text:
\section{Introduction}
Sunspots are manifestations of high concentrations of magnetic flux in the solar photosphere.
They live up to several months, orders of magnitude longer than a convection timescale
($\approx$\,$10$--$20$\,min). Sunspots are structured in a dark umbra surrounded by a penumbra.
The magnetic field lines are close to vertical in an umbra and close to horizontal in a penumbra.
Larger umbra are typically darker and show higher magnetic field strength \citep{bray_loughhead_64,mcintosh_1981}.
Two magnetic configurations are discussed for sunspots: a monolithic flux tube and a cluster of flux
tubes \citep{parker_1979_spot_formation, spruit_1981a}.
The formation of sunspots have not often been observed due to the short timescale of
the formation process compared to the lifetime of sunspots \citep{rolf_etal_2010a, shimizu_etal_2012}.
Sunspot properties are summarized in several review papers
\citep{solanki03r,moradi_etal_2010, rempel_schlichenmaier_2011, borrero_ichimoto_2011}.

Sunspot umbra have an average intensity of $\approx\!60\,\%$ in the near-infrared and
$\approx\!1\,\%$ in the near-ultraviolet (UV) continuum, in units of the average quiet Sun intensity.
Sunspot umbra usually consist of a dark umbral core, light bridge(s), and umbral dots.
Light bridges (LBs) are elongated regions with enhanced intensities compared to nearby umbra.
They either split an umbra or are embedded in the umbra.
\citet{muller_1979} categorized LBs based on their photospheric continuum intensities:
photospheric, penumbral, or umbral.
From previous observations, it is known that LBs  generally have a weaker magnetic field strength
and a more horizontal field orientation than nearby
umbra \citep{lites_etal_1991, wiehr_degenhardt_1993, leka1997, jurcak_etal_2006,felipe_etal_2016}.

Light bridges show transient brightenings in higher atmospheric layers
during the formation and decay of sunspots \citep{zwaan92, shimizu_etal_09, reza_etal_2012a}.
They have either a segmented or a filamentary morphology \citep{lites_etal_04}.
They are  observed to form through the continuation of penumbra filaments into the umbra \citep{katsukawa_etal_07}.
Light bridges can also form as trapped granules by the coalescence of pores during the formation and growth of sunspots.
These LBs can reappear during the decay of a sunspot \citep{vazquez_1973, garcia_87}.
Signs of the overturning convection are observed in LBs, leading observers to conclude that the convection
is the main energy transport mechanism in LBs \citep{rimmele_1997, rimmele_08, roupe_luis_etal_2010, lagg_etal_2014}.
Thermodynamic properties of the LBs in pores are reported by \citet{hirzberger_etal_2002},
\citet{giordano_etal_2008}, and \citet{sobotka_etal_2013}.
In his numerical simulation, \cite{rempel_2011} found a LB associated with deep structures
reaching down to the bottom of the simulation domain (> 10\,Mm).
In some high-resolution observations, a dark lane was observed in LBs \citep{sobotka_etal93, berger_berdyugina_2003},
which was reproduced in a simulation of an emerging active region by \citet{cheung_etal10}.

Anomalous, unidirectional, or bidirectional\,(shear) flows are observed in LBs
\citep{berger_berdyugina_2003,schleicher_etal_2003,rimmele_08,louis_etal_2009,roupe_luis_etal_2010,rolf_etal_2012,bello_gonzalez_etal_2012}.
The chromospheric activity of LBs are observed in the line-core images of the \ion{Ca}{ii}\,H and H$\alpha$ lines
\citep{shimizu_etal_09, roubustini_etal_2016}. In \ion{Ca}{ii} filtergrams, LBs show small-scale jets
of several arcseconds moving away from the LB \citep{louis_etal_2014, beck_etal_2015}.
H$\alpha$ surges have also been observed associated with LBs \citep{canfield_etal_1996, asai_etal_2001, tziotziou_etal_2005}.

Partially ionized plasma in the chromosphere and transition region (TR) is usually investigated through the
UV spectrum of diverse ionized atoms forming at a temperature range of $4\!\le\!\rm{\log\!T[K]}\le\!6$.
The NASA Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS) is a small telescope launched on June 27, 2013, that
observes the Sun  in the UV part of the spectrum \cite[IRIS, ][]{iris_2013}.
IRIS records spectral lines forming at a range of temperature
and heights that spans the photosphere up to the middle of the TR.
In the near-UV, IRIS observes a spectral range around the two strong \ion{Mg}{ii}
lines at $280$\,nm and their nearby continuum, while
the far-UV spectra includes several strong emission lines originating in the solar TR ($133$-$141$\,nm).
Compared to the Solar Ultraviolet Measurements of Emitted
Radiation \citep[SUMER, ][]{summer}, IRIS records a restricted spectral
range with a higher spatial and spectral resolution and with four UV slitjaw channels.

The temperature rise above the photosphere is accompanied by an increase in the nonthermal (turbulence) velocity.
Profiles of the chromospheric and TR lines have been analyzed to measure the temperature and nonthermal
velocities as well as the electron density \citep{tandberg_1960, moe_nicolas_1977, lemaire_2007}.
The TR lines usually show some degree of asymmetry as well as
a large line width far in excess of their thermal broadening.
The deviation of the wing intensities of TR lines from a single Gaussian cannot be explained in terms of
the damping since the electron densities are not high enough.
Multi-component models are required to fit the average quiet Sun line profiles,
indicating an inhomogeneous structure of the solar TR \citep{peter_2000, peter_2010}.
\citet{mariska_1992} reviews the solar TR while
\citet{aschwanden_2004} summarizes the relevant techniques and physical processes in the TR and corona.

In this paper, we study the mere existence and physical properties of light bridges
in the solar chromosphere and transition region and try to establish a
connection between the intensity enhancements in different layers.
Currently a cusp-shape magnetic configuration is supported by photospheric observations of LBs
\citep{leka1997, jurcak_etal_2006,lagg_etal_2014,felipe_etal_2016}.
In the cusp model, the umbral field lines wrap around the nonmagnetic or weak field
light bridge and merge in the upper photosphere \citep[][their Fig.~7]{jurcak_etal_2006}.
These magnetic field lines cannot be differentiated from umbral fields in the higher layers.
Therefore, we do not expect to find trace of LBs in the chromosphere and TR (similar to umbral dots).
In other words, the existence of significant LB signals in the upper atmosphere indicates
a systematic effect, and challenges the cusp model.
Compiling a large sample of LBs, we collected evidence of the presence of a
LB signal in the upper atmosphere.
To this end we observed $40$ sunspots with IRIS including $60$ LBs.
Using IRIS data which is free from seeing and differential refraction effects,
we studied LB images in the photosphere, chromosphere, and TR.
The paper has the following structure.
We review the observed datasets and briefly discuss the analysis methods in Sect.~\ref{sec:obs}.
The sample of $42$\,k LB pixels gathered from the observed LBs
allows us to evaluate the line and continuum intensities, the line width and the Doppler shifts.
The distribution of these parameters, the correlations among them, and a comparison of the
LB sample with the umbra and quiet Sun samples are addressed in Sect.~\ref{sec:result}.
Discussion and conclusions are presented in Sects.~\ref{sec:discussion} and \ref{sec:conclusion}, respectively.
A follow-up paper will address IRIS slitjaws and magnetic properties of the light bridges.

\begin{table}
\begin{center}
\caption{IRIS observations. $x$ and $y$ stand for the solar heliographic coordinate.
Time denotes the start time of the scan in UT while $t$ shows the integration time per slit position.
In total, there are 60 LBs in our sample. The number of LBs in each observation is given in the last column.
Horizontal lines separate different active regions.}\vspace{-0.1cm}
\label{tab:sample}
\begin{tabular}{llllllll}\hline
entry & date & time  & NOAA & $x\,[\arcsec]$ & $y\,[\arcsec]$ & $t$\,[s] & $\#$\\\hline\hline
1 & 20130814   &  18:45  & 11817  & +216   & -435  & 5  & 3\\\hline
2 & 20131012   &  20:01  & 11861  & +45    & -251  & 9  & 2\\\hline
3 & 20131207   &  03:09  & 11916  & +207   & -229  & 5  & 2\\\hline
4 & 20131220   &  16:27  & 11930  & -217   & -167  & 5  & 2\\\hline
5 & 20140131   &  20:21  & 11967  & -398   & -154  & 32 & 1\\\hline
6 & 20140503   &  15:52  & 12049  & +85    & -85   & 16 & 3\\\hline
7 & 20140511   &  18:32  & 12059  & -32    & +105  & 16 & 1\\\hline
8 & 20140517   &  11:50  & 12063  & -142   & +231  & 9  & 1\\\hline
9 & 20140703   &  08:00  & 12104  & -322   & -224  & 5  & 2\\\hline
10 & 20140724a &  15:00  & 12121  & -683   &  +62  & 32  & 2\\%\hline
11 & 20140724b &  18:35  &  12121 & -704  &  +51  & 32  & 2\\%\hline
12 & 20140725  &  09:30 &  12121 &  -575  &  +67  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
13 & 20140727  &  14:02 &  12121 &  -119  &  +40  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
14 & 20140728  &  16:02 &  12121 &  +111  &  +42  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
15 & 20140729  &  15:00 &  12121 &  +328  &  +50  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
16 & 20140730  &  15:04 &  12121 &  +584  &  -225 & 32  & 1\\\hline
17 & 20140731  &  15:03 &  12127 &  -412  &  -211 & 32  & 1\\%\hline
18 & 20140801  &  17:20 &  12127 &  -220  &  -230 & 32  & 1\\\hline
19 & 20140820   & 05:40 &  12146 &  -569  &  +83  & 5   & 1\\\hline
20 & 20141022   & 18:33 &  12192 &  -246  &  -306 & 32  & 2\\%\hline
21 & 20141024   & 18:52 &  12192 &  +180  &  -328 & 16  & 2\\%\hline
22 & 20141025a  & 07:00 &  12192 &  +262  &  -303 & 16  & 3\\%\hline
23 & 20141025b  & 21:00 &  12192 &  +400  &  -315 & 16  & 2\\%\hline
24 & 20141027   & 18:57 &  12192 &  +724  &  -282 & 16  & 1\\\hline
25 & 20150213   & 06:11 &  12282 &  -220  &   291 & 6   & 1\\\hline
26 & 20150327a  & 13:59 &  12305 &  +119  &  -50  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
27 & 20150327b  & 17:33 &  12305 &  +121  &  -30  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
28 & 20150328a  & 13:59 &  12305 &  +328  &  -66  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
29 & 20150328b  & 16:42 &  12305 &  +336  &  -45  & 32  & 2\\%\hline
30 & 20150329   & 13:59 &  12305 &  +529  &  -74  & 32  & 1\\%\hline
31 & 20150330   & 13:59 &  12305 &  +690  &  -92  & 32  & 1\\\hline
32 & 20150420   & 07:59 &  12325 &  +26   &  +155 & 5   & 1\\\hline
33 & 20151216   & 20:26 &  12470 &  -470  &  +218 & 10  & 1\\%\hline
34 & 20151220   & 10:33 &  12470 &  +296  &  +236 & 10  & 1\\\hline
35 & 20151224   & 23:27 &  12473 &  -641  &  -335 & 10  & 3\\\hline
36 & 20160108   & 15:58 &  12480 &  -744  &  +84  & 10  & 2\\\hline
37 & 20160414   & 04:27 &  12529 &  +52   &  +269 & 9   & 1\\%\hline
38 & 20160415   & 11:12 &  12529 &  +329  &  +264 & 9   & 1\\\hline
39 & 20160901   & 14:09 &  12585 &  -811  &  +77  & 17  & 2\\%\hline
40 & 20160904   & 06:27 &  12585 &  -385  &  +35  & 17  & 1\\\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}
\begin{figure}[t]
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics*{fig1_29828.ps}}
\caption{ IRIS maps of observation \#$10$ in Table~\ref{tab:sample}.
  The left panel displays the photospheric continuum map normalized to
  the average quiet Sun intensity. The right panel shows the logarithm of the intensity
  of the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$140.3$\,nm  line measured with a
  Gaussian fit (see Sect.~\ref{sect:fuv_spectrum} for more details).
  The $280$\,nm and silicon masks of the two LBs are marked on the corresponding panels.
  Both maps were clipped for a better visibility. The widths of the LBs are comparable in the photosphere and the TR.
  We note the relative shift of the LBs in the two maps. The solar limb is toward the left.}
\label{fig:mask}
\end{figure}
\section{Observations and data analysis}\label{sec:obs}
Table\ref{tab:sample} lists properties of IRIS sunspot scans.
Our sample of $40$ sunspots  observed between $2013$ and $2016$ comprises $60$ LBs.
The integration time varies from $5$\,s to $32$\,s, leading to a
substantial difference in the signal-to-noise ratios among different datasets.
All intensities discussed through the paper (except the one in Fig.~\ref{fig:mask})
are normalized by the integration time to make a comparison possible.
Each map was analyzed in the full slit length; we have the two hair lines
in the analyzed parameters and use them to align the data in different spectral channels (Fig.~\ref{fig:mask}).
In the following, we only discuss spectral lines that are present in all the scans in our sample.

All observed spectra except for the $280$\,nm band  were subject to a median filtering and
a convolution with a small Gaussian kernel to reduce the effect of noise, which
is particularly important when dealing with a low-amplitude signal like that in the \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm line.
Cosmic rays (CRs) are corrected on two-dimensional rasters after masking spectral lines. Whenever
a line was hit by a CR, the amplitude was compared to similar lines to discriminate between a strong signal and a CR.
The method was conservative, so the low-amplitude CRs pass through this filter,
and we did not modify spectral lines when it was not necessary.

We created three masks for each LB using an intensity threshold: the continuum at the $280$\,nm, the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line core,
and the \ion{Si}{iv} core intensities. The sum of the magnesium and silicon masks constructed an overall mask for each
LB. The intensity threshold for the $280$\,nm mask was set to $0.1$\,I$_{\mathrm{c}}$,
where  I$_{\mathrm{c}}$ stands for the average quiet Sun intensity.
For the silicon mask, the threshold was set to $3$\,DN (Fig~\ref{fig:mask}).
For the \ion{O}{i} and \ion{C}{ii} lines, the overall mask was used.
We gathered analyzed data from all LBs inside the masks, resulting in $42,436$ entries for each line parameter.
Sample IRIS maps with two LBs are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:mask}. As seen in this example,
the width of the LBs in the photosphere and the TR are similar (LBs do not expand exponentially with height).
In the following, we discuss statistics of the line intensity, the line width, and the Doppler shift
in this sample that includes all individual pixels in our LBs.
To facilitate a comparison of the LB sample with quiet Sun and umbra, we created two extra samples.
These two statistical ensembles consist of a large fraction of quiet Sun/umbra regions in our IRIS observations.
The umbra sample does not include penumbral grains or LBs but consists of bright and dark umbra (umbral flashes).
There are more entries in the quiet Sun and umbra samples than in the LB sample ($2,502,255$ and $194,783$, respectively).
The pixel size of IRIS spectral rasters in the far-UV (near-UV) is $0.33$ ($0.4$)\arcsec, while
the slit width is $0.33$\arcsec \citep{iris_2013}.

\subsection{Near-ultraviolet spectrum}
The near-Ultraviolet (NUV) spectrograph records a spectral range
around the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,h and k lines and two quasicontinuum windows in the $280$\,nm range.
The spectral dispersion in the NUV channel was either $2.544$ or $5.088$\,pm
corresponding to a velocity dispersion of $2.7$ or $5.5$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ per pixel, respectively.
The velocity modulations due to the orbital motion of the satellite was corrected for
using a strong photospheric line in the $280$\,nm channel (\ion{Fe}{i}\,$283.2435$\,nm).
To this end, we calculated the average line-core position along each slit.
The average spectral position as a function of time was then fitted with
a polynomial to make sure that the residual systematic variation
is below the expected uncertainty of the velocity calibration.
When a systematic trend was clear along the slit
(particularly for observations with the full slit length of $175$\arcsec\,\,far from the disk center),
a linear fit was used to correct for this spectral gradient.
For a velocity calibration in the photosphere,
we assumed the average quiet Sun velocity to be zero, leading to a systematic error
of less than $1$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, which is small compared to the velocity dispersion.
\begin{figure}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{ \includegraphics*{fig2_29828.eps}}
\caption{Histograms of the line and continuum intensities in the LB sample.
Intensities are normalized to the integration time.
The core intensity of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line is denoted k$_{\rm{3}}$.
The LB sample includes $42,436$ entries from $60$ LBs. We used $100$ bins in all histograms.}
\label{fig:hist_int}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{ \includegraphics*{fig3_29828.ps}}
\caption{Histograms of the line widths (top) and velocity (bottom) in the LB sample.
The line width is equal to $2\,\sigma$ where $\sigma$ is the Gaussian width.
For a description of the velocity calibration, see Sect.\,$2.2$. Positive velocity corresponds to downflow.}
\label{fig:hist_lw}
\end{figure}
\subsection{Far ultraviolet spectrum}\label{sect:fuv_spectrum}
The far-Ultraviolet (FUV) spectrograph often records four wavelength bands: the \ion{C}{ii} lines at $133.6$\,nm;
the \ion{O}{i} and \ion{C}{i} lines at $135.6$\,nm;  the \ion{Si}{iv} line at $139.3$\,nm; and
the \ion{O}{iv} line at $140.1$\,nm and the \ion{Si}{iv} line at $140.3$\,nm.
The chromospheric \ion{O}{i} line at $135.56$\,nm  forms at a temperature range of $7-16\times\,10^3$\,K,
comparable to the formation temperature of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line.
The \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm and the \ion{C}{i}\,$135.584$\,nm lines are fitted together.
The \ion{O}{i} line is used to construct a velocity modulation curve
to correct for the orbital motion of the satellite in the FUV channel (the procedure is identical to the NUV case).
The \ion{C}{ii} line pair, the \ion{Si}{iv} lines, and the \ion{O}{iv} lines form in the TR.
{ Although the \ion{C}{ii} ionization fraction peaks at $2.5\times\,10^4$\,K \citep{rathore_carlsson_2015},
the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$140.277$\,nm line forms at $\log\rm{T[K]}\approx\,4.8$ \citep{peter_2001}
and the \ion{O}{iv} lines form at $\log\rm{T[K]}\approx\,5.4$ \citep[][ their Table~V]{arnaud_rothenflug_1985}.
 Table~\ref{tab:lines} lists the formation temperature, rest wavelength, and excitation potential of selected spectral
lines in the IRIS spectra.
While the \ion{C}{ii} line pair are often optically thick,
the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{O}{iv} lines only show the double reversal pattern in flaring regions, for example.
From the two \ion{Si}{iv} lines, we only discuss the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$140.277$\,nm line
in this paper as the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$139.376$\,nm line is blended with a \ion{Ni}{ii} line and is not always recorded.
A spectral synthesis of these lines \citep[using CHIANTI,][]{landi_etal_2013_chianti} shows
that the \ion{C}{ii}, the \ion{Si}{iv}, and the \ion{O}{iv} lines form at a limited temperature range.
The spectral dispersion in the FUV channel was either $1.296$ or $2.592$\,pm
corresponding to a velocity dispersion of $2.8$ or $5.6$ km\,s$^{-1}$ per pixel, respectively.

\paragraph{Data analysis:}
We developed a new data reduction package for the IRIS spectra that analyzes
the major spectral lines \citep{mosic_2017}.
The program\footnote{It is also available at {http://github.com/reza35/mosic}}
was tested on a variety of datasets and is available in the SolarSoft \citep{solarsoft_1998}.
For the NUV data, it performs a spectral analysis and a Gaussian fit to the core of
the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,h and k lines and a few nearby lines.
For the FUV spectral channels, a multi-line Gaussian fit is performed. Details of
the fitting procedure is explained in the following.
In the fit procedure the observational errors,
which are a joint action of the photon and thermal noise, are taken into account.
We used the hairlines to align the NUV and FUV data (Fig.~\ref{fig:mask}).

\subsection{Near-ultraviolet data}
We define the standard parameters of double-reversal profiles of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,h and k lines in a similar way to
the \ion{Ca}{ii}\,H and K lines \citep{cram_dame_83, lites_etal_93, reza_etal_3, beck_etal_08}.
The core of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,h and k lines forms higher than the
\ion{Ca}{ii}\,H and K lines, due to a larger opacity \citep{leenaarts_etal_2013a}.
While the $\rm{k}_1$ minima form at about the temperature minimum,
the $\rm{k}_2$ and $\rm{k}_3$ form above $1$\,Mm \citep{leenaarts_etal_2013b}.
At first we fit a single-Gaussian function to the Mg\,{\sc ii}\,h and k lines
between k$_{\mathrm{1}}$ (h$_{\mathrm{1}}$) minima after removing the wing slope.
After that, we proceed with a double- and a triple-Gaussian fit.
A guided multi-Gaussian fitting method was previously presented by several authors \citep{peter_2000, tian_etal_2011}.
In this approach, the result of each step is used to construct an initial guess for
the next step that incorporates a more complex model.
We use the MPFIT package for the Gaussian fits  discussed in this paper \citep{mpfit} .

\begin{figure*}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{ \includegraphics*{fig4_29828.ps}}
\caption{Two-dimensional density plots of the intensity parameters in the FUV and NUV spectra.
  Color bars denote the density of points. The h$_1$ intensity and the
  line-core intensity of the subordinate \ion{Mg}{ii}\,$297.80$\,nm line are the result of  a profile analysis
  while the rest are retrieved from  the Gaussian fits. A positive correlation is seen in all panels.}
\label{fig:int_scat}
\end{figure*}
\begin{figure*}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{ \includegraphics*{fig5_29828.ps}}
  \caption{Two-dimensional density plots of the line widths ($W\,=2\,\sigma$) in different lines.
    There is a correlation between the width of the FUV lines (\ion{C}{ii}, \ion{Si}{IV}, \ion{O}{iv}),
    while there is no significant correlation between the chromospheric and the FUV lines.}
\label{fig:ww}
\end{figure*}
\subsection{The FUV data}\label{sec:si}
We used a multi-line multi-Gaussian fitting approach to simultaneously fit all spectral lines
between $139$ and $141$\,nm listed in Table\,\ref{tab:lines}.
The fitting procedure is similar to the \ion{Mg}{ii} case where we gradually
increased the number of the free parameters to have a better fit
and evaluate the results using the reduced chi-square~\citep{bevington_robinson_1992}.
The same technique was used to fit the \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm and \ion{C}{ii}\,$133.45$\,nm lines.
The \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm line forms at a height of about $1.0-1.5$\,Mm and is always optically thin \citep{lin_carlsson_2015}.
The \ion{C}{i}\,$135.58$\,nm line in the red wing of the  \ion{O}{i} line is
usually weaker, but can be stronger in flares \citep{cheng_etal_1980}.
For the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$140.3$\,nm line, we also performed a double-Gaussian fit.
The two Gaussians do not have similar properties: one has a larger amplitude, a narrower line,
and a smaller shift (core component), while the other usually has a smaller amplitude, a broader line,
and a larger shift (tail component). The core and tail components retrieved during this process are
discussed in Sect.~\ref{sec:intensity}.

\begin{table}
\centering
\caption{ Atomic parameters of selected spectral lines. $\lambda$ is the observed wavelength in air.
$\chi$ stands for the excitation potential of the lower level.
The formation temperatures are from \citet{sutherland_dopita_1993}.
The main spectral lines discussed in the paper are marked with an asterisk.}
\label{tab:lines}
\begin{tabular}{l l l l l} \hline\rule[-1.5mm]{-1mm}{5mm}
Line           &  $\lambda$\,[nm] & $\chi$\,[eV] &  $\log$\,T\,[K] & reference\\\hline\rule[-1.5mm]{-1mm}{5mm}
C\,{\sc ii}{$\ast$}  &  $133.4532$     &  $1.264$   &  $4.20-4.65$  &  1, 2\\
Ni\,{\sc ii}   &  $133.5201$     &  $0.187$   &  $4.00-4.25$  &  3, 4\\
C\,{\sc ii}    &  $133.5708$     &  $1.264$   &  $4.20-4.65$  &  1, 2\\
O\,{\sc i}$\ast$  &  $135.5598$  &  $0.000$   &  $4.00-4.15$  &  1, 5\\
C\,{\sc i}        &  $135.5844$  &  $1.264$   &  $4.00-4.10$  &  1, 2\\\hline\rule[-1.5mm]{-1mm}{5mm}
Si\,{\sc iv}   &  $139.376$      &  $0.000$   &  $4.05-4.25$  &  3, 6\\
Ni\,{\sc ii}   &  $139.902$      &  $0.187$   &  $4.00-4.25$  &  3, 4\\
O\,{\sc iv}    &  $139.978$      &  $0.000$   &  $4.05-4.25$  &  3, 6\\
Fe\,{\sc ii}   &  $139.9957$     &  $2.778$   &  $4.05-4.25$  &  1, 7\\
O\,{\sc iv}$\ast$    &  $140.115$      &  $0.048$   &  $5.15-5.30$  &  2, 5\\
S\,{\sc i}     &  $140.151$      &  $0.000$   &  $< \,4.00$   &  1, 8\\
Si\,{\sc iv}$\ast$   &  $140.277$      &  $0.000$   &  $4.75-4.85$  &  1, 9\\
Fe\,{\sc ii}   &  $140.5602$     &  $0.232$   &  $4.05-4.25$  &  1, 7\\
S\,{\sc iv}    &  $140.481$      &  $0.000$   &  $4.95-5.05$  &  1, 9\\
O\,{\sc iv}    &  $140.481$      &  $0.048$   &  $5.15-5.30$  &  3, 6\\
S\,{\sc iv}    &  $140.608$      &  $0.117$   &  $4.95-5.05$  &  1, 9\\
O\,{\sc iv}    &  $140.738$      &  $0.048$   &  $5.15-5.30$  &  1, 5\\\hline\rule[-1.5mm]{-1mm}{5mm}
Mg\,{\sc ii}\,k$\ast$ & $279.553$      &  $0.000$   &  $4.0-4.20$   &  1, 10\\
Mg\,{\sc ii}   &  $279.800$      &  $4.433$   &  $4.0-4.20$   &  1, 10\\
Ni\,{\sc i}    &  $279.865$      &  $0.110$   &  $< \,4.00$   &  1, 11\\
Fe\,{\sc i}    &  $283.2435$     &  $0.958$   &  $< \,4.00$   &  1, 7\\\hline
\end{tabular}
\tablebib{
  1-~\citet{nist}; 2-~\citet{moore_1970c}; 3-~\citet{vald}; 4-~\citet{K03}, 5-~\citet{moore_1993}; 6-~\citet{K11};
  7-~\citet{nave_etal94};
  8-~\citet{kaufman_1982}; 9-~\citet{toresson_1960}, 10-~\citet{risberg_1955}; 11-~\citet{mn_i_1975}}
\end{table}

The UV continuum at $135$\,nm forms beyond the temperature minimum \citep{judge_2006}.
To estimate the UV continuum,
we computed the median of a subset of continuum windows excluding the $1$\,\% outliers,
which was then used as an initial guess in the Gaussian fits. This
resulted in a fairly clean continuum map but sometimes there are a few warm or hot pixels.
There is an offset between the upper and lower halves of the chip.
This offset is due to simultaneous readout of two cameras and is present in some datasets.
In addition in some datasets, the dark subtraction in the calibration procedure creates a negative UV continuum in the
level\,$2$ data. We correct the negative continuum values in the maps
by lifting the lower limit of the continuum distribution to have a positive minimum.
A new IRIS technical document will address these issues.

Unlike photospheric spectral lines which have a well-known convective blueshift pattern and have an
average velocity in quiet Sun areas close to zero \citep{doerr_phd},
the average quiet Sun TR line profiles show significant Doppler shifts \citep{peter_judge_1999}.
For the \ion{Si}{iv} line, we compared the line positions with the mean position of the \ion{S}{i}\,$140.151$\,nm line
(assuming this line to be at rest),
while for the \ion{C}{ii} line the nearby \ion{Ni}{ii}\,$133.520$\,nm was used as a reference,
again assuming that the mean profile of this line has zero Doppler shift.
The accuracy of these assumptions is about $1-2$\,km\,s$^{-1}$.

\begin{figure}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics*{fig6_29828.ps}}
  \caption{Same as Fig.~\ref{fig:int_scat} but for the Doppler shifts.}
\label{fig:velo}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics*{fig7_29828.ps}}
\caption{Two-dimensional density plots of the logarithm of the line intensity versus the line width.}
\label{fig:intensity_width}
\end{figure}
\section{Results}\label{sec:result}
The analysis of $60$ LBs resulted in a sample of several NUV and FUV line parameters.
The LB sample consists of $42,436$ entries for each parameter.
In the following, we mainly discuss the peak intensity, the line width, and the velocity of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k,
\ion{O}{i}, \ion{C}{ii}, and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.
Light bridges are clearly seen in the core of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.
While the IRIS scanning slit clearly leaves the pattern of umbral flashes in the maps of the magnesium line core,
the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k$_{\rm{3}}$ intensities do not show umbral flashes in the LBs.

Figure~\ref{fig:hist_int} shows distributions of the continuum and line intensities in the LB sample.
It is seen that LBs have highest intensity in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line, an order of
magnitude higher than the corresponding $280$\,nm continuum.
The median LB intensity in the $280$\,nm continuum and
the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line (k$_{\rm{3}}$) are $23.1$ and $306.4$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$, respectively.
Excluding $5$\% outliers in the histograms, a probability interval covering $90$\% of all entries
for the $280$\,nm and the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line corresponds to $[6.4,\,72.6]$ and $[97.0,\,752.5]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$, respectively.
The \ion{O}{i}\,$135.560$\,nm line has a median intensity of $0.7$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$
with a $90$\,\% probability interval of $[0.2,\,3.9]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$, which
is comparable to the \ion{O}{iv}\,$140.115$\,nm forbidden line with an average amplitude of
$0.2$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$ and a $90$\,\% probability interval of $[0.0,\,1.2]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$.
The ratio of the line-core intensity of the \ion{C}{i}\,$135.58$ and \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm lines is distinctly
different in the LB sample than in the quiet Sun sample. Excluding all pixels that do not have a clear signal in both lines,
the median ratio in the LB sample is about $0.5$, while it is $0.3$ in the quiet Sun sample.
The intensities of the \ion{C}{ii} and \ion{Si}{iv} lines are $5.8$ and $1.3$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$, respectively,
about an order of magnitude higher than the \ion{O}{i} and the \ion{O}{iv} lines.
The $90$\,\% probability interval of the \ion{C}{ii} line corresponds to $[0.8,\,42.1]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$,
of the same order of magnitude as the \ion{Si}{iv} range ($[0.2,\,23.0]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$).
For a double-Gaussian fit to the \ion{Si}{iv} line, the core and tail components have
a median intensity of $1.3$ and $0.2$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$, respectively.
The UV continuum can be measured in the $133$, $135$, or $140$\,nm wavelength range, and the resulting maps are fairly comparable.
The UV continuum discussed below is retrieved from the $135$\,nm wavelength range.
It has the smallest intensity consistent with the fact that all the studied FUV lines are in emission:
the UV continuum has a median intensity of $0.2$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$ with a $90$\,\% probability interval of $[0.0,\,0.3]$\,DN\,s$^{-1}$.

\begin{figure*}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics*{fig8_29828.ps}}
  \caption{Distribution of the intensity, line width, and velocity in the LB sample (green) compared to the umbra (black) and
    quiet Sun (red) samples. %
    The quiet Sun area  surrounding sunspots includes some plage regions seen as a secondary population in the photosphere (panel \emph{A}).
    Histograms of the intensity parameters are shown in panels \emph{A-H}, while panels \emph{I-L} and \emph{M-P} show histograms
    of the line widths and  velocities, respectively.
    The line width of \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k$_{\rm{2}}$ shown on panel (\emph{I}) marks the average width of the two Gaussians
    used to fit the line. All intensity parameters (panels \emph{A-H}) were normalized to the corresponding integration times.
    Positive velocity denotes redshift.}
\label{fig:hist}
\end{figure*}
The top panel of Fig.~\ref{fig:hist_lw} shows the line width distribution in the LB sample.
The line width is measured at $1/e$ of the peak intensity  and is equal to $2\,\sigma$, where $\sigma$ is the Gaussian width.
The line width of the \ion{O}{i} and \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k lines (mean of the k$_{\rm{2}}$ emission widths)
are comparable ($8.4$ and $10.6$\,km\,s$^{-1}$), as was
expected since these lines mainly form in a similar temperature range.
The \ion{O}{i} line width of $90$\,\% of all entries in the LB sample falls between $[4.0,\,14.5]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$,
which spans a broader range than the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k$_{\rm{2}}$ range ($[5.6,\,11.8]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$).
The \ion{C}{ii} line has a median width of $18.0$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ and the $90$\,\% probability interval was
$[13.0,\,32.2]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$.
The single-Gaussian fit to the \ion{Si}{iv} line has a median width of $22.0$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ and
the $90$\,\% probability interval covers a  broader range than the \ion{C}{ii} line ($[13.4,\,44.9]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$).
Applying a double-Gaussian fit, the core and tail
components have a median width of $20.0\,\,$and $29.8$\,km\,s$^{-1}$  and the corresponding $90$\,\%  probability intervals are
$[12.9,\,40.1]$ and $[12.8,\,85.8]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, respectively.
A single-Gaussian fit to the \ion{O}{iv}\,$140.115$\,nm line (Table~\ref{tab:lines}) yields
a median width of  $25.3$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ and the $90$\,\% probability interval corresponds to $[15.8,\,45.1]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$.
The extreme largest line widths resemble flaring regions.
The FUV observed lines are significantly wider than the sound speed at the corresponding
formation temperature \citep[$4.3$\,km\,s$^{-1}$ for the \ion{C}{ii} and \ion{Si}{iv} lines,][]{peter_2001}.
Distribution of the velocity in the LB sample is shown in the bottom panel of Fig.~\ref{fig:hist_lw}.
Light bridges are redshifted, almost in all spectral lines. The blueshifts in the \ion{O}{i} and \ion{Mg}{ii} lines
are comparable to the redshifts. The median velocity in these two lines are $1.3$ and $0.4$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, and the
$90$\,\% probability intervals correspond to $[-4.1,\,5.7]$ and $[-3.1,\,2.7]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, respectively.
The \ion{C}{ii} line is systematically redshifted ($2.0$\,km\,s$^{-1}$) with a $90$\,\% probability interval of $[-3.2,\,8.7]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$.
The \ion{Si}{iv} line has the largest redshift and $90$\,\%  probability interval ($4.3$,\,$[-9.1,\,22.9]$\,km\,s$^{-1}$).

Figure~\ref{fig:int_scat} shows two-dimensional density plots of the line intensities in the NUV and FUV spectra.
From the $280$\,nm photospheric continuum to the \ion{O}{iv} line core,
there is a significant spatial correlation between all pairs of the line and continuum intensities.
Noteworthy is the fact that even the UV continuum and the subordinate \ion{Mg}{ii}\,$279.80$\,nm line-core intensity which have
weak signals clearly show the correlation to the other lines.
In most panels, the parameters on either axis were retrieved from the analysis of a different spectral band.

Density plots of the line width (at $1/e$ of the peak amplitude) for all lines in our study are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:ww}.
The width of the \ion{C}{ii} line has a significant correlation only with the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{O}{iv} lines.
The width of the k$_{\rm{2}}$ peaks corresponds to the average width of the two Gaussians used to fit the line and
does not represent the distance of the two emission peaks.
The \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k$_{\rm{2}}$ width does not scale with the width of the FUV lines.
The same is true for the width of the \ion{O}{i} line (Fig.~\ref{fig:ww}, bottom panels):
the width of these two lines changes in a restricted range.
The tail toward the very small line width in the \ion{O}{i} panels is perhaps due to noise.
The density plot of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line versus the \ion{O}{iv} line (not shown here) is very
similar to that for the \ion{Si}{iv} line (top right panel).
In summary, we found evidence of a correlation between the width of the TR lines while
there is no significant correlation between the width of the TR and chromospheric lines.

Density plots of the Doppler shifts are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:velo}.
All lines are dominated by redshifts, which is also clear in the velocity
histograms (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist_lw}, bottom panel).
The velocity of the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{C}{ii} lines span a much broader range than the chromospheric lines.
There is a significant correlation between
the velocity in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k center of gravity and the \ion{C}{ii} lines as well as between the \ion{C}{ii} and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.
The relation between the magnesium k$_{\rm{3}}$ and the silicon line-core velocities shows some trend with a large scatter.
The velocity of the \ion{O}{i} line does not clearly show a trend with other lines.
There is also a positive correlation between the intensity and the line width in all the lines (Fig.~\ref{fig:intensity_width}).
Although the line intensities span several orders of magnitude, the line widths changes within a factor of two.
The scatter increases toward the hotter lines.

A comparison of the histograms of the LB sample with the umbra and quiet Sun samples is displayed in Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}.
The wing intensity of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line in quiet Sun is brighter than the LBs and umbra (panels \emph{A}).
The same is true for the continuum intensity at the $280$\,nm (not shown here).
As seen in panels \emph{B-D}, LBs are one order of magnitude brighter than umbra in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line.
In panels \emph{D-G}, the LBs are brighter than the quiet Sun in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k, \ion{O}{i}, \ion{C}{ii}, and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.
The intensity enhancement compared to umbra in the TR lines is smaller than the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k
line (panels \emph{E-H}). A comparison of the line width is shown in panels \emph{I-L}.
Light bridge profiles are either significantly wider than umbra
(\ion{Mg}{ii}\,k and \ion{C}{ii} lines, panels \emph{I-J})
or have an extended tail toward very broad lines (panels \emph{K-L}).}
Although LBs are dominated by redshifts, the velocity distribution are blueshifted in
the LBs and umbra samples compared to the quiet Sun sample (panels \emph{O} and \emph{P}).
The chromospheric velocities of our LBs shown in panels \emph{M} and \emph{N} are close to umbra.

Light bridges are systematically displaced in different spectral lines
such that high forming lines are closer to the solar limb. To estimate this projection effect, we used the $280$\,nm
continuum, the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k, and the \ion{Si}{iv} masks to find the center of mass
of the LBs in different channels. The displacement along the radial direction
was then compared to the distance to the disk center (Fig.~\ref{fig:shift}).
The displacement and the $x$ coordinate have opposite signs so a LB is closer
to the disk center in the photosphere than in the TR.
The amount of the displacement at one solar radius
in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k\,\,/\,\,\ion{Si}{iv} maps is about $2.0\,/\,3.5$\,Mm which corresponds to the
formation height of the chromosphere\,\,/\,\,TR.
The deviations compared to the linear fit can be due to a mismatch of the
exact shape of the LBs, its extension, or a real height difference between different LBs in the sample.\vspace{-0.5cm}
\begin{figure}
\resizebox{\hsize}{!}{\includegraphics*{fig9_29828.ps}}
\caption{Scatter plot of the displacement between center of mass of the LBs in the $280$\,nm continuum
  channel and the \ion{Mg}{ii} and \ion{Si}{iv} lines. The $x$-axis represents the radial distance
  to  the disk center in the heliographic coordinate.
  The red line shows a linear fit passing through the origin. The estimated altitude of each line
as the displacement value at  one solar radius is shown in each panel.}
\label{fig:shift}
\end{figure}

\section{Discussion}\label{sec:discussion}
\subsection{Vertical extent}
{We measured a systematic displacement between the center of mass position of the LBs
in the TR and chromosphere compared to the photosphere.
The LBs in the photospheric continuum are closer
to the disk center than in the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{Mg}{ii} maps
which hints at the three-dimensional structure of LBs in the solar atmosphere.
The scatter in Fig.~\ref{fig:shift} close to the disk center is significant as
the absolute amount of the shift is smaller close to the disk center than close to the limb.
Therefore the measured shifts close to the disk center are more prone to the
noise (the shifts are partially affected by the mismatch of the exact shape of the LBs in different layers).
This displacement is partially responsible for the scatter in the density plots (Fig.~\ref{fig:int_scat}):
there is a larger scatter between two parameters that form at very different
temperatures than those that form at a comparable temperature.
This systematic displacement also indicates that LBs to some extent are
coherent structures in an extended height range.
The fact that each IRIS scan was recorded over approximately one hour does not necessarily imply that
the measured emission enhancements associated with LBs should have a stationary nature.
A quasi-stationary bright LB can be sustained through the transient events provided
that the brightenings happen with a high enough frequency as
suggested by \citet{toriumi_etal_2015}, which is consistent with observations of
LBs with IRIS filtergrams reported by \citet{bharti_2015}
and \citet{yang_etal_2015}. These authors found frequent small-scale jets associated with LBs.
Although there is no temporal evolution in the LB sample, our results remain qualitatively
consistent with an intermittent supply of the energy and momentum to LBs.

The presence of a systematic LB signal in the chromosphere and TR is not consistent with a cups-shaped
magnetic configuration \citep{leka1997, jurcak_etal_2006,lagg_etal_2014, felipe_etal_2016}.
According to this model, the field lines associated with LBs merge in the upper photosphere.
Therefore, in the chromosphere and TR, the LB field lines are not distinguishable from the umbra.
This is inconsistent with a systematic observation of LBs in the upper atmosphere.

\subsection{Intensity}\label{sec:intensity}
Light bridges show an excess intensity that can be more than one order of magnitude higher than the
nearby umbra. The intensity of the UV continuum (at $135$\,nm) is about $0.2$\,\,DN\,s$^{-1}$ and is significantly more
prone to noise than line-core intensities. While not true in all cases, there are many LBs in which the
UV continuum maps show  a pattern of the photospheric LB.
The UV continuum at $135$\,mm mimics the local heatings at $\succsim\!0.5$Mm.
We also note that the subordinate \ion{Mg}{ii}\,$279.80$\,nm line
in the red wing of the  \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line shows {\em emission} in several  LBs, distinct from the observed
absorption line in the photosphere and plage \citep{carlsson_leenaarts_depon_2015}.
These findings provide evidence for an energy deposit in the low chromosphere.

The blue wing of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}, panel \emph{A})
has a similar intensity distribution to that of the $280$\,nm continuum (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist_int}).
The magnesium k$_{\rm{2}}$ and k$_{\rm{3}}$ bands have an intensity that is higher
than the co-spatial and co-temporal continuum by more than one
order of magnitude (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}, panels \emph{C-D}), which
indicates that the radiative processes cannot provide enough energy
and there must be some sort of chromospheric heating that sustains the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line-core emission.
The asymmetry between the violet and red emission peaks in the
LBs is comparable to quiet Sun (k$_{\rm{2v}}$ is slightly stronger than k$_{\rm{2r}}$).
The emission strength, the ratio between the k$_{\rm{2v}}$ and k$_{\rm{3}}$, is between umbra and quiet Sun.
Unlike nearby umbral profiles which have a single lobe, LB profiles show the
typical double-reversal pattern, while sometimes the two lobes merge and form a very asymmetric line profile.
The \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line profiles are distinctly different from that in an umbra or a plage:
the lines are broader than umbra, but not as broad as plage (particularly not as broad in the k$_{\rm{1}}$ level).
The line width remains comparable to quiet Sun, although it is usually smaller.
This has two implications: First, the LB temperature stratification in a one-dimensional model atmosphere
should significantly deviate from an umbral (or a plage) atmospheres.
Second, the umbral scattered light does not play an important role in LB profiles as
there is a clear distinction between the LB and umbra profiles (umbra profiles are narrower,
have a single emission peak, and have an intensity up to three orders of magnitude smaller than LB profiles).
The strong correlation between the intensity in different continuum and lines is
comparable to quiet Sun areas \citep{doschek_etal_2004}. Our results remain consistent
with \citet{chae_etal_1998b}, who suggested that the lower to mid TR comprises coherent structures.

As discussed by \cite{peter_2000, peter_2010}, many spectral lines in the TR including the \ion{Si}{iv}\,$140.3$\,nm line
show a tail component in the network regions while a single-Gaussian fit is enough to fit the observed profile in inter-network.
The double-Gaussian fit of our LBs (Sect.~\ref{sec:si}) resulted in an average tail component
that is about $14\%$ of the total intensity (tail plus core).
\citet{peter_2001} studied the core and tail components in quiet Sun network and
reported a similar fraction ($14.8\%$).
The average line width measured in our LBs are, however, significantly smaller than that reported by \citet{peter_2001}
for networks ($22/20/30$ vs. $28/25/44$ km\,s$^{-1}$ for the single-Gaussian, and the core and tail components of the double Gaussian).
The higher spatial resolution of IRIS data compared to SUMER implies that the
difference can be partially due to the instrumental effects
(a line profile emerging from a larger resolution element has a larger width due to
the velocity dispersion compared to that originating from a smaller area).
Further studies of networks using IRIS data facilitates a more accurate comparison.

\cite{yang_etal_2015} found LB traces in the IRIS $133$\,nm slitjaw images co-temporal and co-spatial with
high-resolution \ion{TiO}{} filtergrams from ground-based observations.
IRIS filtergrams at $133$ and $140$\,nm have a mixed contribution from the core and continuum of the FUV lines.
Unlike photospheric and chromospheric filtergrams in the visible/near-infrared in which
spectral line-core intensities are within a factor $2-10$ of the nearby continuum, a line-core intensity
in the UV lines can be a factor of $10^4$ higher than the nearby continuum.
Therefore, even if the continuum wavelength range
covers a band that is hundred times larger than the width of the strong FUV line in the filter passband
\citep[$0.4$\,nm for the \ion{Mg}{ii} filter and $4$\,nm for the $133/140$\,nm filters,][]{iris_2013}, the
contribution of the line to the integrated filtergram signal can exceed that from the UV continuum by a large factor.
As a result, in active regions, the line mostly outweights the continuum signal in the IRIS filtergrams, while in quiet Sun
the filtergrams represent the UV continuum. In contrast, the line intensities from IRIS spectra  presented here
have no contribution from the line wing or nearby continuum.
Similarly, the UV continuum in our data shows a pure continuum signal that is not contaminated through the wings of spectral lines.
This distinction is absent in the IRIS filtergrams of LBs presented by \citet{yang_etal_2015} and \citet{bharti_2015}.

\subsection{Line width}
The line widths in the chromosphere and TR are primarily nonthermal as the
turbulence velocity increases toward the upper umbra atmosphere \citep{kneer_mattig_1978, lites_skumanich_1982};
they are also nonthermal in a quiet Sun atmosphere \citep{val81}.
As seen in Fig.~\ref{fig:hist_lw}, the line width increases with the formation temperature, which
is in accordance with the general understanding that the maximum nonthermal broadening happens
at about $3\times10^5$K in quiet Sun, beyond the temperature range discussed here \citep{dere_mason_1993, peter_2001}.
The increased broadening of the chromospheric and TR lines in the LBs compared to umbra
provides evidence for an energy deposit in the atmosphere.
Among different line broadening mechanisms, we note a few of them relevant to the discussed spectral lines.
A line can be broadened by the turbulence in the atmosphere \citep{afy},
by a velocity dispersion due to unresolved structures in the resolution element \citep{feldman_1983}, or
$-$ as discussed by \citet{depontieu_etal_2014} $-$ by a twisting motion of small-scale flux elements.

The k$_{\rm{2}}$ width of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line in LBs is larger than umbra but comparable to quiet
Sun (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}, panel \emph{I}). This is in contrast to the width of the  \ion{O}{iv}\,$140.115$\,nm lines
which shows a similar distribution for the umbra, LB, and quiet Sun, although the LB and quiet Sun samples have a larger tail
toward larger line widths (panel \emph{L}).
The situations in the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{C}{ii} lines are different: while the LB distribution peaks close
to the quiet Sun sample for the former, it peaks close to the umbra sample for the latter (panels \emph{J,\,{\rm and}\,\,K}).
Distribution of the width of the \ion{C}{ii} line in quiet Sun and sunspot presented here
are in agreement with \citet{rathore_etal_2015}.
In both cases, the line width is the result of fitting a single-Gaussian function.
That the \ion{C}{ii} line width in LBs is more comparable to umbra is consistent with our
finding that the contrast of LBs in this line are not as large as in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k
and \ion{Si}{iv} lines (panels \emph{D,\,F\,{\rm and}\,\,G}).
As discussed by \citet{avrett_loser_07} and \citet{rathore_carlsson_2015}, the formation of the \ion{C}{ii} line pair and also the
background opacity in the $133$\,nm wavelength range should be treated in nonlocal thermodynamic equilibrium.
Three-dimensional effects produce a \ion{C}{ii} line profile that is significantly influenced
by nearby regions \citep[][their Fig.~10]{rathore_carlsson_2015}.
The net effect is that we observe LBs that are less distinct
in the \ion{C}{ii} line than they are in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.

We found evidence for a spatial correlation between the logarithm of the intensity and the line width
in LBs in all of the lines in this study (Fig.~\ref{fig:intensity_width}).
Our finding is in agreement with \citet{dere_mason_1993} who found significant correlation between the \ion{Si}{iv}
intensity and line width in quiet Sun. \citet{peter_2000} reported a similar correlation in the networks.
A comparable relation between the intensity and line width was
obtained by \citet{lemaire_etal_1999} for coronal holes and for quiet Sun.
\citet{akiyama_etal_2005} also found a line width$-$intensity spatial correlation for a set of TR spectral lines in quiet Sun.
They did not find a clear correlation for the \ion{Si}{iv} line in quiet Sun while there is a correlation
in our LB sample.

In our statistical ensemble of LBs, the line width of the simultaneously observed
FUV lines show a spatial correlation (Fig.~\ref{fig:ww}). The relation between
the line width of the \ion{C}{ii}, \ion{Si}{iv}, and \ion{O}{iv} lines indicates that there is a
correlation between plasma in this range of temperatures ($3\times10^4$ to $1.5\times10^5$K) in a LB atmosphere.
This is not fully consistent with the idea of a one-dimensional stratification in which
different temperatures occupy different heights, unless one assumes that there is a coherent structure
which extends over a few Mm.
Our results do not support a stationary bright wall; unlike the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line, the UV continuum
$-$ and to a minor extent weak FUV lines $-$ do not show the LB pattern in all cases.
If there were a bright wall (hotter than the nearby umbra) from the photosphere to the TR,
the UV continuum would show the LBs in all cases.
Supporting a solid bright wall is further complicated considering the vast dynamics of LBs in the
photosphere and chromosphere.
Furthermore, there is an ample amount of fine structure in the chromosphere and TR of LBs,
which has a small scale down to the resolution element.
We interpret the correlations as a signature of a multi-component TR.
The fine structure in LBs and indications of a multi-component atmosphere
support an inhomogeneous TR discussed by \citet{peter_2001}.

\subsection{Doppler shifts}
Light bridges in the TR show both redshift and blueshift, although the redshift is dominant.
Only in the strong photospheric line of the \ion{Fe}{i}\,$283.2435$\,nm and the
chromospheric lines of \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k and \ion{O}{i}\,$135.560$\,nm,
are the blue- and red-shifts comparable (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}, panels \emph{M-N}).
The range of the measured velocities significantly increases with the formation temperature of the FUV lines.
The median redshift in the \ion{Si}{iv} line in the quiet Sun sample ($7.3$\,km\,s$^{-1}$) is
larger than the corresponding value in the LB and umbra samples ($4.4$ and $2.4$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, respectively).
The average quiet Sun redshift in the sample is slightly larger than
the typical average quiet Sun velocities reported for this line \citep{peter_judge_1999},
but this can be due to selection effects as the quiet Sun sample is not very quiet.
The quiet Sun sample is often in the moat around sunspots.
The \ion{C}{ii} velocity distribution in the quiet Sun sample (panels \emph{O}) has a median value at
$2.3$\,km\,s$^{-1}$, while the corresponding velocity for the LB / umbra sample is  $2$\,/\,$1.8$\,km\,s$^{-1}$.

The Doppler shifts of the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k, \ion{C}{ii}, and \ion{Si}{iv} lines show a positive correlation while
the \ion{O}{i} line-core velocity does not show a clear trend with other lines (Fig.~\ref{fig:velo}).
As mentioned earlier, the  \ion{O}{i} line is weaker than
the \ion{C}{ii} and \ion{Si}{iv} lines and hence is more prone to noise.
The correlation between the Doppler shifts is in accordance with the correlations between the line widths and the line intensity
discussed above.
The coupling between the cool and hot plasma is essential in the heating processes.
In the cool plasma there are many neutrals, while the bulk of the TR consists of ionized atoms.
Recent numerical models hint at the importance of the ambipolar diffusion in the plasma heating
in  the chromosphere where hydrogen and helium are partially ionized \citep{khomenko_etal_2014, sykora_etal_2015}.
Altogether, we found evidence for a physical state in LBs where cool and hot plasma
mutually influence each other and their spatial variation shows some degree of coherence.
We conclude that LBs consists of multi-component (multi-thermal) atmospheres.

\subsection{Energy balance}
IRIS observations of LBs have revealed enhanced emission compared to
nearby umbra from the photosphere to the chromosphere and TR.}
Although the bulk of LBs are brighter or much brighter than nearby umbra in all lines,
there are some LBs that are not significantly brighter in one or more lines,
in particular in the weak \ion{O}{i} and the UV continuum. In other words, there is an intrinsic diversity
in the contrast of LBs in the FUV emission lines, while they are always
distinctly brighter in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line. This perhaps indicates that
different energy sources govern the cool and hot lines (see below).
This reminds us of the variation in the continuum contrast of LBs in the photosphere as discussed by
\cite{rolf_etal_2016}. Further investigations are required to find out how far the amount of energy deposited
in the chromosphere and TR depends on the photospheric structure and dynamics.
Photospheric observations provide evidence for overturning convection in LBs  \citep{rimmele_08, roupe_luis_etal_2010}.
A convectively driven LB is also supported by the numerical simulations of \cite{cheung_etal10} and \citet{rempel_2011}.
These simulations do not extend beyond the temperature minimum and so cannot be directly compared with our results.
Even if LBs show a close resemblance to quiet Sun in the photosphere, our results prove that their properties
notably deviate from quiet Sun in the chromosphere and TR.
As a result, extra heating mechanisms are required to explain their excess emission
in addition to those operating in quiet Sun.

The intensity of spectral lines and continuums in LBs compared to quiet Sun varies in the atmosphere.
Although LBs are usually not as bright as granulation in the photosphere,
they are significantly brighter in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line and at the same time only slightly brighter in the \ion{O}{i} line.
The \ion{O}{i} line forms at a height of $1.0-1.5$\,Mm \citep{lin_carlsson_2015}
while the magnesium line has contributions from layers up to several Mm above the solar surface.
In other words, the contrast of LBs compared to quiet Sun increases
from photospheric continuum up to a height of about $2.0-2.5$\,Mm
where the k$_{\rm{3}}$ forms \citep{leenaarts_etal_2013b}.
The contrast does not further increase upward for the \ion{C}{ii}
and \ion{Si}{iv} lines and at the same time there is little
difference between the LB and quiet Sun in the \ion{O}{iv} line (Fig.~\ref{fig:hist}).
If the energy flow were primarily from the corona
toward the chromosphere as suggested by the downflow in the TR lines,
one would expect to find a larger relative intensity in the TR than in the chromosphere.
Our findings support an energy deposit which peaks in the middle/upper chromosphere.

Oscillations are prevalent in the solar atmosphere.
Umbral flashes are oscillations observed in the chromosphere of sunspot umbra  \citep{socas_etal_2000}.
Maps of the chromospheric intensities do not show the umbral flashes in LBs.
We used IRIS time series to estimate importance of the mechanical heating.
To this end, we performed a Fourier analysis of a $2$h fixed-slit time series for entries $15$ and $16$ in Table~\ref{tab:sample}.
A comparison of the Fourier power in the LB and umbra reveals that while umbral flashes have a
typical frequency higher than $5$\,mHz, the power in LBs peaks
at frequencies lower than $5$\,mHz both in the intensity and velocity of
the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line. This agrees with the fact that we do not find signs of umbral flashes in LBs.
Similar results were reported by \citet{zang_etal_2017}, who observed different oscillation frequencies in LBs and umbra.
\citet{yurchyshyn_etal_2015} found strong power concentration associated with a LB using a $100$ min IRIS time series.
These findings are comparable to those of \citet{sobotka_etal_2013} who measured the acoustic power of LBs in the photosphere.
In summary, the oscillation period of LBs observed in the \ion{Mg}{ii}\,k line is between three and five minutes.
There is also a significant power concentration observed associated with LBs.
Therefore, dissipation of the mechanical energy contributes to the chromospheric energy balance of LBs.

It is not clear whether the spectral lines discussed here are supplied by a common heating mechanism or
experience diverse heating regimes.
The strong dependence of the longitudinal thermal conductivity on the temperature \citep[$T^{5/2}$,][]{stix_book} implies
that the thermal conduction is not efficient for a generic chromospheric temperature of $10^4$\,K.
The situation changes toward the upper chromosphere where the temperature and the temperature gradient increase substantially.
The conducted heat flux is concentrated in channels of strong magnetic field strength.
As seen in Fig.~\ref{fig:mask}, the width of the LBs in the TR is comparable to the one in the photosphere, although
the pressure and density between the two layers are different by several orders of magnitude.
In other words, LBs do not exponentially expand with height as they are surrounded by strong magnetic field of umbra.
Furthermore, we do not observe peripheral intensity enhancements in LB maps of the TR lines:
the heating should happen through the volume of the LB and not over its boundary.
It is feasible to perceive that an efficient thermal conduction in the \ion{Si}{iv} and \ion{O}{iv} lines
contributes to the heating of LBs. An exponentially increasing density with depth along with an inefficient thermal conductivity
at low temperatures prevents the thermal conduction from playing an important role in the low chromosphere.

In quiet Sun, the upper chromosphere and TR lines form above the $\beta=1$ surface, i.e., in a highly
conductive media in which the magnetic pressure dominates the gas pressure
\citep[the plasma-$\beta$ is the ratio of the thermal pressure to the magnetic pressure,][]{aschwanden_2004}.
In sunspot umbra, the surface of equipartition between magnetic and thermal energy density
is located at a lower geometrical height than the quiet Sun.
\citet{metcalf_etal_1995} found that in a sunspot, the magnetic field becomes force-free in the low chromosphere.
In contrast, \citet{socas_2005a} observed a sunspot with a spectropolarimeter
in the photosphere and chromosphere and found that the magnetic field was not force-free up to $\approx\!2$Mm.
A LB perhaps further complicates the magnetic field structure and the field deviates from a potential configuration.
We tried to roughly estimate the plasma-$\beta$ in LBs assuming a field strength of $\approx\!1$\,kG and a
thermodynamic stratification similar to  model-M of \citet{maltby_etal_86}.
The plasma-$\beta$ is smaller than unity for layers at $\log\tau\approx-4$ and above.
In addition, the convective motion in LBs
builds up a magnetic free energy \citep{peter_etal_2004}.
\citet{reza_etal_2012a} discussed evolution of a forming sunspot and its impact on the magnetic field structure of a LB.
\citet{roubustini_etal_2016} found  magnetic reconnection as the driving force of the small-scale jets in the LBs.
We conclude that currents should be abundant in LBs.
At present, there are many reports of significant current in the photosphere \citep{jurcak_etal_2006, felipe_etal_2016} and
a few in the chromosphere \citep{tritschler_etal_08}.
In summary, the Joule heating contributes to the emission enhancements in the LBs, which
is consistent with our finding that the median intensity ratio
of the \ion{C}{i}\,$135.58$\,nm and \ion{O}{i}\,$135.56$\,nm lines
is about $0.5$ in LBs compared to $\approx\!0.3$ in quiet Sun.
The ratio was interpreted as a tracer of flaring activity by \citet{cheng_etal_1980}.
To further quantify the importance of the magnetic, mechanical, or thermal conduction energy,
the field strength and oscillations have to be measured simultaneously.
In particular, high-resolution ground observations help to distinguish
if segmented or filamentary LBs harbor different heating mechanisms.

\section{Conclusion}\label{sec:conclusion}
We studied a sample of light bridges (LBs) observed with IRIS to address their presence and
properties in the chromosphere and transition region.
The strength of the emission lines varies among LBs and also depends on the selected spectral line.
Light bridges have a clear signature in the  Mg\,{\sc ii}\,k and \ion{Si}{iv} lines.
The correlations between the line widths and the intensities of spectral lines originating from
plasma at different temperatures implies an inhomogeneous and multi-thermal state
that deviates from a typical quiet Sun and umbra atmosphere. This is further fortified
by strong correlations between the intensity of different lines.
Considering the small-scale structure of LBs,
the spatial distribution, and the diversity in the emission enhancements,
light bridges are  multi-thermal, dynamic, and  coherent structures in the
solar atmosphere from the photosphere to the transition region.
The observed emission enhancements in the chromosphere and transition region compiles evidence against
the cusp-shape magnetic structure of LBs.
The variation in the emission enhancements in different layers indicates that
different heating mechanisms operate in the atmosphere.

\begin{acknowledgements}
IRIS is a NASA small explorer mission developed and operated by LMSAL with mission operations executed at NASA Ames
Research center and major contributions to downlink communications funded by the Norwegian Space Center (NSC, Norway)
through an ESA PRODEX contract. The author gratefully acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry of Economy
and Competitivity through project AYA2014-60476-P (Solar Magnetometry in the Era of Large Solar Telescopes).
Part of this work was supported by the DFG grant RE\,3282/1-2.
This work has made use of the VALD database, operated at Uppsala University, the Institute of Astronomy RAS in Moscow,
and the University of Vienna. We would like to thank the referee for the constructive suggestions.
\end{acknowledgements}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


FreakNight 2019 is a Halloween electronic music festival that's held every year in Seattle. They claim to be "the largest and longest running electronic music festival in the Northwest," and features a lineup of some of the biggest names in various house genres, dubstep, trance and more!
Throw that together with carnival rides, nightmarish performers and a Halloween vibe combined with rave attire and you have a funky good time.
The expected FreakNight 2019 date is October 25, if the festival continues on the same weekend as the previous one. This date isn't confirmed, so check back for updates!
The FreakNight 2019 lineup and FreakNight 2019 tickets are below!
The expected Freaknight 2019 date is October 25, if the festival continues on the same weekend as the previous one. Check back for updates on confirmation!
Freaknight 2019 has been confirmed! Dates haven't been announced yet, but festival organizers have said it will happen next year!
Freaknight tickets are not on sale.
The Freaknight lineup for 2019 hasn't been announced yet. Check back for updates!
Who do you want in the Freaknight lineup?


Georgia decisions are monitored for the site by Charles R. Beans, a partner at the Atlanta branch of Hawkins & Parnell. For many years, even after Daubert, the Georgia courts adhered to the test set forth in Harper v. State, 249 Ga. 519, 292 S.E.2d 389 (1982), under which expert scientific testimony was admissible if the procedure or technique on which the expert relied had "reached a scientific stage of verifiable certainty" or "rest[ed] upon the laws of nature." In February 2005, however, the legislature intervened, passing Senate Bill 3. As signed into law by the Governor, Senate Bill 3 mandates that Daubert be followed in civil cases and encourages the Georgia courts to draw on federal Daubert precedents. The legislation supplies a different test in criminal cases, in which "the opinions of experts on any question of science, skill, trade, or like questions shall always be admissible." Georgia's Evidence Code is available online.


Touchstone Institute has released their 360° View of Communicative Competence, a framework for intercultural communication in the workplace.
OTepp was happy to have the opportunity to share in Touchstone Institute's 360° Project Working Conference, as well as attend focus groups and webinars discussing communication competency in the workplace.
The resources on the website are an excellent source of information for both employers and IEOTs looking to enhance intercultural communication in the diverse workplace.


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What does technology for good mean to you?
At the beginning of May we asked Liz Williams, General Manager of Sustainable Business at BT, what sponsoring the Tech4Good Awards means to BT, and to say a few words on why she believes technology has the power to transform communities.
"It's about the individuals, it's about young people, it's about old people, it's about people who are in need or people who are socially excluded. Technology is the thing that really can make a difference transforming lives across the world."
In this short video Liz looks at previous winners of the Tech4Good Awards, including LexAble, who won the Accessibility Award in 2012. She also looks at how much of an impact other previous winners are having on their local community, how they are improving people's lives and how they are making the world more accessible for those living with disabilities.
Remember you have until 5pm on 10th July to vote for who you want to win the People's Award at this year's Tech4Good Awards. Visit the voting page to vote through the website, and you can also vote through Twitter, using each finalist's unique hashtag. You'll be promoted to tweet once you've voted through the website, and you can also find these hashtags on each of the finalist's individual pages, under Finalists 2014.
← BT Infinity Lab and TechHub team up for a 'Connected Society'
Tech4Good Awards 2014: Meet The Winners →

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


MPW Insider is an online community where the biggest names in business and beyond answer timely career and leadership questions. Today's answer for:What are three things you look for in a resume? is written by Gay Gaddis, CEO and founder of T3.
I once hired a young woman before she even graduated college. Her resume was proof she could multitask—the first thing I look for when making new hires. This young woman was captain of her soccer team, worked a part-time job, and involved in philanthropic activities at her university. Not only was she involved, but she was smart too: she would be graduating on time with honors. I couldn't help but think–bingo–this is just the type of person we need on our team.
The second thing that I look for in a new hire is passion and interest for the industry. Will they take the time to explore innovative ideas and technology—even if it means longer hours? Look for someone who is self-motivated and genuinely interested in advancing your company.
And the third, but probably most important thing I look for in a candidate is their ability to be self aware and realistic about their strengths and weaknesses. I learned this the hard way. In my first job, I was secluded in a cubicle and practically lost any sense of creativity I brought to the company. I quickly learned that in order for me to thrive, I needed to be in a collaborative work environment. I recommend taking a personality profile test, like the Myers-Briggs or the DISC. These tests will inform you of your strengths and help you identify the types of jobs and industries that best fit your skills.
And this should go without saying, but always remember to research the company before your interview. Those interviewing you will appreciate your diligence and it will likely give you huge leg-up on the competition.
Why your resume matters less than it used to by Kristen Hamilton, CEO and co-founder of Koru.
3 resume tips for recent grads by Perry Yeatman, CEO of Perry Yeatman Global Partners.
What does your resume say about you? by Sharon Price John, CEO of Build-A-Bear Workshop.
CEO of Brit + Co: 3 ways to create a stand out resume by Brit Morin, CEO of Brit + Co.


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Home » Y.P. v Russia: Sterilisation Without Consent, Article 3, and Weak Reproductive Rights at the ECtHR
Y.P. v Russia: Sterilisation Without Consent, Article 3, and Weak Reproductive Rights at the ECtHR
by Zoe L. Tongue and Lewis Graham
On the 20th September 2022, the European Court of Human Rights handed down its judgment in Y.P. v Russia, a case concerning the non-consensual sterilisation of a 28-year-old women during a Caesarean section. The Court's dismissal of the arguments made under Article 3 appears out of step with its previous jurisprudence on sterilisation. However, looking at other reproductive rights cases, namely those concerning abortion, can shed some light on the Court's inconsistent application of the Article 3 test.
In 2008, Y.P. had to undergo an emergency Caesarean section due to a number of complications. During the surgery, while Y.P. was unconscious, the doctors identified that she had a ruptured uterus. An urgent medical panel was convened to decide whether to suture the rupture or perform a hysterectomy (that is, the full removal of the uterus). They decided to opt for suturing the rupture – however, the doctors decided that there was a real risk that the uterus would rupture if Y.P. was to become pregnant again, so they sealed her left fallopian tube (her right had already been removed due to complications with a previous pregnancy). The consent form she had signed before the Caesarean section explicitly excluded consent for sterilisation.
The following day, Y.P. was told that her remaining fallopian tube had been sterilised, but she was given no further details and did not understand what this meant. She was also advised by the doctor not to tell her husband. The couple only discovered that she had been non-consensually sterilised two years later when, upon facing difficulties conceiving, they visited a gynaecologist.
The District Court had rejected her subsequent civil claim, as there had been medical grounds for the sterilisation and Y.P. was free to conceive using in vitro fertilisation. The Krasnoyarsk Regional Court agreed, and the applicant appealed to the European Court of Human Rights alleging a violation of Articles 3 and 8.
The European Court of Human Rights highlighted that the consent form Y.P. had signed explicitly excluded consent for sterilisation, and that the sterilisation was not an emergency treatment (§53). The threat to the applicant's life was not imminent and could have been prevented by less intrusive methods, so her consent could not have been justifiably dispensed with (§55). The Court also stated that her health and physical integrity had been 'grossly affected' by the procedure (§56-57). Accordingly, there had been an infringement of Y.P.'s right to respect of her private life in violation of Article 8 (§59-60). The state was ordered to pay compensation for this violation.
However, the Court rejected the applicant's claim under Article 3. While the Court observed that the decision to sterilise Y.P. was clearly disrespectful of her autonomy, it held that this did not reach the threshold of severity required to find a breach of Article 3. Much of the Court's reasoning focused on the intention of the doctors and the absence of any additional vulnerabilities.
In agreement with the majority, Judge Elósegui wrote a concurring opinion which expanded on these points. In relation to Article 8, Elósegui highlighted the paternalistic nature of the decision to dispense with informed consent. On Article 3, she expanded on vulnerability point to argue that this was not an instance of forced sterilisation with racist or eugenicist intentions aimed at women belonging to specific groups – which would indicate malicious intent, as absent in this case.
Judges Serghides and Pavli wrote dissenting opinions in disagreement with the majority's finding on Article 3. The dissenting judges found the majority's arguments around the doctors' lack of ill-intention unpersuasive. While rejecting the suggestion that an additional element of vulnerability was necessary to meet the Article 3 threshold, both judges also highlighted the inherent vulnerability of a woman in Y.P.'s particular position. Judge Pavli concluded with a warning that the majority's approach could cause 'irreparable harm'.
Case law on forced sterilisations and other medical treatment
Whilst any judicial assessment as to whether a medical intervention breaches Article 3 is necessarily fact-sensitive, the Court has treated sterilisation – and the unique harms associated with it – as something of a special case. In the absence of consent, sterilisation is treated as an act which will by its very nature reach the Article 3 threshold or at least come close to it. Non-consensual sterilisation will ordinarily be "incompatible with the requirement of respect for human freedom and dignity, one of the fundamental principles on which the Convention is based" (V.C. v Slovakia §107; N.B. v Slovakia §51).
In addition to this starting point, which is a de facto presumption of incompatibility with Article 3, a number of additional factors are relevant to the Court's assessment, including:
The strength of evidence available: The stronger the evidence as to the nature, extent, and effect on the victim of the treatment, the more likely the Court is to find a breach of Article 3. Applications relating to forced medical procedures have previously been dismissed due to a lack of concrete evidence (e.g. Dvořáček v Czech Republic).
The reason for the treatment: Most medical procedures can only be justified without consent by recourse to "medical necessity" (DD v Lithuania §174). Sterilisation, however, can rarely be considered a therapeutic necessity (V.C. v Slovakia) and could only be justifiably performed in order to save the patient's life or prevent severe harm. This risk must be an immediate one, rather than one arising at some future point (V.C. v Slovakia; I.G. and M.K. v Slovakia).
The motivation of the doctors: While malevolent intent on the part of the doctors is irrelevant to the question of whether Article 3 has been breached (V.C. v Slovakia; N.B. v Slovakia), it would make a finding of an Article 3 breach more likely. However, in no reported sterilisation case has the Court specifically identified a lack of good faith on the part of the doctors as significant.
The nature of consent given: In sterilisation cases, it tends to be the case that consent has technically been given but this was not properly informed consent, for example patients not understanding the document being signed, or giving consent after the procedure had already been carried out (I.G. and M.K. v Slovakia). In other medical intervention cases, a breach of Article 3 has been found where an express refusal had been overridden (Jalloh v Germany) or when ongoing consent was ambiguous (R.S. v Hungary).
The information provided: Where victims had not been told of the procedure or its consequences, this has been taken as evidence of an Article 3 breach (I.G. and M.K. v Slovakia).
Identity and vulnerability of the victim: The Court has drawn attention to the particular vulnerabilities of some victims – e.g. their Roma identity, their lack of capacity, or the fact that they were detained by the state (V.C. v Slovakia; I.G. and M.K. v Slovakia; N.B. v Slovakia).
Applying these factors to Y.P.'s case, the Court firstly had clear evidence of the nature, extent, and effect of the procedure. Secondly, the Court was prepared to give significant leeway to doctors as they were faced with the "urgent" and "sudden" situation of the ruptured uterus and the possibility of future rupturing (§36). However, as the Court itself later acknowledges in their reasoning under Article 8, urgent action was only required in relation to the current rupture, which they had sutured (§ 54-55). There was no immediate risk to Y.P.'s life or health that was remedied by the sterilisation. Rather, the sterilisation was preventative rather than strictly necessary, to avoid a potential future harm if Y.P. were to become pregnant again. In past cases where a breach of Article 3 was found, sterilisation on the basis of similar future-oriented concerns had not been considered medically necessary (e.g. V.C. v Slovakia).
Thirdly, Court also places great weight on the fact that the "doctors had not acted in bad faith, let alone with an intent of ill-treating or degrading her" (§37). But as the case law shows, and as Judge Elósegui notes in her concurrence, "good intentions" cannot shield doctors from a finding that they breached Article 3. The lack of any bad faith in previous cases has been considered an irrelevant, rather than a mitigating, factor. Further, a gender-sensitive reading of the situation would highlight that the doctors had acted in a paternalistic manner in breaching Y.P.'s reproductive autonomy. Judges Serghides and Pavli, in their respective dissenting opinions, highlight that the doctors caused "humiliation and disrespect to her as a human being and in particular as a woman" and acted "with utter contempt as regards her autonomy and her ability to make informed decisions about her own reproductive life" (p.27; 32). The Court itself highlighted in relation to Article 8 that the doctors had assumed that Y.P. would act irresponsibly if she was not sterilised (§55). From this perspective, this paternalistic attitude towards Y.P.'s reproductive autonomy need not have been actively malicious in order to be harmful; the intention of the doctors was to take away Y.P.'s ability to choose to become pregnant in future.
Fourthly, the consent issues in Y.P.'s case are particularly troubling. Whilst most sterilisation cases involve some degree of technical consent (albeit that which is clearly not effective and informed), Y.P. had signed a form which explicitly ruled out consent for sterilisation. The doctors did not just act in spite of a lack her consent, they acted in direct opposition to her wishes.
Fifthly, the lack of information provided by doctors also distinguishes Y.P.'s case from others. Neither Y.P. nor her husband, who attended the operated and acted on her behalf, were told about the implications of the procedure for her fertility. She was left in the dark, only realising that she was unable to conceive some years later when trying to have another child.
Finally, in relation to identity and vulnerability, the Court (and Judge Elósegui in her concurrence) emphasised that Y.P., in contrast to the applicants in some of the previous sterilisation cases, was not of Roma identity, nor did she belong to any other minority ethnic group. There was no prospect that the sterilisation had been carried out on the basis of (racial) discrimination or for eugenic purposes. For the majority, this factor weighed against a finding that the procedure had breached Article 3. Of course, sterilisation carried out for eugenic or racist purposes would surely compound with the lack of consent to elevate the seriousness of the incident. Yet no reported case has suggested or implied that racist or discriminatory intent (or effect) is necessary in order to meet the Article 3 threshold. As Judge Pavli states in his dissent, the "general principle is not qualified by reference to any form of special vulnerability of the victim, though these can certainly add to the gravity of the prohibited treatment" (p.33). Both Judges Serghides and Pavli also note that Y.P. was situationally vulnerable as a pregnant woman undergoing an emergency Caesarean section in the context of current and previous pregnancy complications. This aspect barely features in the majority judgment.
Taking these factors together, and in clear contrast to the Court's view, the relevant facts point clearly towards a breach of Article 3. The Court's justifications for dismissing Y.P.'s circumstances as below the threshold (the doctors' concern for her future health; the lack of ill-intent; and the lack of any additional vulnerabilities) are either irrelevant, marginal, or erroneous. In addition, the factors ignored or downplayed by the Court (the clear and intentional nature of the act; the overriding of clear consent; the lack of information provided; the vulnerable nature of the applicant; and the gender-based implications of violating her reproductive autonomy) ought to have been taken much more seriously.
At first glance, it appears that the European Court's decision in Y.P. is at odds with its previous jurisprudence on non-consensual sterilisation and medical interventions. However, as the lack of ill-intent and additional vulnerabilities meant that the primary harm in Y.P.'s case was a violation of her reproductive autonomy, we might consider how the Court has responded to reproductive rights in other situations.
Case law on abortion
The Court has thus far avoided finding that restrictions on abortion violate Convention rights; violations have only been found where an applicant was denied access to an abortion they should have been entitled to under domestic law. Even in such cases, the Court has inconsistently applied Article 3.
Tysiąc v Poland concerned an applicant who had severe myopia and was told by doctors that her pregnancy posed a serious risk to her eyesight. She was, however, denied a therapeutic abortion (a legal ground for abortion in Poland) and as a result was left almost blind while raising three children alone. Despite the obvious medical and psychological effects of the refusal, the Court rejected the applicant's claim under Article 3 with very little explanation and simply stated that the arguments would be best examined under Article 8 (§66).
However, some years later in P and S v. Poland, the ECtHR found that the denial of abortion services to a fourteen-year-old victim of rape (a legal ground for abortion in Poland) and her subsequent harassment by anti-abortion activists amounted to a violation of Article 3. The Court emphasised that it was of 'cardinal importance' that the victim was in a situation of great vulnerability due to her age and the circumstances of her pregnancy (§161-162).
Yet, in A, B, and C v. Ireland the Court again refused to find a violation of Article 3. All three applicants had been forced to travel to England for abortions – including the third, who was concerned for her life if her cancer returned while she was pregnant – but this was deemed insufficient to meet the threshold of severity and the claims were held to be manifestly ill-founded (§164-165). Under Article 8, the Court then applied the margin of appreciation to the first two applicants, finding a violation only in the case of the third who should have been entitled to a therapeutic abortion under domestic law.
The Court has tended to ignore factors in some circumstances that are given a great deal of weight in others, while in other cases very little explanation is given as to the rejection of an Article 3 claim. The applicant in Tysiąc and the third applicant in A, B, and C were arguably in situations of great vulnerability as a result of the risks posed to their life or health as a result of being denied an abortion, but this was not considered. Further, if the Court had placed emphasis on the ill-intent of the doctors, as it did in Y.P., it would have surely found a violation in Tysiąc as the doctors involved had deliberately claimed that she did not meet the legal ground for an abortion, instead of invoking conscientious objection, to obstruct her from accessing this procedure.
This inconsistency, however, appears to be intentional insofar as the Court is unwilling to impose substantive obligations to uphold reproductive autonomy (we note, in a similar vein, the Court's reluctance to examine these issues from the perspective of Article 14). From this view, the dismissal of the Article 3 claim in Y.P. is therefore consistent with the Court's reluctance to find such violations in reproductive rights cases unless exceptional circumstances arise (such as where age or race are relevant factors). Instead, applying qualified rights such as Article 8, under which the margin of appreciation comes into play, means that the ECtHR can impose less demanding – and thereby less controversial – standards.
The European Court has been consistently inconsistent in applying the Article 3 threshold to reproductive rights cases. Nonetheless, the decision in Y.P. v Russia is extremely concerning in its downplaying of the harm caused by non-consensual sterilisation. This case only reaffirms that the Court offers limited protection to victims – usually women – of reproductive rights violations.
Zoe L. Tongue is a Lecturer in Law at the University of Leeds and a PhD Candidate at Durham University, researching abortion and international human rights. Dr Lewis Graham is a Fellow in Law at Wadham College, University of Oxford, and researches judicial decision-making and human rights.
Article 3 ECHR
Forced sterilization
Prohibition of Torture
Right to Private Life
Harriet Ní Chinnéide
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Eva Sevrin and Emma Várnagy
G.M. and Others v Moldova: Beyond paternalism for women with intellectual disabilities and their reproductive rights


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Home>New Songs>Z-Ro Songs> Z-Ro Drops Off "Houston 2Gether" In Lieu Of Hurricane Harvey
Z-Ro Drops Off "Houston 2Gether" In Lieu Of Hurricane Harvey
Houston 2Gether
In lieu of Hurricane Harvey, Z-Ro drops off the new record "Houston 2Gether."
By now, most of you are aware that Texas is in a state of emergency right now as rain continues to fall at a historic pace throughout the state, causing flooding that's never been seen before. While many celebrities & artists have already donated money to the relief fund & Red Cross, most likely thanks to Kevin Hart's social media challenge, one artist in particular, Z-Ro, decided to voice his feelings on wax & give all the proceeds from the song to the Hurricane Harvey relief fund. On Wednesday night, the Houston veteran released the new song "Houston 2Gether."
"All Proceeds donated to the Hurricane Harvey Relief Fund. Thank you for your help in our time of need! (available on iTunes now)" he shared along with the song.
As the artwork depicts, the song is a moving & powerful new record that finds the Houston native rapping about coming together as a city & telling stories from the disaster. Everything from bottle water being outrageously priced to referencing big named people helping out, including Paul Wall & Sylvester turner (Mayor of Houston), Z-Ro touches on all aspects from this disastrous event.
It serves as Z-Ro's first release since his final studio album No Love Boulevard dropped back in June. Take a listen & let us know what you think. While you're at it, be sure to show your support on iTunes as well. All proceeds go to those in need in Texas.
In other related news, the current death total from Hurricane Harvey has now risen to 31 confirmed people, with more unfortunately to come. Read more on it all right here.
Quotable Lyrics:
Im just trine get us to safety, not trine get a deal
I see enemies comes together and say we here to build
Cause the city is torn down, Harvey did us in
Can't sleep in our house tonight but somebody gon' get us in
People puttin' boats in the water making sure neighbors good
I aint talkin' about the street they live on, Im talkin' the neighborhood
next song in today list Emerald Street (Remix)
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