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Number, Numeral
Aid to Bible Understanding
BIBLE USAGE NOT NUMEROLOGY
What Do Numbers Mean in the Bible? Is Numerology Biblical?
Revelation—What It Means for God's Enemies
The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom (Study)—2022
What Is the Seven-Headed Wild Beast of Revelation Chapter 13?
The Hebrews used arithmetic, employing the various mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and so forth, including fractions. (Num. 1:2; Lev. 27:18; 25:8; 6:5; 14:10; 27:30; Num. 15:6) In ancient Hebrew, numbers were spelled out.
Sometime after the exile to Babylon the Jews adopted to some extent the practice of using their alphabetical letters as symbols of numerical figures. However, this usage does not appear even in post-exilic Hebrew Bible manuscripts. (See, for examples, 'AʹLEPH; BEHTH; DAʹLETH.) One of the oldest extant specimens of Hebrew writing is the inscription taken from the Siloam water tunnel (probably from the time of Hezekiah's reign [745-716 B.C.E.]), in which the measurements are written out in full. Spelling out the numbers provides an added measure of accuracy and dependability in the manuscripts of the Hebrew Scriptures, which have been copied many times, for, in copying, a numeral is usually easier to mistake than a word.
In Hebrew, numbers above ten are a combination of words, such as twelve (two and ten) (Gen. 14:4), except that twenty is the plural of ten; thirty a plural word derived from three; forty a plural word derived from four, and so on. One hundred is a separate word; two hundred is the dual form. Other "hundreds" are composed of two words, as, three hundred. The highest number expressed by one Hebrew word is twenty thousand, the dual form of ten thousand (myriad). Larger numbers are a combination of words. For example, at 1 Chronicles 5:18 the number 44,760 is, literally, forty and four thousand, seven hundreds and sixty. A million is written as a thousand thousands. (2 Chron. 14:9) Rebekah's family blessed her, saying: "O you, our sister, may you become thousands times ten thousand [literally, "thousands of myriads"]." (Rebekah's posterity actually came to number many millions.) (Gen. 24:55, 60) In Daniel's vision Jehovah is shown as having "ten thousand times ten thousand [literally, "a myriad of myriads"]" standing before him.—Dan. 7:10.
Occasionally numbers are used in an approximate sense, as round numbers. For example, at Psalm 90:10, where the psalmist speaks of man's age limit, and possibly also at 1 Kings 19:18 (seven thousand who had not bowed to Baal) and 2 Chronicles 14:9 (the million Ethiopians defeated by Asa).
In the Christian Greek Scriptures numerals are generally expressed in words. The number of the "wild beast" is in words in the Sinaitic and the Alexandrine manuscripts, but in John's original manuscript of Revelation it may have been expressed by the three Greek letters Khi (Χ = six hundred), Xi (Ξ = sixty) and Diʹgam·ma (Ϛ = six).—Rev. 13:18.
Since the Bible is a book of both history and prophecy, the numbers given therein may be either literal or symbolic. The context usually reveals in which sense a number is used. Certain numbers appear often in the Bible in an illustrative, figurative or symbolic sense, and in such cases an understanding of their significance is vital to an understanding of the text. However, this Bible usage of numbers should not be confused with numerology, in which occult mysticism is attached to figures, their combinations and numerical totals. Numerology apparently had its origin in ancient Babylon and, along with other forms of divination, comes under divine condemnation.—Deut. 18:10-12.
In the following we will discuss a few of the figurative uses of certain numbers that are used prominently in the Bible.
This number, when used figuratively, conveys the thought of singleness, uniqueness, as well as unity and agreement in purpose and action. "Jehovah our God is one Jehovah," said Moses. (Deut. 6:4) He alone is Sovereign. He is unique. He does not share his glory with another, as is the case with pagan trinitarian gods. (Acts 4:24; Rev. 6:10; Isa. 42:8) There is oneness in purpose and activity between Jehovah and Jesus Christ (John 10:30) and complete unity of Christ's disciples with God and his Son and with one another. (John 17:21; Gal. 3:28) Such oneness is illustrated in the marriage arrangement.—Gen. 2:24; Matt. 19:6; Eph. 5:28-32.
The number two frequently appears in a legal setting. The accounts of two witnesses agreeing add to the force of the testimony. Two witnesses, or even three, were required to establish a matter before the judges. This principle is also followed in the Christian congregation. (Deut. 17:6; 19:15; Matt. 18:16; 2 Cor. 13:1; 1 Tim. 5:19; Heb. 10:28) God adhered to this principle in presenting his Son to the people as mankind's Savior. Jesus said: "In your own Law it is written, 'The witness of two men is true.' I am one that bears witness about myself, and the Father who sent me bears witness about me."—John 8:17, 18.
Doing something a second time—for example, repetition of a statement or vision, even in only a parallel way—firmly established the matter as sure and true (as in Pharaoh's dream of the cows and the ears of grain [Gen. 41:32]). Biblical Hebrew poetry is full of thought parallelism, which establishes more firmly in mind the truths stated and at the same time clarifies matters by the variety of wording in the parallelism.—See Psalms 2, 44 and others.
In Daniel's prophecy the beast having "two horns" symbolized duality in rulership of the Medo-Persian Empire.—Dan. 8:20, 21; compare Revelation 13:11.
While two witnesses testifying to the same matter established proof sufficient for legal action, three made the testimony even stronger. The number three, therefore, is used at times to represent intensity, emphasis or added strength. "A threefold cord cannot quickly be torn in two." (Eccl. 4:12) Emphasis was achieved in Jesus' threefold questioning of Peter after Peter's three denials of Jesus. (Matt. 26:34, 75; John 21:15-17) The vision telling Peter to eat of all kinds of animals, including those unclean according to the Law, was intensified by being given to him three times. This doubtless made it easier for Peter to understand, when Cornelius and his household accepted the good news, that God was now turning his attention to uncircumcised people of the nations, considered unclean by the Jews.—Acts 10:1-16, 28-35. 47, 48.
The intensity of Jehovah's holiness and cleanness is emphasized by the declaration of heavenly creatures: "Holy, holy, holy is Jehovah." (Isa. 6:3; Rev. 4:8) Before taking the last earthly king of the line of David off the throne, Jehovah said: "A ruin, a ruin, a ruin I shall make it. As for this also, it will certainly become no one's until he comes who has the legal right, and I must give it to him." Here he emphatically showed there would be no Davidic kings sitting upon the throne at Jerusalem in his name—the throne would be absolutely vacant—until God's time to establish his Messiah in kingdom power. (Ezek. 21:27) The intensity of woes to come to those dwelling on earth is forecast by the triple repetition of the declaration "woe."—Rev. 8:13.
Four is a number sometimes expressing universalness or foursquareness in symmetry and form. It is found three times at Revelation 7:1. Here the "four angels" (all those in charge of the "four winds," ready for complete destruction) stood on earth's "four corners" (they could let loose the winds obliquely or diagonally, and no quarter of the earth would be spared). (Compare Daniel 8:8; Isaiah 11:12; Jeremiah 49:36; Zechariah 2:6; Matthew 24:31.) The New Jerusalem is "foursquare," equal in every dimension, being in fact cubical in shape. (Rev. 21:16) Other figurative expressions using the number four are found at Zechariah 1:18-21; 6:1-3; Revelation 9:14, 15.
This number at times represents imperfection. The number of the "wild beast" is six hundred and sixty six, and is called a "man's number," indicating that it has to do with imperfect, fallen man, and seems to symbolize the imperfection of that which is represented by the "wild beast." The number six being raised to the third degree (the six appearing in the position of units, tens and hundreds) therefore emphasizes the imperfection and deficiency of that which the beast represents or pictures.—Rev. 13:18.
Seven is used frequently in the Scriptures to signify completeness. At times it has reference to bringing a work toward completion. Or it can refer to the complete cycle of things as established or allowed by God. By completing his work toward the earth in six creative days and resting on the seventh day, Jehovah set the pattern for the whole sabbath arrangement, from the seven-day week to the Jubilee year that followed the seven-times-seven-year cycle. (Ex. 20:10; Lev. 25:2, 6, 8) The festival of unleavened bread and the festival of booths were each seven days long. (Ex. 34:18; Lev. 23:34) Seven appears often in connection with the Levitical rules for offerings (Lev. 4:6; 16:14, 19; Num. 28:11) and for cleansings.—Lev. 14:7, 8, 16, 27, 51; 2 Ki. 5:10.
The "seven congregations" of Revelation, with their characteristics, give a complete picture of all the congregations of God on earth.—Rev. 1:20–3:22.
The "seven heads" of the "wild beast" (Rev. 13:1) show the limit to which the beast would be allowed to develop, no more, no less. True, 'the "scarlet-colored wild beast" is called an "eighth" king; nonetheless, it springs from the seven and does not exist apart from the seven-headed wild beast (Rev. 17:3, 9-11), as is true also of the "image" of the "wild beast." (Rev. 13:14) Similarly, the two-horned "wild beast" is actually coexistent with the original "wild beast" whose "mark" it tries to put on all persons.—Rev. 13:11, 16, 17.
Jehovah was long-suffering with Israel, but warned them that if, despite his discipline, they ignored him, he would then chastise them "seven times," thoroughly, for their sins.—Lev. 26:18, 21, 28.
In historical sections of the Scriptures seven frequently occurs to denote completeness, or doing a work completely. The Israelites exercised full faith and obedience by marching for seven days around Jericho, encompassing it seven times on the seventh day, after which the city wall collapsed. (Josh. 6:2-4, 15) Elijah showed full faith in the efficacy of his prayer to God by commanding his servant up on Mount Carmel to go looking at the sky seven times before a rain cloud appeared. (1 Ki. 18:42-44) Naaman the leper had to bathe seven times in the Jordan River. He, as a mighty Syrian general, had to display considerable humility to carry out this procedure recommended by the prophet Elisha, but for his obediently doing it Jehovah cleansed him. (2 Ki. 5:10, 12) The purity, completeness, perfection and fineness of Jehovah's sayings are likened with poetic force and intensity to silver refined in a smelting furnace, clarified seven times. (Ps. 12:6) Jehovah's mercy is magnified by the statement: "The righteous one may fall even seven times, and he will certainly get up." (Prov. 24:16) His deserving all praise is declared by the psalmist: "Seven times in the day I have praised you."—Ps. 119:164.
The book of Revelation abounds with symbolic use of the number seven in connection with the things of God and his congregation, and also the things of God's adversary Satan the Devil in his all-out fight to oppose God and his people.—Rev. 1:4, 12, 16; 5:1, 6; 8:2; 10:3; 12:3; 13:1; 15:1, 7; 17:3, 10; and other texts.
Multiples of seven are used in a similar sense of completeness. Seventy (ten times seven) is employed prophetically in the "seventy weeks" of Daniel's prophecy, dealing with Messiah's coming. (Dan. 9:24-27; See SEVENTY WEEKS.) Jerusalem and Judah lay desolate seventy years, because of disobedience to God, "until the land had paid off [completely] its sabbaths."—2 Chron. 36:21; Jer. 25:11; 29:10; Dan. 9:2; Zech. 1:12; 7:5.
Seventy-seven, a repetition of seven in a number, was equivalent to saying "indefinitely" or "without limit," as Jesus counsels Christians to forgive their brothers. (Matt. 18:21, 22) Since God had ruled that anyone killing Cain, the murderer, must "suffer vengeance seven times," Lamech, who apparently killed a man in self-defense, said: "If seven times Cain is to be avenged, then Lamech seventy times and seven."—Gen. 4:15, 23, 24.
The number eight was also used to add emphasis to the completeness of something (one more than seven, the number generally used for completeness), thus sometimes representing abundance. Jehovah reassured his people of deliverance from the threat of Assyria, saying that there should be raised up against the Assyrian "seven shepherds, yes, [not merely seven, but] eight dukes of mankind." (Mic. 5:5) As a fitting climax to the final festival of the sacred year, the festival of booths, the eighth day was to be one of holy convention, solemn assembly, a day of complete rest.—Lev. 23:36, 39; Num. 29:35.
Ten is a number denoting fullness, entirety, the aggregate, the sum of all that exists of something. It may be noted also that, where the numbers seven and ten are used together, the seven represents that which is higher or superior and ten represents something of a subordinate nature.
The ten plagues poured upon Egypt fully expressed God's judgments upon Egypt and were all that were needed to humiliate fully the false gods of Egypt and to break the hold of Egypt upon God's people Israel. The "Ten Words" formed the basic laws of the Law covenant, the approximately 600 other laws merely enlarging on these, elucidating them and explaining their application. (Ex. 20:3-17; 34:28) Jesus used the number ten in several of his illustrations to denote entirety or full number of something.—Matt. 25:1; Luke 15:8; 19:13, 16, 17.
One of the beasts of Daniel's vision and certain beasts described in Revelation had ten horns. These evidently represented all the powers or "kings" of earth making up the beastly arrangement. (Dan. 7:7, 20, 24; Rev. 12:3; 13:1; 17:3, 7, 12) The fullness of the test or period of test that God determines for his servants or allows them to undergo is expressed at Revelation 2:10: "Do not be afraid of the things you are about to suffer. Look! The Devil will keep on throwing some of you into prison that you may be fully put to the test, and that you may have tribulation ten days,"—Rev. 2:10.
The patriarch Jacob had twelve sons, who became the foundations of the twelve tribes of Israel. Their offspring were organized by God under the Law covenant as God's nation. Twelve therefore seems to represent a complete, balanced, divinely constituted arrangement. (Gen. 35:22; 49:28) Jehovah chose twelve apostles, who form the secondary foundations of the New Jerusalem, built upon Jesus Christ. (Matt. 10:2-4; Rev. 21:14) There are twelve tribes of "the sons of [spiritual] Israel," each tribe consisting of 12,000 members.—Rev. 7:4-8.
Multiples of twelve are also sometimes significant. David established twenty-four divisions of the priesthood to serve by turn in the temple later built by Solomon. (1 Chron. 24:1-18) This may assist in identifying the "twenty-four older persons" seated round about God's throne in white outer garments, and who were wearing crowns. (Rev. 4:4) The footstep followers of Jesus Christ, his spiritual brothers, are promised kingship and priesthood with him in the heavens. These older persons could not be only the apostles, who numbered just twelve. They may therefore represent the entire body of the "royal priesthood," the 144,000 (as represented in the twenty-four priestly divisions serving at the temple) in their positions in the heavens, as crowned kings and priests.—1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 7:4-8; 20:6.
Periods of judgment or punishment seem to be associated with the number forty, in a few instances. (Gen. 7:4; Ezek. 29:11, 12) Nineveh was given forty days to repent. (Jonah 3:4) Another use of the number forty points out a parallel in the life of Jesus Christ with that of Moses, who typified Christ. Both of these men experienced forty-day periods of fasting.—Ex. 24:18; 34:28; Deut. 9:9, 11; Matt. 4:1, 2.


The shooting of Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager, in a gated Florida community has raised allegations of racial injustice and highlighted the burden that 'Stand Your Ground' laws impose on law enforcement officers.
In this undated photo from the Martin family, Trayvon Martin poses. The family of the black teenager fatally shot by a white neighborhood watch volunteer arrived at Sanford City Hall Friday evening March 16, 2012 to listen to recordings of 911 calls.
For many tuning in across the nation, the shooting late last month in Florida of an unarmed black teenager by a suspicious neighborhood watch captain looks like a racially motivated murder.
That's why the decision by the police not to arrest George Zimmerman for getting out of his car and shooting Trayvon Martin in the middle of a gated neighborhood in Sanford, Fla., on Feb. 26 has raised allegations of racial injustice and profiling.
The shooting has sparked a nationwide protest petition, the involvement of a black militia group, and, on Friday, a call by the parents of the slain teenager for the FBI to investigate the handling of the case, which police have handed off to state investigators.
Such laws eliminate the English Law concept of a "duty to retreat" from dangerous situations outside the home. Without that, an armed citizen has no obligation to stand down in the face of a threat.
The problem, as the Martin case highlights, is that making the duty to retreat "totally irrelevant," as Stetson University law professor Robert Batey has said, means the law gives prosecutors fewer factors to consider when determining self-defense, including, potentially, the extent to which a person claiming self-defense may have aggravated the situation.
Florida became the first state to pass a specific Stand Your Ground law in 2005, essentially expanding self-defense zones from the home to most public places. Seventeen states now have such laws.
"It's hard to imagine that this couldn't have been resolved by [Mr. Zimmerman] leaving, so that no one would've gotten hurt, so this is a case where the Stand Your Ground law can actually make a legal difference," says former federal prosecutor Jeffrey Bellin, a law professor at Southern Methodist University, in Dallas.
But for the parents of the victim, and some 240,000 people who have signed a petition for a federal investigation on the Change.org website, the bare facts of the case suggest that Zimmerman was the aggressor and that the failure to arrest him points to covert racism and an abdication of authority by the local police department.
In a press conference Friday, Trayvon Martin's parents said they no longer had any faith in the Sanford Police Department and called on the FBI to take over the investigation.
"We're not getting any closure, any answers, and it's very disturbing," Tracy Martin, Trayvon's father, said. "As a father, I'm hurt. I feel betrayed by the Sanford Police Department."
Meanwhile, tensions are roiling in the area as several large rallies and protests are being planned and a black militia group has vowed to place the shooter under citizen's arrest. The state has said it may take several weeks to complete its review of the case.
On Feb. 26, Zimmerman, 28, a self-appointed block watch captain in The Retreat at Twin Lakes, a gated community in Sanford, just outside Orlando, called 911 from his car to report a suspicious person – a black man wearing a hoodie – walking slowly through the neighborhood. The 911 operator, according to police, told Zimmerman to wait for police to arrive. The man in the hoodie was Trayvon, returning to his family's house from buying Skittles and an iced tea at a local convenience store.
Instead of waiting for police, Zimmerman exited the car and shot Trayvon after a brief altercation. Trayvon, 17, had no previous criminal record, while Zimmerman recently had a 2005 felony arrest for assault on a police officer expunged by the courts.
"Had Trayvon Martin been the triggerman, they would have arrested him day one, hour one and he would be in jail with no bail," Ben Crump, a Tallahassee lawyer representing the family, told the Florida Courier.
"We have a murderer on the streets, walking around," Natalie Jackson, another lawyer representing the family, said on Friday.
Sanford Police Chief Bill Lee told the Orlando Sentinel that he had no grounds to arrest Zimmerman, and told reporters Thursday that that he has invited the US Department of Justice and the Florida Department of Law Enforcement to review the investigation. Florida officials confirmed they began an investigation on March 13.
"It's an open book," Mr. Lee said. "If they want to look at what we did and how we did it and what information we have, they're welcome to it."
Police have released little information, including the 911 tapes, about what happened that night and no details about how Trayvon and Zimmerman ended up grappling. What has been revealed is that before an officer arrived, Trayvon and Zimmerman got into a fight, according to police, witnesses heard one or both calling for help, and Zimmerman shot Trayvon once in the chest with a 9 mm handgun.
One witness said he came upon the scene and saw Zimmerman on his back on the ground, which jibes with statements by the police that he was covered in grass and blood. Another witness has said in a TV interview that "there was no punching, no hitting going on at the time, no wrestling," but police say that witness gave an official account to them that jibed with Zimmerman's story.
In a letter to the Orlando Sentinel on Friday, Zimmerman's father, Robert Zimmerman, wrote that his son is part-Hispanic "with many black family members and friends." He also pushed back at the idea that Zimmerman was the aggressor who instigated the altercation.
"At no time did George follow or confront Mr. Martin," he wrote. "When the true details of the event become public, and I hope that will be soon, everyone should be outraged by the treatment of George Zimmerman in the media."
The emotional stakes, racial backdrop, and the awkward position of the police department suggest how state laws broadening self-defense rights can backfire. But whether it's a prosecutor or a jury deciding the outcome of a case, self-defense arguments are often powerful and difficult to disprove beyond a reasonable doubt, even in jurisdictions without Stand Your Ground laws.
Is self-defense law vigilante justice?


Make up look Using the Jacklyn hill palette.
How are you this morning? I hope you are having a great week so far. So I have been playing around a bit more with my new jaclyn hill palette and I must say there are not only some amazing colours in this palette, but they blend so well and feel so creamy. The colours are extremely pigmented.
Tomorrow Im going to create a look using the blue in the palette, for thoses of you that might not have seen the palette yet here is a peek inside for you.
For todays look I used the two teal/green colours at the bottom left and the black on the far right. I also used the forth one from the left on the second row down as my transition shade.
Let me know what you think of this colour.
← The Jaclyn Hill Palette!!!!


© Saber and Ghanei; Licensee Bentham Open.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is widely associated with asthma, chronic cough, and laryngitis. Many studies have focused on acidic reflux; however, acid is just one of many factors that can cause pulmonary injury. The discrepancy between the high frequency of GERD in asthmatic patients and the ineffective reflux therapy outcomes in these patients suggests that GERD may cause injury through other mechanisms, such as pepsinogen, pepsin, bile salts, or other components of reflux materials, instead of the acid. Research using appropriate and innovative methodologies to investigate these potential inflammatory agents in patients with GERD is required to determine the underlying factors associated with pulmonary disorders in these patients.
Keywords: : Gastroesophageal reflux disease, respiratory, asthma, cough, epidemiology..
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is a common problem caused by the reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus that can lead to esophageal and extraesophageal manifestations. Extraesophageal reflux syndromes involve several areas, including lung (asthma, chronic cough, bronchiolitis obliterans, pneumonia, and fibrosis), otolaryngological syndromes (laryngitis, otitis, polyps, and cancer of the larynx), chest pain, and oral and dental erosions. Respiratory disorders are among the most challenging extraesophageal syndromes of GERD. Epidemiological studies have revealed that respiratory problems, such as asthma and cough, are more likely to occur in patients with GERD than in healthy subjects . However, the cause-and-effect association between respiratory disorders and GERD is controversial because each may induce the other.
GERD may cause these symptoms by a direct mechanism via aspiration and an indirect neurally mediated mechanism [2-5].
A disturbance of the normal protective mechanisms may allow direct contact of gastroduodenal contents with the larynx or airway.
Defective protective mechanisms may lead to put in contact gastroduodenal contents with respiratory tissues (direct irritation). Reflux may also stimulate a vagal reflex arc producing cough and/or bronchospasm. On the other hand, asthma or cough episodes can stimulate reflux by producing a negative intrathoracic pressure that overcomes the lower esophageal sphincter (LES) barrier. Moreover, asthma medications, such as theophylline, beta 2-agonists or prednisone, have been found to possibly increase GERD by interfering with respiratory protective mechanisms.
Animal studies have demonstrated that tissue injuries may be initiated by gastric or duodenal materials (pepsinogen, trypsin, and bile acids [3-5]) even in the absence of an acid medium . Therefore, nonacidic reflux may cause tissue changes and symptoms that may not be adequately covered by proton pump inhibitors (PPIs). This rationale is hold by the marked improvement of GERD-associated pulmonary symptoms by surgical procedures as well as the evidence derived from recent functional monitoring systems support this thesis [7-9].
Response to PPI therapy is most often used for diagnosis of GERD in these patients. Although GERD is multifactorial, it is actually a motility disorder, and impaired LES function has a major role . Despite the fact that epidemiological studies support a remarkable association between GERD and pulmonary symptoms of reflux, response to PPI therapy has shown diverse results and is not promising. The discrepancy between epidemiological studies and clinical trials with PPIs has not been well investigated. However, interpretation of the results based only on therapeutic clinical acid-suppressive trials is under question because GERD is a motility disorder, and nonacidic reflux secondary to GERD may still provoke respiratory problems. The purpose of this review is to explore the reasons for this discrepancy, highlighting the neglected role of non-acidic refluxate in these clinical trials with an emphasis on asthma and cough.
As mentioned above, many studies have focused on acidic GERD. The discrepancy between the high frequency of GERD in asthmatic patients and the low effectiveness of acid-suppressive treatments on asthmatic symptoms may suggest that GERD can exert its effects through mechanisms other than excessive acid production and/or that asthma per se can lead to GERD. Acid suppression and PPI therapy can change acidic reflux to nonacidic reflux, but in fact, they do not resolve reflux that can still produce respiratory symptoms . Aspiration of gastric contents, such as pepsinogen, pepsin, pancreatic enzymes, and bile acids/salts, has also been reported to cause respiratory symptoms in asthmatic patients [12,13]. Bronchial epithelial cells of patients that are under treatment with PPIs have been shown to promote elevated IL-8 production in response to gastric content exposure. These data suggest that the refluxe in patients treated with PPIs may still induce pulmonary inflammatory responses that may even be induced in response to microbial agents or endotoxins in gastric content . However, few studies have examined the role of nonacidic reflux on respiratory epithelium. Moreover, the constituents of gastric contents that have the most deleterious consequences on the respiratory epithelium have not yet been identified.
Pepsin can induce the production and release of inflammatory mediators and receptors in hypopharyngeal tissues under nonacidic conditions, which shows that pepsin may be associated with laryngeal epithelial inflammation during the course of nonacidic GERD in patients treated with high-dose PPI . Pepsin may enter epithelial cells by endocytosis and cause Golgi complex and mitochondrial damage as well as interfere with gene expression pathways that are implicated in cell toxicity. Irreversible inhibition of peptic activity seems to prevent at least some of these changes. Pepsin can even lead to tissue injury at a pH of 7 after reactivation in epithelial cell . In a study by Patterson et al., the authors reported that gastric contents in the esophagus in patients with asthma and chronic cough facilitated the release of substance P and neurokinin A into the lungs thus causing an inflammatory response in the respiratory epithelium . Moreover, esophageal distention may induce neurogenic reflexes that can result in neurogenic airway inflammatory responses . Improvement of respiratory symptoms following fundoplication and other surgical treatments indirectly supports this idea .
In the last decades, many efforts have been made to identify a possible association between GERD and asthma. GERD prevalence in patients with asthma has varied widely in different populations, ranging from 30% to 90% [19,20]. In a systematic review that examined 28 studies, a 59.2% weighted-average prevalence of GERD symptoms was observed in patients with asthma, while only 38.1% of controls had these symptoms .
A very careful study reported by Sontag et al.  demonstrated a higher frequency and severity of daytime and nighttime reflux symptoms in asthmatic patients than in appropriate controls. In Norway, a recent cohort study in 58,000 subjects reported that asthmatic patients were about 60% more likely to show GERD symptoms than were controls after adjustment for confounding factors [odds ratio (OR), 1.6 . Another study in the UK demonstrated that the risk for asthma is increased in the years after the diagnosis of GERD (OR, 1.4; 95% CI, 1.0–2.1) . More recently, DiMango et al. demonstrated that asthmatic patients with GERD had lower asthma-related quality of life than did patients without GERD .
Temporal correlation between GERD and asthmatic symptoms is another important aspect that seems to reinforce the theory. In fact, such an association between pulmonary symptoms and acid reflux events detected by esophageal pH testing has been reported in 46 to 78% of patients with asthma. Consequently, if reflux triggers asthma, which in turn increases reflux episodes, a pathological circular effect may cause worsening or prolongation of asthmatic symptoms.
The results of many studies using acid suppression strategy in asthmatic patients are not comparable since GERD has been identified on the basis of different mechanisms, such as clinical manifestations, pH monitoring, or both [26,27]. The follow-up period, type and dosage of acid-suppressive drugs were also different in these studies. Other confounding aspects when analyzing the literature include the different target endpoints (improvement of symptoms, peak flow meter, PFTs, and quality of life) evaluated in the studies.
Medical treatment of GERD in asthma.
One method to establish a cause-effect relationship between GERD and asthma is to demonstrate improvement in symptoms following acid-suppressive therapy. Numerous clinical trials have examined the effects of PPI therapy on asthma. Several studies have observed an improvement of asthma symptoms after acid-suppressive therapy [28,29]. In a large study of 207 asthmatic patients with GERD symptoms, the authors concluded that fewer cases developed exacerbation of asthma following treatment with lansoprazole than following treatment with placebo (8 vs 22 patients, respectively; P = 0.05) . In another study, 15 asthmatic patients (27%) with GERD treated with omeprazole showed a 20% improvement in forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1) while only 9% did so in the control group . Levin et al. reported an improvement of peak expiratory flow (PEF) rate in 9 asthmatic patients with GERD after omeprazole treatment for 8 weeks . In a double-blind randomized study in 25 patients with asthma and GERD, a statistically significant improvement in evening PEF rate was observed following treatment with omeprazole compared with placebo (P = 0.05) . In contrast, in a controlled study in 11 asthmatic patients with GERD and nocturnal asthma, low-dose PPI (20 mg/day) did not improve asthma symptoms or PEF . Another study in 36 asthmatic patients with GERD and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease reported no improvement in PFTs results or respiratory symptoms following treatment with omeprazol . In a systematic review by Gibson et al.  using 12 randomized placebo-controlled trials and the Cochrane methodology, no significant improvement in asthmatic symptoms was found after acid-suppressive therapy in GERD patients. In another randomized placebo-controlled study in 207 patients with asthma and GERD symptoms, lansoprazole 30 mg b.i.d for 24 weeks reduced asthmatic exacerbations but did not dramatically improve asthma symptoms and PFTs. It should be considered that patients with moderate to severe GERD were excluded regarding their need for antireflux treatment. Mastronarde et al.  demonstrated that PPI treatment did not improve asthmatic symptom control in patients with refractory asthma and silent reflux.
Only 2 studies have shown a significant improvement in peak flow values [27,38].
Data from a recent randomized, double-blind, controlled study by the American Lung Association Asthma Clinical Research Centers revealed that esomeprazole therapy b.i.d for 6 months did not improve control of asthma in patients with refractory asthma and silent reflux . In this study that used ambulatory 24-h pH monitoring before initiation of acid suppression, about 40% of the patients had reflux but did not show clinical significant response to PPI therapy. One limitation, however, was that the role of nonacidic reflux was disregarded in this trial.
In children, the situation is quite similar to adults. Although 2 studies have reported very good results in children [39,40], Stordal et al. , in a double-blind randomized trial, concluded that acid-suppressive treatment in asthmatic children with GERD did not improve asthmatic symptoms These variations may partly justify the inconsistency of the results.
Surgical treatment of GERD and asthma.
Many uncontrolled studies have suggested that surgery for GER might offer beneficial effects on certain outcomes of asthma. Irwin et al.  demonstrated that fundoplication could significantly improve asthmatic control in patients who did not initially respond to acid suppression.
The value of surgical treatment is probably related to the control of any sort of GERD, including both acidic, nonacidic, and bile reflux. Sontag et al.  compared the effects of fundoplication, ranitidine, and placebo on asthmatic manifestations in asthmatic patients with GERD. They concluded that 74.9% of patients showed improvement in asthmatic symptoms following surgery compared with those of 9.1% of patients who received medical treatment with ranitidine and only 4.2% of the patients in the control group.
Chronic cough is one of the most common clinical presentations in primary care practice . It is believed that cough is common in both erosive (30.5%) and nonerosive (34.9%) GERD .
An epidemiological association between gastric reflux and chronic cough has been demonstrated in patients of all ages . However, the major limitation of many of these studies is that patients with reflux-associated cough may have silent GERD and not show GERD symptoms.
Recently, the pH threshold has also been questioned because weakly acidic reflux has been reported to be responsible for symptoms and cough in asthmatic patients off and on acid-suppressive therapy. As it occurs with asthma, esophageal pH monitoring has been used to examine the association between cough and reflux in these patients.
The impact of esophageal motility defects, such as ineffective motility and delayed esophageal clearance, has been examined in chronic cough. In regard to reflex mechanisms, higher cough sensitivity following acid perfusion into the distal part of the esophagus was shown in patients with GERD and cough than in patients with GERD and no cough . Topical esophageal anesthesia with lidocaine has also been shown to block acid-induced cough . In a study in Wistar rats, stimulation of the esophagus with pepsin and acid led to higher c-Fos gene expression in the medulla, suggesting that acid and pepsin stimulation of the distal esophagus may cause cough-center stimulation . It should be mentioned that cough and reflux may worsen each other in a circular manner that could result in more prominent manifestations.
Medical treatment of GERD in chronic cough.
Treatment of cough-related reflux has been examined in many trials of acid-suppressive drug therapy and surgery, most of which have had limitations, such as small sample size, and shown inconsistent results that have made it hard to draw conclusion on the basis of their results.
In a study in patients with reflux and chronic cough, just 1 of 8 patients responded to treatment with omeprazole while none of the 9 individuals in the placebo group had such a response . Kiljander et al. reported the results of their study in 29 asthmatic patients with positive 24-h pH monitoring test findings that showed significant improvement with omeprazol . In a recent study, however, Baldi et al.  found that there was no difference in improvement of cough symptoms in asthmatics with GERD between different doses of lansoprazole.
In another recent trial using medical treatment with omeprazole, Vaezi et al.  reported complete improvement of cough symptoms in 10 of 11 cases with GERD following a 2-month period. However, most other trials have not shown significant improvement of chronic cough following treatment with acid-suppressive medical therapy , suggesting that factors other than the acidic content of the refluxate can be considered in patients that show no response to PPIs and that the role of nonacidic reflux in these individuals should be investigated. In addition, results from a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of chronic cough patients with GERD that compared PPI therapy with placebo over a 3-month period demonstrated no significant improvement in cough symptoms between PPI and placebo (odds ratio = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.19–1.15). New therapeutic strategies should be proposed that target both acidic and nonacidic reflux in patients with resistant cough.
Surgical treatment of GERD in chronic cough.
In patients with documented correlation between GERD and cough who had no response to acid-suppressive treatment, antireflux surgery has yielded encouraging results, suggesting the presence of nonacidic reflux despite PPI therapy . Outcome controlled studies of antireflux surgery in asthmatic patients with cough are required to elucidate the value of surgery in individuals who do not respond to PPI therapy.
Several other pulmonary disorders have been supposed to be related to GERD. Epidemiological studies in these patients have demonstrated an increased risk of chronic bronchitis (OR:1.28) , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR:1.22) , idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) (OR:1.36)  and cystic fibrosis . Moreover, GERD is more common in IPF compared with normal population . Various respiratory complications of reflux have been reported in children with neurologic disorders or patients with debilitating diseases secondary to reflux .
Reflux episodes and bile acid aspiration in lung transplant patients have been thought to play an important role in the development of bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS) . It has been demonstrated that lung recipients with bile in their BALF samples develop BOS earlier and are less likely to improve from BOS. In addition, higher levels of bile acids in BALF samples of lung transplant patients have been shown to be correlated with higher plasma IL-8 concentrations and neutrophilia in the BALF . In the interesting study by Cantu et al. , the authors concluded that early fundoplication can significantly reduce development of BOS in lung transplant patients with GERD. GERD has been also associated with diffuse bronchiolitis and BOS–associated pneumonia in those without lung transplantation . Also, GERD has been associated with poorer PFT in cystic fibrosis patients with GERD than in patients without GERD . Gastric aspiration is also more prevalent in tube-fed patients and can lead to pneumonia and increased use of hospital resources .
One explanation is that the design and methodologies differed extensively among the studies because research in this area is spread over multiple disciplines. Moreover, the lack of clarification regarding manifestations actually caused by GERD, the best way of identifying these conditions, and the best treatments and course of therapy may have caused uncertain results. It is likely that patients have been diagnosed mistakenly and their asthma or cough was not a result of GERD. About 20% to 30% of individuals with GERD symptoms still suffer from their previous symptoms while on acid-suppressive treatment. Moreover, persisting reflux can be documented in about half of these cases, which proves the insufficiency of acid-suppressive therapy in these patients . Again, it should be noted that acidic content of the refluxate may represent only 1 of the components involved in respiratory damage, and more specific research is required to identify the source of pulmonary inflammation, such as bile, pepsin, microbial components, and other components, in these patients.
Another explanation is that individuals with more prominent and severe reflux disease may be more likely to show considerable improvement of pulmonary manifestations following acid suppressive therapy [64,65]. These individuals are usually excluded ethically for safety reasons from all studies, which may contribute to a large bias in results. Moreover, it should be considered that all PPIs or empirical treatments have their own limitations, and GERD should not be simply ruled out because of insufficient response to PPI treatment. Similarly, inclusion criteria that will lead to the selection of an appropriate target group and the best therapeutic regimens have not yet been defined.
The predominant mechanism of GERD is supposedly transient LES relaxations. Baclofen is an agonist of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which decreases reflux frequency by decreasing frequency of LES in addition to having antitussive effects. However, its side effects have limited its use as a routine medication. Newer GABA agonists with fewer adverse effects are now under investigation and being used in a clinical trial to potentially show improvement in motility disorder in GERD patients. A new generation of antireflux therapies has targeted transient lower esophageal sphincter relaxation, which is the basic underlying cause of reflux. GABAB agonists and metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) antagonists are the most remarkable drugs in this group and have been effective in decreasing reflux symptoms and episodes .
GERD is a common disorder caused by the reflux of gastric contents into the esophagus that may lead to several esophageal and extraesophageal disturbances. Most previous randomized clinical trials have targeted acid suppression, and other components of the refluxate have been largely neglected. Currently, there is a considerable body of evidence available indicating the important role of nonacidic gastric components in pulmonary inflammation and toxicity. Symptom improvement in response to surgical procedures that target the basic mechanism of reflux as a motility disorder provides support for this idea. Hence, the important question is how future studies should be designed and which methodologies should be used to obtain more accurate results on the association of GERD and respiratory problems. Definitions and outcome measures should be standardized. The presence and composition of major gastric contents should be investigated in the respiratory tracts in patients with GERD and respiratory problems specially in those that continue to have respiratory problems despite treatment with PPIs. Finally, there is a need for newer treatments that target the basic mechanism of GERD and its role in symptom improvement in these patients.
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Walking along the Wat Street, we also visit the Wat Mai… In the afternoon climb up to Phousi hill for overlooking the city scenery and the amazing sunset. From here we can see the magic Mekong and the small Nam Khan River. Welcome dinner at local restaurant and introduction in Lao food. Stay overnight in Luang Prabang.
Breakfast at hotel, start your day with a trip by private long boat on the Mekong to the well-known Pak Ou caves. Stop on the way to visit Muang Kham (Lao Lum), if you wish visit Ban Xang Hai (Lao Lum) where the distillation of the rice whisky (Lao Lao) can be seen and tasted. Then continue to Pak Ou, visit the exciting "Tham Ting cave", cross the Mekong to Ban Pak Ou to have lunch. Return to Lang Prabang, drive by car/bus to visit the tomb of Henri Mouhot, the explorer of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. You will enjoy the short walk along the Khan River. By return way, you can shop (if you wish) weaving products in the famous "Ban Phanom" village. Have dinner at restaurant with live traditional music. Stay overnight in Luang Prabang.
Breakfast at hotel, excursion by car/bus to the beautiful Kuang Si waterfall, on the way stop to visit Hmong-and Khmu villages. From here we start with our soft trekking program that brings us out into small villages. Along the way we can learn about their way of life and the differences between Lao, Khamu-and-Hmong-culture. Of course we arrive at the waterfall for a refreshing bath in the afternoon. Transfer back in town in the evening. Picnic for lunch and trekking guides provided for today. Stay overnight in Luang Prabang.
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text:
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Muhammad Faraz Sheikh
Instructor of Electrical and Computer Engineering Affiliation: NYU Abu Dhabi
Education: BSc University of Engineering and Technology Lahore, Pakistan; Master in Robotics from University of Genova, Italy
faraz.afzal@nyu.edu
Research Areas: Robotics, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), Unmanned Ground Vehicles (UGVs), Autopilot design of Drones, Machine Learning
Faraz Afzal is a Roboticist who completed his BSc in Mechatronics and Control Engineering from the University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore. He was later appointed as a Lecturer in his Alma Mater until he was awarded a scholarship by the Italian government to complete his Masters in Robotics. Faraz completed his Master from the University of Genova working under the supervision of the Prof. Rezia Molfino and completing a research project with Prof. Renato Zaccaria. During this time, he was also part of the R&D team of Genova Robots.
After completing his Master in Robotics, he was appointed as Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (Research Fellow), at the Chair of Robotics and Mechanics, Institute of Mechatronics and System Dynamics of University of Duisburg Essen, Germany. During his stay, he worked in a number of funded projects, taught courses, designed Labs, supervised Master students, and implemented washout filters for the virtual rides of Roller Coasters and to train pilots on Robotics Simulator. After spending three years, Faraz was appointed in Khalifa University as a Lab Engineer of Robotics Institute. Faraz was the first hire of the Robotics Institute and built state-of-the-art Robotics Lab in Khalifa University. He was also involved in teaching courses, doing research, and managing the Robotics Institute Lab. Later he was also the Lead Engineer of Biomedical Engineering department and supported Biomedical Labs. Faraz was actively involved in UAVs related research in Khalifa University and was self-trained and the only UAV pilot in Khalifa University. Faraz has been involved to train school students on a five day STEM camps. He was also appointed as a "Chief Expert", Judge and trainer for the "Emirates Skills 2016" in the Category of Drones; Build and Fly Competition.
Working in NYUAD, Faraz has been involved in the teaching activities and has taught several courses and directed studies related to Electrical, Electronics, and Computer Engineering. He was also part of the Global Hybrid Electric Car Challenge 2018 as a Technical Advisor to the team.
Currently, he is the IEEE elected member holding the office of the Treasurer for the Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society (EMBS) UAE Chapter.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Volume 3, No. 1, 2011, 59-65
UDC 616.711-007.5-053.5:796.035
DIFFERENCES IN POSTURAL STATUS OF LOWER-GRADE
PUPILS WITH RESPECT TO THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL
Gordana Tripunovic
ìJovan Jovanovi" ñ Zmajî, Elementary School
Sremska Kamenica, Serbia
A basic posture is thought to be inherited, but it can be modified by environmental factors
such as illness, age, physical activity, living conditions, physical environment, diet, and many
others. The purpose of this study was to determine the differences in postural status between
trained athletes and untrained children of the same age. The population sample included boys
aged 8-10 years from elementary schools in the city of Novi Sad, as well as from sport clubs in
the same area. They were assigned to either of the three groups: A) pupils participating in an
individual sport (N=50); B) pupils participating in a team sport (N=51), and C) pupils attending
physical education (PE) classes only (N=50)(control group). All measurements of postural status
were taken using the Napoleon Wolanski method. The analyses showed that the situation in the
control group is rather worrisome, where postural status is very poor. The weakest links are the
abdominal muscles, but also the head, shoulders, shoulder blades, spine, feet and legs.
Keywords: postural status, pupils, physical activity, sport
A good posture is all about optimal relations among all segments of the human body,
which are fairly stable for the most part (Sabo, 2006; Purenovi", 2007). The optimal posture
represents a biological value of the human kind, passed on by phylogenetic development. It can
be defined as an activity using the least amount of energy required for normal functioning of the
internal organs and maintenance of psychomotor abilities.
Principles of the basic body posture are very complex and are based on conditioned and
unconditioned reflexes. Since the former are dependent on external influences, body posture is
more subject to individual differences. Essentially, basic posture seems to be mostly genetic,
however it can also be altered by environmental factors like illness, age, level of physical
activity, living conditions, physical environment, eating habits, and many others.
 Corresponding author. ÑJovan Jovanovi" Zmajì, Elementary School. äkolska 3, 21203 Sremska Kamenica, Serbia.
© 2010 Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
G. Tripunovi"
In order to maintain a normal, steady, upright standing position, both active and passive
forces of the locomotor system are engaged, specifically muscles, ligaments and bones. The
greatest of all external forces disturbing the optimal posture is gravity. Active forces are
produced by muscles, whereas the passive ones come from ligaments, bones and joints. In any
activity, all the forces affecting body posture must be in balance. Any disturbance inside this
system can cause an imbalance within the individual segments of the body. This imbalance
mostly occurs at the expense of the active portion of these forces, ie. muscles, which may
succumb due to fatigue, their poor conditioning, or disease. The consequence of this muscle
weakness is an increased strain on the passive portion of the locomotor system, which in turn
begins to deteriorate over time, adapting to a completely new role (Uli", 1997).
A fundamental condition for establishing and maintaining a normal standing posture is a
well-balanced relationship between internal and external forces. These forces are the same in
magnitude, but act in opposite directions. When there is an imbalance, a good posture has been
compromised.
Biological development of children is characterized by certain natural laws.
Psychological and physical development is an ongoing process, both gradual and irregular, with
specific characteristics for each period. In other words, child growth and development are
normally continuing processes, although certain anatomical, physiological and psychological
segments do not develop at the same rate or end at the same time (Rowlands et al.,1999).
Individual differences are present at any point during development. Besides exogenic and
endogenic factors, there are many other factors affecting these differences (Nevill et al., 1998).
The period between 8-10 y of age is characterized by fairly steady, slowed gains in body
height (Ruiz et al.,
2006). Bone growth and calcification are ongoing, while physiological
curvatures of the spine are already being fixed. Even though the muscular system is evidently
becoming stronger, it is not fully developed. At the end of this period, soft muscle tissue
accounts for about 30% of the total body weight.
During this stage, it is necessary to assess body posture and check for potential
deformities in order to intervene and correct them in time.
The purpose of this study was to investigate and determine the differences, if any, in
postural status between young athletes and the untrained children of the same age.
The sample was derived from Novi Sadís elementary schoolsí boys, as well as from those
participating in many sports clubs in the Novi Sad municipality. They were 8-10 y old (± 6
months).
Participants were assigned into one of the following three groups:
A) pupils participating in individual sports (N=50),
B) pupils participating in team sports (N=51),
C) pupils attending physical education (PE) classes only (N=50)
All participants had to be clinically healthy and free of any aberrations.
Pupilsí postural status and level of physical activity
In order to assess the overall postural status, the following parameters were looked at: 1)
Head posture; 2) Shoulder posture; 3) Shoulder blade posture; 4) Thorax development status; 5)
Digression of the spine in the frontal plane or Spine posture; 6) Abdomen posture; 7) Leg shape;
and 8) Foot arch.
The measurements of the postural status of children were taken according to the
Napoleon Wolanski method (Radisavljevi", 2001). Three marks (0-2) were used: ëzeroí (0) was
given when all the parameters were in normal, expected relations. ëOneí (1) represented a certain
digression from a normal status of body posture, which could be corrected with appropriate
exercises (the active portion of the locomotor system was weakened in some way), and ëtwoí
was given in more severe cases with significant digression from the normal status of body
posture (structural changes of the locomotor system).
During examination, children were barefoot and in their underwear. The observations
were done from the distance of about 2 m, and were recorded in a set order. It was ensured that
measurement conditions were the same for all participants during the morning hours, in well-lit
and spacious rooms, at an optimal room temperature, and the same people taking the
The results were analyzed by the frequency of appearance by categories of postural
status, and were expressed both numerically and in percentages. Differences between groups
calculated using Chi-square test.
Table 1 shows the results for Head posture, Shoulder posture, Shoulder blade posture,
Thorax development status, Spine shape and posture, Abdomen posture, Leg shape, and Foot
arch.
Table 2 shows that there is a statistically significant difference among tested groups of
pupils in variables shoulder posture, abdomen posture, leg shape and foot arch at the level of
significance p ≤ 0.01. Whereas with a variables Spine shape and posture, this difference is at the
level of significance p ≤ 0.05, respectively.
By analyzing results of the frequencies in head posture, it can be noticed that the best
group, with greatest percentage in normal posture was found in group A (50%), followed by
group C (46%) and group B (37%). In addition, results of significant digression from normal
head posture were found in group C (control group) and B with frequency of 4%, whereas group
A had 2%.
The results in shoulder posture were as follows: 80% in group A and 74.5% in group B of
the boys with an optimal shoulder status. Only 46% of the boys in control group had good
shoulder posture and 4% of significant digression from optimal posture.
Postural status of 8-10 year-old pupils participating in individual sports (A), team sports (B),
and those not participating in any sports (C.
25 (50%) 19 (37.3%)
Head posture
Total 50 (100%)
51 (100%) 50 (100%)
Shoulder posture
Thorax shape
Shoulder blade
Spine shape and
6 (12%) 11 (21.6%)
Foot arch
A normal thorax shape and posture was found in 90% of the boys in group A, 86.3% in
group B and 86% in control group, whereas 4% of significant digression in posture was found in
control group.
The results for Shoulder-blade posture in groups shows that in all groups highest
percentage was with normal posture, but there was found within all three groups small
percentage (around 4%) of significant structural changes due to a scoliotic body posture.
Differences in postural status between groups of pupils
Body segment
(df)
Abdomen posture
A normal spine posture was had by 88% in group A, 78.4% in group B and 62% in
control group C. A significant digression with severe structural changes taking place had 2% in
Only 34% of the boys in group A had a normal abdomen posture, 50% had a slight
digression from normal abdomen posture, and even 16% had a significant digression. It appears
that the underlying cause of this finding may as well be a weakened active portion of the
locomotor apparatus or musculature, which can have result in a lordotic body posture. The
situation in groups B and C was similar, with high percentage of a significant digression from
normal abdomen posture.
The situation with leg-shape posture, in group A and B, high percentage of normal
posture were found (over 80%), while the rest of the subjects had slight alterations in posture that
could be corrected by strengthening the stabilizing muscles, especially in the knee joint and
ankle. In group C, 52% had a normal leg shape, 28% were with a slight digression, and even
20% had a significant digression from normal leg shape. This can certainly be attributed to a
poor level of physical activity and the result in weakening of the stabilizing musculature and
ligaments of the lower leg joints.
Finally, highest percentage of the participants in group A and B showed a normal foot
arch, and the remaining percentage had a slight digression from a normal postural status. None
had a significant digression. A dire situation was found in group C where only 16% of the boys
had a normal foot arch, 78% had a slight digression, and 6% (3 boys) had a significant digression
from normal foot arch. Feet are always the first to relent as a direct consequence of insufficient
physical activity, poor diet and obesity.
From all these analyses, it can be inferred that the most sensitive areas in 8-10 year-old
boys participating in individual sports are the abdominal section, scapular area and feet. In these
regions of the body there was the greatest number of pupils with a slight digression from a
normal postural status.
One can also observe that the situation with boys participating in team sports is worse
than with those involved in individual sports. There were more compromised regions, with a
poor postural status in the abdominal section, the head, scapular region, and the feet.
Very disturbing results compared to the other two groups, were found in group C with
untrained boys participating only in PE classes at school. In this group, the overall postural status
was very poor. The weakest links seem to be the abdominal region, the head, shoulders, scapular
area, spine, feet and legs. These findings suggest that further analysis looking at the root-cause of
this phenomenon is needed in order to make corrections, and, more importantly, provide
meaningful and timely prevention strategies to the problem.
This study was run on 151 boys aged 8-10 years, divided into three groups: trained ñ
individual sports, trained ñ team sports, and untrained. Eight variables were measured for the
assessment of the overall postural status, with the purpose of examining the differences between
the trained vs. the untrained pupils of the same age.
All measurements were taken by the Napoleon Wolanski method. The analyses of the
results led us to the following conclusions:
The most sensitive areas in 8-10 year-old boys participating in individual sports are the
abdominal section, scapular area and feet. In these regions of the body there were the most
pupils with a slight digression from a a normal postural status.
A worse situation was seen with boys participating in team sports than with those involved
in individual sports. There were more compromised regions, with a poor postural status
found in the abdominal section, the head, scapular region, and the feet.
The worst results were found in the control group, where there was a very worrying
situation. The weakest links were the abdominal region, the head, shoulders, scapular area,
spine, feet and legs.
After starting school, spontaneous movement activities in children are reduced. In addition
to a prolonged time spent in a sitting position, whether in school or at home, the musculoskeletal
system is negatively influenced by ergonomically inadequate school furniture, mental stress, and
in particular lack of overall movement (Filipova et al., 2003). The attitude of parents toward
movement activities appears to be very important for the creation of positive relationships of
children with respect to sports and exercise. Education (Van de Mheen et al., 1998; Groholt et
al.,
2003) is an important factor influencing the state of health. Educated people have better
attitudes toward healthy lifestyles, including exercise. A gradually developing muscular
imbalance initially manifests as a functional disorder with characteristic signs of changing body
profile, which is followed by structural changes, first affecting the soft tissues
(ligaments,
cartilage, and muscles) and later the bony and joint structures. The latter is known as fixed
postural abnormality. Unlike fixed abnormalities, poor posture in a functional disorder phase can
be willingly corrected by active muscle effort (Groholt et al., 2003) and may be influenced by
regular and special exercise (Filipova et al., 2005).
This work provides evidence that deficit of movement activities is associated with the
development of poor posture. Interventional measures, which should be implemented on a large-
scale basis, especially as part of school physical education. There is a lack of guidance and the
cooperation between health care professionals and educators regarding how best to implement
physical activities. The results of our study can be used as evidence with officials in the area of
prevention, to support efforts to improve the health of our school children and to reduce the risk
of postural damage to childrenís health.
Filipov· V, KratÏnov· J, Trestrov· Z. (2005). National Program of HealthóGrant Projects for
the Support of Health 1994-2004 [in Czech]. Prague, Czech Republic: Regional Public
Health Authority and Institute of Health of the Middle Bohemian Region.
Groholt, E., Stigum, H., & Nordhagen, R. (2003). Recurrent pain in children, socio-economic
factors and accumulation in families. European Journal Epidemiology, 18, 965-975.
Nevill, A., Holder, R., Baxter-Jones, A., Round, J., & Jones, D. (1998). Modeling developmental
changes in strength and aerobic power in children. Journal of Applied Physiology, 84,
Purenovi", T.
(2007). Review of national and international research studies in postural
deformities: The period from 2000 to 2007. Facta Universitatis ñ Physical Education and
Sport, 5, 139-152.
Rowlands, A. V., Eston, R. G., & Ingledew, D. K. (1999). Relationship between activity levels,
aerobic fitness, and body fat in 8- to 10-yr-old children. Journal of Applied Physiology,
Ruiz, J. R., Rizzo, N. S., Hurtig-Wennlof, A., Ortega, F. B., Warnberg, J., & Sjostrom, M.
(2006). Relations of total physical activity and intensity to fitness and fatness in children:
the European Youth Heart Stady. The Amercan Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2), 299-
Sabo, E. (2006). Posturalni status dece predökolskog uzrasta u Novom Sadu [Postural status of
pre-school children in the city of Novi Sad]. Pedagoöka stvarnost, 7-8, 615-625.
Uli", D. (1997). Osnove kineziterapije [The foundations of kinesitherapy]. Novi Sad: Samostalno
autorsko izdanje.
Van de Mheen, H., Stronks, K., & Kolman, C. W. (1998). Does childhood socioeconomic status
influence adult health through behavioral factors? International Journal of Epidemiology,
Submitted 12 April, 2011
Accepted 15 June, 2011


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The free-market approach to education - parental choice, publication of exam and test results and the tying of budgets to pupil numbers - assumes that there will be general improvement in all schools as they battle each otherfor pupils.
However, life is not quite like that. It is possible that allowing parents to choose schools will actually exacerbate the differences between them - instead of all schools getting better, the less popular schools will get worse.
In pursuit of evidence on this subject, Hugh Lauder, David Hughes and others carried out a long-term study of "free-market" education in two New Zealand cities. In Trading in Futures (Open University Press pound;50pound;16.99), they report that middle-class parents soon made some schools their own, while other schools went into decline: "The recent history of working-class schools has been one of stress and change triggered by the market. In contrast the elite schools have remained virtually untouched." That, of course, is in New Zealand. And is it happening here? Ask any inner-city headteacher.
And while you are about it, ask them about morale. Lots of teachers are down in the dumps these days, which is why Denis Lawrence has written Teaching with Confidence (Paul Chapman pound;42pound;13.99). It has sections on such topics as personality types, com-munication, assertiveness, stress and its management.
The penultimate chapter outlines a "seven-day self-esteem enhancement programme". On day one, you make a list of your positive achievements, "no matter how small". On day two, you make a list of your positive personal qualities, and so on until day six, when you treat yourself to a walk or lunch with a friend. We have all known people who need this kind of advice, and if they are unable to get it from a friend or a loved one, then a book, I suppose, is the next best thing.
One of the things that depresses many teachers is the steady onward march of testing and assessment. It takes up valuable teaching time, it knocks on into teaching style and lesson content - and few teachers are entirely certain that the game is worth the candle in terms of the better education of children.
If you want to argue the point, though, you need a good factual starting point -which is what you will find in National Testing: Past, Present and Future (British Psychological Society pound;16.95) by Professor Diane Shorrocks Taylor, who clearly knows most of what there is to know about testing and assessment. It has the whole story from the heady days of TGAT (Kenneth Baker's Task Group on Assessment and Testing), of whose proposals Margaret Thatcher was famously suspicious, purely on the grounds that the National Union of Teachers and The TES quite liked them.
The struggle towards the formidably difficult goal of producing good tests which can be formative, diagnostic and evaluative, is well told.
The soccer season these days starts well before the autumn term, which means that the staffroom football chat can begin right away. What rapture! If you want an intellectual spin on the subject, try Sport Matters by Eric Dunning (Routledge pound;16.99) - a fascinating examination of the interaction between sport, violence, and the growth of civilisation.
One of the most interesting facts it contains is that between 1314 and 1667 football was banned in all or part of this country no fewer than 33 times - which raises the thought that if they could do it then, they could do it now.