text:
What Is the Responsibility of Board Members in Human ...
Major Issues Facing Nonprofit Human Resources
Differences in the Roles of HR in Profit & Nonprofit Organizations
by Trudy Brunot
What Is the Responsibility of Board Members in Human Resources Matters on Nonprofit Boards?
Nonprofits & Labor Law
10 Reasons HR Is Important to an Organization
HR Functions & Duties
Negative & Positive Approaches of HR
Organizations share a need for people to carry out their mission. In for-profit businesses, that mission centers on making money for shareholders. Nonprofits, however, exist for a charitable, religious, educational or political purpose. Human resources in both types of organizations handles functions such as staffing and recruitment, supporting the group's culture and employee compensation. However, HR in most nonprofits has duties beyond HR. It also faces operational challenges that differ from its for-profit counterparts.
Administrative Differences
Administrative functions including background checks, benefits administration and employment verification get outsourced by many human resources departments in all types of businesses. Unlike for-profit businesses, small- and medium-sized nonprofits cannot afford a dedicated HR department, relying often on one person who also manages general office administrative tasks. Nonprofits turn to an experienced HR board member to guide and counsel this individual.
Communication with the workforce plays an important role in employee relations regardless of the size or type of organization. According to the Centerpoint for Leaders website, the dynamics of a nonprofit require HR professionals to be more attuned to the content and timing employee communications. Miscommunication can jeopardize the work-as-a-team atmosphere that's crucial for the nonprofit to fulfill its mission.
Unpaid Staff
Unpaid staff -- volunteers -- provide much-needed manpower for financially-strapped nonprofits. Although businesses in the private sector occasionally hire unpaid interns, their HR departments don't interact with or supervise them daily. The nonprofit HR professional handles the gamut of volunteer management from recruitment and scheduling to termination. This aspect of human resources in a nonprofit is crucial. If HR fails to choose reliable and motivated volunteers, train them or resolve issues as they arise, the organization's morale, services and reputation can suffer.
All organizations find attracting talent with the right skill sets to be a challenge. Nonprofits must sell their core values and mission as they recruit to compensate for lower wages they pay. Tight budgets force their HR professionals to be more creative in advertising job and volunteer opportunities, leveraging their relationship with community organizations, for example, to spread the word. Government funding received by the organization may dictate avenues used for employment advertising. That funding may pose additional challenges for HR when the project it underwrites ends and with it, the ability to keep employees hired specifically for the project.
Compensation Challenges
Compensation in nonprofits relies on more than salaries and wages to reward professional staff. It falls to HR to find inexpensive perks to demonstrate appreciation, such as networking with community contacts for daycare, recreation and restaurant discounts for employees. Flexible scheduling, recognition programs and telecommuting represent options that non- and for-profit benefit packages share.
Society for Human Resource Management: HR's Evolving Role in Organizations and Its Impact on Business Strategy
Centerpoint for Leaders: Human Resources Guide for Small Nonprofits; So, Who's Supposed to Do the Hiring?
Inc.: Nonprofit Organizations, and Human Resources Management
Centerpoint for Leaders: Human Resources Guide for Small Nonprofits; How Do You Find the People You Need?
Centerpoint for Leaders: Human Resources Guide for Small Nonprofits; What Is the Package You Have to Offer?
Stanford Social Innovation Review: The New Volunteer Workforce
Human Resource Management for Public and Nonprofit Organzations; Joan E. Pynes
Trudy Brunot began writing in 1992. Her work has appeared in "Quarterly," "Pennsylvania Health & You," "Constructor" and the "Tribune-Review" newspaper. Her domestic and international experience includes human resources, advertising, marketing, product and retail management positions. She holds a master's degree in international business administration from the University of South Carolina.
Day-to-Day HR Duties and Tasks
What Are the Driving Forces Affecting Global Human Resources Management?
Examples of HR Functional Activity
Purpose of the Marketing Committee for a Not for Profit


text:
Telodorcus wickhami es una especie de coleóptero de la familia Lucanidae.

Distribución geográfica
Habita en Australia.

Referencias

Wickhami
Coleópteros de Australia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


I've been writing music most of my life. Songs have always been the place where I've sorted out the events of day. If you trace these songs back far enough they tell a story of where I've been and what I've seen along the way. That said, most people don't have the time to sort through the hundreds of songs that have collected in the wake of my 20 plus years behind a piano, and that's why I love "Cecilia and the Satellite". As a song it encapsulate so much living against the back drop of a new life. Cecilia was written with the knowledge that my wife and I would soon meet our first child. With the hope of avoiding territory this type of song often treads, I tried to create a road map of the life I had lived leading up to that moment. One my daughter might look back on some day. A strange life of constant motion, spent traveling in the pursuit of music. A life I've nearly lost on more than one occasion and one which I am thankful for, now more than ever. Deep down this song is about more than me and where I've been, it's about more than my daughter and what I want for her. It's about being proud of where you come from and wanting the most for the people you share your world with.
Keep an eye out for tour dates on Monday!


'PK' bloopers: 126 mistakes in Aamir Khan and Anushka Sharma starrer superhit!
PK Funnies: What is Anushka Sharma's big secret?
PK- Behind the scenes: Watch Anushka Sharma's make over as Jaggu in Rajkumar Hirani film!


text:
Q: CSS not being executed in Woocommerce Wordpress template file I have a fully functional Wordpress custom theme. I have just installed Woocommerce and followed this guide. I have followed the very basic instructions to copy page.php, rename it and modify the loop. I have done this and am able to use Woocommerce, however in the page.php file, I have a
<?php get_header(); ?>

command, which successfully displays that part of the layout in my normal wordpress pages. However, in the direct clone which is now called woocommerce.php, it is not working fully, The links show up, but without any of the associated css which is linked into the header file. Any ideas why two versions of the same file would mean only one correctly imports / interprets the css?
Here are the two web pages:
http://www.gas-sense.co.uk/blog
http://www.gas-sense.co.uk/blog/product/gas-sense-personal/

A: OK, I have fixed this now. It was a dreamweaver issue, when cloning the file and renaming it, dreamweaver didn't seem to catch up with updating the links. I have since manually rewritten the references and it is working, thank for your help!

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Abigael's father is married to two wives and has fifteen children. Abigael's parents are uneducated and unemployed, living with their children in extreme poverty. Because her parents could not afford to send their children to school, Abigael left home in search of a children's home that might be able to support her dream of an education. In 2015, Abigael secured a scholarship from MGEF and began Grade 6 at the AIC Girls Primary Boarding School.


This vehicle includes a Money-Back Guarantee* and passed our precise inspection process. Best of all the price you see is the price you pay. No haggling. No back and forth. No pressure. And this price is so good it is guaranteed. This vehicle is loaded with great features, plus it comes with the CARFAX BuyBack Guarantee. The CARFAX report for this 2016 Toyota Corolla S Plus highlights that it's a One-Owner vehicle, and for good reason. A One-Owner vehicle gives you the feel of owning a new vehicle without paying the new car price. This is a Certified Toyota Corolla, which means it has been thoroughly inspected against a set of stringent standards. Only vehicles that pass this inspection can be sold as Certified. The 2016 Toyota offers compelling fuel-efficiency along with great value. You will no longer feel the need to repeatedly fill up this Toyota Corolla S Plus's gas tank, in part because of it's superb EPA rating. You can tell this 2016 Toyota Corolla has been pampered by the fact that it has less than 34,715mi and appears with a showroom shine. This Toyota Corolla is beautiful and the interior is clean with virtually no flaws. There should be no doubt in your mind about purchasing this 2016 Corolla S Plus. This lightly-used vehicle is still covered by the Toyota factory warranty. More information about the 2016 Toyota Corolla: The Corolla has been volume leader for Toyota for several years, and the latest version offers buyers even more bang for their buck. In a crowded compact segment, against the Honda Civic, Nissan Sentra and Ford Focus, the new Corolla stands out for its fresh, athletic styling, as well as its roomy, feature-rich interior. The LE Eco even offers best-in-class fuel economy. Add Toyota's outstanding reputation for reliability, and the 2016 Corolla deserves a place at the top of every compact car-shopper's list. Interesting features of this model are Sporty looks, affordability, reliability, fuel efficiency, and standard features *Money-Back Guarantee is valid for 5 days or 250 miles, whichever comes first. Subject to certain terms and conditions. See store for details. Some restrictions apply.


13 3/4" x 9 3/4" x 1 7/8"
Like Joseph Cornell, Rauschenberg and Pop artists of the 1960s, Barry Cohen used household wares as grist for art. An unorthodox master of assemblage, he charges flotsam and jetsam with his acute affinity for bygone times. Cohen received his MFA from Yale University in 1960 and held teaching positions at Yale University and Silvermine College of Fine Arts. He had six solo exhibitions with Allan Stone Gallery, and his work is in numerous prestigious collections, including the Museum of Modern Art, American Folk Art Museum, and New York Public Library in New York City, the Chrysler Museum of Art in Norfolk, and Yale University Art Gallery in New Haven. The artist lived, worked and died in New York City.


This entry was posted in Christian Life, Devotions, Thoughts From Scripture and tagged Bible reading, Bible study, Devotions by Barbara H.. Bookmark the permalink.
Yes, I love this reminder, Barbara! There's treasure abundant in the Bible, but we've got to dig!
"we need to remember the object isn't just to get through a certain amount of material or to check off our duty for the day. We need leave space to turn God's truth over in our minds." Yes! ❤ Only by thinking on God and his word and how it applies in our life are we likely to change, by seeing connections between the word and our life.
I've been spending a lot of time on Psalm 121 lately. I love that we can meditate on the same passage several times and still have God speak to us. Thanks for sharing on Grace & Truth.


March has seen a Dundee & Angus hat-trick as Ginger PR opened it's heart and mind to three new clients in the area.
A hidden gem that we are more than happy to shout about is Kinblethmont House. The one word that sums up this historic venue is magical. The 14-bedroom house located near Arbroath has recently undergone a £10,000 refurbishment and we're working with them to raise awareness of their capacity to host large parties for weddings and events. We've already got coverage lined up in a key wedding publication as well as some strong local and regional hits. An exciting photocall is afoot too.
Pure Media UK is a Dundee charity helping a group of teenagers known as The Aperture Project take literacy programme to one of the poorer parts of China this autumn. Ginger PR has been working with the young people to develop the Project's social media profile as well as place media coverage to help drive donations. We've had a great piece in The Dundee Courier for their launch event and a larger feature will appear in May talking about what the trip means to those involved.
Finally, we've been working on a varied programme of activity for The Meadowbank Inn, Arbroath. This venue has been hosting events for over 30 years and also has a cafe serving everything from hot breakfast rolls to delicious cakes and coffee. We've been updating signage, creating loyalty cards, masterminding footfall drivers, penning copy for the new website, developing social media strategies and planning large ticketed events.
There is plenty more to come for all three of these clients as we deliver results that have a tangible impact on their business. Enquiries are increasing, money is being raised, and spend per head is growing. Set targets, identify objectives and deliver... We make it that simple. We make PR work.


Beautiful, Spacious 2 Bedroom 2 Bath Corner Condo - Over 1,100 sq.ft. & Move-in Ready! Totally Updated Kitchen & Baths, 10' High Ceilings, Hardwood Floors Throughout, & Desirable Open Living Room/Kitchen Floor Plan! Lovely Kitchen with Stainless Steel Appliances, Loads of Cabinets with Granite Counter Tops, Breakfast Bar, Under Cabinet Lighting & Wine Rack. Ceiling Fans w/Lights added recently. Full Amenities Bldg. - Health Club Facilities w/Cardio & Weight Rooms, Indoor Pool, Tennis, Basketball & Racquetball Courts. Internet & Cable Included, 24/7 Doorman. Only Bill is Electric. Wonderful Streeterville Location Close to Northwestern & Lurie's Hospitals, Mag Mile Restaurants & Shopping, Lake Michigan & Ohio Beach, Water Tower Place, Movie Theatres, Navy Pier & More! Whole Foods Across the Street. Attached Garage Parking Available for Rent Separately from Other Owners.
Direction: Ohio St. East of Michigan Ave.


text:
David Kent Joslin Sarasota
About David Joslin Sarasota
David Kent Joslin Sarasota currently advises companies in identifying and resolving issues inhibiting growth in order to create a strategic competitive advantage. Strategic insight and hands-on operational experience alongside deep financial, capital raising and accounting expertise at several investment banks combine to provide management with balanced and actionable advice. David Kent Joslin Sarasota also sits on the Board of InSight Radiology Puerto Rico, a multi-site operator of free-standing radiology facilities offering X-ray, ultrasound, digital mammography, CT Scan, and MRI services.
Previously David Kent Joslin Sarasota was a VP of Operations and Development for RadNet, the largest stateside operator of radiology facilities. Other roles for David Kent Joslin Sarasota have included (i) COO of CAD Sciences, (ii) VP of Mergers & Acquisitions at Alliance Healthcare Services, (iii) Associate in the Financial Sponsors investment banking group at Deutsche Bank in New York, (iv) Financial Analyst in the Emerging Markets investment banking at Bear Stearns in New York and London and (v) internal management consultant at media firm Grupo Televisa.
David Kent Joslin Sarasota holds an MBA in finance and accounting from Columbia Business School (2001) and a Bachelor of Arts in history and political science from Duke University (1993). David Kent Joslin Sarasota lives with his family in Sarasota, FL.
© 2019 Designed and Developed by Netreputation.com

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Every single domain which is registered and hosted has a great deal of DNS records - some of them are set up automatically when you host a domain, others can be set up by hand if required. For example, the A record of a domain address is its IP address i.e. this record reveals where the website is located; the MX records reveal where the emails are managed, while using an SRV record you can use a domain name for unconventional purposes, for instance a Voice-over-IP service. To be able to create and modify certain records enables you to have different services with different companies if, for example, your current host provides good web hosting, but has problems with the e-mail service, or you simply prefer to get a certain service from a particular company. Even though you should be able to set up and edit these records freely and with no restrictions as you own a given domain address, lots of companies charge extra to give you this option.
You are going to have full control over the DNS records of your domain names and subdomains with any of our shared web hosting. Using the Hepsia hosting CP, you will be able to access an easy-to-use tool where you can see all present records or create new ones with no more than a few clicks. In addition to the standard A and MX records, you can create CNAME, TXT, SRV, and you could also set up private name servers for any domain name which is registered through our company. The custom records will give you a lot of flexibility and will permit you to do things such as hosting a subdomain on our servers while the main domain name is hosted somewhere else or or vice versa, using a third-party e-mail service, and so forth. We are never going to ask for any fees from you to be able to manage the DNS records of your domain addresses plus the service comes by default with all shared plans.
With our semi-dedicated servers, you will have 100 % control over the records of any Internet domain or subdomain hosted within the account. Our cutting-edge Hepsia hosting CP includes a simple-to-use tool, which will make the creation and management of DNS records quite simple even if you have little experience or you have not done such a thing before. It will take just a couple of mouse clicks to create or modify any kind of record - A, AAAA, MX, CNAME, SRV, TXT. That way, you can select the provider you'll use for a given service, so you can have your website here and the emails with a different company or the other way around, forward your domain names to other domains, set up a VOIP service that runs on its own server or even multiple servers, etcetera. The DNS management option is provided with each and every semi-dedicated plan by default and at no additional cost.


Major newspapers have reported that Holocaust studies will be mandatory in all NSW schools.
No statement has been issued by the New South Wales Jewish Board of Deputies to J-Wire.
Media reports state that the studies will be operative from 2014 and will be mandatory for all history students up to year 10.
Although reports quote the CEO of the NSWJBD, there is no mention if the studies will include the plight of Gypsies, homosexuals, the physically and mentally handicapped and political dissidents.
The reports, appeared exclusively in the Daily Telegraph and in the Sydney Morning Herald as well as The Australian online which carried the Telegraph story.
"Jed", why don't you join "Ben" on the way out !!!
One would think mandatory swimming lessons for children and anaphylaxis response training for teachers would precede this.
The Holocaust is the Holocaust, Ben. It's as simple and as incomprehensibly horrifying as that.
If the studies are the result of Zionist lobbying, they will be lop sided and tend to ignore the plight of the "unworthy" victims of the holocaust.


WHAT DOES C & G MEAN IN ENGLISH?
Cheltenham & Gloucester plc is a mortgage and savings provider in the United Kingdom, a subsidiary of Lloyds Banking Group. C&G specialises in mortgages and savings products. Previously, C&G was a building society, known as the Cheltenham and Gloucester Building Society. Its headquarters are in Barnwood, Gloucester, Gloucestershire, England. C&G was closed to new mortgage and savings business on 9 September 2013. The branch network of Cheltenham & Gloucester was transferred to the newly established TSB Bank plc in September 2013, as part of a divestment of a significant portion of the Lloyds TSB business by Lloyds Banking Group. C&G branches were rebranded under the TSB brand along with a number of Lloyds TSB branches in England and Wales. Some C&G savings accounts and mortgages were also transferred to the new TSB Bank at this time with others remaining with C&G.
The definition of C & G in the dictionary is City and Guilds.
Find out the translation of C & G to 25 languages with our English multilingual translator.
The translations of C & G from English to other languages presented in this section have been obtained through automatic statistical translation; where the essential translation unit is the word «C & G» in English.
The term «C & G» is very widely used and occupies the 92 position in our list of most widely used terms in the English dictionary.
The map shown above gives the frequency of use of the term «C & G» in the different countries.
List of principal searches undertaken by users to access our English online dictionary and most widely used expressions with the word «C & G».
The graph expresses the annual evolution of the frequency of use of the word «C & G» during the past 500 years. Its implementation is based on analysing how often the term «C & G» appears in digitalised printed sources in English between the year 1500 and the present day.
Discover the use of C & G in the following bibliographical selection. Books relating to C & G and brief extracts from same to provide context of its use in English literature.
« EDUCALINGO. C & G [online]. Available <https://educalingo.com/en/dic-en/c-and-g>. Apr 2019 ».


text:
Gold Coast Cougars may refer to:
 Gold Coast Cougars, a defunct Australian baseball team
 Gold Coast Rollers (NBL), a defunct Australian basketball team formerly known as Gold Coast Cougars
 Gold Coast Rollers (QBL), an Australian basketball club formerly known as Gold Coast Cougars


Extract of sample "Non profit organizations"
"Non Profit Organizations Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 Words", n.d. https://studentshare.org/management/1423893-non-profit-organizations.
This paper saved me today. I liked the content. It was very useful for my management course.
Let us write or edit the research paper on your topic "Non profit organizations" with a personal 20% discount.
Let us find you another Research Paper on topic Non profit organizations for FREE!


CompTIA Network+ from PassForSure latest interactive exam engine is the hottest product we are offering with updated free CompTIA Network+ exam dump provides you 100% passing guarantee in CompTIA Network+ cert. CompTIA Network+ CompTIA certification now can be done confidently from our latest CompTIA Network+ CompTIA from Pass4sures online audio exam and CompTIA CompTIA Network+ braindump online is the guarantee to success. We made free PassForSure CompTIA CompTIA Network+ braindump and online CompTIA Network+ exam questions in much interesting way and in a new interactive style that makes study well easy and attractive for CompTIA CompTIA Network+ cert preparation. Really helpful materials are provided in along with free downloadable latest CompTIA CompTIA Network+ from PassForSure demo exam papers and CompTIA Network+ latest audio exam for candidates to begin preparation for CompTIA CompTIA Network+ cert.
We are providing you latest and updated CompTIA Network+ CompTIA from PassForSure exam questions online with incredible CompTIA Network+ latest test brain dump as this is our promise so that you can experience all the important aspects before taking real CompTIA CompTIA Network+ cert. We supply you highly interactive updated Pass 4Sure CompTIA CompTIA Network+ exam engine along with incredible CompTIA Network+ audio guide online feature for your tremendous outcomes in CompTIA CompTIA Network+ test. For your awesome performance in CompTIA CompTIA Network+ exam, do invest in highly affordable Pass4sures CompTIA CompTIA Network+ latest courses and utilize up to date updated CompTIA CompTIA Network+ test braindump helps you to pass outstandingly in initial attempt. If you are planning to clear CompTIA CompTIA Network+ certification with tremendous score then you must try our precise package of study tools in the form of CompTIA Network+ from Pass For Sure exam braindump online and highly interactive CompTIA Network+ latest engine for your guaranteed success in CompTIA CompTIA Network+ test.
Make your success certain for CompTIA CompTIA Network+ cert through getting our wide collection of CompTIA Network+ CompTIA from PassForSure test dump online along with updated CompTIA Network+ test questions and answers as preparation tools. Get remarkable success in CompTIA CompTIA Network+ certification by using our updated Pass4sure CompTIA CompTIA Network+ brain dumps online along with splendid CompTIA CompTIA Network+ latest audio study guide feature available in MP3 format. Download our valued collection of Pass4sures CompTIA CompTIA Network+ online exam braindumps in order to prepare and pass CompTIA Network+ cert with high score. You can also obtain our brand new online CompTIA CompTIA Network+ demo practise exams for your product review and great satisfaction.
Get registered for our incredible quality CompTIA Network+ from Pass4sure lab simulations online along with accurate and precise updated CompTIA CompTIA Network+ practise questions for your awe-inspiring performance in CompTIA Network+ CompTIA cert. Extraordinary online Pass 4Sures CompTIA Network+ exam brain dump along with updated latest CompTIA CompTIA Network+ exam engine help you greatly to successfully pass CompTIA CompTIA Network+ certification in a hassle free way. Download our highly authentic CompTIA Network+ from Pass4sure updated audio lectures to have a complete overview of the CompTIA Network+ updated exam questions before purchasing them and pass CompTIA CompTIA Network+ exam with excellent marks easily in first try. Completely rely upon our high quality Pass 4Sures CompTIA CompTIA Network+ intereactive testing engine online along with updated online CompTIA Network+ test dumps helps you to examine your deficiencies and guides you completely to overcome your deficiencies regarding CompTIA Network+ CompTIA cert preparation. Get awe aspiring help from Pass4sures CompTIA Network+ online brain dump and latest CompTIA Network+ CompTIA audio training and pass CompTIA CompTIA Network+ test easily in initial try.
A splendid chance to prosper your career is now just a few clicks away by clearing CompTIA CompTIA Network+ exam with the proper assistance of our high quality CompTIA Network+ from PassForSure updated cbt and CompTIA Network+ updated test brain dump. We challenge you to achieve remarkable results in CompTIA Network+ certification just rely upon our latest and updated CompTIA CompTIA Network+ from Pass4sure video training along with self paced CompTIA CompTIA Network+ updated exam braindump. The latest and updated online CompTIA CompTIA Network+ from Pass 4Sures cbt along with high quality CompTIA CompTIA Network+ lab simulations online are designed in such a way that it can provide you exact and effective guideline about CompTIA CompTIA Network+ test preparation.


text:
Memorandum submitted by Bristol Home Educators
The following summarises our concerns about the conduct & contents of the review.
� The terms of reference for the review are illegitimate.
� The review was not independent.
� The review & its recommendations conflate education, welfare & safeguarding issues.
� Home education (HE) is seen as an anomaly, not as a valid, legal choice that parents choose to fulfil their duty.
� Contributions to the review were misrepresented in its final report.
� The review was heavily biased against HE & towards predetermined change.
� Recommendations encompass a fundamental shift in responsibility for a child's education from parent to State.
� Recommendations encompass a fundamental shift in the relationship between the State & home life.
� The recommendations will not make children safer, and may make them more vulnerable to abuse.
� The recommendations may prejudice people against legitimately choosing HE.
� The recommendations are incompatible with some well-established, researched & proven educational philosophies.
BRIEF INTRODUCTION:
This submission has been endorsed by a group of Bristol home educators and their children. Between us, we have a wide and varied experience of HE & are dedicated to our duty to provide our children with a 'suitable' education. We are active members in a thriving, social & educational local HE network.
1. CONCERNS:
1.1 TERMS OF REFERENCE
1.1.1 BACKGROUND & RATIONALE
� 1.1.1.1 In recent years Government has made repeated attempts to enforce 'robust' systems on home educators through repeated policy reviews & consultations which are disproportionate to our situation or any risks to our children. The majority of outcomes have resulted in either the proposals being dropped, or modified significantly & have amounted to harassment of home educated families & a massive waste of public funds. These are taking up disproportionate amounts of time & energy. Conclusions from previous consultations have been that current legislation is adequate & where properly applied is appropriate & proportionate.
� 1.1.1.2 Mr. Badman is fully entrenched in the school system at a strategic level & has had a close working relationship with the DCSF in the not distant past (having had funding fast tracked from the DCSF while working as Managing Director, Children, Families & Education in Kent). He embarked on the review with predetermined assumptions, having publicly stated during its course that the status quo will not prevail & that changes will be brought about. He cannot be seen to be independent.
� 1.1.1.3 The DCSF states: 'Parents have a well established right to educate their children at home & Government respects that right. There are no plans to change that position.'
1.1.1.4 This statement is misleading by omission. Parents also have a well-established right as to how they educate their children. Their statement gives the impression that no major changes will take place as a result of this review.
1.1.2 The review will investigate:
1.1.2.1 'The barriers to LAs and other public agencies in carrying out their responsibilities for safeguarding home educated children and advise on improvements to ensure that the five Every Child Matters outcomes are being met for home educated children'
� 1.1.2.2 Overcoming barriers does not require new legislation but a common sense, professional approach by LAs & public agencies in implementing current legislation. On 12th March, 2009, Lord Laming , while speaking about his review of Children's Services, said that child protection reforms needed to help prevent tragedies like the deaths of Baby P & Victoria Climbie already exist but must be put into practice.
� 1.1.2.3 No legislation states that home educators must ensure the five ECM outcomes for their children. The DCSF website states, ECM objectives 'cover the universal services which every child accesses.' They are terms of reference for LA's to work within.
1.1.2.4They are NOT terms of reference or goals for any child to attain or be assessed upon. Government has no legal basis to investigate whether ECM outcomes are being met within the context of home education.
1.1.2.5 'The extent to which claims of home education could be used as a cover of child abuse such as neglect, forced marriage, sexual exploitation or domestic servitude and advise on measures to prevent this'
� 1.1.2.6 This term is illegitimate & is prejudicial against home educators. It's discriminatory to ask this question of home education when not asking it, for example, of all persons of certain ethnic/cultural origins, of all parents with children on school summer holidays or of all parents of preschool-age children. To do so would, of course, be ludicrous!
� 1.1.2.7 There is no evidence to warrant the investigation of this term. There have been many attempts to link high profile abuse cases to home education. None have stood up to scrutiny.
1.1.2.8 'Whether any changes to the current regime for monitoring the standard of home education are needed to support the work of parents, local authorities and other partners in ensuring all children achieve the Every Child Matters outcomes.'
� 1.1.2.9 LAs are not legally obliged to monitor the standard of home education (HE). HE is part of family life; it is not a public body. Any 'monitoring' done is at the LA's discretion, without guidelines & is ultra vires. It is illegitimate to ask for information that LAs are not required to keep. It is more likely that LAs who are not in favour of HE will 'monitor' its provisions, biasing the investigation towards those in favour of legislating against HE as it stands.
� 1.1.2.10 There is no legal 'standard' for home education provision. There is a requirement that it be full time & suitable to the age, aptitude & any special needs of the individual child. This term suggests & endorses that the illegal monitoring of something that does not have to exist in law is taking place.
� 1.1.2.11 Parents are NOT 'partners' in the education and welfare of their children; they are the SOLE proprietors of that position. Agencies only have legal duties where they have reasonable cause to suspect that a parent is failing in their legal duty.
1.1.3 REVIEW METHODOLOGY
1.1.3.1 'Map existing practice & consider the effectiveness of different practice....in monitoring home education from an Every Child Matters perspective.'
� 1.1.3.2 There is no right or duty to monitor home education for anything, not least ECM issues. It is unacceptable to conduct a review on terms which seek to identify best practice of something which is illegitimate.
1.2 CONDUCT
� 1.2.1 'It is unacceptable that so many people have had to make FOI requests to get at the evidence unpinning paragraph 8.12. We still await the evidence.
� 1.2.2 Deadlines were given to all parties for representations to be submitted to the review. On 18 September, months after the review was published, the DCSF granted Mr. Badman extra time to gather evidence for the Select Committee Inquiry into his report. He has requested additional information from LAs only. Not only is this practise highly dubious, giving additional weight to LA's already disproportionately high influence, but it also indicates that his conclusions as to the outcome of the review were predetermined & that he'll go to any lengths to 'prove' them. There should be no need for more data if, as Mr. Badman states, LA evidence 'provided persuasive evidence for change.' The DCSF is granting Mr. Badman special privileges while dragging their heels in responding to outstanding FOI requests from home educators.
� 1.2.3 No home educating parent was on the expert panel. This does not tally with a Government that wishes to listen to the public and empower them.
1.2.4 There were no home-educated children on the panel (who could be more 'expert'?).
1.2.5 The panel was heavily weighted on the side of the education system & 3rd sector agencies. There was scarcely anyone with experience, proper knowledge or understanding of HE. Considering that HE was the topic of the review, it would have been more appropriate for the balance of influence to have been reversed.
� 1.2.6 There is implicit prejudice in the selective, misrepresentative quoting used in the Badman Report.
1.2.7 One example: the report includes a lengthy quotation from the Church of England that expresses their concerns about HE. However, it fails to mention their overall conclusion:
1.2.8 'We have seen no evidence to show that the majority of home educated children do not achieve the five Every Child Matters outcomes, and are therefore not convinced of the need to change the current system of monitoring the standard of home education. Where there are particular concerns about the children in a home-educating (family) this should be a matter for Children's Services.'
1.2.9 Nor does it mention their statement 'Prevention of abuse under the cover of home education seems to be the main reason for this review, & in making it so, has the effect of tarnishing the reputation of the many parents who choose to home educate their children....'
1.2.10 These omissions serve to deliberately misrepresent the views of the Church of England's views of home education.
� 1.2.11 Recommendations based on responses of only 25/159 LAs. Completing questionnaires was, unbelievably, not mandatory, considering the enormity of the subject. It's likely that LAs with 'problems' with HE would be the ones to respond. Considering the weight given to LAs input into the review, this makes it extremely biased towards their perception of HE.
� 1.2.12 Questions on the LA questionnaires were structured so as to give misleading data & were in some cases ultra vires.
1.2.13 'Total number of electively home educated children not known to be receiving suitable education' would include figures on children who may be receiving 'suitable education'.
1.2.14 'Number not cooperating with monitoring so no assessment can be made' is ultra vires.
1.3 REVIEW CONCLUSIONS
� 1.3.1The Review claims that:
1.3.2 "... on the basis of local authority evidence and case studies presented.... the number of children known to children's social care in some local authorities is disproportionately high relative to the size of their home educating population."
1.3.3 This statement is misleading & implies that these children are at risk. Being 'known' does NOT equate to being at risk of abuse.
1.3.4 The review rightly points out that the number of parents opting for HE is unknown. Given that the size of the HE population is unknown, it is impossible to calculate the proportion. In effect, the statement is meaningless.
� 1.4.1 The review fails to make a strong case for its recommendations. There is little argument supported by review evidence. Where evidence is presented, there is an absence of critical analysis. Instead there is opinion. For example, the review says 'I believe ...' 16 times.
� 1.4.2 The recommendations are not logically consistent with the limited evidence.
1.4.3 The review says that many LAs are not performing adequately, but then recommends they have more powers. Without an analysis of why they are failing, this would seem an inappropriate measure.
1.4.4 The Review recognises the diversity of home educators, but fails to take this in to account in its 'one size fits all' recommendations.
� 1.4.5 The Review is inconsistent in how it treats research. It claims that the sample sizes for some studies were too small for its findings to be generalised to the whole population. Yet it quotes from a qualitative study on reasons why parents home educate (Hopwood,V.,O'Neill, L., Castro G. and Hodgson, B. (2007) The Prevalence of Home Education in England: A Feasibility Study, DfES, Research Report 827) that is based on an opportunistic sample of 18 parents in nine areas; and references another small scale study (Kendall S. & Atkinson, M (2006) Some perspectives on home educated children, NFER) based on 21 interviews with local authority staff in 16 areas.
1.4.6 Recommendation 1
� 1.4.7 The requirement annually to seek permission from the LA to home educate removes parents' responsibility for providing children with an education 'at school or otherwise', instead placing that duty in the hands of the LA, who will delegate it to parents who they deem suitable (Recommendation 23). This makes home educators vulnerable to LA prejudice about different educational and lifestyle philosophies.
� 1.4.8 The recommendations erect discriminatory barriers to entry for those considering HE.
1.4.9 The requirement that parents complete plans and submit to visits within weeks of beginning to home educate will be an intimidating barrier to entry; many families take some time to establish the educational philosophy and style which will suit them.
1.4.10 The well-documented necessity for a 'deschooling' period after removing a child from school is not accommodated.
1.4.11 The proposal that 'schools should retain... pupils on roll for a period of 20 school days' makes it possible for schools to put pressure on families not to proceed with HE. It is unclear whether a child deeply unhappy at school would be forced to endure a further 20 days of it, or whether caring parents removing their children from a traumatic situation would be vulnerable to truancy prosecution.
� 1.4.12 The requirement to provide detailed plans of what our children will be learning in the next year, plans against which our children's attainment will be measured, is contradictory to the well documented and effective practice among home educators of child-centred, personalised, responsive, informal learning. Home educators whose patterns are more formal, following curricula and regularly producing 'educational product', are also unhappy at the lack of flexibility and responsiveness permitted by such a requirement.
1.4.13 Mr. Badman states that 'the school must provide to the appropriate officer of the local authority a record of the child's achievement to date and expected achievement... together with any other school records.' Apart from the potential for schools to provide false or misleading information, it is parents, meeting their duty to educate their child, who should be provided with all school records, not the State.
1.4.14 Recommendation 2
1.4.15 'That the DCSF review the current statutory definition of what constitutes a 'suitable' and 'efficient education in the light of the Rose Review of the primary curriculum, and other changes to curriculum assessment and definition throughout statutory school age..... should take account of the five Every Child Matters outcomes...., should not be overly prescriptive but be sufficiently defined to secure a broad, balanced, relevant and differentiated curriculum'
� 1.4.16 In case law, the definition of a 'suitable' and 'efficient' education is well established. Mr. Badman's proposals for a 'broad, balanced, relevant and differentiated curriculum' would not necessarily optimal for an individual child, and may well be incompatible during any given year with the self-directed path of an autonomously home-educated child.
� 1.4.18 'That all local authorities analyse the reasons why parents or carers chose elective home education' sees home education as an anomaly to be explained. Providing a child's education is the parents' duty & their reasons for choosing one of several valid routes are no business of the State! Reasons for choosing HE would only be the business of the State if HE were an inferior last resort, to be prevented wherever possible. We are afraid that this unwarranted assumption may underlie the Badman review, calling all of its findings into question.
� 1.4.20 The requirement to allow unknown LA staff into our homes, without probable cause, & to interview our children alone, without probable cause, fundamentally shifts the relationship between the State and the home, and between the State and the family. It will make children confused & vulnerable to illicit approaches by adults.
� 1.4.21 In having the 'right of access to the home' and 'the right to speak with each child alone if deemed appropriate or, if a child is particularly vulnerable or has particular communication needs, in the company of a trusted person who is not the home educator or the parent/carer' so that 'officers will be able to satisfy themselves that the child is safe and well', education & child protection are conflated.
1.4.22 Educational provision can be ascertained through written correspondence; the explicit purpose of these compulsory visits would be to check for abuse. HE is an educational matter, NOT a welfare issue. It is inappropriate to consider welfare issues in a home education review. At any rate, Mr. Badman has admitted in his report: 'I can find no evidence that elective home education is a particular factor in the removal of children to forced marriage, servitude or trafficking or for inappropriate abusive activities....this view is supported by the Association of chief Police Officers.'
1.4.23 An abused child is highly unlikely to confide in a stranger on a short annual visit. Many abused children's suffering goes unnoticed at school for years, despite familiar adults seeing them regularly. Before moving towards legislation which treats home educators as particularly dangerous to children and which fundamentally infringes their civil liberties, it would be appropriate for the DCSF firstly to produce evidence that home educators are indeed particularly dangerous (Mr. Badman concluded that he had not found such evidence), and secondly to produce evidence that their proposed regime of surveillance would uncover such abuse. Someone who has been abusing their child since birth is unlikely to register them as home educated. Someone who deregisters their child from school under suspicious circumstances should be referred to Social Services by the school.
1.4.24 The proposed compulsory visits could be damaging to children - not only those with special needs, but any children who would prefer not to be scrutinised alone by strangers with the power to force them to attend school. It is often easy for those in the child protection industry to forget how much harm they do simply by investigating and invading the lives of innocent families.
1.4.25 These invasive powers will not be applied to the families of schooled children or to pre-schoolers.
� 1.4.26 Children learning informally would have their learning restricted (and thus damaged) by being forced to 'exhibit' to LA staff (who, at present, are almost all ex-teachers or ex-OFSTED inspectors, and thus are heavily invested in school-style learning).
2. OUR CONCLUSIONS:
2.1 The review reflects a fundamental ignorance of & bias against HE. Its illegitimate terms of reference should, in themselves, render the review null & void.


text:
Something always escapes!
"A book of major theoretical importance and profound political and disciplinary implications." --Charles Hatfield, MLN
Tag Archives for span495
Testimonio and the Politics of Truth
This semester I'm teaching what my university designates as a "research-intensive" seminar, and figured that this would be an opportunity, among other things, to thematize and question the practice of "research" itself. This I am aiming to do by means of an investigation into Latin American testimonio and the "politics of truth," with current events in the USA and elsewhere as an ever-present backdrop to our discussions.
You can check out the course website, but here's the blurb, and below it are links to posts I'm writing in connection with the course…
"The question of 'truth' and its importance (or its unimportance) is at issue now more than ever. Oxford Dictionaries have declared that their 'word of 2016' was 'post-truth.' The idea of 'post-truth' is that people are less concerned with whether something is true or not, than with how it makes them feel. It is argued that some of the most decisive political events of the past year–not least the rise of President Elect Donald Trump in the USA–can be explained by this phenomenon.
"If research (fact-checking, investigation) no longer seems to count, or to make much difference to how people think or act, its usefulness or legitimacy is now in question.
"So we will not simply be practicing research in this seminar. We will also be thinking about what it means to do research, what is the point of doing research, and how our ideas about research might have changed over time.
"As a way to think about these issues, we will be reading a series of texts from Latin America that deal with testimony, witnessing, and historical investigation. They include Rodolfo Walsh's Operación masacre, Miguel Barnet's Biografía de un cimarrón, Elizabeth Burgos and Rigoberta Menchú's Me llamo Rigoberto Menchú, and Mario Vargas Llosa's El hablador. These often deal with issues of great importance for ordinary people: state violence, human rights, cultural identity. But their truthfulness has also been questioned, or they have even questioned what we think to be true. We will look therefore at the controversies and debates that these texts have provoked. And we will research them, but we will also ask ourselves about what we are doing (and why) as we do such research."
Operación masacre
Biografía de un cimarrón
La noche de Tlatelolco
March 9, 2017 by Jon	Categories: latin america, teaching	| Tags: span495, testimonio, truth | 1 Comment
One of the repeated chants of Mexico's student movement in the 1960s, among the many reproduced in Elena Poniatowska's La noche de Tlatelolco, is a demand for dialogue: "DIA-LOGUE-DIA-LOGUE-DIA-LOGUE-DIA-LOGUE-DIA-LOGUE." As one of her informants puts it, this is because "the government's been talking to itself for fifty years now" (30; 38); or as another puts it, "The PRI," the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party, "doesn't go in for dialogues, just monologues" (86; 90). Hence no doubt the form of Poniatowska's own book, composed as it is of a multitude of snippets (of interviews, pronouncements, chants, newspaper articles, and so on) from all sides. Dialogue proved impossible in the real world, on the streets or in council chambers, as it was cut short by the violent repression of the student movement, the imprisonment of its leaders, and particularly by the massacre at Tlatelolco, in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas, that gives this book its title. But it is as though that impossible dialogue were now (almost) realized on the page as slogans face headlines, and witnesses from a variety of backgrounds speak of their experiences, one after another. Moreover, as Poniatowska makes little overt effort to impose a unified narrative or reconcile disparities (though there is no doubt that there is artfulness and intention in the ordering and placement of the various fragments), it is almost as if we catch that dialogue in midstream, any conclusion endlessly postponed.
But I say that this fantasy of dialogue is only almost realized on the page, not merely because it is in the nature of testimonio (as we have seen for instance with Biografía de un cimarrón) that the written word betrays, by fixing and so deadening, oral expression. It is also that the extreme fragmentation here threatens to undermine any attempt to make sense at all, refusing not only the forced coherence of the authoritarian state but also any unity to which the student movement itself might aspire. Even the chant itself, as it is printed here, breaks down the demand for dialogue into its constituent syllables and no longer respects either the unity of the word or its separation from any other: "DIA-LO-GO-DIA-LO-GO-DIA-LO-GO-DIA-LO-GO-DIA-LO-GO-DIA-LO-GO." In the frenetic repetition of the march, meaning slips away to be replaced by sheer sound, by elements that could be recombined in more than one way, to more than one end or effect. The onus then is on the reader to pick up and combine the pieces, but even so it is not clear that any single narrative could ever gather together all the fragments and make them cohere. But then surely this is part of the point: if ever there had once been a chance for dialogue, now not even literature (or testimonio) can bring that moment back.
Poniatowska does not claim to establish the truth of what happened at Tlatelolco. Even as she effectively undermines the official version of events, she makes little attempt to substitute it with a new, more authoritative, version. She wrests the monopoly of the truth from the state, without presuming to claim ownership of it herself.
For hers is less a fact-finding mission than a therapeutic howl that puts language to the ultimate test. As she says in one of her very few editorial interventions, halfway through the book, even to consider delving for the truth would be somehow offensive to the victims: "Grief is a very personal thing. Putting it into words is almost unbearable; hence asking questions, digging for facts, borders on an invasion of people's privacy" (199; 164). Instead, what she aims to provide is a space for the expression of that inexpressive grief that makes the animal within us (bare, unqualified life) come to the fore, as with the mother that Poniatowska describes as "so stunned that for days and days she uttered scarcely a word, and then suddenly, like a wounded animal–an animal whose belly is being ripped apart–she let out a hoarse, heart-rending cry, from the very center of her life." This is "the sort of wild keening that is the end of everything, the wail of ultimate pain from the wound that will never heal" (199; 164). As such, even to call La noche de Tlatelolco an exercise in therapy is to say too much, as it would imply that healing can someday come–a claim as offensive and intolerable as the high-handed notion that there is some relationship between truth and reconciliation, or even that either were ever desirable. No. What matters is less what these fragments say than what they can never say, or what they say only by revealing the insufficiency and arrogance of any claims to truth or certainty. These pages, if they express anything, are the place for "the mute cry that stuck in thousands of throats, the blind grief in thousands of horror-stricken eyes on October 2, 1968, the night of Tlatelolco" (199; 164).
See also: Testimonio and the Politics of Truth.
March 8, 2017 by Jon	Categories: teaching	| Tags: language, mexico, span495, testimonio, truth | 1 Comment
The key to a testimonio is almost always found in its paratexts–its preface or introduction, epilogue or afterword. Which itself is odd enough: if this is a genre noted for, indeed for some defined by, its presentation of a story as it is, without literary pretensions, it is remarkable how much varnish its truth seems to require. But then it is these paratexts themselves that claim to offer the guarantee of veracity and legitimacy, often enough by laying bare (apparently) the mechanism of the text's production, assuring us that what we see is really what we get. Moreover, it is in these supposedly ancillary texts that the testimonio's editor or compiler, who otherwise usually removes his or her traces from the text itself (so that the informant can speak unadorned), outlines his or her role as the stand-in for the reader. For if the essence of the genre is its basis in the oral discourse of a subaltern presumed to be an outsider to literate culture, the original interviewer has to vouch for the bona fides of that original contact, even as he or she betrays it by subsequently translating oral exchange into written form. We are then to imagine ourselves in the editor's place: listening more than reading, hearing the subaltern "speak," as our proxy did for us once before. It is in a testimonio's introduction or preface, then, that the book's compiler often attests to his or her personal, affective, unmediated relationship to the book's narrator, conjuring up a bond into which the reader can project themselves even as the editor outlines all the intermediary steps required for that fantasy to stick.
So it is, then, with Cuban anthropologist Miguel Barnet's introduction to Biografía de un cimarrón (1966), the testimony of former runaway slave Esteban Montejo, which assures us that the book is based on a "living dialogue" between interviewer and interviewee (15). Barnet tells us that, having identified Montejo as a suitable source–mostly because of his extreme age, but also because of the intrinsic interest of his life–he put to good use "the customary resources of ethnological research" (for ethnologists have their customs, too). He tried to resolve some of Montejo's immediate problems, to do with money, women, and health. He then gave him some small gifts: tobacco, badges, photos. And so the conversation began, if not quite along the lines that Barnet had originally envisaged when he thought that this would be primarily a study of the survival of African religious traits among Cuba's black population. Indeed, at the outset, Barnet tells us, things were decidedly difficult, as Montejo "showed himself to be rather surly" (16). Perhaps the usual ethnological blandishments had not been enough! But even the tale of these difficulties serves its purpose, in that Barnet is telling us the story of how Montejo came (almost) to trust him, in the end even to "identify with us," once he "realized the interest of the task at hand" (16). The gap between letrado and subaltern is visibly shrinking as the introduction proceeds.
But testimonio cannot rely on gifts, identification, or affective pact alone. Technology, specifically tape recording, is also a ubiquitous guarantee both of authenticity in that it (quite literally) captures the voice verbatim, and of the seriousness of the investigator's research in that he or she can then go back over the interview and deepen his or her familiarity with the subject. As Barnet puts it: "Many of our sessions were recorded on magnetic tapes. This allowed us to familiarize ourselves with the linguistic forms, turns of phrase, syntax, archaisms, and idioms of [Montejo's] speech" (18). The interviewer can thus immerse himself in his informant's world, even if such immersion then begins to provoke doubt… "The need to verify facts, dates, or other details led us to have conversations with veterans who were more or less his contemporary. But none of them were old enough to have lived through the periods or events that Esteban related" (18).
Ultimately, the paratextual attempt to guarantee the veracity of the text as a whole ends up offering hostages to fortune. The description of the methodology by which the book came into being reminds us, whether we like it or not, of the multiple mediations that give the lie to the direct reproduction of experience that the book otherwise wishes to tell us it is presenting. We are reminded of editorial interventions, such as paraphrase and reordering of the narrative, even as they are justified on the grounds that "if we had faithfully mimicked the twists and turns of his language, the book would have made itself difficult to understand and excessively repetitive" (18). The paratext, then, itself a form of excess or supplement to the main text, exists to rein in the excesses of a different order that would otherwise disrupt any reading of the text. The tightrope or balancing act inherent in any testimonio becomes apparent, as it tries to remain faithful or true to its subject, without falling into the trap of becoming "excessively" so. Only a judicious pruning, or unfaithfulness to the source, can ensure that the text does not slip into incoherence or even nonsense.
Barnet's introduction is interesting in that his relationship with Montejo seems to have been particularly complex, indeed verging on antagonistic–for all that he claims to have subdued or overcome Montejo's original surliness. The anthropologist is eager to admit that "undoubtedly, many of his tales are not rigorously faithful to the facts. [. . .] His version is subjective. [. . .] It reflects our informant's approach to things" (19). But this is less an admission of the testimonio's weakness than an attempt to attest to its main strength. For unlike many similar narratives, Biografía de un cimarrón does not claim to be typical, or at least not in any simple sense. The very fact that Montejo was a runaway slave (who, we come to learn, spent much of his time alone, not trusting others) marks him out as different and distinct. Montejo is a renegade as much as or even more than he is a representative of nineteenth-century Cuba. But then that is because, Barnet implies, he is perhaps a man out of time: his "honesty," his capacity to be true to himself (if not the facts), mark him as a "revolutionary" avant la lettre, even if his story never actually touches on Castro's campaigns of the 1950s and 1960s. In the end, it is the fact that Montejo doesn't entirely trust us, and is not entirely to be trusted in turn, that ensures less his tale's veracity (because the truth doesn't really matter) than its political charge.
March 7, 2017 by Jon	Categories: latin america, teaching	| Tags: cuba, span495, testimonio, truth | 1 Comment
Argentine journalist Rodolfo Walsh's Operación masacre is an investigation into the extra-judicial assassination, on the part of the Buenos Aires provincial police, of a group of men initially suspected to be part of a Peronist uprising on the night of June 9-10, 1956. As much as an account of what actually happened in the hours shortly before and after midnight on those dates, the book is also the story of the investigation itself. Walsh describes how he was initially reluctant to follow up on a rumor about the events he had picked up in a café, but then threw himself into the pursuit of the facts, driven by outrage at the authorities but above all by sympathy for those who had, against the odds, actually survived. He soon finds himself on what is effectively a crusade for recognition and justice, though he is aware of the price he may one day pay for the trouble he is perceived as causing. Indeed, much later, during the military dictatorship of the 1970s, Walsh's voice is finally silenced when he is killed by soldiers in a confrontation in downtown Buenos Aires, his body dragged away to be burned and thrown in a river.
But Walsh evidently believes that the dangers inherent in seeking out the truth are more than merely personal. In the introduction to the first (1957) edition of the book, he writes that "too much truth can lead to madness, wiping out a people's moral conscience." But he goes on implicitly to welcome this eventuality: "One day the tragic history of the June killings will be written down in its entirety. And then we will see the shock overflow our borders" (265). The truth, in short, is something not to be taken lightly; its effects are collective and potentially catastrophic. But ultimately we should take the risk of the madness and destruction it brings with it. After all, he concludes: "I happen to believe, with complete earnestness and conviction, in the right of every citizen to share any truth that he comes to know, however dangerous that truth may be. And I believe in this book, in the impact it can have" (266).
But Walsh is not content simply to leave things there, as an ominous warning for the future. He himself does whatever he can to ensure that the murky details of this "tragic history," still incomplete when he first publishes it in 1957, should in the end come out. A second and a third edition of the book come out in 1964 and 1969 respectively. Each time he feels that he has better pinpointed the chain of events and responsibility that led to these mostly innocent men having their lives ended or, if nothing else, transformed as they were grabbed from an informal gathering in a private house and finally gunned down in a (frankly, botched) execution on the outskirts of the city. But with each new edition of the book, one also feels increasing frustration and even despair on Walsh's part as the officials he identifies as the guilty parties continue to evade any repercussions or consequences. In the end, as in the epilogue to the 1969 edition, Walsh's tone becomes almost frantic and apocalyptic as he expands his frame of reference to "a portrait of the dominant oligarchy" and concludes that "within the system, there can be no justice" (299, 300).
In the first place, the problem is that the investigation threatens to become interminable. The truth "in its entirety" is not so easy to uncover. There are numerous points at which Walsh admits to doubt or uncertainty, in part because witnesses are absent or unreliable, or because their testimonies contradict each other. In the end, even relatively basic facts such as the number of men taken out to the killing zone elude him. The book's opening paragraph has to admit that "We will never know it all" (31). There will always be a penumbra of doubt however dedicated the effort to ferret out the facts. And so, for all Walsh tries to give substance and materiality to events and participants, they remain strangely ghostly, just out of reach.
But there is a worse possibility: that Walsh may manage to uncover the truth, or enough of it that should count, and yet nothing might happen anyway. At one point in his enquiry, seeking to track down yet another survivor, he comes across a little girl in the street who tells him "The man you're looking for [. . .] is in his house. They'll tell you he isn't, but he is." To which Walsh replies: "And do you know why we've come?" Coolly, calmly, the girl responds: "Yes, I know everything." And though we never find out this young girl's name, Walsh gives her one: "OK, Cassandra" (24). For Cassandra was of course the Greek princess, daughter of Priam, who was blessed with the gift of prophetic knowledge but cursed (by Apollo) never to be believed. In fact, Walsh does believe this girl (and finds the man he is looking for as a result), but he must already be thinking of himself as a Cassandra figure, destined to reveal the truth but to no avail. No wonder at times (and increasingly as new editions come out), his prose becomes increasingly strained and reliant on rhetoric as though he were trying to compensate for the fact that the truth alone will never set us free.
For the real scandal is not so much the truth itself as the fact that truth-telling does not have quite the power that Walsh ascribes to it. Perhaps it isn't all that dangerous. Perhaps "speaking truth to power" (as they say) only puts the truth-teller at risk. Or it may even be that when Walsh is finally gunned down, it is for something else entirely.
March 6, 2017 by Jon	Categories: latin america, teaching	| Tags: argentina, span495, testimonio, truth | 1 Comment
Discovery Passages
Friends, Enemies, and Others
The Peter Wall Institute for Advanced Studies: Opening the Dialogue
El mundo es ancho y ajeno II
El mundo es ancho y ajeno I
An Unspeakably Long Sentence
Nietzsche and Philosophy
Soldados de Salamina
For Whom the Bell Tolls II
La ciudad y los perros
"Kafka and His Precursors"
Radical Democracy and Collective Movements Today
affect argentina arguedas art artsone body borges bourdieu chile deleuze el salvador habit hegemony history indigenism language last100 mexico multitude music narrative negri neoliberalism peru photography piracy politics populism postcolonialism power race representation revolution ruins social theory spain span280 span365 span406 span430 span505 span590 state subalternity terror usa vancouver violence war wikipedia
Archives Select Month April 2019 March 2019 February 2019 January 2019 December 2018 November 2018 October 2018 September 2018 April 2017 March 2017 February 2017 January 2017 November 2016 July 2016 June 2016 May 2016 March 2016 February 2016 January 2016 December 2015 November 2015 October 2015 September 2015 August 2015 July 2015 May 2015 April 2015 March 2015 February 2015 January 2015 November 2014 October 2014 September 2014 August 2014 July 2014 June 2014 May 2014 April 2014 March 2014 January 2014 December 2013 October 2013 September 2013 August 2013 July 2013 June 2013 May 2013 April 2013 March 2013 February 2013 January 2013 December 2012 October 2012 September 2012 August 2012 July 2012 June 2012 May 2012 February 2012 January 2012 December 2011 November 2011 October 2011 September 2011 August 2011 July 2011 June 2011 May 2011 April 2011 March 2011 February 2011 January 2011 December 2010 November 2010 October 2010 September 2010 August 2010 July 2010 June 2010 May 2010 April 2010 March 2010 February 2010 January 2010 December 2009 November 2009 October 2009 September 2009 August 2009 June 2009 May 2009 April 2009 February 2009 January 2009 December 2008 November 2008 October 2008 September 2008 August 2008 July 2008 June 2008 May 2008 April 2008 March 2008 February 2008 January 2008 December 2007 November 2007 October 2007 September 2007 August 2007 July 2007 June 2007 May 2007 April 2007 March 2007 February 2007 January 2007 December 2006 November 2006 October 2006 September 2006 July 2006 June 2006 May 2006 April 2006 March 2006 February 2006 January 2006 December 2005 November 2005 October 2005 September 2005 August 2005 July 2005


text:
Panama Rocks Ranked The #1 Trail In New York State
Panama, N.Y. – Panama Rocks has just been listed as the #1 Ranked Trail in New York State by Inspirock - a world-wide travel/trip-planning service covering 47,000 destinations across 226 countries.
Inspirock's ranking system takes into account reviews from TripAdvisor, Google, Facebook to determine their rankings based on independent guest reviews, which makes its ranking system one of the most comprehensive in the world. Inspirock was founded in 2012 and and expanded to include destinations in the United States in 2015.
"We are honored to be ranked so highly among so many other amazing parks and trails" said Panama Rocks Manager, Jonathan Weston. "Panama Rocks is a very special place where all ages - young children, teenagers, adults, and grandparents - can have fun together while connecting to nature and exploring incredibly beautiful caves, crevices, and passages hidden among an ancient forest."
When asked how Panama Rocks became so highly rated, Jonathan said it all has to do with how enjoyable it is for guests who visit the park. "We are incredibly grateful for our many visitors who help keep Panama Rocks open to the public and for their amazing reviews and feedback which has made the Panama Rocks so highly ranked on various travel review sites."
Panama Rocks was established in 1885 before the State Park system was created (Niagara Falls was the first State Park in the United States and was also founded in 1885) and is entirely funded by its guests through a small admission fee. In the early 20th Century Panama Rocks hosted famous guests such as James Ward Packard, who visited the park on his honeymoon, and Thomas Edison.
The main trail at Panama Rocks is just about one-mile long, but guests are welcome to hike and explore off-trail at their own risk. While the main trail is a hiking trail, it is accessible to guests who can walk one-mile on uneven ground.
In 2018 Panama Rocks opened an axe-throwing range (for guests age 11+). "It's like throwing darts, but a lot more fun" says Weston. "Axe throwing is safer than it sounds and we use both trained instructors and fencing to ensure that our guests have a great time and remain safe". Axe throwing has seen a recent rise in popularity, with hundreds of axe ranges opening across the United States and Canada in the last few years.
Panama Rocks is open daily from the first weekend of May through the last weekend of October, 10:00AM to 5:00PM. Detailed information, including information on axe throwing hours and reservations, are available online at www.PanamaRocks.com.
Jonathan Weston
Panama Rocks
Email: Jonathan@Panamarocks.Com
Categories: Chautauqua-Allegheny, natural attractions
Brand Stories (183)
Capital-Saratoga (607)
Catskills (19)
Central New York (270)
Chautauqua-Allegheny (155)
craft beverages (12)
festivals and events (1814)
Finger Lakes (1019)
food and wine (362)
golfing (35)
Greater Niagara (200)
green tourism (19)
Hudson Valley (699)
Long Island (102)
natural attractions (438)
New Developments in New York State Tourism (21)
New York State in the News (45)
Path Through History (171)
places to stay (154)
Quadricentennial (59)
regional publications (121)
snow sports (318)
Taste NY (8)
The Adirondacks (781)
The Catskills (284)
Thousand Islands-Seaway (409)
tourist services (849)
View by REGION (11)
Catskills (2)
Hudson Valley (2)
USS Slater (1)
I Love New York Staff (3310)
Alpine Adventures
Bed & Breakfasts
children's skiing
Duanesburg
historical re-enactments
off-season vacation
Otsego Country
southwestern New York State
Strong Museum of Play


text:
Richard Patten is an expert facilitator, philosophical counselor and analyst, Neuro-linguistic Programming (NLP) Master practitioner/modeler, and hospice director for the End of Life process. He has developed and led workshops for developing spiritual unfollowing and deepening. His courses touch on community development, alternate spiritual tools and paths, meditation and consciousness exploration.
Through more than 40 years of abiding curiosity, Richard has delved into the works of teachers like Eckhart Tolle, Byron Katie, Adyashanti, Loch Kelly, Martin Seligman, Ernest Holmes, and many others, in a continuing journey of discovering the world's sacred spiritual treasures.
Richard has been blessed with the opportunities to serve on two church boards and Blackbirds Rising. He has also created and developed a company to explore beliefs and their effect on life.
Now retired, Richard uses his time as a Buddhist meditator to delve deeply into the infinite levels of consciousness and awareness.
Contact Richard Patten


text:
Many Postbac Premed students are eager to volunteer in health care settings outside of the United States, where access to medical care is often extremely limited. Although service abroad does not necessarily make an applicant to medical, dental, or veterinary school more competitive, many Postbac Premed students will undertake such work to supplement the clinical and research work they complete domestically.
Students who pursue opportunities abroad should ensure that the tasks they assume are commensurate with their experience and training and the work is conducted under the supervision of a health care professional. Students should be advised that the School of General Studies has not vetted or endorsed any of the programs listed on our website under Clinical and Research Opportunities; they therefore must investigate any program before joining it.
Students who arrange work abroad during their enrollment in the Postbac Premed Program should notify their advisor beforehand and register with International SOS, an emergency services insurance program that provides worldwide assistance in the event of an emergency
Prior to volunteering abroad, students are also encouraged to review the AAMC reference Guidelines for Premedical and Medical Students Providing Patient Care During Clinical Experiences Abroad. Predents should review Guidelines for Predental Students Providing Patient Care During Clinical Experiences Abroad. The information in these documents is general enough in nature that prevets and allied health preprofessionals are also encouraged to consult them.
Disclaimer: The School of General Studies does not screen the health care positions, paid or volunteer, listed below. This listing is not an endorsement or recommendation. Students are advised to investigate all opportunities before committing to one.
Child Family Health International Global Health Programs
CFHI Programs offer first-hand experiences alongside local physicians and public health experts in developing countries. Programs combine instruction, experience, service, and reflection to create a model that supports physicians, clinical sites, and communities abroad, addresses the healthcare needs of the underserved, and adds a unique experiential element to each participant's professional development. Programs last between four and eight weeks.
EcoMed Project
The EcoMed Project offers students two to three weeks of experience with tropical medicine in Sioma, Zambia. Students work in volunteer teams, making ward rounds and working in outpatient clinics, operating rooms, and labs for HIV and TB testing, among other tests. The EcoMed Project's goals are to encourage pre-medical students and medical students to volunteer in clinics and operating rooms, to understand how a rural medical clinic functions, and to be exposed to the ways medicine is practiced in Zambia. Positions are full-time and unpaid.
Gap Medics
Gap Medics offers pre-health experience programs to students in Tanzania, the Czech Republic, and Thailand, and students are placed in hospitals according to their interests. Participants gain clinical experience and attend lectures given by student mentors on a variety of healthcare issues. Programs last between two weeks and several months.
Global Health Corps Program
Global Health Corps offers fellowships for college graduates with domestic and international NGOs and government organizations that are working to improve healthcare access and health outcomes for the poor. The program does not require clinical experience and offers fellowships in a range of areas including project management, monitoring and evaluation, engineering, communications, and more. Participants also receive mentorship and professional development training. Positions include a stipend, housing, medical insurance, and transportation, and require a commitment of one year.
The International & Immigrant Family Health & AIDS Programs (IFHAP)
IFHAP allows students to participate in one to three month clinical rotations at providing HIV-related care and general medical care throughout New York City and at the Clinica de Familia La Romana in the Dominican Republic. Students interested in family health, maternal health, reproductive health, adolescents, pediatrics, and quality improvement have the opportunity to assist in the training of clinical staff, work with quality improvement teams, and provide care at various health clinics. The rotation sites are located at an NGO that provides medical services and health education.
Mabelle Arole Fellowship
The Mabelle Arole Fellowship provides one student per year with the opportunity to work at the Comprehensive Rural Health Project in India for ten months. Fellows will learn about community-driven programming, women's health, under-fives care, family planning, control of chronic illnesses, prevention of infectious diseases, and integrated rural development. Fellows also gain out-patient, in-patient, and field experience with the hospital. To apply, students must have already applied and been accepted to medical school. If awarded the fellowship, the awardee will defer entrance to medical school for one year. The fellowship is full-time and includes a stipend.
Medical Missionaries Global Health Fellowship
The Global Health Fellowship sends students to St. Joseph's Clinic in Thomassique, Haiti to provide health care to underserved communities. Fellows assist with coordinating the clinic's operations and managing several health outreach programs involving community health workers, traditional birth assistants, mobile clinics, water purification, malnutrition, salt iodization, and education. Fellows also have the opportunity to develop new initiatives to address needs in Thomassique or outlying villages. The fellowship lasts 13 months and transportation including flight costs, housing, food, and emergency evacuation insurance are covered by the program.
Minority Health and Health Disparities International Research Training Fellowship
MIHRT is for students from underrepresented groups who seek an international research opportunity in global health. The program is a fully-funded 11-week summer program during which fellows will receive training in New York City, and will carry out a research project in one of five countries (Dominican Republic, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Kenya, or Swaziland).
Operation Wallacea
Operation Wallacea, which runs biological and conservation management research programs in remote areas, offers students the opportunity to learn about expeditionary medicine. The Expedition Medicine Experiential Course provides experience in providing medical support to teams working on expeditions in remote areas. Participants receive formal teaching in the form of interactive lectures coupled with mentorship by doctors working out in the field to gain experience in clinical diagnosis and treatment. The program lasts four weeks.
Princeton in Africa Fellowship
The Princeton in Africa Fellowship provides participants opportunities with a variety of organizations that work across the African continent. Experiences vary, but effort is made to place fellows with organizations based on their interest. Previous fellows have worked in the fields of humanitarian aid, public health, education, conservation, post-conflict reconstruction, and social entrepreneurship. The fellowship lasts twelve months.
Somos Hermanos Program
The Somos Hermanos program provides an opportunity for gap-year, pre-medical students to become fluent in Spanish. The program takes place in Guatemala and entails a mix of one-on-one language instruction, community volunteering, cultural activities and lectures, and daytrips to nearby areas. The program lasts six months.
Unite for Sight Global Health Program
At Unite for Sight, Global Impact Fellows provide eye care to people living in extreme poverty. Volunteers interact with patients, conduct visual acuity screenings, learn about glasses and medication distribution, and have the opportunity to observe surgeries. Positions last between one week and several months.
Volunteers for Intercultural and Definitive Adventures (VIDA)
VIDA offers pre-medical students the opportunity to practice rural medicine in field clinics serving isolated populations in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Students will interview patients, record vitals, administer physical exams and primary care under the supervision of licensed physicians. A variety of programs are offered and Spanish is not a prerequisite. Programs last between nine and fifteen days.
Whitaker International Fellowship
The Whitaker International Fellowship provides students with the opportunity to pursue biomedical engineering or a closely related subject – such biomedical advances' policy implications – abroad. Students need not be bioengineers, but must have a demonstrated commitment to the field. The position is full-time, paid, and may be pursued in the summer or for a full year.
For global health opportunities in the summer, visit the summer programs page.
To request admissions materials, please visit the Request Information page.
Columbia University School of General Studies
408 Lewisohn Hall, MC 4101
gs-admit@columbia.edu


text:
Indianapolis colts 14 tampa bay buccaneers, 15 denver broncos
Las Vegas Raiders 13.
Pittsburgh Steelers 19.
43 in the DX mock and he'll probably have to return for his senior season.
At 5-foot-10 and 183 pounds, Vatanen is clear proof of that.
Khudobin's minor-league travels are, therefore, rather extensive: two teams in the East Coast Hockey League and four in the American Hockey League.
Begins with Indianapolis Colts vs.
is anchored by a TV spot that brings back Bob Segar's Old Time Rock 'N' Roll, this time with several Playboy Bunnies reenacting the classic Tom Cruise scene from plus a guest appearance by Hugh Hefner.
According to the bid submitted by Boston 2024, No tax dollars have been spent on Boston 2024, and tax dollars will not be used to build venues or pay for the operation of the Games.
Each afternoon , Strat-O-Matic plans to reveal the results, standings, statistics and key game highlights from that day's scheduled games.
Becky Lynch 7.
Alex Morgan 5.
Keisuke Honda 10.
• NBC Sports will present Football Week in America on NBCSN,, replaying memorable NBC games, March 30-April 5, NBCSN will present two games per night in primetime, On the three following Sunday nights in April, NBCSN will air one SNF game.
I bought the house sight unseen.
I do hope it all works out but I have many reservations.
It was the first significant injury of his playing career at any level.
It was good, Hernandez said.
About half of our guests describe themselves as 'non-golfers.' We appeal to people who are golfers, we appeal to people who want to learn the game and to people who want to have fun and experience somewhat what golf is about and come here with their friends.
• While it is on hiatus, the National Lacrosse League has unveiled two online content offerings: on NLL's YouTube Channel will replay complete games from the 2016 and 2017 seasons and a growing list of games from previous seasons.
According to the company, the NHL alliance builds on Discover's existing investment in hockey, giving extended opportunities to engage with U.S.
The purpose is to help improve the level of play on the field, take the skills they have learned and combine that with technology that can measure what an athlete is doing, what he doing correctly or not, and make them better players.
And, https://www.chicagoapparels.com/33-Jersey your scale at home, it will accurately measure all weight within a few decimal places.
Serena Williams 3.
It's a big adjustment for families, so I certainly understand it.
Los Angeles Chargers 7.
Carolina Panthers 8.
Kia will be on the concourse with a NBA-branded Kia Stinger and the Kia Rookie of the Year trophy.
New York Jets 12.
NBA commissioner Adam Silver said the move would generate approximately $100 million in revenue for the league.
NYSJ: JA: The way I would say it is, at the end of the day we are all P&G employees.
Naomi Osaka 4.
is an interview series hosted by Devan Kaney on NLL Facebook, Twitter,and Instagram channels.
Supreme Court heard arguments to decide the fate of the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, an Obama-era initiative the White House would like to scrap.


So what do I use? Well it's a mix of things really. My macro camera is a Canon 7D. I have used my 5D's (II & III) but personally I find the cropped sensor better for my setup. I do not use a dedicated macro lens as such but instead I use a mix of extension tubes, dioper lens / filters and and a reversing ring.
The Extension tubes I use are Kenko. These are nothing more than empty tubes that extend the distance between the lens and the camera while maintaining control over the lens. These will increase magnification to around 1:1 with a 50mm lens. They work pretty well with a standard 50mm lens but need a bit of a boost with the dioper lens if you want to really close up macro.
Here is a quick rundown on my basic setup.


Not only does this Datejust come with a yellow-gold case, but it also offers a rare and stunning onyx dial.
It is often forgotten that Rolex occasionally used precious hard stones in Datejusts and Day-Dates. These rare watches offer a totally different design, since the dial does not show any indexes aside from the applied crown logo at 12. Similarly, the handset does not present any lume, while the rectangular date window is framed in yellow gold. As with any vintage Rolex made in precious metals, the lugs are not drilled, which further makes this Datejust stand out. This is a stunning and unusual vintage Datejust will set you apart.
This watch is in great condition. First and foremost, the onyx dial does not show any cracks or blemishes. The yellow-gold handset shows no signs of oxidation, and the date disc is well preserved. This Datejust might not come with its original bracelet, but its case offers a nice thickness, especially on the non-drilled lugs. Lastly, the deep gold hallmarks below the lugs further prove that the watch was hardly polished, if ever.


Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductors that convert electrical energy into light energy. The color of the emitted light depends on the semiconductor material and composition, with LEDs generally classified into three wavelengths: ultraviolet, visible and infrared.
The wavelength range of commercially available LEDs with single-element output power of at least 5 mW is 360 to 950 nm. Each wavelength range is made from a specific semiconductor material family, regardless of the manufacturer. This article will provide an overview of the LED operation and a brief look at the industry. Various types of LEDs, the corresponding wavelengths, materials used in their composition and some applications for the specific lamps will also be discussed.
UV LEDs are specifically used for industrial curing applications, water disinfection and medical/biomedical uses. Power output levels greater than 100 mW have been achieved at wavelengths as short as 280 nm. The material primarily used for UV LEDs is gallium nitride/aluminum gallium nitride (GaN/AlGaN) at wavelengths 360 nm or longer. Shorter wavelengths utilize proprietary materials. While the market for wavelengths 360 nm and longer is stabilizing because of lower prices and plentiful suppliers, shorter wavelengths are manufactured by only a few suppliers, and the prices for these LEDs are still very high compared with the rest of the LED product offerings.
The material for this wavelength range of products is indium gallium nitride (InGaN). While it is technically possible to make a wavelength anywhere between 395 and 530 nm, most large suppliers concentrate on creating blue LEDs (450 to 475 nm) for producing white light with phosphors, and green LEDs in the 520- to 530-nm range for traffic signal green lighting. The technology for these LEDs is generally viewed as mature. Improvements in optical efficiency have slowed down or stopped over the last few years.
Aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) is the semiconductor material used for this wavelength range. It is predominately made in traffic signal yellow (590 nm) and traffic signal red (625 nm). The lime-green (or yellowish-green 565 nm) and orange (605 nm) are also available in this technology but have limited ability.
It is interesting to note that neither the InGaN nor AlInGaP technologies are available as a pure green (555 nm) emitter. Older, less efficient technologies do exist in this pure green region but are not considered efficient or bright. This is due largely to a lack of interest/demand from the marketplace and therefore a lack of funding to develop alternative material technologies for this wavelength region.
There are many variations on device structure in this region, but all use a form of aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) or gallium arsenide (GaAs) materials. Applications include infrared remote controls, night-vision illumination, industrial photocontrols and various medical applications (at 660–680 nm).
LEDs are semiconductor diodes that emit light when an electrical current is applied in the forward direction of the device – an electrical voltage that is large enough for the electrons to move across the depletion region and combine with a hole on the other side to create an electron-hole pair must be applied. As this occurs, the electron releases its energy in the form of light, and the result is an emitted photon.
The bandgap of the semiconductor determines the wavelength of emitted light. Shorter wavelengths equal greater energy, and therefore higher-bandgap materials emit shorter wavelengths. Higher-bandgap materials also require higher voltages for conduction. Short-wavelength UV-blue LEDs have a forward voltage of 3.5 V, while near-IR LEDs have a forward voltage of 1.5 to 2.0 V.
The overriding factor as to whether or not a specific wavelength is commercially available has to do with market potential, demand and industry-standard wavelengths. This is particularly pronounced in the 420- to 460-nm, 480- to 520-nm and the 680- to 800-nm regions. Because there are no high-volume applications for these wavelength ranges, there are no high-volume manufacturers providing LED products for these ranges. However, it is possible to find small- or medium-size suppliers offering products to fill these particular wavelengths on a custom basis.
Figure 1. The current value is found by applying the equation I = (Vcc − VF)/RL. To be absolutely certain of the current flow in the circuit, each LED VF would have to be measured and the appropriate load resistor specified. In practical commercial applications, Vcc is designed to be much larger than VF and thus the small changes in VF, do not affect the overall current by a large amount. The negative aspect of this circuit is a large power loss through RL.
Each material technology has a spot within the wavelength range where it is most efficient, and this point is very close to the middle of each range. As the doping level of the semiconductor increases or decreases from the optimal amount, efficiency suffers. That is why a blue LED has much greater output than green or near-UV, amber has more than yellow-green, and near-IR is better than 660 nm. When given a choice, it is much better to design for the center of the range than at the edges. It is also easier to procure products that do not fall close to the edges of the material technology.
While LEDs are semiconductors and need a minimum voltage to operate, they are still diodes and need to be operated in a current mode. There are two main ways to operate LEDs in DC mode: The easiest and most common is using a current-limiting resistor. The disadvantage to this method is the high heat and power dissipation in the resistor. For the current to be stable over temperature changes and from device to device, the supply voltage should be much greater than the forward voltage of the LED.
In applications where the operating temperature range is narrow (less than 30 °C) or the output of the LED is not critical, a simple circuit utilizing a current-limiting resistor may be used, as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 2. An example of an accurate and stable circuit. This circuit is commonly referred to as a constant current source. Note that the supply current is determined by the supply voltage (Vcc) minus Vin divided by R1, or (Vcc − Vin)/R1.
A better way to drive the LED is with a constant current source (Figure 2). This circuit will provide the same current from device to device and over temperature changes. It also has lower power dissipation than using a simple current-limiting resistor.
Commercial off-the-shelf LED drivers are available from a number of different sources. Typically these operate using pulse width modulation principles for brightness control.
Pulsing LEDs in high-current and/or high-voltage mode for arrays in a series-parallel configuration creates a unique set of problems. For the novice designer, it is not practical to design a current-controlled pulse drive with the capability to deliver 5 A and 20 V. There are a few manufacturers of specialty equipment for pulsing LEDs.
In applications where LEDs are being viewed directly or being used as illuminators, exact color is far more important than exact output in lumens or candela. The human eye is relatively insensitive to light intensity changes, and the brain compensates quite well for what intensity changes occur. For example, looking at an LED video screen on a building, the average person will not notice an intensity drop of 20 percent as portions of the screen are viewed at 10° to 20° degrees off-axis, as compared to the portion directly on-axis, as this is a gradual change moving toward the edge of vision and is not perceived. In contrast, if LEDs in one location are 10 nm different in wavelength than in other sections, the human eye will easily see this color difference and find it distracting.
The majority of white LEDs being used today are made from a blue LED pumping a longer wavelength visible phosphor. Color rendering index (CRI) is a measure of the spectral matching to sunlight. 100 is considered to be the same as sunlight and most LEDs used in general illumination today have a CRI greater than 80. The CRI improvements along with better optical efficiency have positioned white LEDs as the most desirable product for most illumination applications.
LEDs for monochromatic applications have huge advantages over filtered lamps – the wavelength spectra are better defined than what can be achieved with a white light source and filter. For general lighting applications, the energy savings can easily be 100 times the operating cost of using a filtered incandescent lamp. This creates huge dividends in applications such as architectural lighting and traffic signals. Low-power portable highway LED signage can easily be powered by a small solar panel instead of a large generator, offering a distinct advantage.
LEDs are more reliable than lasers, generally cost less and can be driven with lower-cost circuitry. The European Union has now joined with the U.S. in classifying LEDs as a separate entity. Fortunately, LEDs do not carry the same eye safety concerns or warnings that lasers and laser diodes do. On the other hand, LEDs cannot be made into extremely small, highly collimated and optically dense spots. In applications where extremely high power density within a small area is required, a laser is almost always required.
LEDs are now used in a large number of diverse markets and applications (Table 1). Their high reliability, high efficiency and lower overall system cost compared with lasers and lamps make these devices very affordable and attractive to both consumer and industrial segments. Each individual LED technology and/or color has been developed to address specific uses and requirements.
I have seen great articles like this http://911electronic.com/led-diode-construction-tutorial/ abut led diodes, but applications in your articles is great.