marketing company provides you with an opportunity and backing you need to gain authority, respect and be the ultimate rock star in the eyes of those you help.
You gain an immense amount of freedom that commonly is not available through traditional hourly and/or salary jobs. You not only improve your own situation, but, you will be able to aid others in transforming their dreams into reality.
The second most important reason is the personal development and personal fulfillment that you will experience as you progress through your business.
When you work for a network marketing company, you are not just building your own business but also other peoples' businesses. That requires that you continually learn new skills and acquiring new knowledge in order to be successful.
Network marketing is not just a job or a business opportunity.
It is a journey. When you start the journey, you are going from where you are now to where you want to be in the future…with yourself, your finances and the world!
Network marketing gives you the opportunity to earn money while learning about people, sales and the world around you. You get a unique opportunity to build an organization that you may not, otherwise, have the ability to build.
Search engine optimization has become a well-recognized career.
Large and small companies alike are willing to pay a reasonable amount of money for a little help to get their websites or blogs ranking well in the search engines results. This is because almost every company these days depends on the internet to do business.
No-wonder the demand for SEO experts has skyrocketed.
If you have been optimizing your website or blog in the search engines, then you can learn more about how to make money online by providing search engine optimization services to local businesses.
On the other hand, you can make a tidy sum of money by working with local companies as a search engine optimization consultant offering local search engine optimization services.
Why offer SEO services to local business owners?
Local businesses want to acquire new customers, engage existing customers and boost conversion. They lack time and know-how. Competition is fierce, they need your help.
If you've been actively doing Search Engine Optimization tactics for your blog or website for the past few years, the next logical step that could make you some serious money is to start helping local businesses to optimize their sites so that they rank well.
However, if you've not gained any SEO experience, you'll definitely need to learn, master and become an expert in Search Engine Optimization techniques in order for you to offer SEO services to local businesses and start to make money online.
Although most local business owners want to boost their revenues and their online presence using localized Search Engine Optimization techniques, most don't know how-to.
Online companies who focus on localized Search Engine Optimization strategies are able to target a specific group of people so that a business entity is able to connect with local people who are in need of their products and services.
Local SEO isn't just about ranking websites.
Local SEO business can provide their customers with any combination of services as an upsell. For instance they can manage online reviews and reputation, offer Google map placement, build and maintain local apps and much more.
When you become an expert in ranking virtual properties and you're able to reach people based on their specific needs, it opens up opportunities to make money online.
Anything you rank has the potential of being monetized in one way or another. Search engine optimization is the open secret for anyone serious in making good money online.
Internet growth has opened new jobs that never existed before.
Many clients are looking for people with skills and creativity in fields that never existed in traditional mortar and brick business world before the internet came along.
So how do you get started as a freelancer for hire?
Successful freelancer is all about choosing the niche you're comfortable with. If you have any skills or know-how, chances are you'll find people willing to hire you as a freelancer.
The potential income of working online as a freelancer can meet or exceed that of a traditional 9-5 job. You can make money online as a freelancer in the area of your expertise.
What is online freelance work all about?
A freelancer is someone who provides a professional service outside the realm of traditional employment. Traditional freelancers have been around for a long time.
The internet has created a booming new generation of freelancers who typically perform their work from home or a private office rather than from a regular workplace.
Freelancing online is one of the fastest and easiest ways to make money online.
Online freelancing requires minimal overhead, you work on your own terms and if you start your freelance career on the side, there is very little risk involved either.
There are now numerous avenues for finding clients. Many excellent freelance websites and blogs provide a simple way to link freelancers to clients.
Freelance work gives you an opportunity to turn your hobby, passion or something that you've always dreamed about into your professional occupation.
Looking for clients online will give you an opportunity to work with many individuals and businesses from all parts of the world to execute their intriguing projects.
Traditional businesses and employment options create a vacuum in a particular niche. Freelancers offer services that most people are afraid or not bold enough to focus on.
There are norms and procedures that workers have to adhere to in a traditional employment opportunity. The rigid ways of doing business leave no room for creativity and often make very little use of individual talent development.
A Freelancer has a much more lenient and amble room to focus on their talent, hone their skills and share their passion with others without the limitations of a traditional job.
Most people who set out to "learn about how to make money online" quit or get scammed. Only a handful of people end up earning extra money online!
What Problem Do You Want To Solve Today?
Most people get hoodwinked by the notion that it's easy to make money online.
They get scammed. They lose money, and they quit.
If online business was easy, everyone with their "mama" relatives and donkey would be working online 24/7. Like a day job whereby you have to put in hours in order to get paid, if you start your own online business then you must be ready to put in a lot of effort, be patient, be willing and ready to learn before you get to see a dime online.
In the brick and mortar business, the winning concept is location, location, location.
In the online world, you need to segment your market.
Personally, I don't care what niche market you enter. There was, there is and there will always be competition. You just need to find a profitable angle to segment in order to make a healthy profit. Oh...by the way there are no secret niches waiting for you to discover them.
This is a big one. I have been there.
And oh please, don't even get me started on this one.
If you want to make make money online, it's going to cost you money. In fact, you may lose money and time, now listen to me, if you're not careful...you may lose your saving, family and your dignity. In short, I'm just saying...have a budget and plan your online business.


text:
Home The Nation
Akeredolu promises rural transformation if re-elected
in The Nation
Ondo Governor, Oluwarotimi Akeredolu, has promised to focus more on rural transformation if re-elected.
Akeredolu said his first term has delivered several landmark projects that touched all sectors of the economy.
Akeredolu, who spoke at the APC campaign rally in Ondo East local government area, said he would open up rural communities under the World Bank Rural Access and Agricultural Marketing Project RAAMP, saying he has paid the counterpart funding.
The Governor assured farmers the intervention would enable them get their produce to the markets as well as encouraging young people becoming Agropreneurs.
According to him: "We promised that we will construct road, we have constructed it. It's still ongoing. In our second term, we will use RAAMP to construct a lot of rural roads.
READ ALSO: Akeredolu re-election bid gathering momentum – Agagu ex-aide
"When we came on board, there was no employment for the people. But within three and a half years, we have employed over 400 graduates at the Ondo State Internal Revenue Service.
"We have employed over 500 doctors, we are also employing 2000 teachers. We have constructed schools in Ondo State and also constructed roads."
He urged the people to vote for continuity to enable him consolidate on his numerous achievements
The Olojas in Ondo East hailed the Governor for fulfilling the promises he made during his 2016 campaign
Oloja of Mobiye, High Chief Felix Kolawole pledged 100 percent votes for the APC in the locality.
Read the original article on The Nation


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text:
St. Teresa's College becomes 1 st in the state and 2nd in the country to achieve A++ Grade in NAAC accreditation
Kochi: St. Teresa's College (Autonomous), a pioneering institution in the field of higher education in the country, has been awarded A++ Grade with CGPA3.57 in the Fourth cycle of the National Assessment and Accreditation by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC) under the revised scheme. St. Teresa's College is the first college in the state and second in the country to achieve A++ Grade in the Fourth Cycle of the National Assessment and Accreditation.
Accredited by NAAC at the 'Five Star' Level in1999, St. Teresa's College was reaccredited with 'A' Grade in 2006 and completed the third Cycle in 2012 with 'A' Grade and 3.4 CGPA. The NAAC Peer Team visited the college on August 5 and 6, 2019 to complete the final stage of the assessment and accreditation process. As recognition of the high grades maintained in all the three cycles, the NAAC has extended the accreditation period of the college for two years.
The proactive management under the leadership of Rev. Dr. Sr. Chris, President, St. Teresa's College; Rev. Sr. Christabelle, Provincial Superior and Manager and Dr. Sr. Vinitha, Director, were instrumental in offering support to the Steering Committee spearheaded by Dr. Sajimol Augustine M., Principal and comprising Dr. Latha Nair R., the NAAC Coordinator; Dr. Usha Nair, IQAC Coordinator; Dr. Nirmala Padmanabhan, Dr. Beena Job, Dr. Kala M.S., Dr. Alphonsa Vijaya and Sister Suchitha to achieve the top rating.
Speaking on the achievement, Dr. Sajimol Augustine M., Principal, St. Teresa's College, said, "It is a great achievement to be the second college in the country to be reaccredited with A++ in the fourth cycle. This is the result of the teamwork of teachers, non-teaching staff, PTA, alumni, students and our well-wishers. Our success is a clear statement of the empowerment of women and this is the first step towards St. Teresa's College emerging as women's university." She further said that the college always believed in quality enhancement as an integral part of achieving academic excellence.
"It is a remarkable achievement to secure A++ in the fourth cycle of NAAC accreditation. The rare feat was achieved thanks to the dedication of the students and teachers and support of the management," said Dr. Sr. Vineetha, Director, St. Teresa's College.
Established in 1925 with just 41 students, S. Teresa's College at present has more than 3500 students. It was granted autonomous status in 2014. The college has partnerships with many leading international academic institutions to enhance student development, faculty growth and academic research.
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Corporate Communications & Public Relations Agency.
Ten Degree North is an independent PR consultant and public relations agency based in Kochi, Kerala, that offers a range of PR services including public relations strategy, media relations, reputation management, liaison with authorities, corporate communications, and many more.
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