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Copyright © 2013 R. A. Street and G. Prinsloo. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
There is a growing interest in natural plant-based remedies as a source for commercial products. Around 80% of the South African population use traditional medicines to meet their primary health care needs; however, only a few South African medicinal plants have been exploited to their full potential in terms of commercialization. The opportunity for bioprospecting of plant compounds for novel pharmaceuticals remains largely untapped. Certain renowned medicinal plants of international acclaim including buchu and rooibos are currently contributing to local enterprise; however, other exciting opportunities exist for commonly used plants which have not yet reached the international arena. This paper focuses on the key research and development contributions of 10 commercially important medicinal plants of South Africa. Traditional uses, scientific validation, commercialisation developments, as well as both potential opportunities and setbacks are discussed.
Medicinal plants have been used for centuries, and numerous cultures still rely on indigenous medicinal plants for their primary health care needs [1, 2]. South Africa, a country with a strong history of traditional healing, hosts a variety of around 30,000 flowering plant species , accounting for almost 10% of the world's higher plant species . Medicinal plants are now universally recognised as the basis for a number of critical human health, social, and economic support systems and benefits . There has been a major resurgence in interest in traditionally used medicinal plants with a number of international and local initiatives actively exploring the botanical resources of southern Africa with the intention to screen indigenous plants for pharmacologically active compounds [2, 6]. Studies to determine the chemical profile and composition of medicinal plants reveal the complexity and variety of compounds all contributing to the various uses of plants in treating numerous aliments including life-threatening diseases such as HIV-AIDS, cancer, and diabetes. There is, however, a need for alternative supply of medicinal plant material as wild plants are under extreme pressure of increased demands for local and export markets. Wiersum et al.  reported that the intensive harvesting of wild medicinal plants due to the increasing use has in many places resulted in overexploitation and is a serious threat to biodiversity in the region. The only option for many species is cultivation at a large scale so that the wild species are maintained and become financial viable . This may also contribute to a growing economy and job creation for a developing country such as South Africa by researching and exploiting the chemical treasures contained in the floral kingdom. It is estimated that up to 700,000 tonnes of plant material is consumed annually to the value of about 150 million US dollars . Significant research and development opportunities exist to discover novel and useful biological activities for South African medicinal plants . The aim of this paper is to review 10 prominently used South African medicinal plants. Traditional uses, scientific validation, current commercialisation developments, as well as both potential opportunities and setbacks with regards to future research and development will be discussed.
Agathosma betulina (Berg.) pillans is a woody shrub, commonly known as Buchu . It is endemic to the Western Cape Cederburg region of South Africa and adapted to dry conditions and can be found on sunny hillsides of rocky-sandstone slopes . The Khoi-San word "Buchu" is used for any fragrant plant that could be dried and powdered and therefore did not refer to a single species, but today, "Buchu" refers to the species A. betulina (round-leaf buchu; "bergboegoe"; short buchu) and Agathosma crenulata (oval-leaf buchu; "anysboegoe"; long-leaf buchu) . Buchu plant material processed into buchu oil, buchu extract, dried buchu leaves, buchu water, and powdered buchu is not only used for medicinal and cosmetic purposes, but also as flavouring agents in the food industry . Buchu is highly sought after globally for its essential oils, especially since it contains high diosphenol and low pulegone content .
Buchu is an important plant in the Khoi-San tradition  and still enjoys a great reputation as a general health tonic, diuretic, and mild urinary antiseptic . The essential oil is a valuable flavour product and is probably responsible for the antispasmodic, antiseptic, and diuretic activities [13, 14]. Some medicinal uses of A. betulina include treatment as an antispasmodic, antipyretic, liniment, cough remedy, cold and flu remedy, diuretic, treatment of kidney and urinary tract infections, haematuria, prostatitis, cholera, stomach ailments, rheumatism, gout, bruises, calculus, and an antiseptic [15, 16]. Tinctures of buchu have a great reputation as general health tonics, treatment for stomach aches, use as aromatic bitters, diuretics, and mild urinary antiseptics . The San lubricated their bodies with aromatic plants mixed with fat to keep their skin soft and moist in the desert climate. The lubrication also served as an antibacterial and antifungal protectant, acted as an insect repellent, a deodorant, and to promote the general well-being of the body by uptake of the aromatic substances through the skin .
The composition of buchu has been well studied, and numerous compounds have been identified. The compounds identified in A. betulina mostly focused on the volatile fractions of the plant and included limonene, menthone, diosphenol, l-pulegone  with isomenthone, and diosphenol as the major volatile compounds [18, 19] responsible for the distinctive flavour but probably also for antispasmodic, antiseptic, and diuretic activities [12–14, 20]. The commercially important sulphur-containing compounds are a characteristic of A. betulina (cis and trans-8-mercapto-p-methan-3-one), and although these occur in small amounts, they are responsible for the characteristic organoleptic properties of the oil . No alkaloids have been found in A. betulina . Animicrobial activity, antioxidant activity, and anti-inflammatory activity have been demonstrated in A. betulina but showed weak antioxidant activity, with extracts having IC50 values >100 μg/mL . Extracts were active against all pathogens tested in a study by Moolla et al.  with greater activity towards the Gram-positive bacteria than the Gram-negative bacteria.
The extract of A. betulina was investigated by Moolla et al.  for toxicity and was found not to be toxic at IC50 values of up to 100 μg/mL, but with serial dilution, different degrees of cellular inhibition were displayed, and the samples proved to be toxic in a dose dependant manner.
Buchu has been wild harvested at least since 1820 and cultivated since the 1970s or perhaps even earlier . Until 1995, the only reliable source of buchu material was from plants growing in the wild. Diminished habitat, increased commercial demand, destructive wild harvesting practices, and growing genetic vulnerability to natural disasters are all serious threats to sustainable supply of buchu and survival of genetic material in the wild . Recent efforts in crop development have resulted in buchu now being a viable option for small-scale farming . However, cultivation of buchu as a commercial crop is not yet developed, and several research questions need to be addressed to supply the demand of buchu with cultivated material . Incorrect cutting procedures, over harvesting, and poor harvesting regimes inhibit buchu plants from producing seed for its next generation. Frequent fires, invasive alien plants, structural development, and increasing agricultural practices are all contributing to declining populations of buchu in their natural environment . Buchu is a high value crop where fresh plant material currently sells for R35/kg. Approximately 20,000 plants can be planted per hectare, and the oil yield is approximately one percent, depending on the water status of the plant at harvesting. Global production of buchu essential oil falls into the category of 1–50 tonnes and is classified as one of the top 20 in this class . Moolla and Viljoen  reported that the oil sells on the international market for about 700 Euros per kilogram, and buchu seed sells for R20 000 per kilogram, and Lubbe and Verpoorte  reported the price of buchu at $56/kg for cultivated material. These economic figures make cultivation of buchu very attractive and an excellent crop to provide an income for small-scale farmers with small quantities of land available for cultivation. Buchu is harvested by hand, and since no mechanical equipment is used, it can significantly contribute to job creation and sustainable income generation in South Africa .
Aloe ferox (Mill.), commonly known as Cape Aloe or bitter Aloe, is a single-stemmed, robust aloe reaching a height of around 10 m tall. The broad, succulent leaves reach around 1 m in length. "Ferox" meaning "ferocious" refers to the thorny sharp red-brownish spines on the leaves . Bright red or orange flowers are produced between May and August, and the rich nectar attracts numerous insects and birds . Although A. ferox has an extensive distribution in South Africa, it is largely concentrated along the eastern parts .
Aloe ferox is highly regarded for its laxative properties . The leaf is traditionally used for skin and hair treatments . Cut leaves are applied directly to burns, insect bites, sores, and sunburn . Leaf and stem decoctions are used as emetics, whilst leaves and roots are boiled in water and taken for hypertension and stress . Traditional preparations are also used for arthritis, conjunctivitis, toothaches, sinusitis, and stomach pains .
The Cape Aloe leaf can be divided into two main portions: the external green rind and the internal clear pulp. The major components in fresh aloe bitters of the green rind are aloeresin A, aloein, and aloin, representing 70%–97% of total dry weight in a ratio of approximately 4 : 3 : 2, respectively . The phytochemistry of A. ferox has been comprehensively studied, and numerous classes of compounds have been isolated including chromones, anthraquinones, anthrones, anthrone-C-glycosides, and other phenolic compounds (for a detailed review, see Chen et al. ). A study on the chemical composition of volatile constituents from the leaves of A. ferox identified 21 compounds, representing more than 99.99% of the essential oil . The most abundant components of the volatile compounds included 3, 6 octatriene (23.86%), 3-cyclohexane-1-hetanol (7.31%), bornylene (5.24%), 1, 3-cyclopentadiene (4.07%), and 5-methyl-3-heptanol (3.92%). Scientific studies have verified numerous traditional uses such as laxative effects  and antioxidant , anti-inflammatory [32, 33], antimicrobial , anthelmintic , and anticancer  properties. Using the low-dose streptozotocin diabetes rat model, recent studies have shown promise of A. ferox in treating diabetes .
Preparation of A. ferox is generally considered safe; however, adverse effects such as hypersensitivity have been described . It is advised that preparations should be avoided during pregnancy .
Aloe ferox was first exported to Europe in 1761 and today is considered South Africa's main wild-harvested commercially traded species . The selection of high-yielding sources, with total aloin levels above 25%, is recommended for commercial cultivation . Apart from its medicinal applications, owing to the gels richness in minerals, amino acids, vitamins, and trace elements, it is extensively used in the cosmetic industry too . The industry yields some 400 tonnes of dried leaf exudate per annum from the leaves of around 10 million plants  with the worth to small-scale rural harvesters in the region of R12–15 million per year . Although there is a high harvesting pressure on this species, leaf harvesting can be done sustainably with minimal risk to plant survival . None the less, possible size classes on which harvesting should be discouraged include the small, prereproductive individuals and individuals taller than 2.5 m which are too tall to be harvested by hand . In South Africa, the A. ferox industry is covered by topical legislative developments in bioprospecting, access, and benefit sharing regulations within the National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act . As the industry expands, the potential of the A. ferox to bring economic gains to underprivileged rural areas has been acknowledged, but success will depend on effective policy governing access to the resource and vigilant sustainability management .
Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) Dahlg. produces the well-known herbal tea, called rooibos, also known as the long-life tea in Africa , and is endemic to the South African fynbos species . Rooibos tea has become a popular herbal tea with a growing reputation of having important health benefits, including antispasmodic, antioxidant, antiageing, and antieczema activities [4, 10, 15, 45, 46]. The characteristic sensory quality of rooibos infusions is described as a mixture of honey, woody, and herbal-floral flavours with a slightly sweet taste and a subtle astringent mouthfeel . Other flavours include caramel and a sweet-associated fruity flavour and sometimes off-taints such as grassy, hay-like, and musty/dusty notes and a slightly bitter or sour taste in poor quality tea . Rooibos is exported to the East and Europe  and is currently sold in more than 37 countries with Germany, The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Japan, and the United States of America representing 86% of the export market in 2010. The popularity of rooibos can be ascribed to its health-promoting properties, no harmful stimulants, as well as the lower tannin content when compared to black tea (Camellia sinensis) [10, 49].
Rooibos is a traditional beverage of the Khoi-descended people of the Cape. The Khoi crudely processed it by cutting, bruising, fermenting, and drying the twigs and leaves . The first person to realise the commercial potential of rooibos as a herbal tea was Benjamin Ginsberg, a merchant of Clanwilliam, who started marketing it in 1904. It was, however, only by 1930 that the agricultural value of rooibos was recognised by a medical practitioner and nature lover, P. Le Fras Nortier of Clanwilliam . African women take rooibos during pregnancy to relieve heartburn and nausea; they take it for its iron content, and they give it to their babies for colic relief and as a milk substitute for infants . Rooibos is gaining acclaim for its vitamin, mineral, and antioxidant content and taste. It has become popular as a health drink because of the absence of caffeine or other stimulants and its properties to relieve digestive troubles and antispasmodic properties [10, 44].
Due to the commercial importance and health benefits ascribed to rooibos, the plant has been significantly studied especially related to its antispasmodic, antioxidant, antiageing, and antieczema activities [4, 10, 15, 45, 46]. Rooibos is known as a caffeine-free herbal tea, although traces of the alkaloid sparteine have been reported . Rooibos contains two unique phenolic compounds, namely, aspalathin , a dihydrochalcone C-glucoside, and aspalalinin , a cyclic dihydrochalcone. Aspalathin and nothofagin, the major rooibos flavonoids, anti-spasmodic only showed moderate antimutagenic effects. The flavonoids quercetin and isoquercitrin have shown mutagenic and promutagenic activity as well as comutagenic and antimutagenic properties in a study by Snijman et al. . Furthermore, aspalathin and nothofagin and their structural flavonoid analogues displayed moderate antimutagenic properties. Compounds such as luteolin and chrysoeriol exhibit similar activity to those of the green tea flavonoid (−) epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG). Rooibos is well known for its antioxidant activity which also relates to its hepatoprotective properties  and immune modulating effect in stimulating antibody production . Antimicrobial effects against several bacteria have been demonstrated in a study by Scheepers et al. . Rooibos consumption has also shown to be relevant to heart disease as it significantly improves the lipid profile as well as redox status by modulating the serum lipid profile significantly by decreasing the triacylglycerol and LDL-cholesterol levels and increasing the HDL-cholesterol level . Very little information is available on the structure of the tannins from rooibos tea, but the dimer, procyanidin B3, the trimer, bisfisetinidol bisfisetinidol-(4β,6:4β,8)-catechin, and a pentamer have been identified . Other major phenolic compounds present in rooibos include flavones (orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin, luteolin, and chrysoeriol), flavanones (dihydro-orientin, dihydro-isoorientin, and hemiphlorin), and flavonols (quercetin, hyperoside, isoquercitrin, and rutin) [52, 57–60]. Phenolic acids, lignans, flavone diglycosides, (+)-catechin, a phenylpyruvic acid glycoside, the flavonol quercetin-3-O-robinobioside, and the coumarins, esculetin and esculin have also been identified [52, 61–64].
Since rooibos has gained popularity as a health beverage, no toxicological studies have been done. A number of studies have addressed aspects of safety and toxicity of rooibos [46, 49]. Although some compounds in rooibos have been shown to contain mutagenic properties , it is, however, very unlikely that the mutagenic effect of rooibos would be relevant to tea drinkers when considering the quantities consumed . It has also been demonstrated that chronic consumption of aqueous extracts of unfermented and fermented rooibos by rats over a period of 10 weeks did not cause any adverse effects in the liver and kidney .
Rooibos tea is a traditional beverage of the Khoi-descended people of the Clanwilliam region in the Cape and is one of only a few indigenous plants of South Africa that have become an important commercial crop . The first attempts at rooibos cultivation were in the early 1930s, but it was only after World War II that commercial cultivation started in earnest. Cultivation occurs mainly in the Cederberg mountain region but extends to areas as far as Darling and Nieuwoudtville . Seedlings are used to propagate the plants, leading to large phonological, and genetic variation in the cultivated plants . It has also been demonstrated by Koch et al.  in the sensory attributes among rooibos samples from different regions. The plants are topped to a height of 30 cm after 8 months to stimulate branching, but full production is only realised after 3 years . Growing participation of other farmers in rooibos production and increased demand over the years expanded the area under cultivation to 36,000 ha with production mainly concentrated in the Clanwilliam area . Only the so called red type or Rocklands type is cultivated, but there is a renewed interest in harvesting some of the wild types for niche markets and fair trade networks . The red type is divided into the selected, improved Nortier type and the Cederberg type (wild-growing). The latter type has broader and coarser leaves than the Nortier type . Wild rooibos regained prominence as a source of income in recent years. Small-scale producer organisations in the Cederberg (Wupperthal) and Southern Bokkeveld (Heiveld) supply wild-harvested rooibos under organic and fair trade certification to niche markets abroad . Wild rooibos comprises about 2%–5% of the annual production of 40 tons rooibos by the Heiveld Cooperative . Wupperthal's production of wild-harvested rooibos is approximately 10 tons . The market for rooibos showed a steady increase over the years from 5633 tons in 2010 compared to 750 tons in 1993 . By 2010, sales of rooibos have reached more than 5000 tons with an estimated retail sales value of R429 million . Annual production from plantations has reached 20000 tonnes per annum, and export volumes now exceed local consumption .
Harpagophytum procumbens (DC. ex Meisn.) is a perennial herb native to countries within the southern African continent such as Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa . The weedy plant has grey/green leaves with yellow and violet or uniformly dark tubular flowers . The vernacular name, devils claw, is derived from its fruit which are covered in small claw-like protrusions . Originally, these were considered an irritation to beef farmers as the fruit can cripple an animal if lodged on its feet, but this also encourages seed dispersal .
The part used medicinally is the water-storing secondary tuberous roots which are formed in order to survive the dry seasons encountered in the sub-Saharan regions . The plant is commonly used to treat rheumatism, arthritis, diabetes, gastrointestinal, disturbances, menstrual difficulties, neuralgia, headache, heartburn, and gout [10, 72] in the form of infusions, decoctions, tinctures, powders, and extracts . While infusions and decoctions are the most central traditional methods of preparation, the alleged main active principles in the plant are prone to hydrolysis .
The activity of H. procumbens has been attributed to iridoid glycosides, mainly harpagoside (0.5% to 3%), with lesser amounts of harpagide and procumbide . Though the phytochemistry of this plant has been well researched, there is a scantiness of information on the additive or synergistic effects of the chief compounds . Scientific studies of the biological activity of H. procumbens affirm traditional uses including analgesic, antioxidant, antidiabetic, antiepileptic, and antimalarial properties—for an extensive up-to-date review, see Mncwangi et al. .
The therapeutic effect appears to be derived only for the whole extract as separate components show little to no advantageous effects . From numerous in vitro and ex vivo studies, it is clear that H. procumbens has noteworthy effects on numerous proinflammatory markers [73, 74]; however, the exact mechanism(s) of action responsible for the anti-inflammatory/analgesic actions remain elusive [70, 71]. A recent hypothesis is that H. procumbens inhibits induction of proinflammatory gene expression, perchance by blocking the AP-1 pathway . The hydrolysed products of the harpagide and harpagoside have significant anti-inflammatory activity when compared to the unhydrolysed compounds . Dosage of H. procumbens root extract used in clinical trials in low back pain typically ranges from 2 to 4.5 mg daily corresponding to around 30–100 mg harpogaside .
The clinical trials conducted to date offer support regarding H. procumbens as a beneficial treatment for the alleviation of pain and improvement of mobility in a range of musculoskeletal conditions, either as a singular therapy or as an adjunct . However, a systematic review on the safety of Harpagophytum preparations for osteoarthritic and low back pain revealed adverse events (mainly gastrointestinal) during treatment . To date, there are no reports on negative interactions with conventional drugs ordinarily used for rheumatoid arthrosic conditions thereby supporting the utilization of H. procumbens as an adjunct therapy for these complaints . Although there are no reports on chronic toxicity, more safety data are urgently needed to assure the safety of Harpagophytum use, particularly long term . In light of possible cardio activity, it is not recommended for long periods of time . Owing to the lack of data regarding the effect of H. procumbens during pregnancy and lactation, it should be avoided .
Harpagophytum procumbens is traded under the pharmaceutical name of Harpagophyti radix . Harpagophytum spp. products are mostly registered as a herbal medicine in France and Germany or as a food supplement in the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, the United States, and the Far East. In the European Pharmacopoeia, common standards for the composition and preparation of H. procumbens substances are described with the aim of quality assurance . The harpagoside content of commercial extracts ranges from 0.8% to 2.3% . The total trade for all southern African countries is about 700 tonnes per annum, with the largest portion of the world's supply emanating from Namibia . Main importing nations are European counties, Japan, the USA, and Venezuela . The governments of the main range states (Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa) have developed policies and regulations in an attempt to protect the species and to determine a sustainable harvest .
Hypoxis hemerocallidea, commonly known as African potato, Ilabatheka, Inkomfe, sterretjie, or starflowers, is a genus of the family Hypoxidaceae [80, 81]. In South Africa, the genus is distributed in five provinces, namely, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and Gauteng but is also found in Lesotho, Swaziland, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe [81–83]. Medicinally, the African potato has been used by different cultures for many ailments such as bad dreams, cardiac diseases, impotency, apprehension, barrenness, and intestinal parasites, and today it is even used for cancer, headaches, dizziness, as an immune booster, testicular cancer, prostate hypertrophy, burns, and ulcers .
A number of medicinal properties have been assigned to the use of H. hemerocallidea and is therefore traded in large numbers at medicinal markets. Hypoxis has been used traditionally for benign protatic hypertrophy and urinary tract infections and as a laxative and vermifuge . The corm of the plant has been used in folk medicine to treat a variety of diseases which include common cold, flu, hypertension, adult-onset diabetes, psoriasis, urinary infections, testicular tumours, prostate hypertrophy, HIV/AIDS and some central nervous system disorders, anticancer, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory treatment. The cultural uses of Hypoxis include charm against lightning, thunder, and storms and also as an emetic for fearful dreams. The decoction of other species of Hypoxis is recorded as being used as a steam bath against venereal diseases such as lice [10, 84–86]. Other traditional uses include treatment of ailments such as asthma, tuberculosis, urinary tract infection, headache, heart weakness, dizziness, duodenal and gastric ulcers, internal cancer tumours, and some central nervous system ailments, specially epilepsy [10, 38, 87].
The uses of this plant can probably be attributed to a few of the medicinal compounds found in the plant of which hypoxoside, sitosterol, and its aglycone derivative rooperol are probably the most well-known compounds . Hypoxoside is the trivial name for (E)-1,5 bis(4′-B-D-glucopyranossyloxy-3′-hydroxyphenyl)pent-1-en-4-yne which is a norlignan diglucoside isolated from the rootstock of the family Hypoxidaceae. In addition to hypoxoside and rooperol, the rootstocks are reported to contain β-sitosterols, sterol, monterpene glycosides, stanols, and stigmastanols . The result of the chemical analysis of H. hemerocallidea showed that the species have different classes of secondary metabolites, namely, glycosides, polyphenols, saponnins, steroids, and tannins . The rootstock of H. hemerocallidea has yielded three cytokinins, identified as zeatin, zeatin riboside, and zeatin glucoside . The high concentration of phytosterols such as β-sitosterols has proven to be effective against benign prostate hypertrophy , and a strong decoction of the rootstocks is also used as purgatives . Rooperol may be obtained by treating hypoxoside with a β-glucosidase to remove the attached glucose groups. β-glucosidase is an enzyme found predominantly in the gastrointestinal tract . According to Ojewole , the findings of the experimental animal study indicate that H. hemerocallidea corm aqueous extract possesses anti-inflammatory and antidiabetic properties in the mammalian laboratories animal models used. The rootstock may be useful in the management of adult onset, noninsulin-dependent, type 2, diabetes mellitus .
It was shown conclusively that Hypoxis extracts (45% hypoxoside) are not toxic . In a later paper, the possible treatment of certain malignancies and HIV-infection with hypoxoside as a putative, nontoxic prodrug is mentioned . The extracts and its bioactive compound hypoxoside have not exhibited toxicity in several clinical or toxicity studies [84, 91].
H. hemerocallidea is an important plant species in traditional medicine in southern Africa, and the use of the corms is so popular that the species is threatened by overharvesting . H. hemerocallidea was found to be one of the top 10 most frequently sold plant species with approximately 11000 kg/year sold valued at R322 500 . The importance of this plant in traditional medicine and the potential importance in the pharmaceutical industry necessitate an efficient means of propagating these plants . Apart from traditional plant usage, it is also exported to the East and Europe , which contributes to the need for sustainable supply. The plant grows easily and in a wide range of environments but is extremely difficult to propagate in large quantities. A considerable amount of work has already been done on tissue culture and seed germination [94, 96–99] but without resolving a method which can supply the market with the material needed at a reasonable cost.
Merwilla natalensis (Planch.) Speta, also known as Scilla natalensis planch, Merwilla plumbea (Lindl.) is indigenous to South Africa and is distributed throughout the eastern part of South Africa including Lesotho, KwaZulu-Natal, Free-State, Swaziland, and the Northern Province . Merwilla natalensis is traditionally known as "inguduza" which means "searching the body for the cause of the ailment" . The extracts of the bulb are known for their antibacterial, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, and antischistosomal medicinal activity and use as ointment for wounds, scarifications, as a laxative, and as an enema . Merwilla is sought after for its traditional and medicinal properties to such an extent that there is a risk of extinction .
Merwilla natalensis is used traditionally by various cultures such as the Zulu, Tswana, Swati, and Sotho speaking people in South Africa. The bulb is used traditionally in Africa amongst others for gastrointestinal ailments, sprains and fractures, tumours (cancerous), menstrual pains, infertility, and to support the process in woman to deliver their babies . Cooked bulbs are eaten together with other food by the southern Sotho ethnic people that believed that it treats "internal tumors" . Tswana ethnic people rub the powdered bulb onto their back joints to improve their power and spirit. It has also been administered to treat internal tumors, lumps, or other cancerous or noncancerous swellings by purgatives or an enema [10, 15]. Swati ethnic people use boiled water extracts of the bulbs for the treatment of sprains, boils, fractures, and veld sores . Gynaecologically, extracts of Merwilla assist in delivery and relief of menstrual pains (amenorrhea). A decoction of the bulbs is known to be taken as enemas for the fertility of women and to boost libido and potency of men. The decoctions are usually made by boiling the bulb in milk or water [10, 104]. Although the sap released from the plant can burn the skin of humans, ointment is prepared via the decoction method from fresh bulb scales as well as burnt scales to treat external wounds, boils, abscesses, and fractures. The ashes of the burnt plant are rubbed into cuts and scratches for relief .
Numerous studies support the use of the plant for treatment of the previously mentioned ailments. The bulb extracts have shown antibacterial, antischistosomal, anti-inflammatory, and anthelmintic activity in studies by Sparg et al. [100, 103]. The ethanol extracts showed the best activity against several bacteria , and the leaf extracts show anticandidal activity with a MIC of <1 mg/mL only in spring and autumn, whereas the bulb extracts have a MIC of >1 mg/mL in all seasons . The pharmacological active compounds from the bulbs of Merwilla can act against gastrointestinal ailments such as diarrhoea, intestinal worms, constipation, nausea, and stomach aches . Good activity against nematodes of M. natalensis extracts was observed where the ethanolic extract killed 50% of the nematodes, dichloromethane, and hexane extracts (40%), and water extracts (30%) . M. natalensis is considered as a soap plant due to its content of saponins which produce foam once in contact with an aqueous solution. The phytochemical screening of M. natalensis bulbs revealed the presence of saponins and bufadienolides within the bulbs . Hyacinthaceae species are known to contain cardiac glycosides being confirmed by a study by Kellermen et al. . Antimony (III) chloride (SbCl3) reagent was used to identify cardiac glycosides, specifically the bufadienolide type with a high probability of Proscillaridin A to be present in M. natalensis bulbs . Most of the Hyacinthaceae species also contain homoisoflavanones, which possess antibacterial activity [108, 109]. Homoisoflavanones were also detected in M. natalensis by Crouch et al. , and this is one of the components that are responsible for the anti-inflammatory properties . The dichloromethane and hexane extracts of M. natalensis resulted in good inhibition against both COX-1 and COX-2, but the aqueous and ethanolic extracts showed no noteworthy activity . In the study by Du Toit et al. , homoisoflavonones show good activity against Staphylococcus aureus. The simple structure of homoisoflavanones consists of chromane, chromanone, or chromone together with a benzylidene or benzyl group that is attached to the third position of a 16-carbon skeleton [109, 111]. Poor antibacterial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria was, however, shown with M. natalensis extracts . The storage of the bulb did not have any negative influence on the antibacterial activity of the extracts but actually increased the activity . Sparg et al.  confirmed that there are no alkaloids present in M. natalensis. Other chemical compounds that are present in M. natalensis are five types of nortriterpenoids, one bisnortriterpenoids, and one trisnorterpenoid. Ethanolic extracts had the highest inhibitory effect against nematodes in the anthelmintic assays, and the aqueous extracts of both dry and fresh bulbs showed extremely good activity against Schistosoma haematobium .
With the powerful components that are present in the plant, it can be used as a medicinal plant, but precaution must be taken as it can be toxic. Since cytotoxicity was found, it was suggested that care should be taken when used internally . The toxic cardiac glycoside transvaalin was showed to be the same compound as scillaren A which is found in similar species related to M. natalensis  but should still be demonstrated in M. natalensis . No genotoxic effects were found, however, in a study by Elgorashi et al. , using the Ames and VITOTOX tests. Genotoxicity was, however, found by Fennell et al. , using the micronucleus test where structural and chromosome aberrations were observed. It was also found by Sparg et al.  that M. natalansis is extremely toxic to VK cells with morphological changes, cell death, and severe cytotoxicity observed at all concentrations tested.
Merwilla natalensis is classified as a vulnerable species and therefore included in the red data list . For the reason that M. natalensis bulbs are in high demand to support the use of medicinal and traditional use, M. natalensisis is recommended for cultivation . In order to protect the plant from extinction, the supply of Merwilla plants need to be higher than the demand. Slow-growing bulbous and tuberous plants, which are frequently used in traditional Zulu medicine, represent another group of plants that are particularly threatened by overexploitation and recognized by the healers as becoming scarce . Again, the main problem is the destructive harvesting of the underground parts of these plants or even the plant as a whole . The bulbs of Merwilla take 15 years to get to its most preferable size . Merwilla natalensis is one of the cheapest plants per kilogram (R 6.50/kg) , and in 2006, 2.1 million bulbs of Merwilla were sold in and around Johannesburg and Durban to the value of R3.87 million . It is extremely easy to cultivate since the plant produces numerous seeds which can be easily germinated with a high survival of the seedlings. Seed propagation is therefore preferred as the most effective method for cultivation . Care should be taken in ensuring quality of cultivated material as reduction in some biological activity was found when cultivated under irrigation .
The taxonomic classification of Pelargonium species is noted with some difficulty hence the numerous revisions in the past. Nonetheless, the genus Pelargonium is highly esteemed by traditional healers for its therapeutic and palliative effects in the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders . Pelargonium sidoides DC. is native to the coastline regions of South Africa and Lesotho . The small perennial herb has long-stalked leaves which are slightly aromatic, heart-shaped, and velvety. The characteristic dark, reddish-purple tubular flowers are present throughout most of the year but occur most frequently from late spring to summer [2, 121]. In the early 20th century, Charles Henry Stevens was treated in South Africa by a traditional health practitioner who claimed that he cured his tuberculosis with a natural remedy containing P. sidoides. "Umckaloabo" is the name used by Stevens for his tuberculosis medicine, a name that still persists today. The term "Umckaloabo" may actually be an origination of Stevens, based on South African languages, intended to create an enigmatic image for his remedy to increase its marketability. In the first half of the 20th century, a product made from the root was used in Europe to treat tuberculosis . A summary of the fascinating history of the commercial development of "Umckaloabo" in Europe is presented in Brendler and van Wyk .
Although a modern aqueous-ethanolic formulation of P. sidoides extracts (EPs 7630) is an efficacious treatment for disorders of the respiratory tract, the traditional uses mainly involve disorders of the gastrointestinal tract [120, 122]. The fleshy, bright red rhizomes or tubers of P. sidoides are used predominantly to treat diarrhoea and dysentery [15, 122]. In fact tannin-containing plant remedies are traditionally used to treat diarrhea . Kalwerbossie is a local name used for P. sidoides because the plants were traditionally used as a remedy for worms in calves (kalwers) . In the eastern Cape, the crushed roots of P. sidoides are mixed with water after which a teaspoon is given orally to infants with upset stomachs .
According to a comprehensive review of the chemical constituents of P. sidoides by Kolodziej , the extreme involvedness of the metabolites in P. sidoides is reflected by the occurrence of abundant coumarins, coumarin glycosides, coumarin sulphates, flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, phenolic acids, and phenylpropanoid derivatives. The antibacterial and antiviral properties are accredited to gallic acids and other phenolic compounds, while the immunomodulatory activity is alleged to be due to a combination of phenolic compounds and the numerous coumarins . A systematic review and meta-analysis regarding the use of P. sidoides to treat acute bronchitis concluded that there is encouraging evidence from currently available data indicating that P. sidoides is effective compared to placebo for patients with acute bronchitis . Despite the commercial interest in P. sidoides, few studies have been conducted to document the phytochemical variation for natural populations .
A total of 18 clinical trials have thus far been conducted, several of which were randomised, double-blind, and placebo-controlled. Overall safety and a very low incidence of side effects were confirmed . Recent reports () of primarily assumed hepatotoxicity in connection with the use of P. sidoides have been interpreted by the Drug Commission of the German Medical Association (DCGMA). After analysis of these reports, Teschke et al.  concluded that there is little if any conclusive evidence and that assessments of these cases do not fulfil essential criteria required to propose the existence of P. sidoides hepatotoxicity.
Since the 1990s, a prodelphinidin-rich ethanolic extract, made from the tuberous roots of P. sidoides called EPs 7630 (Umckaloabo), licensed to treat respiratory tract infections such as acute bronchitis, has become one of the most successful phytomedicines in the world [20, 128]. The annual sales in Germany alone exceed € 80 million . A preparation of P. sidoides mother tincture is marketed in Ukraine, Russia, and Latvia as Umkalor . Proprietary extracts of P. sidoides and their preparations as well as the use thereof are currently protected by seven patents worldwide . Most of the plant material used is still being wild harvested by locals from rural communities in South Africa . Official annual harvest data are not available but are estimated to be between 9,00 kg and 45,000 kg .
The name Sclerocarya is derived from the Greek word for hard (skleros) and nut (karyon) . Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. subsp. caffra, also known as marula, is widely distributed in northern and western parts of Africa, but only the subspecies caffra is found in southern Africa . Owing to its ability to provide two fundamental needs, namely, food and medicine , S. birrea is also referred to as the "tree of life" and is one of the most important trees of the southern African region. It is regarded sacred and protected in communal lands under the local chiefs . Marula is a medium-sized deciduous tree of up to 15 meters in height with the male and female flowers habitually appearing on separate trees. The flowers are small, with red sepals and yellow petals . The fruit, which averages around 20–30 g, is yellow when ripe with a white juicy flesh which clings to a hard stone, inside which are 2-3 seeds . It is considered a drought-tolerant medicinal plant species with potential role in land rehabilitation .
Various cultures have utilized different plants of S. birrea to manage, control, and/or treat numerous ailments. For example, the bark is used to treat dysentery and diarrhea, rheumatism, and insect bites [2, 15] and is believed to be a cure for malaria and proctitis . Essence from the leaves is said to provide relief from abscesses, burns and spider bites, whilst the marula oil is used as a balm to treat ear, nose, and throat conditions . The fruit is used for the destruction of ticks . It is interesting to note that leaves are predominantly used in Namibia where it is believed that the medicinal powers of male trees are greater than those of female trees, whereas the marula bark is more important in South Africa .
The fruits of S. birrea are rich in ascorbic acid (168 mg/100 g) , and the fruit juice contains sesquiterpene hydrocarbons including caryophyllene, α-humulene, and copaene . The fruit kernels contain high amounts of oil (47 mg/g dry weight mostly due to oleic acid), protein (36.4% dry weight), and are a good source of minerals (Cu, Mg, and Zn at 24.8, 4210, and 62.4 μg/g dry weight, resp.) . The oil-rich seeds contain oleic, myristic, and stearic fatty acids and different types of amino acids, with a predominance of glutamic acid and arginine. However, when compared with the World Health Organization protein standard, the seeds contain low proportions of several of the essential amino acids, including leucine, lysine, the phenylalanine/tyrosine pair, and threonine . The bark yields 5.5%–20.5% tannin and 10.7% tannin matter . Numerous in vitro and in vivo studies to confirm biological activity include antidiarrheal, anti-inflammatory, antimalarial, antimicrobial, antiplasmodial, antihypertensive, anticonvulsant, antinociceptive, and antioxidant investigations which have been undertaken to verify traditional use of various plant parts [136–139]. It is suggested that S. Birrea stem bark extracts exert reno- and cardio-protective effects in diabetes mellitus . Bark and leaf ethanolic extracts tested for antimicrobial activity ranged from 0.15 to 3 mg/mL . Based on minimum inhibitory concentration values, inner bark extracts tended to be the most potent followed by outer bark and then the leaf extracts. Marula stem bark is shown to have exhibited high in vitro and in vivo (mouse model) antimalarial properties .
In vitro and in vivo toxicity studies of various S. birrea plant parts have shown conflicting results [141, 142]. A recent study on the effect of marula juice on albino rats has indicated that the marula juice may have an effect on liver and kidney functions at high dose .
All parts of the marula tree can be used, making it one of the most valuable cultural and economic resources in southern Africa . Its potential to generate cash income makes it a principally significant tree species which deserves more consideration in terms of utilization . Marula has acquired significant commercial prominence since its fruits and other products entered local, regional, and international trade in the Southern Africa region; however, there are no reports on commercialization of the species in East and Central regions of Africa . In 1985, it was reported that 600 tonnes of juice was produced in South Africa alone . Numerous small enterprises in southern Africa produce Marula jam and jellies .
The only product which has realised its full export potential is Amarula Cream. A marula cosmetic extract has been patented by Phytotrade in conjunction with Aldivia, a French company . There is a threat that commercialisation of S. birrea will lead to the increased "privatisation" and the marginalization of certain groups from due benefits, or that commercialization will draw resources into trade and away from important subsistence uses .
Siphonochilus aethiopicus (Schweinf.) B. L. Burtt is commonly known as wild ginger or African ginger, with a restricted distribution in South Africa where it is only found in Mpumalanga and the Northern Province and has become extinct in KwaZulu-Natal . It also grows in Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Zambia. Wild ginger is regarded as one of the most important medicinal plant species of South Africa . The rhizomes and roots are used for a variety of ailments, including coughs, colds, asthma, headache, candida, malaria, and influenza, but also for hysteria, pain and several other traditional and cultural practices [10, 15, 38, 147]. Wild ginger is the main commercial species that is relatively known as a result of its popularity in traditional medicine and concerns about its conservation status .
Wild ginger is one of the most important medicinal species with a long history of traditional use and one of the most popular of all traditional medicinal plants of southern Africa . Wild ginger in South Africa is regarded as one of the most traded species and consequently has become overexploited and is now rare or extinct in the wild . The increasing demand for this plant is leading to serious overharvesting from the wild and presents an opportunity for potentially profitable cultivation. The rhizomes are chewed fresh to treat asthma, hysteria, cold, flu, coughs, pain relief, dysmenorrhea, influenza, hysteria, as well as to treat malaria and also chewed by women during menstruation . The highly aromatic roots have been reported to be used by Zulu people as a protection against lightning .
Since S. aethiopicus is one of the most important medicinal plants in South Africa, much attention has been paid to the chemistry and biological activity of the plant. Studies revealed the healing properties of the rhizomes and roots for a variety of ailments including coughs, colds, asthma, headache, candida, and malaria [4, 15]. More recently, the application of the sesquiterpenoid siphonochilone and extracts containing siphonochilone from S. aethiopicus have been patented for application of the anti-inflammatory activities in formulations treating asthma and allergic conditions . Two new furanoterpenoid derivatives, namely, 4aaH-3,5a,8ab-trimethyl-4,4a,9-tetrahydro-naphtho[2,3-b]-furan-8-one and 2-hydroxy-4aaH-3,5a,8ab-trimethyl-4,4a,9-tetrahydronaphtho[2,3-b]-furan-8-one, were also isolated from S. aethiopicus [10, 149, 150]. It is widely used in the treatment of pain and inflammation . The composition of the essential oil was described by Viljoen et al. .
Siphonochilus aethiopicus was found to cause DNA damage as detected in the comet assay which raised some concern for the use of the plant . It was expressed by Fennell et al.  that prescription of this plant for the treatment of ailments should be treated with caution, and rigorous toxicological and clinical studies are necessary before they are widely prescribed for use in traditional medicine as they can cause damage to the DNA and might therefore have long-term effects on the body.
In 1993, African ginger was identified as one of the South African species with commercial production potential as it is in high demand and short supply . It is often quoted as being locally extinct in some parts of South Africa as a result of overexploitation [117, 148]. As more plants are harvested and overexploited for financial gain, the need for genetic conservation of medicinal plants is emphasized as more of the wild populations are facing extinction . In a study by Mander , it was estimated that 1.9 tonnes of African ginger totalling a number of 52,000 plants is traded annually in KwaZulu-Natal. The current situation necessitates an alternative supply of medicinal plant material to meet demand. The only option for many species is cultivation at a large scale so that the wild species are maintained and become financial viable . S. aethiopicus is easy to propagate and cultivate and successfully cultivated in the warm parts of South Africa . Vegetative propagation is the preferred method as this is very efficient and also the fact that the seeds develop and mature underground and therefore are difficult to find and use for propagation . Micropropagation has been established although not widely used and still not incorporated on large scale for production of wild ginger [4, 25]. Cultivation of wild ginger should be a financially viable operation in South Africa since there is always a demand, and the income generated justifies the effort. Street traders obtain around R140/kg while shops and healers obtain a price of up to R450/kg .
Sutherlandia frutescens (L.) R.Br. belongs to the family Fabaceae commonly known as the legume, pea, or bean family. With the genus being restricted to southern Africa , this soft-wooded shrub with reedy stems is found in Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa . The large red flowers, around 3 cm long, are followed shortly by bladder-like fruits . Sutherlandia frutescens is commonly known as the cancer bush because of the reported use by Khoi-San and Cape Dutch people against internal cancers since 1895 [155, 156]. However, because of its adaptability, S. frutescens has several other vernacular names referring to its ethnomedicinal significance. These include "petola" (Setswana) which means "it changes," implying that the plant changes the course of many illnesses towards a positive outcome and "lerumo-lamadi" (Northern Sesotho) meaning "the spear for the blood," indicating that Sutherlandia is a powerful blood-purifier and all-purpose tonic . Sutherlandia along with H. hemerocallidea are the two main African medicinal plants used for treatment of HIV/AIDS and are endorsed by the South African Ministry of Health for HIV management .
Sutherlandia frutescens has a lengthy history of medicinal use in southern Africa. Mainly the leaves are used, but all above ground parts are often included . It has been used in the traditional medicine systems of different cultural groups for a wide diversity of ailments, including stomach ailments, backache, diabetes, stress, fever, and wounds [40, 155]. It is used for internal cancers, but despite numerous claims and anecdotes, there is no scientific evidence to confirm this . The dried leaves and other preparations are used as a general tonic .
The chief constituents of S. frutescens alleged to be active include L-canavanine, GABA, and D-pinitol. L-canavanine is a nonprotein amino acid which is the L-2-amino-4-guanidinooxy structural analogue of L-arginine . GABA and methionine are two amino acids which are highly prone to degradation through hydrolysis; thus, during production this needs to be taken into account . A study by Mncwangi and Viljoen  investigating S. frutescens samples collected from different natural populations () and from a commercial plantation () revealed tremendous variation in the yields of the different compounds both within and between populations. For example, L-canavanine ranged from 0.14 to 13.58 mg/g. Amino acids collectively constituted between 10% and 15% (w/w) of dried S. frutescens. Proline, L-asparagine, and alanine were the most abundant amino acids and collectively represent almost 60% of total amino acid content; however, not all samples contained all the amino acids. The content of L-canavanine, arginine, GABA, and D-pinitol in seeds, field leaves, and in vitro leaves of S. frutescens was quantified by Shaik et al. . The results revealed that the secondary metabolites significantly differed depending on the source. In vitro leaves had higher quantities of all compounds, except for D-pinitol, and the study highlighted the use of in vitro biology for the extraction of S. frutescens compounds.
The long history of traditional use, with no reports of any serious side effects, suggests that Sutherlandia can be considered as being generally safe . The South African Ministry of Health has concluded that this product is safe based on primate safety studies . Recent preclinical studies indicate that concomitant administration of Sutherlandia with prescription drugs (CYP3A4 substrates) could possibly lead to therapeutic failure and clinically relevant drug-herb interactions .
In recent years, there has been a marked increase in both scientific and commercial interests in Sutherlandia . The first small-scale cultivation and commercialisation of Sutherlandia started in the Cape Province more than 20 years ago . The first branded products were tablets made from powdered leaves of a selected chemotype named SU1 type, the protypes and products of which have been marketed by Phyto Nova (Pty) Ltd since 2000 . Phyto Nova now pursues large-scale cultivation of this medicinal plant . Although it is not officially sanctioned by regulatory agencies in Europe and US, Sutherlandia is distributed worldwide through internet sources which claim it to be an immunity booster .
South Africa is home to thousands of plant species, each an industry for unique and useful chemical compounds. However, more pragmatic information on medicinal plants would enhance their value in agricultural landscapes by helping farmers improve their livelihoods and ensure environmental sustainability . While it is anticipated that commercialization of certain medicinal plant species will bring financial remunerations to communities, this should not impair the subsistence sector, or sustainability of the resource itself . A drawback of using nonrenewable parts such as bark as a source for the medicinal trade is that removal of bark can lead to the death of the plant. If bark can be traded for a high price, valuable plant populations may be collected to extinction in nature . Traditional medicine has been used for treating diseases over centuries, and scientific studies have revealed that many of them are potentially toxic. The use of more polar solvents could be the reason for plant extracts being less toxic as the toxic compounds will be only extracted in more apolar solvents . Drug-drug interactions are well-known phenomena, and the risks have long been realised. For example, interactions involving the concurrent use of sildenafil, a drug used for erectile dysfunction with nitrates and nitrites, can produce profound hypotension leading to decreased coronary perfusion and myocardial infarction. This potentially fatal drug interaction also led to the withdrawal of several sildenafil-containing herbal medications from the market . The use of herbs may mimic, magnify, or oppose the effect of drugs and should therefore be used with care, and proper consultation and information should be provided by health care practitioners when mixing herbs and pharmaceutical drugs as interaction with most drugs is not known. Some examples of already identified herb-drug interactions include bleeding when warfarin is combined with ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), mild serotonin syndrome in patients who mix St John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) with serotonin-reuptake inhibitors, and potentiation of oral and topical corticosteroids by liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) and soluble fibres (including guar gum and psyllium) which can decrease the absorption of drugs. An example of South African herb-drug interactions is the use of devil's claw with the use of warfarin resulting in puprura . In addition, H. hemerocallidea and S. frutescens showed a negative interaction with antiretroviral medication, thus patients may be at risk from treatment failure, viral resistance, or drug toxicity .
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) can both positively and negatively impact the interests of primary producers. In order to appreciate benefits from the use of IPRs, communities need substantial financial and technical support . Bioprospecting and regulation thereof has been heavily debated in the past years to minimize exploitation of South African resources without benefit and recognition for knowledge holders. This regulation has been observed by the scientific community as another hurdle in promoting and developing bioactives . A more contemporary avenue for bioactives is the use of plants as vehicles to make recombinant proteins and other molecules for use as therapeutics. However, this is not well explored in Africa probably because few research laboratories are equipped to do this work .
The paper addressed just a few applications of the chemical components of the identified plants and the use as food, beverages, various medicinal uses, cosmetic industry, flavor, and fragrance industry to name a few. Some well-known plants and applications such as rooibos, marula, and buchu oil are already contributing to local communities' upliftment by creating enterprises both from wild harvesting and by cultivation of material. Others such as wild ginger, cancer bush, and the African potato still have potential to become international pharmaceutical and herbal products, and the full potential has not yet been exploited.
The South African Medical Research Council, National Research Foundation (South Africa), the University of South Africa, and the University of KwaZulu-Natal are thanked for their financial assistance.


ChristianAid Collective: Could you live on £1 per day?
"Hunger, poverty, campaigning, blah blah blah…fine, but what can we actually do about it?"
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As well as upgrading a few hundred fluorescent lights to LED, we upgraded a number of 400W Metal Halid High Bay to 120W LED, providing a power saving of 70%.


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Dirt Dogs
BOYS' CROSS-COUNTRY
Tantasqua 15, Southbridge 50
Wednesday, Oct. 9, 2013, at Fiskdale
Mike Ostroski (18:34), Mike Simmons (18:36) and Dan Peck (18:39) took third through fifth over Uxbridge's 3.1-mile course to lead Tantasqua (8-2) to three victories. Brady Phillips (18:02) won the race for Uxbridge (8-2), and teammate Andrew Ross (19:05) was fifth. Luis Colon (22:11) led Southbridge (3-6) by placing 23rd, and Colin Boyle was top runner for Leicester (2-9) in 25th.
»Southbridge schedule/results
»Tantasqua schedule/results
Updated: Wednesday, Oct. 9, 2013, 7:38 p.m.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Lipitor generic medicine belongs to the class of statins that work to reduce the ill-effects of bad cholesterol and so work to prevent coronary heart disease, angina, heart attack and stroke. They also lower triglyceride levels and bad cholesterol in the blood, and increase good cholesterol levels in the blood. Lipitor is also known as Atorvastatin.
In most of our bodily processes, cholesterol plays a critical role. However, this is marred when we develop unhealthy cholesterol levels that cause plaque to build-up on our arterial walls. This build-up prevents the blood to flow into the heart and brain, increasing the risk for heart disease and stroke.
By taking Lipitor, you can prevent a stroke and heart attack and lower the cholesterol content in your blood. Regular use of this medication can retard cholesterol production in the body, thereby lowering the build-up of plaque that contributes to blocking blood flow to the heart and brain.
Lipitor is available at www.pde-5.com and in doses of 10, 20, 40 and 80 mg tablets to be taken orally. They are white in colour, oval-shaped and coated with film. This medication is taken on doctor's advice either once or twice a day on an empty stomach. Lipitor should be taken at the same time each day for best results.
Atorvastatin may cause the following side-effects: heartburn, diarrhea, joint pain, gas, memory loss, and mental confusion. Its serious side-effects are muscle pain or tenderness, fever, listlessness, nausea, chest pain, unusual bruising or bleeding, loss of appetite, pain in the stomach, dark-coloured urine, yellowness in the eyes or skin, etc.
Don't take Lipitor if you are pregnant or nursing, have liver disease, breast-feeding, or if you have liver disease. Inform your doctor of this immediately, particularly if you have just learnt of your pregnancy. If you have sudden and unexplained muscle pain, fever or have dark coloured urine, speak to your doctor.
As an online pharmacy store, we at pde-5 realize the need to offer you not just the medication you ask for but also build in quality, reliability, safety and confidentiality. It's no wonder then that global customers are constantly checking our website to order the medication of their choice. We now extend our drug supply to people living in any part of the world without any barriers thanks to our shipment merchants who ensure that our drugs to reach you punctually and safely.


1 Where should I send my CV?
Use the Contact Us link above or simply email us at jobs@waconsultants.com .
If you need someone to ring you outside of working hours for confidentiality reasons, please let us know and we will oblige.
2 Do WA Consultants offer help / advice for first time contractors or anyone that needs assistance?
Of course! We will give candidates as much help as they require. This might start with helping you refine your CV or giving interview tips and advice.
From a financial point of view we can explain the differences between the different methods of contracting and help you as required, including recommending Umbrella Co's. We continue to support you as much as you need throughout your many assignments.
3 Where can I download an electronic timesheet?
4 Where can I download a sample invoice?
5 Where should I send authorised timesheets and invoices?
Accounts can be reached through our switchboard on 01392 666060.
6 Who do I contact with accounts / payment enquiries?
Please email your Consultant or contact the WA Accounts team on 01392 666060.
7 Do WA Consultants operate a candidate referral scheme?
Yes we do - please contact one of our Consultants for details.
I have to say that your Consultancy is by far the best that I have ever worked with. Truely excellent, extremely helpful and supportive. Thank you all so very much!


Saiz pralihat ini: 800 × 551 piksel. Leraian-leraian lain: 320 × 221 piksel | 640 × 441 piksel | 1,024 × 706 piksel | 1,280 × 882 piksel | 2,844 × 1,960 piksel.
English: Elephantiasis of leg due to filariasis. Luzon, Philippines.
Français : Éléphantiasis des jambes à cause de la filariose. Luçon, Philippines.
This media comes from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Public Health Image Library (PHIL), with identification number #373. Note: Not all PHIL images are public domain; be sure to check copyright status and credit authors and content providers.


Borussia Dortmund midfielder Christian Pulisic became the youngest player in Bundesliga history to score two league goals following his strike against Stuttgart last weekend.
On Saturday, Pulisic won his third consecutive league start for Dortmund and helped inspire them to a 3-0 victory.
Already the youngest non-German player to score in the Bundesliga following his strike against Hamburg earlier this month, at the age of 17 years and 219 days he has now become the youngest of any nationality to bag a second goal, overtaking Timo Werner's record.
"It's definitely an amazing feeling to score again," Pulisic told Dortmund's TV channel. "Definitely, I am proud.
"I don't think I started the best and had the best first half, but then you get the goal and your confidence rises.
"I felt much better after that, so I am definitely excited to score again."
Christian Pulisic scored his second goal for Dortmund in as many starts in the Bundesliga.
The United States international has now played in eight of Dortmund's 14 matches since his promotion to the first-team squad in January 2016.
"Just to get three wins [has been my goal lately], and just do whatever I can to help the team -- whether it's playing, whether it's being support on the bench," Pulisic said.
"I am going to do whatever I can. I am really excited."
Pulisic also earned plaudits from U.S. legend Landon Donovan, who wrote on Twitter that the 17-year-old had already surpassed his own Bundesliga tally.


text:
Whitmer Shuts Up Former Employee with Taxpayer Dollars
Taxpayers across Michigan expect their money to be used on things like schools, the improvement of roads, and various other things that are to benefit everyone. Instead, Governor Gretchen Whitmer has decided to use taxpayer dollars as hush money.
Whitmer may very well be trying to earn the title of worst governor ever. Of course, she'll have to work hard if she wants to beat Andrew Cuomo from New York.
When Robert Gordon, the former state health department director left, he took with him a separation deal that included over $150,000. This deal involved him staying quiet regarding the circumstances that led to him leaving.
There was a four-page agreement that Gordon had to sign that was drafted by Mark Totten, Whitmer's chief lawyer. The amount was equal to nine months of salaries and health benefits.
Since this was hush money, there's no way to know why Gordon left. However, he did so without any kind of explanation. It does prove that there were disagreements between him and Whitmer.
The state has not had a great response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Whitmer chose to ignore science and used executive orders to keep the residents under an extreme form of lockdown. Meanwhile, individuals and businesses suffered. At one point, there was even a scheme to kidnap the governor in hopes of getting the state back on track.
With Whitmer choosing to executive order her way into maintaining control, she likely went against everything that Gordon recommended. The Democratic administration decided that it would be best to use taxpayer funds to keep him quiet than to provide further proof that Whitmer was acting against scientific and medical recommendations.
The press has been frantic to learn more. However, the aides of both Gordon and Whitmer have chosen not to divulge any information as it protects the "deliberations among government officials" according to an article printed in the Detroit News.
Whitmer has tiptoed around the questions surrounding Gordon's resignation. Meanwhile, on Twitter, Gordon shared that he is "resigning" and looking forward to the "next chapter" of his life.
There was no notice given. While he resigned, it was also identified as being abrupt. The day he resigned was also his last day, leaving the state in a situation where they were left to scramble. Not that they actually needed the health department director anyway. Whitmer has proven that she'll do what she wants regardless of the advice given to her.
Now, whenever Whitmer is asked about Gordon, she makes an awkward pivot to talk about the new director, Elizabeth Hertel. She wants to focus on the future – and try to convince residents that the past was not her doing.
That's not enough, though. News reporter after reporter have questions about Gordon and his resignation. She answers them all the same: She wishes him the very best and she has nothing else to say on the matter.
Ted Goodman, the communications director for the Michigan Republican Party, doesn't want to accept that as an answer. Instead, he presses to say that Michigan taxpayers deserve to know the circumstances of the resignation. After all, it was taxpayer money used to hush him and he resigned in the middle of a public health crisis.
Whitmer is hiding a lot. She wants to hide behind the former director and she wants to shove the new director into the light. According to her, Gordon was instrumental in the way in which COVID was handled across the state. Yet, that's not true. It's why the state's supreme court found her guilty of overstepping her bounds of using executive orders.
The residents of Michigan are notably upset. They've been lied to, deceived, and forced into a lockdown without being given any suitable explanations. And now, they have to watch as over $100,000 was given out as hush money just so that the governor can protect herself.
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text:
2005: Elias Syriani, a family affair
On this date in 2005, North Carolina executed 67-year-old immigrant Elias Syriani at Raleigh's Central Prison for the murder of his wife — despite the emotional clemency intervention of the couple's children.
Syriani, an ethnic Assyrian driven from his native Jerusalem by al nakba who moved to the U.S. from Jordan through marriage to a Jordanian immigrant, had a stormy marriage hit the rocks in 1990. Teresa filed for divorce after a few years facing Elias's violent objections to her westernized behavior.
Syriani responded by jumping her when she drove home one night, and stabbed her to death with a screwdriver in front of their 10-year-old child.
This case meandered forgettably through the bowels of the criminal justice system; the traumatized children moved on (.pdf).
Until the year before Syriani met his fate, when the mysteries of the human heart flipped the script.
The four children visited Syriani and found themselves forgiving their mother's murderer … and forging an unexpected bond with the father they hadn't known for a decade. They called it a miracle, a gift from their late mother to go from "hate, absolute hate, to love in a split second."
The children — by then grown — became Syriani's advocates for executive clemency, posing an unusual challenge for Gov. Mike Easley: in an environment that (rhetorically, at least) often counts on survivors' rage and grief as arbiters of punishment, would he spare a father for killing a mother when the children said execution would redouble the family's injury?
But commutations rarely happen — there's just no percentage in them for politicians.
"After careful review of the facts and circumstances of this crime and conviction, I find no convincing reason to grant clemency and overturn the unanimous jury verdict affirmed by the state and federal courts." (Easley)
This startling story became the subject of a 2007 documentary, Love Lived on Death Row
[flv:http://www.executedtoday.com/video/Love_Lived_on_Death_Row_trailer.flv 440 330]
The following are excerpts from an interview with the film's Producer/Director Linda Booker originally conducted by Sean O'Connell of The Charlotte Weekly.
When did you first hear about/become interested in this story?
Back in July 2005, I was checking the weather on a local news website and scanning the headlines when the article about the Syriani siblings forgiving their father caught my eye. I think at first it interested me because I have been involved with our local domestic violence agency as a volunteer and fundraiser, but as I read the article something about their reconciling with and forgiving their father really touched me. At this point they had begun to share their story with the public and had just appeared at a domestic violence conference in Charlotte called "Hope to Heal."
At what point did you get the idea to film the story in documentary form? How long did it take to complete the film?
It was an immediate reaction for me upon reading the article that their story might make a compelling documentary film. I printed it out and carried it around with me. But I was still finishing up interviews and editing my first documentary project "Millworker: the Documentary" so I didn't act on it right away. Then several months later I learned that they would be speaking in Chapel Hill, close to where I live, and I thought, "okay, if I feel this strongly about this, here's my chance to meet them and film their discussion." So there I was, a relatively new filmmaker and very nervous about that first step, but I received permission to film that night. That's also when I first heard about and met Meg Eggleston, who had been writing letters and visiting Elias Syriani on death row for four years and the Syriani sibling's attorney Russell Sizemore, who was helping them through their father's clemency appeal pro-bono. I came to learn that Meg's friendship with Elias was an essential part of their father's transformation and was such an interesting story in itself.
I started filming in October 2005, edited in the fall of '06 and started doing preview screenings in early '07. Since then the film has screened at film festivals and many grassroots screenings with various non-profits and faith groups as sponsors in the U.S. especially in North Carolina.
The Syriani children are open and honest in the film. Did you have trouble accessing them? Were they open to the idea of participating in the film, even though at this point it could not help their father?
I started filming interviews with Meg Eggleston and Russell Sizemore first who trusted that I was not trying to do a sensationalized story, but that I recognized the Syriani's story of forgiveness was inspirational, regardless of the outcome of the clemency appeal. The Syrianis knew that I was working with Meg & Russ, but out of respect for all they were going through, I did not push the issue of their participation. About six months after the appeal, I wrote them about participating and subsequently we went to California and Chicago in the summer of '06 to film interviews with them. While they know that a part of the discussion around the film will be capital punishment, the Syriani siblings have expressed that they want their story to live on in hope that their experience of surviving a domestic violence tragedy and the healing that came from forgiveness will touch people's hearts and help others.
I think it's because this case is so unique, but I found the film's stance on the death penalty unclear. Can you, as the filmmaker, clarify your thoughts on the death penalty?
Well, I'll take that as a compliment, because the documentaries I admire aren't pounding you over the head with the filmmaker's opinion. I can tell you that making this film made me face how I felt about the death penalty and I spent a lot of time researching and doing some deep thinking about the issue.
Needless to say it's very complex, and it is completely understandable that feelings of anger and retribution can occur when you have lost a loved one to violence. We need to do more for those dealing with the aftermath of murder with as much support, assistance and counseling services as possible, especially children. But as I went to restorative justice forums and have met many people who belong to organizations such as Murder Victims Families for Reconciliation, I kept hearing stories about how the death penalty was causing more grief, stress and division in families that had experienced murder. Between making the documentary and doing the research, I came to the conclusion that I couldn't support a system of justice that can possibly create more pain and victims in its wake and that was also irreversible and arbitrary.
1872: Joseph Garcia, for the Llangibby Massacre - 2019
1936: The Seven Martyrs of Madrid - 2018
1784: Richard Barrick and John Sullivan - 2017
1441: Roger Bolingbroke, "hanged, hedyd, and quartered" - 2016
1813: Ezra Hutchinson, teen rapist - 2015
1329: Alberghettino II Manfredi, upstart condottiero - 2014
1427: Johann Bantzkow, Mayor of Wismar - 2013
1646: Twelve at an Evora auto da fe - 2012
1961: Four for the assassination of Rafael Trujillo - 2011
2009: Danielle Simpson, "If I can't be free - Kill me!!" - 2010
1864: Hong Tianguifu, in the Taiping Rebellion - 2009
1577: Soulmother of Kussnacht - 2007
2006: Angel Diaz
2001: Robert Lee Massie, who spent a lifetime dying
2004: Jerry McWee, a former policeman
2007: Frank Duane Welch, a cold case CSI caught
2007: Not Earl Wesley Berry … for the time being
1998: Gerald Eugene Stano, misogynist psychopath
1995: Richard Snell – did he go out with a bang?
Entry Filed under: 21st Century,Capital Punishment,Common Criminals,Crime,Death Penalty,Execution,Lethal Injection,Murder,Ripped from the Headlines,USA
Tags: 2000s, 2005, assyrians, elias syriani, family, immigrants, linda booker, love, love lived on death row, meg eggleston, murder victims families for reconciliation, november 18, raleigh


Coffee subscription was a game changer for me. Time to get your subscription going too?
Subscribing to coffee might be one of the best things I've ever done. My coffee subscription box is like christmas once a month. The endless days of buying coffee from your local coffee roaster or ordering online once a week is over. The coffee arrives at your doorstep at your chosen interval in your chosen amount. A coffee subscription was a game changer for me when it comes to coffee. Now I've got my coffee delivered to my doorstep in a neat subscription box, once a month. I love my coffee subscription box. And, it tastes great!
Coffee is one of the few things I can't live without. My morning coffee is what makes me get out of bed in the morning. And I care what my morning coffee tastes like. In the recent year I've come across what is called "Specialty Coffee". What is it? Basically, coffee that tastes better than anything you've ever had before. In short, green coffee (coffee that isn't roasted) is graded on a scale. If the coffee gets a top score, it is specialty coffee. Nowadays specialty coffee is the only thing I drink. Then of course specialty coffee is what's in my coffee subscription box.
Subscription is today something everybody has. Maybe you're subscribing to Spotify or Netflix, or to video makers on Youtube? The reason I launched this "coffee subscription" website is basically to help you through the jungle of coffee subscriptions out there. You know you want a box of coffee delivered home, and I will guide you to which subscription service you should choose. Because, you don't just want any box. You want a coffee box that makes you giggle through your morning cup.
Which coffee subscription box is for me?
Let's get on it! So what box should you choose? What coffee subscription has the best coffee? Let's start the journey!


text:
package synergynet.table.apps.dominos;

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.List;

import com.jme.bounding.BoundingBox;
import com.jme.light.PointLight;
import com.jme.math.Vector3f;
import com.jme.renderer.Camera;
import com.jme.renderer.ColorRGBA;
import com.jme.scene.Line;
import com.jme.scene.SharedMesh;
import com.jme.scene.Spatial;
import com.jme.scene.TriMesh;
import com.jme.scene.shape.Box;
import com.jme.scene.shape.Extrusion;
import com.jme.scene.state.LightState;
import com.jme.system.DisplaySystem;
import com.jme.util.geom.BufferUtils;
import com.jmetest.physics.Utils;
import com.jmex.physics.DynamicPhysicsNode;
import com.jmex.physics.PhysicsSpace;
import com.jmex.physics.StaticPhysicsNode;

import synergynet.table.appregistry.ApplicationInfo;
import synergynet.table.appregistry.menucontrol.HoldBottomLeftExit;
import synergynet.table.apps.DefaultSynergyNetApp;
import synergyspace.jme.config.AppConfig;
import synergyspace.jme.cursorsystem.elements.threed.MultiTouchMoveableXYPlaneWithPhysics;
import synergyspace.jme.sysutils.CameraUtility;

public class DominosApp extends DefaultSynergyNetApp {

	protected PhysicsSpace physicsSpace;
	protected float physicsSpeed = 2f;

	public DominosApp(ApplicationInfo info) {
		super(info);
	}

	@Override
	public void addContent() {
		setMenuController(new HoldBottomLeftExit());

		physicsSpace = PhysicsSpace.create();
		physicsSpace.setAutoRestThreshold( 0.2f );
		Spatial floorVisual = new Box( "floor", new Vector3f(), 1000, 0.1f, 1000 );
		floorVisual.setModelBound( new BoundingBox() );
		floorVisual.updateModelBound();
		StaticPhysicsNode floor = physicsSpace.createStaticNode();
		floor.attachChild( floorVisual );
		floor.generatePhysicsGeometry();
		floor.setLocalTranslation( new Vector3f( 0, -0.1f, 0 ) );
		worldNode.attachChild( floor );

		TriMesh dominoBrickVisual[] = new TriMesh[4];
		for ( int i = 0; i < dominoBrickVisual.length; i++ ) {
			dominoBrickVisual[i] = new Box( "brick", new Vector3f(), 1f, 2, 0.2f );
			dominoBrickVisual[i].setModelBound( new BoundingBox() );
			dominoBrickVisual[i].updateModelBound();
			dominoBrickVisual[i].lockMeshes();
			//color them blue, red, green, yellow, ...
			Utils.color( dominoBrickVisual[i], new ColorRGBA( i&1, ( i & 2 ) >> 1, i==0?1:0, 1 ), 128 );
			dominoBrickVisual[i].updateRenderState();

		}

		List<Vector3f> points = new ArrayList<Vector3f>();
		points.add( new Vector3f( 0, 0, 0 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 0, 0, 50 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 50, 0, 100 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 50, 0, 150 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 0, 0, 175 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( -50, 0, 200 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( -30, 0, 250 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 0, 0, 300 ) );
		points.add( new Vector3f( 0, 0, 300 ) );
		Line dot = new Line();
		dot.appendCircle( 0.3f, 0, 0, 1, false );
		Extrusion track = new Extrusion( "track" );
		Vector3f up = new Vector3f( 0, 1, 0 );
		track.updateGeometry( dot, points, 25, up );

		Vector3f[] trackpoints = BufferUtils.getVector3Array( track.getVertexBuffer() );
		Vector3f last = null;
		Vector3f dir = new Vector3f();

		// iterate over the extruded points, taking every second vertex
		for ( int i = 0; i < trackpoints.length; i += 2 ) {
			Vector3f trackpoint = trackpoints[i];
			DynamicPhysicsNode dominoBrick = physicsSpace.createDynamicNode();
			dominoBrick.setName("brick" + i);
			SharedMesh sharedMesh = new SharedMesh("sharedbrick" + i, dominoBrickVisual[i/2%dominoBrickVisual.length] );
			dominoBrick.attachChild( sharedMesh );
			dominoBrick.generatePhysicsGeometry();
			dominoBrick.setLocalScale(1f);
			dominoBrick.getLocalTranslation().set( trackpoint ).addLocal( 0, 2, 0 );
			if ( last != null ) {
				dir.set( last ).subtractLocal( trackpoint );
				dominoBrick.getLocalRotation().lookAt( dir, up );
			}
			worldNode.attachChild( dominoBrick );
            dominoBrick.rest();

            MultiTouchMoveableXYPlaneWithPhysics mtm = new MultiTouchMoveableXYPlaneWithPhysics(sharedMesh, dominoBrick, dominoBrick);
            mtm.setPickMeOnly(true);

            last = trackpoint;
		}

		getCamera().setLocation(new Vector3f(0f, 10f, 50f));
		getCamera().lookAt(new Vector3f(), new Vector3f( 0, 0, -1 ));
		getCamera().update();

		setupLighting();

	}

	protected Camera getCamera() {
		if(cam == null) {
			cam = CameraUtility.getCamera();
		}
		cam.setLocation(new Vector3f(0f, 10f, 50f));
		cam.lookAt(new Vector3f(), new Vector3f( 0, 0, -1 ));
		cam.update();
		return cam;
	}

	public void stateUpdate(float tpf) {
		super.stateUpdate(tpf);
		physicsSpace.update( tpf * physicsSpeed );
	}

	private void setupLighting() {
		LightState lightState = DisplaySystem.getDisplaySystem().getRenderer().createLightState();
		worldNode.setRenderState(lightState);
		lightState.setEnabled(AppConfig.useLighting);

		PointLight pointlight = new PointLight();
		pointlight.setLocation(new Vector3f(50f, 20f, 50f));
		pointlight.setAmbient(ColorRGBA.white);
		pointlight.setAttenuate(true);
		pointlight.setEnabled(true);
		lightState.attach(pointlight);

		pointlight = new PointLight();
		pointlight.setAttenuate(true);
		pointlight.setLocation(new Vector3f(-50f, 20f, 50f));
		pointlight.setAmbient(ColorRGBA.white);
		pointlight.setEnabled(true);
		lightState.attach(pointlight);
	}
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


The ONS numbers reveal that the majority of this employment growth has been in full-time and permanent roles - an important point to note given recent high-profile discussion (both positive and negative) around the 'gig economy'.
There is good news too for the more mature among us with the number of workers aged 50 and over remaining at its record high of 10.18 million.
There are also reasons to be cheerful for those looking to change job or career - with the current number of vacancies standing at over 800,000, the market is buoyant and opportunities abound.
A clearly delighted Secretary of State for Work and Pensions, Esther McVey, enthused: "The employment rate is now at a record high of 75.7%, with over 3.3 million more people in work since 2010. The 8-year trend shows the vast majority of roles are in full-time, permanent work that's higher skilled – which means higher paid too."
"That the nation's employment rate continues to rise is clearly cause for celebration – strong figures in this area are a fairly reliable barometer for the direction in which the economy is headed. However, competition for talent is fierce and employers need to up their game.