This region consists of the rolling Ozark Plateau (see Ozarks) to the north and the Ouachita Mountains, which are similar in structure to the ridge and valley section of the Appalachians, to the east.
The United States has a broad range of climates, varying from the tropical rain-forest of Hawaii and the tropical savanna of S Florida (where the Everglades are found) to the subarctic and tundra climates of Alaska.
United States (Overview), United States of America, popularly referred to as the United States or as America, a federal republic on the continent of North America, consisting of 48 contiguous states and the noncontiguous states of Alaska and Hawaii.
The United States is discussed in seven articles: this overview, as well as separate articles on United States (Geography), United States (People), United States (Culture), United States (Economy), United States (Government), and United States (History).
Accordingly, a second theme of this set of articles on the United States is the growth of democracy in the nation and in its institutions and culture.
The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America.
It was was admitted to the Union as the State of Montana on November 8, 1889.
MONTANA, one of the Mountain states of the U.S., bounded on the N by the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and Saskatchewan; on the E by North Dakota and South Dakota; on the S by Wyoming and Idaho; and on the W by Idaho.
The ten standard Federal Regions were established by OMB (Office of Management and Budget) Circular A-105, "Standard Federal Regions," in April, 1974, and required for all executive agencies.
Ecological types are classified and ecological units are mapped based on associations of those biotic and environmental factors that directly affect or indirectly express energy, moisture, and nutrient gradients which regulate the structure and function of ecosystems.
Selected ecological units of the Humid Temperate Domain, in the eastern United States, are progressively revealed to the Section level to illustrate the hierarchical structure, the identification system, and relative sizes of map units at the ecoregion and subregion planning and analysis scales.
Figure 2 --Ecological units delineated at the Province level (Ecoregions of the United States, R.G. Bailey, 1994) are the basis for organization of this document.
A region is an area with common characteristics or features that set it apart from surrounding areas, but may fall into a couple of different regions whether it's physical, political, cultural, or economics.
This is lesson three in the unit "Regions of the United States." The concept of regions are used to organize the earth's surface, cultures, places, and space in the world.
This is the ninth and final lesson in the unit "Regions of the United States." Students will sum up the unit by pulling information they have learned to make a Regional Brochure for their region they live in.
A couple of her favorite HyperStudio project-based lessons are for social studies and science, entitled: Regions of the United States and Carnivores, Herbivores and Omnivores.
Boney stated that the regions project, which was created by fourth-grade students, was a long-term project that took three months to complete.
The interactive regions project contains maps of the United States that students use to test their knowledge of state names and capitals.
These regions are cultural units rather than governmental units -- formed by history and geography and shaped by the economics, literature and folkways that all the parts of a region share.
The population in the region is growing rapidly.
Puerto Rico is a commonwealth associated with the United States.
The constitutions of the various states differ in some details but generally follow a pattern similar to that of the federal Constitution, including a statement of the rights of the people and a plan for organizing the government.
Forty-eight states are called the "contiguous" or "continental" states, reaching from the Atlantic Ocean on the east, to the Pacific Ocean on the west.
The history of the United States of America began with the landing of the Mayflower at Plymouth Rock in Connecticut on December 11, 1620.
It wasn't until June 21, 1788 that the consititution of the United States was ratified, allowing it to grow to become the properous and stable nation it is today.
The purpose of defining hydrologic landscape regions was to group watersheds in the United States according to their similarity in landscape and climate characteristics.
The grouping of areas into regions on the basis of similarities in landscape and climate characteristics is referred to in this documentation as a "regional framework." Regional frameworks related to hydrologic characteristics have been used in many water-resource and water-quality applications.
Identification of hydrologic landscape regions by grouping the watersheds The land-surface form, geologic texture, and climate characteristics were used to assign the watersheds to similar groups that define the HLRs for the 50 States.
The students will know the states and their regions of the United States.
The students will identify explorers that explored the regions of the U.S. The students will describe the locations of the states within their regions.
Use the States and Regions book to make a concept (picture) map showing natural resources, agricultural products, and the climate for their region in groups.
The Northeast, prided as being a (largely racially homogenous) haven for minorities throughout the ages, and strong sports teams, is by far the most compassionate and accepting region in the United States.
Unlike certain other impoverished regions, this one has taken to such progressive issues such as keeping Apple Computer afloat by purchasing a laptop for every student.
Indeed, the affluence of this region is largely a reflection of the liberals' complete control.
The United States is one of the largest countries in the world.
State Tourism Offices are a great way to learn about a state and many of the attractions it offers.
The United States is perhaps the most culturally diverse country in the world.
These regions are the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, Southwest, and the West.
The states in the five regions are all in the same area of the United States.
Politically, the "Appalachian region" consists of the 406 counties in 13 states under the jurisdiction of the federal government body, the Appalachian Regional Commission, established in 1965 to serve a region that included some of the most impoverished areas of the U.S. West Virginia is the only state that falls entirely within the region.
The Midwest region is to the east of the Great Plains, except for the common states of Minnesota and Iowa.
This region is known for its fertile farming soil and relatively flat land.
They will map the regions from memory and will compare maps to see that regions are human constructions that do not generally have clearly-defined boundaries.
For example, the Great Plains resulted from the retreat of a massive glacier nearly 14,000 years ago; and the United States is in part the consequence of a small group of people from England who immigrated to North America because of religious persecution and their interactions with the indigenous people who already lived here.
Although these two events are separated in time by thousands of years, they are connected in that the descendents of those original colonists, as well as later immigrants, traversed the Great Plains; displaced indigenous populations; established cities, farms, and ranches; and disseminated their culture.
Divide your class into five groups, and assign each group a region of the United States; the Northeast, the Southeast, the Midwest, the Southwest, and the West.
As designated by Congress, the federal court system is divided into eleven judicial circuits, each with its own United States Court of Appeals.
Each of the regions below is legally defined as a "Grand Division", with boundaries entrenched in the state's constitution.
For example, the state's Supreme Court is required to sit in each of the three Grand Divisions each year, and no more than two of the Court's five Justices may reside in any one Grand Division.
This report summarizes 2002 CS surveillance data, which indicated that CS rates have decreased among all racial/ethnic minority populations and in all regions of the United States except the Northeast.
During 2000--2002, the rate of CS declined in all racial/ethnic minority populations in the United States.
In 1998, efforts to eliminate syphilis were initiated in the United States, and prevention of CS was a key objective of the National Plan to Eliminate Syphilis, which was launched the following year (2).
These are historic regions of the United States, meaning regions that were legal entities in the past, or which the average American would no longer recognize as a regional description.
The following are land grants, purchases or settlements made within an area that was already part of the original 13 colonies or a state of the Union or U.S. territory.
The following is a list of organized U.S. territories that have become states, in the order of the date organized.
The Secretary of Education shall not defer action or order action deferred on any application by a local educational agency for funds authorized to be appropriated by this Act, by the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 [20 U.S.C. 2701 et.
Not-for-profit organization devoted to the preservation of architecture in the region.
Abuse is concentrated in the western, southwestern, and midwestern United States.
Clandestine laboratories in California and Mexico are the primary sources of supply for methamphetamine available in the United States.
Domestic independent laboratory operators, mostly in the western, southwestern, and midwestern United States, also produce and distribute methamphetamine but on a smaller scale.


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text:
Sikringsanlæg er en type af systemer til jernbaner, som styrer sporskifter og signaler på stationer og jernbanestrækninger.

Funktion

Et minimalt sikringsanlæg består af signaler, men det mest normale er der også sporskifter, overkørsler og andet udstyr. Nogle af funktioner er.
 Signaler må ikke tillade konfliktene togveje på samme tid.
 Sporskifter og andre enheder skal sættes i bestemt position før et signal tillader et tog at køre et bestemt togvej.
 Når en togvej er sat, og et tog har fået et signal til at køre på en bestemt togvej, låses alle sporskifter og andre objekter indtil toget er kommet ud af den togvej som er sat, eller signalet er taget tilbage og en bestemt tid er gået, så der er mulighed for, at toget kan standse uden at passere signalet.

Tidlige anlæg

De første sikringsanlæg blev installeret på meget trafikerede strækninger. Første anlæg i Danmark var København-Klampenborg i 1878, hvor stationerne blev sikret med centralaflåsning af sporskifter og med linjeblok imellem stationerne for at kunne håndtere den store udflugtstrafik til Dyrehaven om søndagen.

Mekaniske sikringsanlæg

Et simpelt mekaniske anlæg var af svingbuktypen, der var almindelig på sidebanerne. Her var det var det normalt kun signalerne uden for stationen som blev betjent med trådtræk. Sporskifterne blev betjent ved at bringe nøgler - ved at gå/løbe/cykle - ud til sporskiftet, der blev låst op når det skulle omstilles. Nøglerne sad indlåst i svingbukken, når der skulle sættes signal for indkørsel. Svingbukken var normalt opstillet udendørs. Der var normalt kun signaler uden for station til at angive om tog måtte køre ind eller igennem stationen. Udkørsel skete normalt ved at stationsbestyreren gav tilladelse til afgang ved hjælp af håndsignal.

På mere trafikerede stationer var anlægget sat ind i et signalhus eller en kommandopost enten ved en tilbygning ved stationen eller i bedst fald i stationskontoret – alt efter hvad pladsforholdene tillod. Sporskifter i togveje var normalt centralbetjent og kunne stilles fra centralapparatet via trådtræk. Andre sporskifter var centralaflåst og kunne låses op med trådtræk, så de ved rangering kunne omstilles på stedet. Der kunne også være sporskifter som var nøgleaflåst. Her skulle der tages en nøgle ud af centralapparatet og bringes ud til sporskiftet og nøglen skulle tilbage igen efter brug.

Når en togvej skulle sættes – når et tog skulle køre ind, ud eller igennem en station – låstes alle sporskifte i togvejen i den stilling som togvejen krævede. Når sporskifterne var indstillet og aflåst, låstes togvejen så sporskifterne ikke kunne omstilles, der ikke kunne sættes andre togveje som berørte togvejen og håndtag til signaler blev frigivet. Når toget havde passeret, sattes signalerne på stop, togveje og sporskifte kunne derefter frigives.

Denne låsning af en togvej skete ved at der trækkes såkaldt lineal. Den lineal kunne kun bevæges hvis sporskifterne var i den rette position for togvejen, ved at tilhørende håndtag og nøgler var i den rette plads. Og når en togvej skulle tages tilbage skulle håndtag til signaler være på plads – dvs. sat på stop.

På større stationer kunne man ikke nøjes med ét apparat, idet det er begrænset hvor langt en trådtræk kan være imellem en signalpost og signal eller sporskifte – og man skulle helst kunne se om et spor var frit eller ej. Opgaverne blev fordelt på 2 eller flere signalposter og en kommandopost. Kommandoposten kunne være i en af signalposterne, men den kunne også være i stationskontoret eller på en perron. Afhængighederne imellem posterne etableredes normalt med elektriske felter til at blokere eller frigive togveje. Der var på større stationer også signaler til udkørsel.

Til de mekaniske anlæg kunne der tilføjes ekstra funktioner, som til nutildags er standard eller forbedret på anden vis. De mest almindelige funktioner var fx at man kunne blokere et håndtag til en sporskifter, hvis der er vogne eller lokomotiver ved den, så et sporskrifte ikke blev omlagt imens den blev passeret af et tog. Ellers kunne være rækkefølgeapparater, som gjorde at håndtering af bevægelser af tog kun kunne sket i bestemt rækkefølge. Og automatisk stopfald – dvs. efter et tog har passeret et signal, gik det automatisk på stop.

Mekaniske sikringsanlæg findes ikke mere i drift i Danmark, men i fx Tyskland er det stadig i drift både på større og mindre stationer.

Elektromekaniske sikringsanlæg

Elektromekaniske sikringsanlæg er en videreudvikling af de mekaniske anlæg. I stedet for trådtræk sker styring af signaler og sporskifter elektrisk. Enten ved motorer eller på nye anlæg som lyssignaler. Det mest almindelige til at sikre afhængigheder imellem signaler og sporskifter var mekaniske låsning – linealer som i mekaniske anlæg. Senere typer have elektrisk låsning, fx de anlæg der var i Fredericia og Århus.

Type 1912 var den mest almindelige type elektromekaniske sikringsanlæg - sammen med type 1946, der er en danskbygget udgave af type 1912. Type 1946 blev udviklet efter krigen, og blev brugt som erstatning for anlæg der var krigskadet og enkelte nyanlæg. Elektromekaniske anlæg findes stadig på stationerne i Randers (1912), Langå (1946), Horsens (1912), Hjørring (1946), Hillerød (1946), Skørping (1946) og Struer (1946).

Relæbaseret sikringsanlæg

Den næste generation af sikringsanlæg er baseret på relæer. Specielt de først anlæg bygger på de samme principper som de mekaniske og elektromekaniske anlæg. Men de er normalt indrettet med flere funktioner. F.eks. kan de fleste anlæg fjernstyres, så man kan betjene flere stationer fra en enkelt fjernstyringscentral. Typen er meget fleksibel – fra den mindre station til nogle af de største. Ulempen er at ved større anlæg er omkostningerne til projektering meget høje fordi anlæggene er komplekse, da alle mulighederne af togveje, som man ville bruge, skulle implementeres i anlægget. Men fordi det har været en simpel type af sikringsanlæg, har man brugt typen ved nyanlæg på mindre stationer indtil 1990'erne og over halvdelen af de nuværende anlæg på danske stationer er baseret på denne type anlæg.

Type 1953 er grundtypen og bruges på større stationer, Type 1954 bruges på mindre stationer specielt på enkeltsporede strækninger. Type 1953/1954 er en kombination af de andre typer, som bruges mest på mindre stationer på dobbeltsporede strækninger.

Sikringsanlæg baseret på relægrupper

Ved større anlæg var det kompliceret og dyrt at projektere og opbygge anlæg baseret på individuelle relæer. Derfor var de det næste trin at bygge anlæg efter et andet og mere simpel princip – man havde en gruppe af relæer som styrede et objekt: et sporskifte, en sporisolation eller et signal. Disse standardiserede relægrupper blev forbundet af ledninger, der afspejler spornettet på en station. Fordelen er at det er nemmere at projektere anlægget – relægrupperne kommer direkte fra fabrik og er klar til brug. Ulempen er at prisen på relægrupperne er høj. Så det kan bedst betale sig at bruge typen på de større stationer. Anlægstypen er sidst anvendt på Ringsted Station (i 2006). På S-banen er typen sidst installeret på Gentofte Station og alle stationer på Ringbanen. Relægruppeanlæg type 1969 findes på de fleste strækninger på S-banen.

Type 1964 blev udviklet til større stationer, der ikke skulle fjernstyres. Type 1969 med integreret HKT bruges på S-banerne og type 1972 på mellemstore, fjernstyrede stationer på fjernbanerne.

Fuldelektronisk sikringsanlæg

Næste generation anlæg blev baseret på computere.

Første type i Danmark – DSB type 1977 – var et forsøg på at udvikle et dansk sikringsanlæg baseret på computere. Dog er det ikke et helt fuldelektronisk anlæg – det er stadig en del funktioner som varetages af relæer og fjernede ikke de bindinger, der var i relæbaserede anlæg. Denne type blev først installeret på strækningen fra Vejle til og med Holstebro. Senere blev på strækningen Roskilde-Køge-Næstved på mellemstationer med undtagelse af Køge installeret i en forbedret udgave af typen.

I senere typer af er mere af logikken flyttet over i computeren. Der er en central del, som håndterer logikken og enheder ude ved sporene, som håndterer styring af signaler, sporisolationer og sporskifter. Efter den kapacitet den centrale enhed har, kan den styre et stort område med mange stationer. Fx bliver Hobro og Fårup stationer håndteret i samme anlæg.

Efter hvad for en leverandør er der en eller flere computere, der varetager håndtering af operationerne. Hvis der er kun en computer, programmeres 2 programmer af 2 uafhængige designs, hvor resultatet af disse programmer sammenlignes inden de sendes videre ud. Hvis 2 programmer er enige sendes ordre til de enheder som styrer sporskifter og signaler. Hvis der er et system med flere centrale computere, behandler de alle ordre og hændelser i computerne og inden en ordre kan blive udført bliver resultatet sammenlignet og de forskellige computer skal være enige, hvis der er 2 computere og 2 af dem skal være enige, når der er 3 computer i sikringsanlægget.

Den type som bruge i Danmark – DSB type 1990 – er et produkt fra Bombardier – Ebilock 850. Den er af gruppen af anlæg, der kun har en computer, hvor der er 2 programmer, som skal komme til samme resultat inden en ordrer udføres. Den type bruges på stationerne Hobro og Århus H, samt strækningerne ved Storebæltsforbindelsen og Øresundsforbindelsen.

I forbindelse med at Arriva skulle overtage trafikken på bl.a. strækningen Herning-Skjern, måtte man udskifte anlægget i Borris, da Arriva ville bruge stationen til krydsninger og stationen have et mekaniske anlæg i brug som sidste sted i Danmark og dette anlæg ikke kunne fjernstyres. Til erstatning for dette mekaniske anlæg, blev valgt et simpelt computerstyret anlæg baseret på PLC teknik. Denne anlægstype er senere også taget i brug på alle togfølgestationer på Grenå-banen.

Fremtiden

Den computerbaserede anlægstype 1990 er gået ud af produktion og de typer, som afløser dem, er ikke blevet tilpasset til danske formål. Og hvis de nye type skal bruges, skal der indkøbes i stor omfang for at kunne forsvare omkostningerne til tilpasning til danske forhold og den tunge godkendelsesproces.

Relæanlæg er blevet svære at håndtere, da man i andre brancher har forlagt relæteknologien. Sikkerhedsrelæer produceres ikke i samme omfang som tidligere og der bliver ikke uddannet folk i uddannelsessystemet, som kan vedligeholde dem.

Men det nye anlæg til Ringsted Station, som blev taget i brug i 2006, blev der valgt relægruppeanlæg , da det var den eneste type som kunne leveres og var godkendt. Man var i Danmark kommet ind i blindgyde – der skulle ske noget.

Derfor blev der i 2007 besluttet, at alle Banedanmarks anlæg skal udskiftes til nye typer af anlæg, for at komme over på en ny generation af anlæg. Ved samme lejlighed, når er i gang, har man valgt at togkontrolsystemet skal udskiftes til ERTMS/ETCS level 2 på fjernbanerne og vil lave helt nye sikkerhedsregler, så man bliver mere uafhængige af specielle danske regler. Det var forventet at de første anlæg sættes i drift omkring 2015 og at projektet er færdig omkring 2021. Dog er projektet blevet forsinket, men 2 første strækninger - Lindholm-Frederikshavn og Roskilde-Lille Skensved - forventes at blive sat i drift efteråret 2018 og projektet kan, hvis det er nødvendig, forlænges indtil 2030.

Referencer

Se også

 Togkontrolsystem

Jernbanesikkerhed

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Старое Ибраево () — деревня в Ибраевском сельсовете Аургазинского района Республики Башкортостан России.

Население

Согласно переписи 2002 года, преобладающие национальности — башкиры (45 %), тептяри (с родным языком татарским) (34 %).

Географическое положение
Расстояние до:
 районного центра (Толбазы): 16 км,
 центра сельсовета (Новофёдоровка): 2 км,
 ближайшей железнодорожной станции (Белое Озеро): 31 км.

Примечания

Ссылки
 Совет муниципальных образований Республики Башкортостан.

Населённые пункты Аургазинского района


text:
Home » Literary works » Poetry » General
a prescription of overthinking
by manilla
EternalRain, paperforest
Poetry: General, General
3 comments (3 reviews)
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silvermoon17 wrote a review...
Simple and blunt and short and yet effective. When seen on upon the first time, this poem is kinda memorable because of the color palette. Not something you'd see everywhere...
The way you begin is not doing anything out of the ordinary or anything, but it works. You really set the whole tone of your poem in these two lines. And strangely enough, your poem doesn't even seem to lack description- even though it does- since the rest keeps us hooked all along. The middle stanza is just as the first. Not stunningly perfect or bad- just alright. It does give us a feeling like "whoa- is that really what happens??" and it's probably the one I read twice the most- since it's weirdly vague and complex and simple at the same time. The last one isn't just a nice way of ending; no imagery, but a great mind reeling last catchphrase. This could easily become one's favorite. If I had to suggest something, it would be to add imagery and comparison
starryknightt wrote a review...
This is, simply, fantastic. It's blunt, but still has an underlying meaning, you know what I mean? You did so well. The comparison between overthinking and drugs is written fantastically. This poem spoke to me because I know how it feels, to be consumed in something as toxic as anxiety and somehow not want to get rid of it completely. You conveyed that nicely, which is difficult because I honestly can't pinpoint my own emotions and opinions in that cyclone.
The ending was perfect. That whole last stanza. Made me really think of medications and the fact that they are indeed very temporary, and no one's out there trying to find a permanent solution.
Can't wait to read more of your art!
manilla says...
Thank you for the kind review!
paperforest wrote a review...
Hey manilla! This is a cool poem, I really like the title, and with it the idea that overthinking/anxiety is like a drug. (And my mind ran away with the connotations of this, thinking that you could say it's almost addictive in how it's so hard to stop overthinking and worrying about things.) My main complaint though is that I'm not actually completely sure that's what you're saying in the poem. The first stanza starts off with the really cool metaphor "minds are drugs", but the rest of the stanza seems almost too strong to me to suggest that this is just anxiety - LSD has connotations of being really strong, making people see visions/hallucinate, and often people who take it just aren't the same person afterwards (and often not in a good way), so this first line makes me think that what's affecting this mind is something more serious, like actual hallucinations or something like schizophrenia.
The line "for i see things no one should think" leaves me with some interesting questions, like what are those things, and why the word "see" when these are things "no one should think"? Is that a continuation of the visions/hallucinations connotation of LSD, or, since I'm still trying to reconcile the title with the poem, is it more of a "I'm seeing all these things that could happen that are bad and no one should worry about them or think of them but i'm worrying," an anxiety thing? I'm not sure I want or need those questions to be answered, but I feel like it might be more obvious what you're going for if I knew whether to trust the title or the connotations of what you've said so far in the poem.
The second stanza I like a lot, although I think that comma at the end of the first line might be unnecessary? It sort of breaks up the rhythm for me - or maybe keep the comma and get rid of the "and" at the start of the second line? I really like the use of the words "translucent", and "shifting", and "play", all together they sort of make me think of the phrase "play of light", which adds to the idea that these things the narrator can see aren't real, and yet they're affecting them anyways. Something interesting that I noticed is that the first line is responsible, the narrator is saying "i act", as if saying that despite seeing these things it's still the narrator who's responsible for their actions, but then in the second line they've sort of let go of responsibility - the "shifting words" are playing with who they are, they've let their hallucinations take over. Not sure if this is relevant to the story of the poem, but it's interesting that the narrator, though perhaps not perfectly reliable since their mind is like a drug, is still self-aware enough to acknowledge that they were responsible, and then they sort of handed over the responsibility to their visions. Or maybe I'm just reading too much into it, but anyways it's cool.
The third stanza is interesting. By this point I was hoping there would be some explanation for the gap between the ideas that the title gave me and the actual content of the poem, something talking more specifically about anxiety or overthinking, but I don't really see that here. So I'm going to stop worrying about the title and just look at the poem. The phrase "temporary, blissful pills" makes me think that the narrator thinks the pills are probably good, and that these pills are helping stop the visions/hallucinations and so bringing the narrator back to objective reality. But the last line confuses me, because now the narrator "can't ever escape" this reality, which makes me think that they want to escape it. But that makes me think that the sans-pills state of the narrator's mind was an escape, but because the pills are described as "temporary", it doesn't seem to me like they're trapped in objective reality at all - they can just stop taking pills and go back to their visions. Not that that's necessarily a good thing, but they could if they wanted to. Or maybe, because the pills are temporary, the reality that they can't escape is actually their subjective reality, the fact that their brain is going to keep producing visions despite the pills. But now I'm confused, and I'm not sure if I'm interpreting it right.
Emotionally, I like that last line - it's a good ending, leaves me with questions but nothing that I can't infer, and makes me wonder more about the narrator's mixed feelings regarding their mind and the pills. Also the word "collapse" in this context is really neat, it gives unexpected visual imagery that I like a lot.
One last thing, the word "funny" used in this context gave me a very Alice-In-Wonderland vibe, in that as far as I can tell "funny" is used to mean "odd", which I think is a rather old-fashioned use of the word. It was unexpected, but it sort of goes with the "play" in the previous stanza, and it contributes to the feeling of vague, unsure meaning that I get from the last stanza (and also the second line of the first stanza), which all ties in with the idea of drugs and a sort of unreliable narrator. If that's what you're going for, I really like it. If it's not, I think the first things to make the meaning clearer would be to change the title, or make it more obvious that this is a metaphor specifically for anxiety and not actual hallucinations, and make the last stanza more clear, maybe by expanding it, showing which reality is being referred to and what the narrator's feelings are about it and the pills.
I don't know a huge amount about mental health issues and even less about drugs, so I apologize if I've said something wrong or hurtful. All in all, this was a really neat poem to read and think about, and I hope I've said something helpful. I can't wait to read more from you!
Thank you for such a detailed review!
paperforest says...
What praise is more valuable than the praise of an intelligent servant?
— Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Stencilling and Stamping of Fabric. It's A Pattern Potluck!
Fun, fast, pattern making as a team sport.
Working together with simple tools and supplies we will make pattern yardage to share.
Bring along an item that can be used to make a mark, for example; a discarded cork or sponge to stamp with; a piece of highly textured cardboard or doily to print through (stencil); an interestingly shaped shell or utensil to colour around.
We will play with the ideas of 'mark-making' and pattern types to collectively create some patterned fabric samples.
Each participant will receive a portion of the cloth at our February meeting.


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Third party funding: a game-changer for construction disputes? Third party funding: a game-changer for construction disputes?
Out-Law / Your Daily Need-To-Know
Third party funding: a game-changer for construction disputes?
Out-Law Analysis | 11 Sep 2019 | 4:36 pm | 4 min. read
Litigating or arbitrating construction disputes is often costly and time-consuming, but third party funding allows parties who might otherwise be hampered by a lack of resources to bring claims.
The complexity and expense of construction disputes can often be a daunting prospect, especially for contractors which may already be facing funding shortfalls due to accumulated unpaid claims or cost overruns on the project itself. Third party funding offers a third viable option for those parties, which would otherwise be faced with the alternatives of either writing off their losses or negotiating unfavourable settlements.
Third party funding involves an entity that is not a party to a particular dispute financing a party's legal fees and expenses in return for part of any amount recovered by that party in the dispute. For instance, in an international arbitration, the third party funder could agree to cover the costs incurred by the party for lawyers, experts and all other associated costs in exchange for an agreed percentage of the proceeds of the claim, whether obtained in an award or through settlement.
Funding is usually provided on a non-recourse basis meaning that if the claim is unsuccessful, the funder usually loses its investment and has no recourse against the funded party. For example, in January 2019, the Paris Court of Appeal annulled the findings on damages in a $1.3 billion investment treaty award in favour of Canadian mining company Rusoro against Venezuela. Calunius Capital, the third-party funder which backed Rusoro's claim in this case, suffered a major setback as a result.
An international perspective
Construction disputes typically involve technical issues as well as issues of delay and quantum and are recognised, as a result, as being notoriously complex and expensive to run. This is one of the reasons that the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) issued an updated report on arbitrations in the construction industry in February 2019, recommending tools and techniques for the effective management of construction arbitrations.
Third party funding offers a third viable option for parties which would otherwise be faced with the alternatives of either writing off their losses or negotiating unfavourable settlements.
However, these tools and techniques are unlikely by themselves to reduce the high costs associated with construction arbitration. This raises the question of how to fund these costs. In April 2018, in its final report on third party funding in international arbitration, an ICCA-Queen Mary task force noted that "[t]he business of law is changing and dispute funding is very much an integral part of the future of the global and litigation markets".
In keeping with this evolving legal landscape characterised by increasing demands from parties to find new funding mechanisms - and the corresponding rapidly growing global market for dispute funding - Hong Kong has recently amended its Arbitration Ordinance. These amendments, which came into effect on 1 February 2019 and follow the publication of the highly anticipated code of practice of third party funding of arbitration on 7 December 2018, were highly anticipated. They are aimed at allowing and regulating third-party funding in international arbitrations and mediations seated in Hong Kong.
The developments in Hong Kong follow, in varying degrees, similar developments in Singapore and the United Kingdom. Singapore enacted its Civil Law (Third-Party Funding) Regulations on 10 January 2017, followed by the publication of the Singapore Institute of Arbitrators guidelines for third party funders. The UK, for its part, has opted for self-regulation of third-party litigation funding through the English Association of Litigation Funders' Code of Conduct which was first published in 2011, and revised in 2014.
Even the strongest of claims includes an element of risk and, given the uncertainty inherent in the outcome of a litigation or arbitration procedure, a party can never bank on full recovery of the anticipated costs.
While other European countries are yet to introduce regulations in this area, third party funding remains very much a focus of the arbitral community. For example, in France, the Paris Bar Council adopted a resolution in support of third party funding a couple of years ago. The resolution confirmed that third party funding is not prohibited by French law and is in the interests of clients and their legal representation alike, especially in the field of international arbitration. The Paris Bar Council did, however, highlight two main challenges posed by the presence of a funder: the impact of the involvement of a third party on the ethical obligations incumbent on legal counsel, particularly in regards to conflicts of interest and professional secrecy; and the issue of disclosure of the funding arrangement.
Use of third party funding in construction disputes
Third party funding can facilitate access to justice by allowing parties to bring meritorious claims even where they might lack the financial resources to do so. More broadly, it can be a useful tool as far as risk and resource management are concerned.
Even the strongest of claims includes an element of risk and, given the uncertainty inherent in the outcome of a litigation or arbitration procedure, a party can never bank on full recovery of the anticipated costs. Third party funding allows for an effective allocation of the risk involved by relieving the funded party of part or potentially the entirety of the risk involved, while providing a helpful indication as to whether the claim is worth pursuing based on the third party funder's assessment. Furthermore, since the intermediate and direct costs are borne by the funder, the funded party is free to allocate the resources and funds which would otherwise be tied up in pursuing the claim to other matters.
That said, third party funding carries its own set of risks and challenges. Funded parties should carry out careful due diligence on the proposed funder including its reputation, track record and financial resources. The involvement of an additional party will also bring added complexity to the progression of the claim and may give rise to confidentiality issues and potential conflicts of interest. Funded parties should enter into confidentiality agreements with the funder as a safeguard against the exposure of confidential information.
In arbitration cases, the conflict of interest must also be considered in relation to the arbitral tribunal and especially the independence and impartiality of the arbitrators. Although there is no uniform set of rules compelling a party to disclose its funding arrangement, non-disclosure can serve as a potential ground for the annulment of the award and may therefore constitute an obstacle to successful enforcement.
Frédéric Gillion, Hollis Dufour and Toshima Issur are arbitration experts at Pinsent Masons, the law firm behind Out-Law. A version of this article appeared in Construction Europe.
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Sayre News
<Back to News
Sayre Senior Named Honorable Mention in Jazz Guitar
Posted 01/11/2019 01:18PM
Good news from Miami, Florida! Sayre School senior Will Peters-Seymour has been named a 2019 National YoungArts Foundation (YoungArts) Honorable Mention winner in Jazz Guitar (Music). Selected from thousands of applications, Will has been recognized for his outstanding artistic achievements and joins 710 of the nation's most promising young artists from 44 states across visual, literary, design, and performing arts.
"On behalf of YoungArts, I want to congratulate all of the 2019 winners for their achievements at such an early stage in their careers," said Sarah Arison, YoungArts Board Chair. "We believe that every artist should be empowered to pursue a life in the arts, and we are excited to welcome our winners to the YoungArts family. This is just the beginning and we look forward to helping provide them with the valuable opportunities and support they will need to thrive throughout their artistic journeys."
Will will participate in YoungArts New York on April 23–28, 2019, and will join a professional network of distinguished artists. "I have my sister Claire to thank for telling me about the award," said Will. "I had not heard about the YoungArts program until she told me about it. I also have to thank all my music teachers including Mrs. Amy Berryman and Mr. Tim Fowler. It is a huge honor to have been selected for this award, and I am really excited for whatever opportunities it brings me!"
Throughout the year, Will will be offered opportunities to share his work with the public at renowned institutions such as the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (Washington, D.C.), The Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York), Baryshnikov Arts Center (New York) and New World Center (Miami); and access to mentors including Tony Award winner Joan Lader; Grammy Award-winning percussionist Joseph Gramley; Academy Award-winning film editor Doug Blush; Obie Award-winning theater artists Steven Sapp and Mildred Ruiz; award-winning journalist, author and provocative cultural critic Joan Morgan; poet John Murillo; opera singers Daniela Mack and Alek Shrader; US Artist Fellow and Princess Grace award-winning choreographer Rosie Herrera; bestselling author Kristen Simmons; and award-winning photographer Lori Hepner, among many others.
For more information or to view a complete list of the 2019 winners, visit youngarts.org.
ThuJan23 PS Family Night 5:30 PM to 7:00 PM
ThuJan23 Girls Varsity Basketball vs. Lexington Christian Academy (Away) 6:00 PMLexington Christian Academy
FriJan24 All School Dress Down Day
FriJan24 LS/US Spirit Day
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FriJan24 Boys JV Basketball vs. Shelby County (Away) 6:00 PMShelby County
FriJan24 Boys Varsity Basketball vs. Shelby County (Away) 7:30 PMShelby County
SatJan25 Boys Freshman Basketball vs. Garrard County High School (Away) 10:00 AMGarrard County High School


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Indie (niezaakceptowana społecznie propozycja PAN z 1959 r.: India, , trl. Bhārat, trb. Bharat, ; ,  ), Republika Indii (hindi: भारत गणराज्य, trl. Bhārat Gaṇarājya, trb. Bharat Ganaradźja; ang. Republic of India) – państwo położone w Azji Południowej, zajmujące większość subkontynentu indyjskiego. Jest najludniejszym państwem świata pod względem liczby ludności oraz siódmym pod względem powierzchni; jest także najludniejszą demokracją świata. Od południa Indie otoczone są Oceanem Indyjskim, od południowego zachodu Morzem Arabskim, a od południowego wschodu Zatoką Bengalską. Od północy Indie ograniczone są przez Himalaje oraz Karakorum. Na północnym zachodzie graniczą z Pakistanem, na północy z Chinami, Nepalem i Bhutanem, na północnym wschodzie z Mjanmą i Bangladeszem, a na południowym wschodzie przez zatokę Mannar i cieśninę Palk graniczy ze Sri Lanką i Malediwami. Indyjskie wyspy Andamany i Nikobary dzielą granicę morską z Tajlandią i Indonezją.

W 2017 r. gospodarka indyjska była 6. na świecie pod względem PKB nominalnego oraz 3. pod względem parytetu siły nabywczej. Po reformach liberalizujących gospodarkę kraju z 1991 Indie stały się jednym z najszybciej rozwijających się krajów świata oraz zostały zaliczone do krajów nowo uprzemysłowionych. Jednak nadal mierzy się z problemem ubóstwa, korupcji, niedożywienia oraz słabo rozwiniętej publicznej opieki zdrowotnej. Indie posiadają broń jądrową oraz uważane są za mocarstwo regionalne. Indyjska armia jest 2. na świecie pod względem liczebności wojska oraz 4. pod względem wydatków na obronność. Indie są parlamentarną republiką federalną podzieloną na 28 stanów i 7 terytoriów. Kraj ten słynie z kinematografii, bogatej kuchni oraz bujnego ekosystemu.

Geografia

Od północy Indie są ograniczone przez łańcuchy górskie: Karakorum i Himalaje. Z Indiami graniczą: Pakistan na północnym zachodzie, Chiny, Nepal oraz Bhutan na północy, Mjanma i Bangladesz na północnym wschodzie, Sri Lanka przez zatokę Mannar i cieśninę Palk na południowym wschodzie. Od południowego zachodu kraj otaczają wody Morza Arabskiego, zaś od południowego wschodu Zatoki Bengalskiej i Morza Andamańskiego. Do Indii należy archipelag Lakkadiwów leżący na Morzu Arabskim 450 km na zachód od wybrzeży kraju oraz leżące w Zatoce Bengalskiej archipelagi Andamanów i Nikobarów.

Najwyższym punktem jest ośmiotysięcznik Kanczendzonga położony w Himalajach na granicy z Nepalem wznoszący się na wysokość 8586 m n.p.m.

 Położenie geograficzne: 8°–37° N, 68°–97° E
 Rozciągłość równoleżnikowa – 2933 km
 Rozciągłość południkowa – 3214 km

Miasta

 Mumbaj – 16,4 mln mieszkańców (zespół miejski: 22,9 mln)
 Delhi – 11,5 mln (zespół miejski: 26,5 mln)
 Bengaluru – 5,3 mln (zespół miejski: 10,5 mln)
 Kolkata – 4,6 mln (zespół miejski: 15,0 mln)
 Ćennaj – 4,4 mln (zespół miejski: 10,3 mln)
 Ahmadabad – 3,8 mln (zespół miejski: 7,6 mln)
 Hajdarabad – 3,7 mln (zespół miejski: 9,3 mln)
 Pune – 3,2 mln (zespół miejski: 5,9 mln)
 Surat – 3,1 mln (zespół miejski: 5,9 mln)
 Kanpur – 3,0 mln (zespół miejski: 3,1 mln)

Granice Indii
 Długość granic:
 Bangladesz – 4053 km
 Chiny – 3380 km
 Pakistan – 2912 km
 Nepal – 1690 km
 Mjanma – 1463 km
 Bhutan – 605 km

Rzeki

Rzeki Indii należą do zlewiska Oceanu Indyjskiego. Największe rzeki:
Ganges czczony przez hinduistów jako święta rzeka, jego dopływy Jamuna, Son, Damodar, Ghaghra. Ganges łączy się w delcie z Brahmaputrą. Na zachodzie dopływy Indusu.

Wyspy
Wyspy Indii:
 Andamany
 Wielki Andaman
 Andaman Północny
 Andaman Środkowy
 Andaman Południowy
 Barren
 Mały Andaman
 Archipelag Ritchie
 Sentinel
 Nikobary
 Wielki Nikobar
 Mały Nikobar
 Kar Nikobar
 Katczal
 na rzece Kaweri
 Srirangapatna
 Shivanasamudram
 Srirangam
oraz
Chorao, Diu, Divar, Lakkadiwy, Majuli, Monroe, wyspy w okolicy Mumbaju, Rameswaram, Sriharikota, Vashee, Willington

Klimat
Zwrotnikowy, na północy zwrotnikowo-monsunowy, na południowym zachodzie wilgotny, stopniowo przechodzi w suchy w zachodniej części Niziny Hindustańskiej, w Karakorum i Himalajach podzwrotnikowy górski. W wyższych partiach gór zima trwa 6 miesięcy. Częste cyklony połączone z wielkimi ulewami w okresie przejściowym między monsunem letnim a zimowym. Średnia temperatura w styczniu wynosi od ok. +15 °C u podnóża Himalajów do ok. +28 °C na południu. W maju, który jest najcieplejszym miesiącem roku, temperatury wynoszą +27 do +30 °C, z wyjątkiem pustyni Thar, gdzie temperatura osiąga +36 °C. W Delhi dochodzi nawet do +45 °C.

Historia

Prehistoria i starożytność

Pierwsze ślady homo sapiens na terenie dzisiejszych Indii liczą przeszło 30 tys. lat. Od IV tysiąclecia p.n.e. datują się pierwsze cywilizacje rolnicze na subkontynencie indyjskim. Pierwsze cywilizacje miejskie pojawiły się w trzecim tysiącleciu p.n.e. W XV w p.n.e. Ariowie podbili miejscowe plemiona. Utworzyły się liczne samodzielne królestwa. Zachodnie Indie zostały podbite najpierw przez władcę Persów Dariusza w 518 p.n.e., a w 327 p.n.e. przez Aleksandra Macedońskiego. Następnie dochodziło do kilkukrotnego zjednoczenia terenów Indii i ponownego rozpadu na samodzielne królestwa.

Indie muzułmańskie i cywilizacja Mogołów

Islam dotarł do zachodnich Indii około roku 712. W XIV wieku niemal cały półwysep znalazł się pod panowaniem muzułmańskim. Następnie nastąpił ponowny rozpad, aż do zjednoczenia kraju pod rządami Wielkich Mogołów. W 1498 dotarł do Indii Vasco da Gama. Imperium obejmujące niemal całe Indie i część Azji Środkowo-Wschodniej powstało za czasów Akbara. Z czasem subkontynent stał się obiektem zainteresowania umacniających się mocarstw europejskich.

Czasy nowożytne

Walkę o wpływy i hegemonię w Indiach toczyło m.in. Imperium Brytyjskie, stopniowo podporządkowując sobie jego terytoria, które to stały się "klejnotem w koronie brytyjskiej". W 1876 królowa Wiktoria zostaje Cesarzową Indii. W XX wieku ruch narodowowyzwoleńczy w Indiach przybiera na sile. Pokojowe akty nieposłuszeństwa organizowane przez Mahatmę Gandhiego i Indyjski Kongres Narodowy oraz sytuacja geopolityczna po drugiej wojnie światowej zmusiły Wielką Brytanię do przyznania niepodległości Indiom i Pakistanowi w 1947. Początek indyjskiej państwowości związany był z licznymi starciami na tle religijnym, szczególnie na terenie Prowincji Pogranicze i Pendżabu, gdzie doszło do krwawych starć między hinduistami a muzułmanami. 30 stycznia 1948 roku przez fundamentalistę zabity został Mahatma Gandhi.

Pierwszym premierem Indii został Jawaharlal Nehru. Reformy wprowadzone przez Nehru eliminowały nierówności społeczne wynikające z tożsamości kastowej i plemiennej. Rząd przyjął model gospodarki mieszanej. W polityce zagranicznej przyjęto kurs niezaangażowania a Indie stały się jednym z założycieli Ruchu Państw Niezaangażowanych. Indie w pierwszym okresie niepodległości wdały się w spory graniczne z Chinami co spowodowało w latach 60. wojnę między tymi państwami – w 1962 roku Indie toczyły wojnę z Chinami o północny Kaszmir i tzw. NEFA (Północno-Wschodni Obszar Graniczny). W wyniku wojny chińsko-indyjskiej Chiny zajęły sporne terytorium Aksai Chin.

Następcą Nehru był Lal Bahadur Shastri. W okresie jego kadencji miejsce miała II wojna o Kaszmir. Kolejnym wybitniejszym premierem została Indira Gandhi (córka Nehru). Gandhi zakończyła w 1966 roku kryzys gospodarczy i osiągnęła w kolejnych latach wzrost gospodarczy na poziomie kilku procent. Wzrost gospodarczy Indii zahamowały Stany Zjednoczone Ameryki oraz Międzynarodowy Bank Rozwoju, które nie zrealizowały swoich obietnic względem Indii. W tym czasie stosunki indyjsko-amerykańskie uległy dalszemu pogorszeniu z powodu krytyki przez Gandhi amerykańskiego bombardowania Wietnamu, w efekcie czego prezydent USA wstrzymał przesyłki ziarna, by zmusić Indie do poparcia USA w konflikcie. W tej sytuacji prowadzona dotychczas liberalizacja gospodarcza została porzucona a już w roku 1969 rozpoczęto czwartą pięciolatkę która doprowadziła do większej kontroli państwa nad gospodarką. Pod koniec lat 60. wybuchło trwające do dzisiaj (z różnym natężeniem) powstanie maoistowskie w Indiach obejmujące tereny tzw. czerwonego korytarza na wschodzie państwa (głównie Bengal Zachodni). W okresie kadencji Indiry Gandhi Sikkim został włączony w skład Indii. Gandhi nawiązała przyjacielskie więzi z Bangladeszem, który poparła w wojnie wyzwoleńczej przeciwko Pakistanowi.

W 1977 roku dominacja Kongresu została przełamana i wybory wygrała opozycyjna partia Janata. Rządy opozycyjnej prawicy doprowadziły do najsilniejszej recesji (-5,2%) w historii Indii i inflacji sięgającej 18,2%. W latach 80. władzę ponownie przejęła Gandhi, która tym razem zliberalizowała gospodarkę. Premier postawiła na zaostrzenie wydatków publicznych, większą efektywność przedsiębiorstw państwowych oraz stymulowanie sektora prywatnego poprzez deregulację. Szósty plan okazał się najbardziej udanym z pięciu planów, wykazując w latach 1980–1985 średni wzrost 5,7%. W 1984 roku Indira Gandhi została zastrzelona przez sikhijskich ochroniarzy w odwecie za skierowaną przeciwko separatystom operację Niebieska Gwiazda w Amritsarze. Po śmierci Indiry władzę objął jej syn, Rajiv Gandhi. Rajiv zmodernizował gospodarkę, zwiększył wsparcie finansowe rządu dla nauki i techniki, zmniejszył import, podatki i cła na przemysł oparty na technologii. Rajiv poprawił stosunki z USA i rozszerzył współpracę gospodarczą i naukową z tym państwem kosztem stosunków z ZSRR. 29 lipca 1987 roku Gandhi i prezydent Sri Lanki Junius Richard Jayewardene podpisali układ o przyjaźni indyjsko-cejlońskiej. Następnego dnia, 30 lipca, doszło do nieudanej próby zamachu na Gandhiego. Do udanego zamachu na premiera doszło pięć lat później w Sriperumbudur. Zamach bombowy został przeprowadzony przez terrorystów z tamilskiej organizacji separatystycznej Tamilskie Tygrysy.

Demografia

Ludność: 1,389 mld (2022) – Indie są drugim państwem na świecie (po Chinach) pod względem liczby ludności.

Struktura językowa
Struktura językowa Indii:
 39% osoby posługujący się którymś z dialektów języka hindi
 8% Telugowie
 8% Bengalczycy
 7% Marathowie
 7% Tamilowie
 5% Gudźaratowie
 4% Kannadowie
 4% Keralczycy
 18% przedstawiciele innych grup językowych.

Wyznania

 hinduiści – 80,5%
 muzułmanie – 14,4%
 chrześcijanie – 2,5%:
 protestanci – 1,5% (głównie kościoły ewangelicko-unijne, zielonoświątkowcy, baptyści i adwentyści dnia siódmego)
 katolicy – 0,9%
 prawosławni – 0,2%
 buddyści – 1,1%
 animiści – 0,5%
 Inne religie – 2,3% (głównie sikhowie, a także dźiniści, bahaiści, parsowie, żydzi)
 bez religii – 0,07%

Źródło: Pew Research Center, 2010.

Języki urzędowe Indii

Językiem oficjalnym jest hindi. Język angielski pełni rolę języka pomocniczego, łącznikowego. Ponadto istnieje 21 języków konstytucyjnych, dopuszczanych jako języki wykładowe i urzędowe w określonych stanach: asamski, bengalski, bodo, dogri, gudźarati, kannada, kaśmiri, konkani, maithili, malajalam, manipuri, marathi, orija, pendżabski, nepalski, santalski, sindhi, sanskryt, tamilski, telugu, urdu. Znaczna część ludności, zwłaszcza mieszkańcy południowych stanów Indii, odnosi się wrogo do prób zastąpienia w urzędach języka angielskiego językiem hindi, uważając, że stanowi to niedopuszczalny zamach na ich autonomię.

System polityczny

Podstawy ustroju politycznego określa konstytucja Indii z 1950 r. Indie są demokratyczną republiką federacyjną. Głową państwa jest prezydent, jednak faktyczna władza pozostaje w rękach premiera. Organem ustawodawczym jest dwuizbowy parlament – Sansad, składający się z Izby Ludowej (Lok Sabha) i Izby Stanów (Rajya Sabha), obradującej pod przewodnictwem wiceprezydenta.

Stany mają własne organy władzy, na czele stoi gubernator mianowany przez prezydenta.

Indie są największą demokracją świata

Partie polityczne

Główne partie i sojusze polityczne to: Indyjski Kongres Narodowy (Indian National Congress) oraz Narodowy Sojusz Demokratyczny (National Democratic Alliance), pod przywództwem Indyjskiej Partii Ludowej (Bharatiya Janata Party). Trzecią siłą jest Komunistyczna Partia Indii i Front Lewicy (Left Front).

Święta narodowe
Najważniejsze indyjskie święta
 26 stycznia – rocznica proklamowania republiki (1950)
 15 sierpnia – rocznica uzyskania niepodległości (1947)

Siły zbrojne

Podział administracyjny

Indie podzielone są na 28 stanów, 7 terytoriów związkowych i 1 terytorium stołeczne. W drugim rzędzie dzielą się na 591 dystryktów.
Nazwy jednostek administracyjnych podano w wersji polskiej (jeżeli istnieje polski egzonim), wersji angielskiej (ang.) oraz w wersji hindi w polskiej transkrypcji (trb.) i w transliteracji (trl.):

Terytoria związkowe:
 Andamany i Nikobary; Andaman and Nicobar Islands (ang.); Andaman aur Nikobar Dwip (trb.), Aṁdamān aur Nikobār Dvīp (trl.)
 Czandigarh; Chandigarh (ang.); Ćandigarh (trb.), Caṁḍīgaṛh (trl.)
 Dadra, Nagarhaweli, Daman i Diu; Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu (ang.)
 Dżammu i Kaszmir; Jammu and Kashmir (ang.); Dźammu aur Kaśmir (trb.), Jammū aur Kaśmīr (trl.)
 Ladakh
 Lakszadiwy; Lakshadweep (ang.); Lakszadwip (trb.), Lakṣadvīp (trl.)
 Puducherry (do 2006 Pondicherry) (ang.); Puduććeri (trb.), Puducceri (trl.)

Narodowe terytorium stołeczne:
 Delhi; Dilli (trb.), Dillī (trl.)

Gospodarka

Do lat 90. gospodarka Indii była gospodarką quasi-socjalistyczną, z dużym udziałem sektora państwowego i ścisłą kontrolą państwa nad sektorem prywatnym i handlem zagranicznym. Ten model ukształtował się w czasie rządów Jawaharlala Nehru. Od 1991 r. rozpoczęły się w Indiach liberalne reformy gospodarcze. Zmniejszona została kontrola państwa nad gospodarką, przeprowadzono również prywatyzację szeregu przedsiębiorstw państwowych. W rezultacie, od lat 90. gospodarka indyjska dynamicznie się rozwija (w ostatnich latach w tempie około 8% rocznie). W 2006 r. gospodarka Indii była czwartą pod względem wielkości gospodarką świata (po gospodarkach USA, Chin i Japonii), z produkcją sięgającą 4042 miliarda USD (według parytetu siły nabywczej – PPP), przy czym wielkość PKB na mieszkańca wynosi zaledwie 3,8 tysiąca USD (PPP). Według danych indyjskich, 25% ludności żyje poniżej granicy ubóstwa.

Podstawą gospodarki Indii przez długi czas było rolnictwo. Obecnie w rolnictwie pracuje wciąż około 60% spośród liczącej około 510 milionów osób siły roboczej. Jednocześnie rolnictwo wytwarza zaledwie 20% PKB Indii (2006). Sektor przemysłowy zatrudnia około 12% siły roboczej Indii i wytwarza około 20% PKB, natomiast najdynamiczniej rozwijający się sektor usług, zatrudniający 28% siły roboczej – około 60% PKB.

W 2006 roku eksport Indii wyniósł około 112 miliardów USD, a głównymi dobrami eksportowymi były tekstylia, biżuteria i oprogramowanie. Import Indii w 2006 roku wyniósł około 188 miliardów USD i obejmował głównie surowce energetyczne i maszyny. Głównymi partnerami handlowymi Indii są USA, kraje UE, Chiny i Zjednoczone Emiraty Arabskie.

Turystyka
W 2015 roku kraj ten odwiedziło 8,027 mln turystów (4,5% więcej niż w roku poprzednim), generując dla niego przychody na poziomie 21,013 mld dolarów.

Transport

W Indiach istniało (w 2006) 63 221 km linii kolejowych (w tym: 46 807 km szerokotorowych 1676 mm, z czego 17 343 km zelektryfikowanych), co odpowiada wskaźnikowi gęstości sieci 1,92 km/100 km² powierzchni. Nieco lepiej przedstawia się indyjska sieć dróg. Ich łączna długość (w 2006) wynosiła 3 316 452 km, co daje wskaźnik 100,9 km/100 km² powierzchni.

Kultura

Literatura

Zabytki Indii

 Tadź Mahal
 Czerwony Fort
 zespół świątyń w Khajuraho

Sport

Popularnym sportem w Indiach jest hokej na trawie. Reprezentacja Indii jest najbardziej utytułowaną drużyną w historii tego sportu. Na Igrzyskach Olimpijskich sportowcy z Indii wywalczyli dotychczas łącznie 9 złotych medali, z czego 8 z nich zdobyto właśnie w tej dyscyplinie drużynowej.

Dużym uznaniem, podobnie jak w wielu byłych koloniach brytyjskich, cieszy się również krykiet.

W Indiach uprawia się wiele dyscyplin sportowych które nie zyskały szerokiego uznania poza Azją, a często nawet poza Indiami. Zaliczają się do nich:
 Kabaddi – gra zespołowa
 Gilli danda – gra wywodząca się ze starożytności, pierwowzór baseballu, jedną z jej odmian jest klipa
 Kho kho – rozgrywana na świeżym powietrzu gra logiczna z elementami zabawy w berka
 Liczne indyjskie sztuki walki takie jak Thang-ta, Silambam czy azjatyckie zapasy Pehlwani

Piłka nożna cieszy się w Indiach umiarkowanym zainteresowaniem. Reprezentacja Indii w piłce nożnej mężczyzn raz w swojej historii uzyskała awans na Mundial po wycofaniu się innych państw azjatyckich z eliminacji. Ostatecznie drużyna narodowa nie pojechała na mistrzostwa ze względu na nakaz gry w obuwiu sportowym (indyjscy piłkarze chcieli grać boso). W Pucharze Azji drużyna grała nieregularnie, najczęściej kończąc swój udział już na fazie grupowej turnieju. Wyjątkiem był turniej z roku 1964, gdzie reprezentacja zajęła drugie miejsce.

Statystyki demograficzne
Dane można znaleźć w CIA Factbook

Zobacz też

Historia
 brytyjscy władcy Indii
 Indie Brytyjskie
 lista zamachów terrorystycznych w Indiach

Kultura
 Bollywood
 klasyczna muzyka indyjska
 klasyczne tańce indyjskie
 kuchnia indyjska
 sztuka indyjska
 ubiory indyjskie

Religia
 system kastowy
 wyzwolenie w hinduizmie
 definicja i klasyfikacja hinduizmu
 lista postaci z mitologii indyjskiej
 chrześcijanie św. Tomasza
 Świadkowie Jehowy w Indiach

Uwagi

Przypisy

Bibliografia

 Władcy Indii w serwisie rulers.org
 Konstytucja Indii w zasobach wikisource.org

Linki zewnętrzne

Państwa w Azji
Członkowie Organizacji Narodów Zjednoczonych


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text:
How Will Fannie & Freddie's Next Chapter Unfold?
the Editors of Multi-Housing News
Uncertainty over the fates of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac caused shares of both to tumble in early September following the Trump Administration's announcement of its plan to release the GSEs from conservatorship and more than a decade of government control. A 53-page report failed to provide specific timelines or a recapitalization plan.
FHFA Director Mark Calabria testifying at his Senate confirmation hearing in February 2019. Image courtesy of U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs
Then a little over a week later, the market breathed an unexpected sigh of relief. During the National Multifamily Housing Council's fall meeting in Washington, D.C., Federal Housing Finance Agency Director Mark Calabria announced plans to recapitalize the GSEs, a move that aimed to ease uncertainty, simplify lending caps and expand affordable housing guidelines.
Calabria said that each GSE would have $100 billion in lending capacity over the next five quarters beginning Oct. 1 and stipulated that 37.5 percent of the loans purchased by Fannie and Freddie would be for affordable properties.
"We do a lot of agency business and I think continuous liquidity in the multifamily space—especially affordable—is paramount. So it's definitely a positive for us," said Luke Vanderpool, senior director of Freddie Mac financing for JLL, which purchased HFF in July. Combined, the two brokerage giants produced $35 billion in multifamily loans in 2018.
Immediately before Calabria's announcement, pricing uncertainty was manifesting itself in the form of higher pricing for borrowers, recalled Brian Kelleher, a JLL international director. "It was important that the director of the FHFA made that indicated that he was willing to continue liquidity in this space," said Kelleher, who focuses on JLL's FHA Fannie Mae business. "That kind of clarity was important to Fannie and Freddie and to us so we can continue to make the commitments to the business that we've made in the past."
Freddie Mac headquarters campus, McLean, Va. Image courtesy of Freddie Mac
New Limits
JLL International Director Brian Kelleher. Photo courtesy of JLL
The new caps—$100 billion apiece for Fannie and Freddie—are significantly higher than the previous caps of $35 billion for each GSE. However, the limits also apply to all multifamily business and come with no exclusions for finance products like green loans or affordable housing loans. In a statement, Calabria cited the elimination of loopholes, increased support for affordable housing and financing that supports the market without crowding out private capital.
In 2018, loopholes and exclusions drove Fannie Mae purchasing to a total of $65 billion worth of loans while Freddie Mac purchased loans valued at $78 billion, observed Dave Borsos, vice president for capital markets at NMHC. Loans to finance water and energy efficiency improvements are now considered conventional business, unless they meet other mission-driven affordability requirements.
Calabria has also recognized multifamily housing as essential to solving the country's affordable housing shortage, and his stated intent is to provide the sector with a stable, consistent flow of capital. To that end, FHFA also directed that the share of the GSEs' multifamily business dedicated to mission-driven, affordable housing increase from 33 percent to 37.5 percent.
"The director has increased the direction for the enterprises to go out and originate a higher percentage of all the loans they purchase to meet these affordable housing guidelines," Borsos pointed out.
"Overall, we take it as a positive sign that (Calabria) set a number that, quite frankly, was higher than the volume that we would expect Fannie and Freddie to do in multifamily in 2019 and should be able to serve the market as we need to in 2020," said Peter Donovan, CBRE's executive managing director of multifamily capital markets and leader of the firm's Fannie Mae debt platform.
This year, CBRE's multifamily loan production is likely to be comparable to the nearly $30 billion it sourced in 2019 from the GSEs, life companies, commercial banks, debt funds and other capital providers, Donovan estimates. He maintains that the elimination of exclusions and simplification of Fannie and Freddie caps is a net positive. As for the new increased share for affordable properties, he says, "I don't think they'll have a problem hitting that number."
Fannie Mae headquarters, Midtown Center, Washington, D.C. Image courtesy of Fannie Mae
Keeping Score
Lawrence Yun, Chief Economist at the National Association of Realtors. Photo courtesy of the National Association of Realtors
In the midst of these changes one telling resource that is yet to come out is FHFA's annual Scorecard, the report summarizing the major activities of the GSEs and setting out criteria for their evaluation. The document is normally released at the same time as the caps, which traditionally cover four quarters, not five. Even so, the early announcement of the caps lends certainty to the market. "To our mind, it's business as usual with a little bit more certainty in terms of 2020 as a result of FHFA's announcement," Donovan said. "We're feeling pretty good about things at this point."
Conservatorship is another issue that hangs in the balance. On Sept. 30, the Treasury Department and FHFA announced their intention to end the more than decade-long arrangement with the federal government that allows the Treasury Department to sweep nearly all GSE profits. Under the Trump privatization plan, Fannie Mae will be able to keep $25 billion in annual profits and Freddie Mac $20 billion.
Conservatorship is unlikely to go away anytime soon, however, Borsos contends. By some estimates, the GSEs would need to retain $150 billion to $200 billion to go private, a total that is at least five years off under the retained profits scenario. Borsos also calls the prospects of an IPO "impossible," adding that the market would need much more assurance for such a move to succeed.
"The important thing is that the securities issued by Fannie and Freddie have government backing," said Lawrence Yun, chief economist at the National Association of Realtors. "Whether for multifamily apartments or for single-family mortgages, as long as there is a government backing, it assures that the interest rate borrowing will remain low for housing sector."
As the recapitalization unfolds, Congress, the Trump Administration, and others should consider two key points, CBRE's Kelleher contends: first, how much these agencies contribute to resolving the affordable housing issue; and second, multifamily performed extremely well and was still profitable as the single-family side of the Enterprises' business failed when the agencies were taken into conservatorship during the Great Recession.
For now, the caps remain front and center and multifamily fundamentals remain extremely sound. "And, with a new commitment from the FHFA to the agencies business lines, there will be an increased demand for debt and both agencies will be there to support it," said JLL's Vanderpoel.
Read the November 2019 issue of MHN.
Dave Borsos
NMHC
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Perhaps America's most innovative and prolific architect, the works of Frank Lloyd Wright are almost too vast and diverse to list. Recognized for designing unique churches and distinctive commercial buildings, and admired for his geometric style house designs, Wright has been widely imitated, and his work continues to influence architecture not only in the United States but around the world. Laymen often think they know the definition of "a Frank Lloyd Wright," but they probably don't fully understand the brilliant mind of the man, nor the intricacies of his Prairie Style. Yet it endures because he has made it so.
In many ways, Wright's architectural career has overshadowed other aspects of his life. In the course of creating innovative kinds of offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers, hotels, and museums, not to mention furniture and stained glass decorations, Wright wrote over a dozen books and toured America and Europe at large, often giving widely acclaimed speeches. Despite a somewhat hardscrabble start to life in the Midwest, Wright became known for his flamboyant and entertaining lifestyle, which included multiple marriages and scandals like the murders at his Taliesin studio in 1914. But through it all, Wright continued working nearly up until his death, and in 1991 the American Institute of Architects recognized him as "the greatest American architect of all time"
looks at the life and works of one of history's greatest builders. Along with pictures of important people, places, and events, you will learn about Frank Lloyd Wright like never before.
The world-famous architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, was born on June 8, 1867, in Richland Center, Wisconsin Frank Lloyd Wright's grandparents were early arrivals in Ixonia, Wisconsin, when Richard Lloyd-Jones, his wife, and seven children immigrated from Wales to their new home on the Wisconsin prairie. Unlike many immigrants at the time, the Lloyd-Jones family traveled by water from one land to the other, rather than pioneer wagon, first aboard an ocean liner, then via canal boats, followed by a lake-steamer.
But pioneers they were. Richard Lloyd-Jones established a farm in Wisconsin at a time when Native Americans still lived in the Midwest.
His commitment to truth in all things deeply impacted Frank Lloyd Wright's life, and he spoke of it often.
Richard Lloyd-Jones's fourth child, Anna, was only five years old when the family arrived in the United States. She later became Frank Lloyd Wright's mother, making him a first generation Wright.
The family's respect for truth manifested itself in the belief that education was man's salvation. To that end, Anna became a country schoolteacher, riding on horseback to various schoolhouses.
That is not to say he did not respect intellect, education, and enlightenment. He simply had less trust in organized education than did his mother.
During her tenure as a country schoolteacher, Anna met a circuit rider from Hartford, Conn., who was traveling through Wisconsin, making his rounds. William Russell Cary Wright was educated at Amherst College where he originally studied medicine before deciding it wasn't for him. Then he studied the law, becoming a circuit-rider and meting out justice in the Midwest.
When Anna and the young William Russell Cary Wright married, they each left their horse-riding days behind.
Anna stopped teaching, and Mr. Wright became a music teacher, but he eventually gave that up as well. Changing occupations yet another time, he became a preacher.
Anna and William's first child was Frank Lloyd Wright, the grandson of immigrant Richard Lloyd-Jones. According to Frank, his father was jealous of his mother's attention to her newborn son. She predicted that Frank Lloyd Wright was to "build beautiful buildings," and she would stop at nothing to make that happen.
Even before he was born Anna had decided that Frank would be an architect. To that end, she decorated his baby's room with ten wood-engravings of English cathedrals. The first images the future architect would see were great, celebrated buildings. Frank did become the architect of his mother's dreams, but he detested the gaudy European stone buildings she'd chosen for him. As an adult, he made a career out of helping architecture to evolve in a new and innovative way, changing how buildings of any kind were designed. As far as Wright was concerned, the ornate trim and gargantuan domes were things to be done away with.
Three years later, the Wright family welcomed a baby girl, little Jane Wright. At about the same time, the now Reverend William Russell Cary Wright was called to a church at Weymoth, near Boston. As a result, Frank and Jane spent their first few years in a Boston suburb, far from the family's Wisconsin home. But it was a Baptist church, and very much in contrast to the Unitarian teachings Frank had previously learned from his mother and her family.
It was while the family lived in Boston that Anna Lloyd-Jones Wright discovered Friedrich Froebel's concept of kindergarten, which was a new and foreign concept to her. Anna decided her very young children would benefit from Froebel's approach. She discovered that, in the United States, Milton Bradley had embraced Froebel's concept, well before kindergarten had become a part of the American school system, and had begun to manufacture learning products. Milton Bradley created blocks of different shapes with which to teach basic skills, and called them Kindergarten Gifts. Anna Wright eagerly bought these Kindergarten Gifts in order to teach preschoolers Frank and Jane, but as far as Anna was concerned, there never seemed to be enough education, so Frank also attended Miss Williams' private school, a fashionable school in the Boston suburbs, for some years.
Waldo Emerson, the sermons of Theodore Parker, and the works of Henry David Thoreau, favoring the transcendentalism of the East. In his autobiography, Wright describes his childhood as a lonesome one, where he would rather read, listen to music, draw, and "make things," than to sleep—and to dream.
When Frank's father became a minister, his mother longed to return west to Wisconsin and her family, the only home she had ever known. Soon Frank's youngest sister, Maginel, was born, and then the family of five did return west, to a new home on the shores of Lake Mendota, near Madison, Wisconsin.
In Wright's opinion, this was when his education began, but it had nothing to do with school or formal education. When he was only 11 years old, Frank was sent to his Uncle James in the Ixonia valley of Wisconsin, to learn farm work, or, as Wright said, to learn to "add 'tired' to 'tired'." His greatest regrets were that he had to leave behind books, music, idle dreams, and city streets. He also left behind his mother, father, little Maginel, and Jane, and went to work on his Uncle James's farm, forty miles away.
As he worked the farm, Frank pondered about the fact that much of his time there was devoted to the dairy herd, yet the family never included cream with their meals. Frank's mother distrusted doctors, and believed that food could cure anything, especially in its plainest forms. Apparently, her brother James held the same belief, because after a long day of work splitting rails and doing other things that seemed a bit too hard for such a young boy, he listed the array of foods for breakfast, but, no cream. Again, a list of food served at noon, but without cream. Finally, dinner, with no cream.
By April, Frank was yearning for September 17, and the beginning of the school year. Regardless of the fact that he adored Uncle James, the older man was not kind to Frank. As a result, the young boy ran away from home, only to be found by his uncle, who compassionately explained to Frank how to adjust to hard work. Years later, he recalled his uncle explaining that, "Adventures make strong men and finish weak ones." Little, pre-pubescent Frank had only begun to learning to see the beauty in the world around him.
Back in Wisconsin, Frank's father returned to teaching music to help make ends meet. It was shortly after his time on the farm that Frank befriended Robie Lamp, a physically handicapped boy his age, who studied music under the tutelage of Frank's father. Frank and his new best friend remained close until Robie died at the early age of only 44 years. One of Wright's lesser-known structures was a little cream-white brick house he'd designed for Robie where he lived until he died, which featured a billiards room, a children's playroom, and an entire servants' wing.
Music and singing were what Wright called a "riot" at the Wright's house, as it was always mixed with laughter. Frank decided when he was 16 that music was unmanly, and so he left it behind. He and Robie both replaced their childhood interests with construction and the design of inventions.
Frank Lloyd Wright was only 16 years old when he entered the University of Wisconsin. Frank's parents had divorced by then, his mother's family considered her failed marriage a disgrace, and he never saw his father again.
and was working part-time to help his mother make ends meet.
from 1888-94 listed Frank Lloyd Wright at his Oak Park, Ill. address as a graduate of the class of 1889 and a member of Wisconsin Alpha.
But in truth, Frank Lloyd Wright never earned his college degree.
He left the University of Wisconsin for Chicago, with one semester left before graduation. He told his mother and sisters he was slipping out to get food, and simply never returned. In his own words, Frank was spared what he'd called the curse of the "architectural" education of the day, with its false direction in culture, and wrong emphasis on sentiment, partly because his mother could not afford for him to study architecture full-time.
With no architectural experience, and only a partial education in civil engineering from the University of Wisconsin, Frank was met with no kindness in Chicago. He was nearly broke before he was able to find work. Eventually, he was hired by Cecil Corwin of Silsbee's architectural firm. It was pure coincidence that Silsbee's was in the process of building All Souls Church for Frank Lloyd Wright's uncle.
Wright described his time at Silsbee's as a very positive experience, save for Silsbee's hesitance to approve a raise for him when he was earning less than lesser-talent staff, and he eventually quit.
Wright was quickly hired by Silsbee's competitors, Beers, Clay and Dutton, for the same rate of pay he had asked from Silsbee's. However, soon Wright realized he lacked the experience to produce the designs expected of him, and he returned to Silsbee's who met his wage demands, at a time when the architecture firm of Adler & Sullivan were building the Chicago Auditorium.
Frank bounced around among the leading Chicago architectural firms, armed only with a partial education in civil engineering, for some years, before settling in to work for Dankmar Adler and Louis Sullivan, styled as Adler & Sullivan, for seven years. During his tenure there, he met fellow architect Paul Mueller, with whom he would work in the future. Wright remained close with Adler, Sullivan and Mueller throughout his life, even after becoming an independent architect.
In spite of having left college degreeless and disenchanted about institutions of learning, Wright devoted his life to learning, eventually opening his own university.
Not only did Wright value learning--if not from formal education--but he left behind a legacy of learning that continues today. Early in Book Four of his five-book autobiography, Wright announced that the remainder of that book would be composed of lectures that the non-architect might be excused from reading. He could not resist devoting his own story, his autobiography, to teaching his all-encompassing theories of architecture, community, the environment, and politics.
While living and working in Chicago in about 1889, Frank met Catherine "Kitty" Tobin at a church party at All Souls. He described his lack of social interaction with young women at that age as almost a task, rather than something he was motivated to pursue. Perhaps headstrong Kitty sensed this, and wanted to expand introvert Frank's world, even though she was only a high school teenager when they met.
Whether he realized it or not, Frank was attracted to strong, independent women. Before his life was over, he would marry three of them, in addition to having a relationship with a fourth woman when Kitty refused to divorce him.
Kitty's family did not want her to be involved with Frank. They sent her to Michigan with the hope that she would forget him, but she couldn't. By the time Frank was 21, he and Kitty, his first wife, were married. They divorced more than 30 years later.
In the meantime, Frank's mother had sold their family home in Wisconsin, and she and Frank's youngest sister, Maginel, moved to Chicago, where his mother became friends with Rev. Augusta Chapin, who lived in the Chicago suburb of Oak Park. When Augusta Jane Chapin was 16 years old, she left her family home in New York, and enrolled at Olivet College in Michigan, far from home. In 1864, Chapin had become one of the first women ordained as a minister. In 1893, she earned a Doctor of Divinity degree from Unitarian Seminary, Lombard University. Chapin became the first woman to earn her doctorate from the school.
That same year, she chaired the Woman's Committee of the World Parliament of Religions in conjunction with the World's Columbia Exposition. A charter member of the American Woman Suffrage Association, Chapin was known as an advocate for women's rights. She was a very busy woman, with her ministerial duties taking her from one end of the United States to another, though she lived in Oak Park, Illinois.
It is not clear how Chapin met Anna Lloyd-Jones Wright, though it was probably through Anna's Unitarian connections. In fact, the Rev. Chapin and Frank's mother knew each other well enough that, when Anna and Marginel left Wisconsin, they and Frank lived with Rev. Chapin in Oak Park until Anna decided whether she and her daughter would stay in Chicago. Oak Park was as close to the city as she cared to be.
He continued to live there for many years and built a number of private homes there, in addition to his own home and studio. As a result, Frank Lloyd Wright's name has become synonymous with Oak Park.
, also known as the All Souls Building, in Chicago. According to Frank, the pastor and Frank's uncle, Rev. Jenkins Lloyd Jones, was surprised when he had learned that Frank had been hired for the project without the reverend's knowledge or influence.
Frank Lloyd Wright's career continued to progress. In 1893, he established his own independent architectural firm in Chicago, primarily because Adler & Sullivan were only interested in commercial construction and had no interest in designing private homes. Wright's first project, Winslow House, was a private home in another Chicago suburb, that of River Forest, Illinois. Winslow House is now on the National Register of Historic Places, and is often cited as an early example of what has become known as the Prairie School of architecture, created by Wright and influenced by Sullivan.
His goal was sincere in "keeping the truest and best of which man is capable where man can use it." Frank had realized he was interested in building homes that people should have, whether that was what they wanted or not. He felt it was the only way he could express truth, the truth his grandfather had taught him to respect above all else.
The only exception to his first floor bedroom rule was to place the servants' sleeping and living quarters next to the kitchen, but semi-detached. Keep in mind that Wright began working as an architect when live-in servants were more common among the wealthy. In retrospect, it seems a bit antiquated but it was a way of life for Wright's affluent clients.
Wright determined that every house should have one chimney. He consented to allowing two at most, but he really preferred only one. He said, "It comforted me to see the fire burning deep in the solid masonry of the house itself. A feeling that came to stay." Wright wanted to share that feeling with his clients, and the visitors to the houses he would design.
A Frank Lloyd Wright house was more than just a two-story home with big eaves and a chimney. It is easy to overlook the tradition Wright adhered to of never incorporating dormers into his designs. Instead, high-pitched roofs above broad eaves became the hallmark of a Frank Lloyd Wright home, and served as more than decoration--they prevented sun from flooding second-story rooms during the hotter hours on summer days.
Soffits, the underbelly of the eaves, are painted in light-reflecting tones, creating the glow of diffused light in the bedrooms on the second floor. Wright criticized the architectural styles that had gone before him, saying, "The whole roof was ridged and tipped, swanked and galed to madness before they would allow it to be either watershed or shelter." A practical and environmentally-conscious man, Frank Lloyd Wright frequently designed buildings that would make water collection possible—to be used for landscaping or other uses--especially from his roof designs.
For Wright, "Walls became the function of a screen bringing inside out and outside in." He saw the landscaping as creating walls, with windows and doors that would allow the outdoor environment to become a part of the interior design. He recommended casement windows everywhere because he deemed them the best form of window for his buildings. He didn't really care that they were inconvenient for the homeowner.
Wright recognized that people must be able to cluster, sit or recline, confound them, and they must dine—but dining is much easier to manage and offered a great artistic opportunity. The arrangement of sitting in comfort, singly or groups, need not be an informal disarray, but should remain a part of the scheme as a whole. His solution to this matter was to create alcoves for privacy, and large, open spaces in which groups might gather.
He went on to defend this position, saying there was little to conceal in the way of craftsmanship, because the battle between the machines and the Union had already begun to demoralize workmen. Perhaps it was not his best observation, but it was a true one. The machine was becoming a fixture in American society, and rather than resent it, Wright embraced it.
Wright declared that atrocity, the American front porch, to be a "fetish." Upon closer inspection, one discovers that true Prairie Style is devoid of such things.
The overall Wright design itself was organic and specific, and spilled over into non-residential buildings. Wright declared that the ornament should be of the surface not on the surface, and there should be no tangible background at all. In fact, he took building to a new level and insisted that the architect should not only build the shell of a building or house, but the architect should build the furniture as well, and be responsible for designing every detail, right down to the artwork and landscaping.
Wright could not help himself. He was horrified when he began designing his clean, simple houses only to watch the owners haul in furniture and sentimental decorations that were too ornate, too gaudy, too much in conflict with his concepts. He readily admitted that assimilation was extraordinarily difficult when trying to combine home décor in the form of sculpture, paintings, or pottery. "Very few of the houses were anything but painful to me after the clients brought in their belongings," he lamented.
Wright's solution was to design everything in the buildings as integral features. He proposed incorporating built-in furniture, and wall decorations and flooring that defied the owner to cover it with rugs or carpets. A Wright client would have the house they needed, whether they wanted it or not.
To that end, Wright took it upon himself, the architect, to think of everything. He did not want to leave even the light fixtures to the discretion of the homeowner. In fact, he didn't believe such things should even be seen. The light should be seen, but not the fixture. As a result, the ideal Wright house has indirect, hidden lighting, created by installing false ceilings to conceal fixtures while providing warm, indirect light, emitting from an unseen source.
Wright carried out this new mission when he was hired to design the Larkin Administration Building for the Larkin Soap Company, of Buffalo, New York, his first independent commercial venture.
Just as with the houses, Wright designed built-in furniture for the Larkin Building, down to the desks and chairs. Ever the practical one, Wright invented chairs that had no legs. Instead, the chairs were attached to the desk by a swinging arm. The technique made it easier for the cleaning staff to sweep and mop the floors as they no longer had to move any chairs.
The Larkin Building was unique for many reasons. It was the first hermetically sealed and air-conditioned building. The purpose was to seal out noxious fumes from trains. To accomplish that, Wright invented a separate stairwell that served as both fire escape and air intake for the ventilation system. It also housed a communication system. The building also featured a fireproof vault--Wright thought of everything.
In an innovation that has seldom been implemented elsewhere, Wright created a "light tower" in the center of the Larkin Building. Clerical staff were housed on the second floor, in an open area that rose all the way to the skylight on the sixth floor, providing natural light to the workers below and to the other floors that overlooked the atrium arrangement. Not only did this provide natural light for the office workers, but it reduced the utility bill as well.
Wright lamented that the Larkins never realized how important their building was. "To them it was just one of their factory buildings," he said, noting that the Larkins continued to renovate their building over the years.
When discussing the construction of churches, Wright said, "I cannot see the ancient institutional form of any church building as anything but sentimental survival for burial. The temple as a forum and good-time place – beautiful and inspiring as such—yes. As a religious edifice raised in the sense of the old ritual? No. I cannot see it at all as living. It is no longer free." Wright incorporated truth in everything he created, along with philosophy, environmentalism and faith.
The year was 1899 and Frank's life was coming together serendipitously. His name first became known because of his work on a Unitarian church building where the influence of Sullivan's architectural style was recognized as a reflection of the master, though he was already seen as an original. Wright declared that he liked Adler & Sullivan's clean crispness. He also admired Adler for inventing the sound-board as an architectural principle. Wright declared that no public hall ever built by Adler & Sullivan was bad, acoustically speaking.
he gave each of his first six children a musical instrument to learn, and the whole family played music together. He once declared, "Those children! They are worth a monogram each!" While decrying sentimentality, Wright clearly loved his own children, and to a degree he recreated his own childhood, filled with music, for his own children.
The public was also beginning to take notice of Frank Lloyd Wright. It became news when he attended the First National Convention of Architectural Clubs in Cleveland on June 2 and June 3, 1899.
April of 1900, Frank Lloyd Wright was recognized for four projects by the Chicago Architectural Club, among them the All Souls Building, his own studio, and homes he designed for E.C. Waller and Mrs. Robert Eckart, both in the River Forest suburb of Chicago. All the while, Wright refused to participate in competitions. "[The] Committee always chooses the most average and the result is a building well behind the times before it is begun." He would make his own way, and felt he did not need the endorsement of others.
describing his desire for a building that would embody "unity, truth, beauty, simplicity, freedom and reason." Frank Lloyd Wright was the perfect man for the job, and fortunately, he lived nearby.
Wright proposed abolishing the art and craft of architecture and literature in any symbolic form whatsoever. He advocated, instead, for "the sense of inner rhythm deep planted in human sensibility [which] lives far above all other considerations in art." He went even further, asking, "Why the steeple?" In designing Unity Church and other religious buildings, he answered that question be eliminating steeples from his buildings.
Unity Temple was unique because it became the "first concrete monolith," in Wright's words. Concrete was a new addition to the building materials scene and had previously been considered a poor building material. It took Frank Lloyd Wright to give concrete its proper standing and to be recognized as a respectable material. This is part of the reason Unity Temple is a square building: to accommodate the concrete blocks.
To Wright, the church or temple should be a modern meeting-house, and what he called a "good-time place." It took 34 tries before Wright had created a design for Unity Temple that met his own standards.
In 1947, he designed another Unitarian structure when he was contracted to build Shorewood Hills Unitarian Meeting House in Madison, Wisconsin, but not all of Wright's religious buildings were Unitarian. In 1953, Wright designed Beth Sholom Synagogue in Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, but he died before it was completed in 1959.
Beth Sholom Synagogue was identified by the American Institute of Architects and the National Trust for Historic Preservation as one of the 17 Wright buildings most worthy of preservation. It became a National Historic Landmark in 2007.
Historically, Wright chose squares and rectangles as his geometric shape of choice, but in 1956 he made a distinct departure when he designed the Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church in Wauwautosa, Wisconsin, in the shape of a Greek cross, created in the traditional Byzantine gold and blue.
A large building, capable of seating more than 1,000 people, it is made of reinforced concrete shaped, molded to create the graceful curves of this church. As with Beth Shalom Synagogue, the Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church was also finished after his death.