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Umbrella Corporation est une société multinationale fictive de recherche pharmaceutique dans l'univers de la saga japonaise de jeux vidéo Resident Evil, de type survival horror et édité par Capcom. Il s'agit aussi sensiblement de la même entreprise fictive apparaissant dans la série de film Resident Evil.

Histoire
Umbrella est créée en 1968 par les trois découvreurs du virus Progenitor : Oswell E. Spencer, James Marcus, et Edward Ashford afin de couvrir leurs recherches illégales sur le Progenitor et les armes bio organiques (des animaux de diverses espèces voire des humains transformés en monstres par le virus). Elle étend plus tard ses activités à l'informatique, l'armement, l'aérospatial, les produits cosmétiques, et bien d'autres secteurs. Elle est la première entreprise mondiale dans le secteur médical et cosmétique, et on retrouve ses produits dans plus de la moitié des foyers américains.

Derrière ce visage d'entreprise bienveillante et omniprésente dans la vie quotidienne, elle développe de manière clandestine des armes biologiques génétiquement modifiées qu'elle revend à des groupes para-militaires et à des pays du Tiers-Monde. Cette face est inconnue du public et même de la majeure partie de ses employés. Umbrella a recours à la corruption pour couvrir ses activités illégales et obtenir ce qu'elle désire. Elle entretient une armée privée constituée de mercenaires, d'anciens soldats de pays communistes et de repris de justice libérés grâce à des pots-de-vin : l'UBCS et l'USS. Ces forces assurent la protection de ses installations, de son personnel, l'évacuation de civils lors d'accidents biologiques, l'assassinat de personnes dérangeantes, et le maintien de l'ordre au sein des zones appartenant à la société.

L'incident de Raccoon City est l'événement marquant qui précipite la dissolution de la multinationale. Après que le président Graham ait envoyé un missile nucléaire pour purger Raccoon City, toutes les preuves concernant l'implication d'Umbrella dans l'incident sont soit récupérées par les soldats de l'USS, soit détruites par le missile. Des témoins affirment devant les tribunaux qu'Umbrella est l'unique responsable de la destruction de Raccoon City : malgré cela, la multinationale continue ses activités.

Le coup final est porté à Umbrella lorsque des mercenaires dirigés par Chris Redfield et Jill Valentine attaquent la base d'Umbrella en Russie en détruisant toutes les données et récupèrent les recherches du laboratoire pour l'exposer au public. Albert Wesker, chercheur chez Umbrella, en profite également pour recueillir des preuves afin de mettre la société à ses pieds.

Après avoir exposé les preuves au grand public et montré au monde que l'incident en Russie était le fait d'Umbrella, le gouvernement américain décide d'interdire à Umbrella de commercialiser ses produits. Toutes les forces de polices du gouvernement américain et de ses alliés s'organisent pour retrouver le PDG d'Umbrella, Oswell Spencer.

Dû à une mauvaise santé financière, les actions de la multinationale s'effondrent et provoquent la dissolution d'Umbrella Corporation. La dissolution d'Umbrella marque également le début de l'ère du bioterrorisme, où les virus d'Umbrella se retrouvent sur le marché noir ou entre les mains de groupes para-militaires du tiers-monde.

En 2017, un hélicoptère portant le nom de la société pharmaceutique est aperçu survolant les décombres de la maison des Baker. Par la suite, on apprend que Chris Redfield est devenu un membre de l'ancienne Umbrella Corporation qui, elle, est devenue une branche militaire privée. Aucune autre source ne vient compléter ces éléments. Ce groupe paramilitaire serait composé d'anciens membres d'Umbrella qui, scandalisés par les agissements de leur entreprise, seraient désireux de racheter leurs fautes au travers de cette nouvelle organisation, en utilisant les moyens et les connaissances de l'ancienne firme pour combattre au mieux les dangers liés aux armes et créations biologiques d'Umbrella. Ils insistent sur l'utilisation du préfixe « Blue-Umbrella », afin de se dissocier de l'héritage de la société mère.

Les fondateurs
 Ozwell E. Spencer : Virologue  et aristocrate britannique, PDG d'Umbrella Corporation et ami d'enfance d'Edward Ashford. Il s'éloigne peu à peu de la recherche pour se concentrer sur la gestion de sa société. Il meurt assassiné en 2006 par Albert Wesker.
 Edward Ashford : Virologue et aristocrate britannique, cofondateur d'Umbrella, ami d'enfance de Spencer et père d'Alexander Ashford. Il a connu Marcus durant ses études de biologie et l'a présenté à Spencer. Il meurt peu de temps après la fondation d'Umbrella Chemical Inc. Il semblait opposé à l'usage du Virus Progenitor pour créer des armes biologiques.
 James Marcus : Brillant virologue néanmoins obsédé par ses recherches, créateur du Virus T (Progenitor) et directeur du centre de formation, il est assassiné par Albert Wesker et William Birkin en  sur ordre de Spencer. Ressuscité par une sangsue contaminée avec le Virus T, il se fait finalement re-tuer en 1998 par Billy Coen et Rebecca Chambers.

Les héritiers
 Alexander Ashford : directeur d'un centre d'Umbrella en Antarctique, il se fait capturer par ses propres enfants et est utilisé comme cobaye, devient un monstre et meurt dans ce centre.
 Alfred Ashford et Alexia Ashford : jumeaux, ils sont les enfants d'Alexander. Ils travaillent sur le Virus Veronica découvert par Alexia et ont des capacités intellectuelles hors du commun. Ils contaminent leur père avec ce virus et l'utilisent comme cobaye pour leurs expériences.

Les chercheurs
 Albert Wesker : chef de la branche d'élite de Raccoon City, les S.T.A.R.S (Special Tactics And Rescue Squad) et chercheur sur le Virus T. Il demande à son ami, le professeur William Birkin, de créer un virus dérivé du Virus T, ou Tyran. Il s'injecte le virus de Birkin après avoir été mortellement touché par un Tyran. Il devient alors surpuissant et se met à travailler en secret pour une mystérieuse organisation. Il est l'assassin d'Ozwell E. Spencer. Vu par le public dans Resident Evil 4, il est achevé par Chris Redfield et Sheva Alomar en 2009.
 William Birkin : scientifique talentueux et créateur du Virus G, s'injecte son propre virus pour échapper à la tentative de vol du Virus G par un commando dont Hunk fait partie. Hunk sera le dernier survivant du commando après que Birkin commence sa mutation.

Umbrella Biohazard Countermeasure Service (UBCS)
L'UBCS est une branche de l'armée privée d'Umbrella Corporation, la multinationale fictive présente dans Resident Evil. Cette milice est composée de mercenaires, de repris de justice et d'anciens soldats soviétiques. Cette organisation est fondée par l'ancien colonel soviétique Sergei Vladimir qui est aussi un loyal soldat envers le fondateur d'Umbrella, Ozwell Spencer. L'UBCS a pour but de protéger la population civile des attaques bioterroristes.

Umbrella Security Service (USS)
L'USS est une branche de l'armée privée d'Umbrella Corporation. Cette branche est composée d'anciens soldats ou d'agents des services secrets entraînés à servir les intérêts sombres d'Umbrella. Contrairement à l'UBCS, cette organisation a pour mission d'éradiquer toutes les preuves concernant les attaques bioterroristes dans lesquelles Umbrella est impliquée. Les membres sont recueillis et entraînés sur l'Île de Rockfort sous la supervision d'Alfred Ashford. Les soldats de l'USS portent un masque à gaz en permanence afin que leur identité reste secrète.

Raccoon City
En , 120 mercenaires sont envoyés à Raccoon City, ville envahie par le Virus T, pour secourir les civils. En réalité, parmi eux se trouvent les superviseurs des soldats conscient de la responsabilité d'Umbrella dans de nombreux incidents biologiques. Leur mission est simple : récupérer les dossiers des expériences de la société. Malgré leur nombre et leur puissance de feu, la plupart d'entre eux mourront. Le seul membre connu étant encore vivant est Carlos Oliveira.

Membres connus de l'UBCS
 Carlos Oliveira : un membre des forces régulières de l'UBCS d'origine sud-américaine, envoyé avec ses collègues aider les civils lors de l'infection de Raccoon City. Il fait équipe avec Jill Valentine pour survivre, et découvre la vérité au sujet d'Umbrella.
 Nicholai Ginovaef : un membre des forces régulières de l'UBCS d'origine russe. Il s'attaque à Jill car celle-ci est au courant des activités illégales d'Umbrella.
 Mikhail Victor : un membre des forces régulières de l'UBCS d'origine russe, ami de Nicholai et chef de l'escouade de Carlos. Il se sacrifie pour permettre à ses hommes de s'enfuir.
 Sergei Vladimir : chef de l'UBCS. Ancien colonel de l'Armée Rouge, il voue une loyauté quasi religieuse à Umbrella et à Spencer. C'est un vieil ami de Wesker, mais il tente de le tuer à plusieurs reprises à la défection de ce dernier. Il semble être dans les bonnes grâces de Spencer, car il dispose d'un duo de Tyrans qui sont ses gardes du corps.

Membres connus de l'USS
 James Cooper alias Hunk : un membre des forces spéciales de l'USS, et probablement le meilleur d'entre eux. Opérant toujours à visage masqué, il est envoyé par Umbrella pour récupérer le Virus G à Raccoon City. C'est le seul survivant de son équipe après cette mission.

Umbrella Corporation à travers les films
L'histoire d'Umbrella Corporation dans la saga cinématographique Resident Evil est sensiblement la même, avec cependant quelques changements dans son histoire. Par exemple, Umbrella Corporation est une société multinationale qui domine le monde après qu'elle l'ait plongé dans le chaos. La tâche d'Umbrella est d'expérimenter le Virus T pour qu'il crée le monde selon sa vision. Dans l'histoire à travers les films, Albert Wesker est le PDG de la compagnie et non un simple chercheur.

 James Marcus : brillant virologue et fondateur d'Umbrella, il crée le Virus T afin de sauver sa fille, Alicia, atteinte de la progeria. Il est assassiné par Albert Wesker sur ordre d'Alexander Isaacs.
 Alicia Marcus : fille de James Marcus et co-Présidente d'Umbrella.
 Alexander Isaacs : co-Président d'Umbrella.
 Albert Wesker, interprété par Shawn Roberts : au début de l'épidémie et en l'absence des dirigeants d'Umbrella, il prend la présidence de la compagnie et dirige les opérations depuis son quartier général de, à Tokyo. À la fin du , il aide les dernières forces américaines à combattre les morts-vivants qui envahissent la Maison-Blanche. Agissant secrètement sous les ordres d'Alexander Isaacs, Wesker trahit Alice en provoquant la mort de toutes les personnes présentes à la Maison-Blanche. Avant que Wesker n'atterrisse près du Hive, il s'injecte un sérum, probablement celui qu'il avait injecté à Alice après son attaque dans le quartier général d'Umbrella à Tokyo, pour redevenir humain.
 Ada Wong : un des meilleurs agents d'Umbrella et l'assassin personnel de Wesker.
 La Reine Rouge : intelligence artificielle du Hive, elle prend le contrôle des infrastructures d'Umbrella à partir de Resident Evil: Retribution. Mais elle aidera Alice dans le dernier film.
  Jill Valentine : Après avoir été capturée par Umbrella, elle subit un lavage de cerveau et devient la marionnette de la Reine Rouge. Elle commande les forces d'Umbrella dans la base souterraine du Kamtchatka au nord de la Russie. Elle est libérée par Alice.
 Dr Charles Ashford : créateur de l'anti-virus contre le Virus T. Il utilise le Virus T et son anti-virus pour permettre à sa fille Angela, en fauteuil roulant, de marcher. Il est abattu par le Major Cain.
 Major Cain : chef des forces de sécurité dont la mission est de contenir la pandémie à Raccoon City. Il est mordu par les zombies après avoir été jeté hors de son hélicoptère.

Notes et références

Resident Evil
Entreprise de fiction
Organisation de jeu vidéo

en:List of Resident Evil characters#Umbrella Corporation


At a recent financial meeting in Tokyo, Square Enix president Yoichi Wada said that the company's anticipated Final Fantasy XIII series of games wouldn't be released before March 2008.
It will still take a bit more time. At the very least, [a release] this fiscal year is definitely out of the question.
Considering that the Final Fantasy XIII presence at Square Enix Party was limited to a few pre-rendered trailers that barely featured any new footage over last year's E3 versions, this wasn't hard to guess.


text:
Ernest William Gibson, född 6 mars 1901 i Brattleboro, Vermont, död 4 november 1969 i Brattleboro, Vermont, var en amerikansk republikansk politiker och jurist. Han representerade delstaten Vermont i USA:s senat 1940–1941. Han var guvernör i Vermont 1947–1950.

Gibson utexaminerades 1923 från Norwich University. Han avlade sedan juristexamen vid George Washington University. Gibson inledde 1927 sin karriär som advokat i Brattleboro. Han var åklagare i Windham County 1929–1933.

Fadern Ernest Willard Gibson var senator för Vermont 1933–1940. Fadern avled 1940 i ämbetet och Ernest William Gibson blev utnämnd till senaten. Han efterträddes 1941 av George Aiken.

Gibson efterträdde 1947 Mortimer R. Proctor som guvernör i Vermont. Han avgick för att tillträda som domare i en federal domstol och efterträddes som guvernör av Harold J. Arthur. Gibson tjänstgjorde sedan som domare fram till sin död.

Gibson var anglikan och frimurare. Han gravsattes på Morningside Cemetery i Brattleboro.

Referenser

Noter

Externa länkar
Biografi på National Governors Associations webbplats
Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Political Graveyard

Ledamöter av USA:s senat från Vermont
Guvernörer i Vermont
Amerikanska domare
Amerikanska republikaner
Amerikanska politiker under 1900-talet
Personer från Windham County, Vermont
Födda 1901
Avlidna 1969
Män

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
De-legitimization of war War on Trial 1831 readings
Posted by Joan Russow
Sunday, 20 July 2014 09:29
REPOSTED De-legitimization of war War on trial
Prosecution argument
By Joan Russow Global Compliance Research Project -
photo shock and awe in Iraq 2003
War should be placed in the Dustbin of History? The Transcript of the presentation at ngo conference at the UN and videotaped
Joan Russow: Prosecution
Sadly, the United Nations has often been equated with the UN Security Council, (UNSC) which is deemed to be able to bestow legality, under Article VII of the Charter of the United Nations, on an invasion of another state. The UN Security Council violates a fundamental principle in the Charter of the United Nations: the principle of sovereign equality, and by being given the power to bestow legitimacy on an act of war, violates the fundamental purpose of the Charter of the United Nations - to prevent the scourge of war. The UN Security Council should be abolished and the UNGA should be strengthened.
PROVISIONS UNDER CHAPTER VI FOR THE PEACEFUL RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES
The serious irreversible human, environmental, health, psychological, economic and social consequences of war support the contention that under no conditions or circumstances is war legal or just, and that war must be de-legitimized as an option or even as a last resort.
The seeds for de-legitimizing war have been planted through the Charter of the United Nations, and through over 60 years of UN instruments.
For years, member states have incurred obligations under the charter, treaties, conventions, and covenants, made commitments under conference action plans, and created expectations through UN General Assembly Resolutions and Declarations that would, if implemented and enforced, give substance to the de-legitimization of war. From these instruments, peremptory norms, which further the rule of international law can be extracted.
Under the Preamble of the Charter of the United Nations the fundamental purposes of the Charter are delineated:
-to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind [humanity]
-to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and
- to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom
Chapter VII, of the Charter of the United Nations contravenes the purpose of the Charter: to prevent the scourge of war. Unfortunately, under international law, an invasion of another state is deemed to be legal if the UN Security Council, under Chapter VII, deems that the necessary conditions required for a war to be "legal" have been met. Also under Article 51-self defence- has been used to justify so-called pre-emptive/preventive Aggression.
Chapter VI, entitled "peaceful solutions of disputes", of the Charter of the United Nations, however, does conform to and uphold the fundamental purposes of the Charter of the United Nations, advances the de-legitimization of war, and promotes respect for the rule of international law through the International Court of Justice.
Under Chapter VI of the Charter of the United Nations, a number of provisions have been established to bring about the peaceful settlement of disputes:
(i) The first provision is to counter conflict of interest in decision making related to peaceful solutions of disputes
Decisions under Chapter VI, are constrained by Article 27 which reads that a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting. This provision which is present in Chapter VI is absent in Chapter VII, is consistently violated by the UN Security Council.
(ii) The second provision to bring about peaceful settlement of disputes is recourse, under article 36, to the rule of international law, through the International Court of Justice:
Article 36 reads: "legal disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court".
Chapter XIV complements Chapter VI in outlining the role of the International Court of Justice under Chapter xiv, Article 92 states that the International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations...and under Article 93 all members of the UN are ipso facto parties to the statute of the International Court of Justice, and under Article 94, each member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party and under Article 96 there is the provision for the UN General Assembly, UN Security Council and other organs of the UN to request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question.
Under the Charter of the United Nations there is an important principle "the principle of sovereign equality; this principle is violated by the UN Security Council but respected by the UN General Assembly. The permanent members of the UN Security Council continually attempt to invoke Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations.
To prevent the scourge of war and to remove the conditions which are claimed to support the legality of war, the global community must definitively concur that the conditions that have been used to declare war to be legal must be abandoned.
- Chapter VII which condones conditional legitimization of war in contravention of the purpose of the UN Charter itself must be struck.
- Chapter VI of the Charter of United Nations must be strengthened and in particular the instituting of the mandatory requirement for states to appear before the International Court of Justice, to accept its jurisdiction and to act on its decisions. and for the panel to support the rephrasing of article 36 to read "legal disputes 'shall' rather than 'should as a general rule', be referred by the parties to the international court of justice..."
THE CENTRAL ROLE OF THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY: UNITING FOR PEACE RESOLUTION
In 1951, when the UN Security Council was unable to come to an agreement, resolution 377 (V) entitled "Uniting for Peace" was passed by the UN General Assembly. The purpose of the resolution was to recognise the responsibility of the UN General Assembly to prevent the scourge of war. In the preamble of the Resolution is the following expression of the role to the UN General Assembly:
"if the Security Council, because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members, fails to exercise its primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression, the General Assembly shall consider the matter immediately with a view to making appropriate recommendations to Members for collective measures, including in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression the use of armed force when necessary, to maintain or restore international peace and security. If not in session at the time, the General Assembly may meet in emergency special session within twenty-four hours of the request therefor. Such emergency special session shall be called if requested by the Security Council on the vote of any seven members, or by a majority of the Members of the United Nations. "
ADDITIONAL ROLE OF THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY: SETTING UP INTERNATIONAL TRIBUNALS
"When the leader of any state, under any guise, including the misconstruing of Article 51- self-defence, demonstrates defiance of the fundamental principles and peremptory norms established through the UN system, the UN General Assembly must invoke article 22 which would permit the UN General Assembly to set up an international tribunal to judge a leader for contributing to crimes against the peace."
EXTENDING PEACEFUL RESOLUTION OF DISPUTES TO ALSO APPLY TO THE PREVENTION OF CONFLICT IN MAINTAINING TRUE SECURITY
If there is to be peaceful resolutions of disputes the larger spectrum , in preventing conflict, must be recognized and reflected in maintaining true global security through the compliance with international peremptory norms reflected in the years of international instruments; these norms can be derived from international instruments that have the following objectives:
- to achieve a state of peace, and disarmament; through reallocation of military expenses
- to create a global structure that respects the rule of law and the International Court of Justice;
- to enable socially equitable and environmentally sound employment, and ensure the right to development and social justice;
-to promote and fully guarantee respect for human rights including labour rights, civil and political rights, social and cultural rights -- right to food, right to housing, right to safe drinking water and sewage, right to education and right to universally accessible not for profit health care system;
• to ensure the preservation and protection of the environment, the respect for the inherent worth of nature beyond human purpose, the reduction of the ecological footprint and move away from the current model of unsustainable and over consumptive development.
For example, given the serious threat of climate change to peace and security, the UN Security Council resolution, must be extended to involve women in the prevention of conflict resulting from the dire consequences resulting from the conflict over the destabilising effects of climate change.
The close link between peace and climate change was recently established by the granting of the Nobel Peace Prize to not only Al Gore but also the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. For this reason, women must call upon the Intergovernmental Panel to seriously address the contribution of militarism, through emissions from the production of all weapons systems, military exercises, from war games, weapons testing, military aviation, environmental warfare, troop transfer, military operations, waste generation, reconstruction after acts of violent interventions etc.; to greenhouse gas emissions and thus to perpetuation of the continuing threat of climate change.
Rather than tinkering with reform of the UN Security Council, member states of the United Nations should advocate for the abolition of the UN Security Council, the deletion of Chapter VII, the invocation of Chapter VI including a mandatory provision to respect the jurisdiction and decision of the International Court of Justice, and the transference of issues of conflict to the UN General Assembly under the Uniting for Peace Resolution
ANNEX; TRANSCRIPT OF THE PROSECUTION
** the Court
Crown Attorney alias Joan E. Russow (PhD)
1 250 598-0071.
THE SERIOUS IRREVERSIBLE HUMAN, ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, PSYCHOLOGICAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF WAR SUPPORT THE CONTENTION THAT UNDER NO CONDITIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES IS WAR LEGAL OR JUST
THE SEEDS FOR DELEGITIMIZING WAR HAVE BEEN PLANTED THROUGH THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS AND THROUGH OVER ALMOST 60 YEARS OF UN INSTRUMENTS,
FOR YEARS, MEMBER STATES HAVE INCURRED OBLIGATIONS UNDER THE CHARTER, TREATIES, CONVENTIONS, AND COVENANTS MADE COMMITMENT UNDER CONFERENCE ACTION PLANS, AND CREATED EXPECTATIONS THROUGH UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTIONS. THAT WOULD IF IMPLEMENTED AND ENFORCED GIVE SUBSTANCE TO THE DE-LEGITIMIZATION OF WAR.
THE FORCE OF COMPLIANCE AND THE FURTHERANCE OF "COMMON SECURITY" BASED ON THE RULE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW ARE PARAMOUNT.
UNDER NO CONDITION OR CIRCUMSTANCE SHOULD WAR BE DEEMED TO BE "LEGAL" OR "JUST"
THE FORCE OF COMPLIANCE AND Furtherance of Common security
ELABORATION OF CURRENT THREATS TO TRUE SECURITY/COMMON SECURITY
1DETERMINATION OF WAYS TO STRENGTHEN THE UNITED NATIONS THROUGH THE REFORM OF ITS INSTITUTIONS AND PROCESSES.
-Under no condition is the act of war legal
Under no condition is the act of war just
2.DESCRIPTION OF CONTRIBUTIONS THAT CAN BE MADE BY COLLECTIVE ACTION IN ADDRESSING THESE CHALLENGES
-Prevention of threats and violence through the furtherance of the force of compliance and common security.
3 EXAMINATION THE CURRENT THREATS TO PEACE AND SECURITY.
- Delineation of threats to true security: common security
1.DETERMINATION OF WAYS TO STRENGTHEN THE UNITED NATIONS THROUGH THE REFORM OF ITS INSTITUTIONS AND PROCESSES.
A. Under no condition is the act of war legal
Often war is declared to be legal if under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations the UN Security Council deems that the necessary conditions required for a war to be legal have been met.
Chapter VII, however, of the Charter of the United Nations contravenes the purpose of the Charter: to prevent the scourge of war
-to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
ON THE OTHER HAND, Chapter VI, entitled "Peaceful Solutions of Disputes", conforms TO AND UPHOLDS the fundamental purposes of the Charter of the United Nations, ADVANCES THE DE-LEGITIMIZATION OF WAR, AND PROMOTES RESPECT FOR THE RULE OF INTERNATIONAL LAW THROUGH THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE.
Under Chapter VI of the Charter of the United Nations a number of provisions have been established to bring about the peaceful settlement of disputes:
(I) The first, provision is to counter conflict of interest in decision making related to peaceful solutions of disputes
Decisions under Chapter VI, are constrained by Article 27 which reads that a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.
This provision which is present in Chapter VI but is absent in Chapter VII, is consistently violated by the un security council
(i) The second provision to bring about peaceful settlement of disputes is recourse, under article 36, to the rule of international law, through the International Court of Justice:
Article 36 reads: illegal disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court.
Chapter xiv complements Chapter VI in outlining the role of the International Court of Justice
Under Chapter xiv, Article 92 states that the International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations...and under Article. 93 all members of the UN are ipso facto parties to the statute of the International Court of Justice, and under Article 94, each member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party
and under Article 96 there is the provision for the UN General Assembly, UN Security Council and other organs of the UN to request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question.
Sadly, Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations, continues to be used to justify military intervention if supported by the UN Security Council.
It can be argued that Chapter vii not only violates the purposes of the Charter of the United Nations
but also violates a fundamental Charter principle under Article 2 - the sovereign equality of states because the Security Council blatantly defies this principle.
TO PREVENT THE SCOURGE OF WAR AND TO REMOVE THE CONDITIONS WHICH ARE CLAIMED TO SUPPORT THE LEGALITY OF WAR, THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY MUST DEFINITIVELY CONCUR THAT THE CONDITIONS THAT HAVE BEEN USED TO DECLARE WAR TO BE LEGAL MUST BE ABANDONED
AND I URGE THE COURT TO SUPPORT THE STRIKING OF CHAPTER VII WHICH CONDONES CONDITIONAL LEGITIMIZATION OF WAR IN CONTRAVENTION OF THE PURPOSE OF THE UN CHARTER ITSELF.
I ALSO URGE THE COURTTO CALL FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF CHAPTER VI OF THE CHARTER OF UNITED NATIONS AND IN PARTICULAR THE INSTITUTING OF THE MANDATORY REQUIREMENT FOR STATES TO APPEAR BEFORE THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE, TO ACCEPT ITS JURISDICTION AND TO ACT ON ITS DECISIONS.
AND FOR THE ACTION FORUM TO SUYPPORT THE REPHRASING OF ARTICLE 36 TO READ" LEGAL DISPUTES 'SHALL' RATHER THAN 'SHOULD AS A GENERAL RULE', BE REFERRED BY THE PARTIES TO THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE..." INCLUDING AN INTERPRETATION OF WHAT CONSTITUTES SELF DEFENCE.
I URGE THE COURT TO CALL FOR THE STRENGTHENING OF THE ROLE OF THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY --WHICH UPHOLDS THE PRINCIPLE OF SOVEREIGN EQUALITY, AND FOR THE DISMANTLING THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL WHICH CONTRAVENES THE PRINCIPLE OF "SOVEREIGN EQUALTY" - AN INTRINSIC PROVISION OF THE CHARTER.
B. UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCE IS THE ACT OF WAR, JUST.
NEVER AGAIN WOULD THE NOTION OF THE JUST WAR BE TOLERATED.
Just war theory has too long plagued the global society and been used to counter the movement to advance the "de-legitimization of war.
"Just war" theory advances circumstances under which war has been deemed to be "just"
The rules that govern the justness of war (jus ad bellum) and the rules that govern just and fair conduct in war (jus in bello) are flawed and have been abused
THE PREMISES UPON WHICH THE RULES AND SO-CALLED "PRINCIPLES" OF JUST WAR CAN NO LONGER BE SUBSTANTIATED BECAUSE OF THE UNACCEPTABLE IRREVERSIBLE HUMAN, PYCHOLOGICAL, ENVIRONMENTAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COSTS OF WAR.
(i) no longer can war be claimed to be just and religious absolutions sought for atrocities and transgressions:
it can be demonstrated that global society has moved beyond the disturbing practices legitimized under the crusades
(ii) no longer will the notion of the "ethic" of war be deemed to be beyond the norms of peaceful ethics and to be deserving of a separate moral realm:
it can be demonstrated that years of academic treatises and niceties have given proponents of war supporting segregating the ethic of war into a separate moral realm;
it can be demonstrated that just war notions have been promulgated in military academies, yet war crimes continue, and violations of civilians, particularly women and children persist
(iii) never again can war be claimed to just because of the notion of just cause:
it can be demonstrated that "just cause" has been constantly based on disguised corporate or state vested interest, on staged attacks decried as provocation, and on false appeals to humanitarian concerns, feigned altruism or to responsibility to protect
(iv) never again can the "precautionary principle" be used to support the responsibility to protect:
it can be demonstrated internationally that government/ industry collusion has contributed to the undermining of and disregarding of the precautionary principle- which reads that where there is a threat to the environment or [human health], the lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent the threat. Now, instead the precautionary principle is being re-vitalized to give legitimacy to "military intervention"
(v) no longer can the so-called "principle of just cause" be designated as a "principle" and used to declare the justice of war:
it can be demonstrated that the principle of just cause is not a principle but a device, a tactic or a strategy to rationalize military intervention;
(vi) never again can war be just because of the so-called principle of "reasonable success":
it can be demonstrated that reasonable success has been misinterpreted to mean military success with little consideration for so-called "collateral damage" or for long term irreversible human, health, environmental, social costs.
reasonable success has also been misinterpreted to entail the entrenchment of corporate interests in exploiting natural and human resources of the conquered state.
(vii) never again can initiating an act of aggression or pre-emptive aggression be deemed to be just:
it can be demonstrated that initiating act of aggression is not just even if it is held that aggressive war is permissible if its purpose is to retaliate against a wrong already committed (e.g., to pursue and punish an aggressor), or to pre-empt an anticipated attack.
(viii) never again can a war be claimed to be just because it is supported by the UN Security Council:
it can be demonstrated that the UN Security Council has often supported resolutions authorizing war because of state interests promoted through cajoling, intimidation, and bribery, and thus the decision is discredited:
it can be demonstrated that the UN General Assembly has been intimidated and thus hindered in invoking the 1951 "Uniting for Peace "Resolution to prevent the scourge of war
(ix) never again will a war be claimed to be just because it has been authorized by the right authority such as a sovereign state:
it has been demonstrated that right authority such as state authority often has no legitimate mandate and is not even a proper or just form a government
(x) no longer can states claim a war to be just through the manufacturing of consent or consensus:
it has been demonstrated that often right authority has been granted based on flawed evidence, or faulty intelligence
(xi) never again can war be claimed to be just because of the misconstrued claim of "self defence":
it has been demonstrated that the recourse of "self defence" has been extrapolated to anticipate probable acts of aggression, to assist others against an oppressive government from another external threat, or to pre-empt an anticipated attack (interventionism);
(xii) never again can war be claimed to be just because of self-defence being tolerated as an excuse for revenge or retaliation:
it has been demonstrated that the initiation of physical force for revenge and retaliation such as an eye for an eye have to be relegated to the dust-bin of uncivilized religious dogma
(xiii) never again can war be claimed to be just because it is engaged in for the sake of spreading freedom and democracy:
it has been demonstrated that the feigned altruism and the rationalization of spreading freedom and democracy is grounded in imperialistic territorial pursuits, or in ideological or religious obsessions
(xiv) never again can war be claimed to be just because of the alleged "right intention"- such as humanitarian intervention or responsibility to protect:
it has been demonstrated that those proclaiming right intention have often intentionally or negligently through corporate, state or ideological interests been responsible for contributing to the destabilization of states;
it has been demonstrated that often national interest, self interest and aggrandizement are paramount and overwhelmed by the pretext of fighting aggression
(xv) never again can actions in war be misperceived to be just because the military action is couched in well crafted euphemistic "operations":
it can be demonstrated that military actions have
obfuscated vested military/corporate interest through well crafted covert and overt operations such as
(xvi) never again can war be claimed to be just because of "just cause" being deemed a sufficient condition for pursuing whatever means necessary to win:
it has been demonstrated that "whatever means" has resulted in deception, duplicity, distortion and misrepresentation, as well in tolerance for increased use of lethal weapons systems with long term health, environment and social consequences
(xvii) never again can war be claimed to be just and just war theory justify the bombing of civilian centres in the pursuit of military necessity:
it has been demonstrated that the excuse of military necessity has been used to justify the killing of civilians and the violate of Geneva conventions
xviii) no longer will the declaration of the justice of war depend on the so-called principle of the end being proportional to the means:
it can be demonstrated that the means used often has unattended consequences that have been disproportionate to the end
(xix) never again can actions in war be claimed to be just because attacks are only limited to permissible targets:
it can be demonstrated that there are no permissible targets that are completely dissociated from the civilian populations and that do not have long term irreversible human, environmental, health, social, economic and psychological consequences
(xx) never again can actions in war be claimed to be just because of the perception that the consequences of war are irreversible through reparation:
It has been demonstrated that the serious human, environmental, health, psychological, economic and social consequences of war are irreversible and usual defy true reparation
I THEREFORE, URGE THE COURT, TO DECLARE THAT THE NOTION OF JUST WAR CAN NO LONGER BE USED TO COUNTER THE CALL FOR THE DE-LEGITIMIZATION OF WAR
THE SERIOUS IRREVERSIBLE HUMAN, ENVIRONMENTAL, HEALTH, PSYCHOLOGICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF WAR SUPPORT THE CONTENTION THAT UNDER NO CONDITIONS OR CIRCUMSTANCES IS WAR LEGAL OR JUST
THE SEEDS FOR ELIMINATION OF THREATS TO COMMON SECURITY AND FOR THE DELEGITIMIZING WAR HAVE BEEN PLANTED THROUGH THE CHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS AND THROUGH OVER ALMOST 60 YEARS OF UN INSTRUMENTS,
FORCE OF COMPLIANCE
PEACE WAS DESIGNATED AS A RIGHT OF ALL PEOPLES.
Convinced that life without war "peace with justice" and not just the absence of war serves as the primary international prerequisite for the material well-being, development and progress of countries, and for the full implementation of the rights and fundamental human freedoms. (United Nations Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace approved by General Assembly Resolution 39/11 of 12, 1984)
AND IN THE NAIROBI FORWARD LOOKING STRATEGIES FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN, A commitment was made to recognize that "peace depends on the prevention of the use or threat of the use of force, aggression, military occupation, interference in the internal affairs of others, the elimination of domination, discrimination, oppression and exploitation, as well as of gross and mass violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms. (1985)
Unfortunately, states have (a) either failed to sign and ratify international Treaties, Conventions, and Covenants, (b) have failed, if they have signed Treaties, Conventions, and Covenants, to act to prevent the defeating of the purpose of the treaties, Conventions, and Covenants, (c) or have failed, if they have ratified Treaties, Conventions, and Covenants, to enact the necessary national legislation to ensure compliance.
In addition, States have failed to act on commitments made through UN General Assembly Resolutions, and have failed to fulfill expectations created by Un General Assembly Resolutions and Declarations.
It is necessary to institute the proposal for an International Court of Compliance, lined to the International Court of Justice, where citizens and civil society could take states for non- compliance with obligations and commitments.
(ii) THE FURTHERANCE OF THE CULTURE OF PEACE THROUGH "COMMON SECURITY"
"SECURITY" HAS OFTEN BEEN MISCONSTRUED AS" MILITARY SECURITY"; AND HUMAN SECURITY, /"RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT" ,.HAS BEEN EXTENDED TO JUSTIFY MILITARY INTERVENTION; ALL ATTEMPTS TO LEGITIMIZE MILITARY INTERVENTION CONTRIBUTES TO THE CYCLE OF INCESSANT WAR AND COUNTER REVENGES
[PREPARED BUT NOT DELIVERED AT TRAIL
Last Updated on Friday, 24 January 2020 19:22

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A friend of mine has just passed to me the Daily Record newspaper 8th January 2016 and the heading HONOUR SERVICE FOR FORGOTTEN HERO : Memorial for McCrae's Piper DUGIE : Plaque is finally unveiled in honour of soldier - 90 years after his death .
A piper who played as Footballers headed to their doom at the Battle of the Somme has been honoured 90 years after his death .
In 1916 , SERGEANT WILLIAM DUGUID was Pipe Major of MCCRAE'S BATTALION of the 16th Royal Scots - dubbed "the sporting battalion . "
The 1350 men of the Battalion were mostly sportsmen , with players and fans of Hearts and Hibs fighting alongside one another.
But he was never able to play the pipes for the Battalion on their return as three Quarters of them were slaughtered in one of the bloodiest battles of WW1 .
Despite his military career DUGUID was buried in an UNMARKED GRAVE in 1929 but yesterday a Plaque was unveiled to mark his final resting place in EDINBURGH .
The Tribute also commemorated the centenary of the Battalion's departure for the front lines and the battalion's great Dane Mascot Jock.
More than 100 people gathered to right the wrong of DUGIE'S unmarked grave in PIERSHILL , daughter Sarah Innes , 80 , said " He was a true Soldier to fight for King and Country ."


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The Picture Gallery of Canadian History Vol. 2 (Notes on Part Two)
NOTES ON PART TWO
On August 23rd, 1793, Simcoe ordered that the name of Toronto should be changed to York, in honour of the success of the Duke of York against the French in Holland.
Mrs. Simcoe's Diary says, "There was a party of Ojibway Indians here, who appeared much pleased with the firing. "—a salute of 21 guns to celebrate the occasion. "One of them took Francis in his arms, and was much pleased to find the child not afraid, but delighted with the sound."
The illustration shows Mrs. Simcoe's hound, "Trojan," who once disgraced himself, as she says, by tearing in pieces a map of Canada which she had drawn. In the background is shown the "canvas house," in which the Simcoes lived. This was a large tent which had been used by Captain Cook in his South Sea expedition, and which Simcoe had bought in London at the sale of the explorer's effects. It was set up on the high ground east of Garrison Creek, at the foot of the present Bathurst Street, Toronto.
David W. Smith (1764-1837), son of Lieutenant-Colonel John Smith, of the 5th Regiment, Northumberland Fusiliers, who was commandant of Fort Niagara. Son was officer in the same regiment. Member and Speaker of House of assembly. Appointed Surveyor-General, Upper Canada, 1792. Returned to England, 1802. Became manager of Duke of Northumberland's estates. Created Baronet, 1821. His house at Newark, built about 1793, was one of the finest in the province at that period. The Toronto Public Library acquired in England a large collection of his papers, which contain much valuable material on early Upper Canada.
William Dummer Powell, born in Massachusetts, educated in England and Holland. Returning to Boston, 1772, he came thence to Canada, where he was admitted to practise law. Later became judge and was Chief-Justice, 1816-1825. Prominent in the province during its early years. See monograph on him by His Honour Judge W. R. Riddell, the authority on the legal history of Upper Canada. William Jarvis (1756-1817), born in Connecticut. Cornet in Queen's Rangers, and served in Revolutionary War. Came to Upper Canada as Secretary and Registrar of the province. His family, descendants and connections were prominent in public affairs for many years.
Hon. Robert Hamilton (1750-1809), born in Scotland, established himself at Queenston soon after the Revolutionary War. He and Hon. Richard Cartwright at Kingston were the principal merchants in early Upper Canada. Member of the Land Board and of the Executive Council. Much correspondence relating to business is contained in the Cartwright Papers in the Douglas Library, Queen's University, Kingston. See also paper on the Hamilton family, by H. F. Gardiner, in Vol. VIII, Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records.
Note that the costumes and hair-dressing of Smith and Jarvis are of an earlier date than those of Powell and Hamilton: the former wear wigs, the latter their own hair. The wig began to go out of fashion about the time of the French Revolution, though it was retained by many elderly men until the early years of the nineteenth century.
Mackenzie in his Journey speaks of having a "hanger," a short sword, convenient for travelling in rough country, similar to that carried by Wolfe, as shown in the drawing in Vol. I, p. 242, depicting him at the Battle of the Plains.
Hon. Jonathan Belcher (1710-1776), born Boston, son of the Governor of Massachusetts and of New Jersey. Chief Justice, 1754; and Lieutenant-Governor, 1761-1763, of Nova Scotia. Buried in St. Paul's Church, Halifax.
Hon. Samuel Salter Blowers, born Boston, 1742, died Halifax, aged one hundred years. Judge in Rhode Island. Arrived in Halifax, 1783. Was successively Attorney-General, Member of House of Assembly and Legislative Council, Chief Justice, 1797, and Master of the Rolls. Hon. Richard Bulkeley (1717-1800), born in Ireland came to Halifax with Cornwallis, 1749. Was Secretary, and later, Administrator of the Province, and held various judicial positions.
Hon. Richard John Uniacke, Sr., born Ireland, 1753, died Mount Uniacke, N.S., 1830, buried in St. Paul's, Halifax. Settled in Nova Scotia, 1774, Speaker of House of Assembly and Attorney-General. The portrait by Field was painted in
Michael Wallace was administrator at various times from 1818 to 1830.
The portraits of the judges are in the Court House at Halifax.
Pages 72 and 73
John Poad Drake (1794-1883): born in England; came to Halifax 1819, painted full-length portrait of Chief Justice S. S. Blowers, apparently the only one painted in Halifax. Went to Montreal, where he painted an altar-piece for one of the churches, and later went to New York, where he exhibited a painting of Napoleon on board the Bellerophon, a scene which he had witnessed in Plymouth Sound in 1815. Returned to England, where he died in Cornwall.
Robert Field, born Gloucester, England, about 1770. Came to America about 1792, and worked in New York, Philadelphia, Washington and Boston until 1808, when he settled in Halifax until his death in 1819. In the United States his work was mostly in miniature, though he painted some portraits in oil, and also executed several engravings. In Nova Scotia most of his portraits were oil paintings. Among his sitters were Sir John Wentworth, Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, Sir George Prevost and Bishop Inglis. He is probably the most distinguished of the early portrait painters of the Maritime Provinces.
Albert Gallatin Hoit, or Hoyt (1809-1856), born in New Hampshire, worked for a time in Boston. He visited Saint John, N.B., and later, about 1840, Halifax, N.S., where he painted the full-length portrait of Sir Brenton Halliburton, and possibly some others.
The notes on these artists are from data kindly supplied by Mr. William Colgate.
Observe that Russell and Osgoode wear their own hair, though powdered and arranged in a fashion somewhat resembling a wig; and that the Chief Justice does not wear a full-bottomed wig nor robes, such as appear in the portraits of early Nova Scotia judges. These were never worn by lawyers or judges in Upper Canada. Information given by His Honour Judge W. R. Riddell.
The first Legislative Buildings in York were situated at the lower end of the present Berkeley Street. They were burned by the Americans during the occupancy of York in April, 1813.
Most of the early Quebec churches existing today were built during the period from about 1770 to 1825. This was evidently a time of prosperity for the people of Lower Canada, as shown by the numerous and sumptuously furnished churches of this date. The parish records give details of the money paid to architects and sculptors, in addition to the labour and materials supplied by the parishioners.
The architectural style of these churches was classic, that of the late Renaissance, known as Baroque. It is interesting to compare them with those of Mexico and California, built about the same time and designed in the same style. The southern churches, outside and within, were more ornate and florid. Those of Quebec, in their exterior decoration, were plainer, more restrained, in conformity with their northern climatic conditions. Their charm consists in their pleasing proportions, their union of dignity and grace, and their harmony with their landscape setting. The Quebec craftsmen lavished their decorative skill on the interiors, in wood carving, plaster work on altars, pulpits,
ceilings, sacristry doors, etc., some examples of which are shown in these pages.
Information on these craftsmen and their work is to be found in books, monographs and articles by Marius Barbeau, Emile Vaillancourt Ramsay Traquair, Prof. E. R. Adair, and Gerard Morisset.
The corner stone of the Nelson monument was laid in 1809. Near it was the pillory where criminals were exposed with a label on their breasts stating the nature of their offence. Here, too, prisoners convicted of larceny were punished by being tied to a cannon near the column and given 39 lashes on the naked back. St. Gabriel Church was supported by members of the North- West Company and other fur-traders, who were Scotch Presbyterians.
By the time covered in this volume the Indians, especially in the settled parts of Canada, had long been in contact with the whites. Their way of life in consequence had been considerably modified by European influences. Their primitive tools of bone, wood and stone had been displaced by steel knives and tomahawks, guns, needles and thread, etc.; fur robes and deer skins were supplemented by cloth and blankets; porcupine quills and
moose hair embroidery were largely discarded for beads and silver ornaments and trade wampum of white manufacture.
Not only the native materials and technique were affected by European influence: their aboriginal designs, mostly geometrical, also included imitations of the patterns of flowered textile fabrics brought by traders. French nuns taught Indian girls sewing and embroidery in which floral motives were copied.
Undoubtedly these changes began at a very early period of white contact. It is unwise to be dogmatic concerning this, since detailed information is vague and scanty, and the dates of many specimens of Indian work in museums are uncertain. How much of this Indian handcraft is indigenous and aboriginal in design, and how much is modified by European influences is debatable, and there is much divergence of opinion among ethnologists on this question. Only when the materials used are of European manufacture, as beads, thread, and so forth, can we be certain that articles date from the coming of white people.
It is possible that the Indians used formalized floral designs supplied by native plants: the Algonkian double-curve motive may well have been suggested by waves and wind ripples. Native ingenuity fashioned many necessary articles, and, as the student of the development of arts and crafts knows, peoples widely separated and never in contact evolve designs and shape objects that are remarkably similar in appearance. It has been asserted that the making of birch-bark containers was taught by the French to the Indians. But it seems not unreasonable to suppose that the aboriginal mind that could conceive and fashion the canoe, a masterpiece of Indian handcraft, was capable of manufacturing a vessel which would keep water in, no less than one which would keep water out.
Since, however, the purpose of these volumes is to depict and describe the life of the country within historic times, the question of pre-European Indian culture is beyond their scope, and need not be further considered. It will suffice perhaps to say that in the more remote portions of the country, where only an occasional explorer, or a few traders had penetrated, Indian life retained more of its primitive and indigenous features than in those districts where white settlement was well established.
The European new-comers, in turn, were influenced by their contact with the Indians, and soon realized the suitability of many of their inventions to the conditions of the wilderness and early settlement. They adopted the snowshoe, the canoe, the toboggan, and various articles of costume, some of which are still in use on the frontiers of civilization today.
For our knowledge of primitive Indian life we must depend largely upon the descriptions and the drawings of early eye-witnesses, in books of travel and exploration. Indeed, these may be said to be our only sources of information concerning the earliest periods of white and Indian contact, accurate, or incorrect, or provokingly vague in detail as they may be. On the whole these observers strike one as being trustworthy. Many of them, such as the early missionary priests, were highly intelligent, well-educated men, versed in the science of their time. They interpreted the facts they observed in accordance with their prejudices, and with the limitations of the knowledge available at their time; but the facts themselves, for the most part, bear the stamp of authenticity. The bibliography includes the most important works dealing with the subject; but much incidental material may be found in many books concerning the general life of the time. Indeed, scarcely a book on Canada published during this period is without some reference to Indian conditions. Quotations from some of these works are given in the notes.
This picture is copied from a lithograph by H. Linch, after a painting by H. D. Thielcke. It shows the official or gala costume worn by Canadian Indian chiefs about 1796. Tall "plug" hats, decorated with ostrich feathers, braided frock coats with brass or silver buttons, medals and gorgets were given by the British Government, as insignia of their office, to the chiefs, especially among the eastern tribes, throughout the greater part of the nineteenth century. The arm bands were articles of trade silver, manufactured mainly in Montreal. Moccasins were about the only articles of their clothing of native design and manufacture.
The beautifully carpentered crane resembles an engraving in Oliver Evans's Young Mill-wright's Guide, but is more elegant in design. In order to keep the mill-stones sharp, it was necessary, from time to time, to deepen the furrows and dress the surface afresh. By means of the upright iron screw and the rappling tongs the crane was used to lift and turn over the upper stone. The furrows were then deepened by steel picks. To test the levels of the stones and ensure equal contact, a wooden bar whose edge was smeared with red earth moistened with water was drawn across their surfaces. The higher parts where the red smear was seen were then dressed off until the whole surface
was perfectly level.
In 1797 Count Joseph de Puisaye, a refugee from the French Revolution, laid a plan before the British Government for the settlement of a number of French Royalist émigrés on lands to be granted to them in Canada. The Government agreed to the proposal, and in the summer of 1798 a party under the leadership of Puisaye set sail from Portsmouth. They arrived at Quebec early in October, and thence were transported, partly by land and partly in batteaux, to Kingston. Here they spent the winter, while Puisaye proceeded to York, to consult with President Peter Russell, who had been notified earlier by the British Government of the project. Russell and the Executive Council
selected a location for the colony on Yonge Street, in the town- ships of Markham, Vaughan, Whitchurch and King. The situation was chosen as " being equally distant from the French of Detroit and Lower Canada, and near enough to the seat of Government both to give assistance to them and to keep an eye on them "—a consideration which indicates the suspicion with which all true Britons then regarded Frenchmen.
Early next spring the émigrés arrived, and began the difficult task of trying to make homes for themselves in the forest. was a task for which they were ill-fitted, most of them being noblemen and former officers of the Royal Army, unaccustomed to the hard physical labour of pioneer life. The colony, after a few years of feeble existence, was abandoned, most of the émigrés returning to Europe.
One of them, however, Quetton St. George, became a successful trader, and remained in Canada until the downfall of Napoleon, when he too returned to France. At the time of his departure he was probably the most prosperous merchant in Upper Canada, with establishments extending from Detroit to the neighbourhood of Orillia, and the owner of considerable landed property. His son, born in France after his father's return, later came to Canada and settled on his property near Wilcox Lake, where he built a handsome house, and laid out extensive grounds. The house was destroyed by fire after his death, but a noble avenue of pine trees and several of the hedges he planted still remain. He is buried in the graveyard of the church at Oak Ridges.
Puisaye, after seeing his followers established on Yonge Street, acquired land on the Niagara River, where part of his house is still standing. Here he lived, in some state, until 1801, when he returned to England, where he remained for the rest of his life. Much of his correspondence while in Canada is preserved in the papers of Hon. Richard Cartwright, who was his business agent, in the Library of Queen's University, Kingston.
See A Colony of Émigrés in Canada, 1798-1816, by Lucy E. Textor, Ph.D., University of Toronto Studies in History, 1905. Also Les Ecclésiastiques et Les Royalistes Francois, by N. E. Dionne.
The Caléche was a two-wheeled vehicle in use in Lower Canada, similar to the "one-hoss shay, " or chaise of New England with It had a hood the addition of a seat in front for the driver. that could be raised or lowered. Toward the end of the eighteenth century a head-dress for women known as a Calash came into use, which took its name from its resemblance to the hood of the vehicle. It was made of a frame of wire or whale-bone hoops encircling the head and hinged together at the bottom so that it could be thrown back if desired. It was covered with oiled silk or other waterproof textile material. For wear in cold weather it was padded inside with wool, fur, or eider-down. Sometimes it was provided with a cord attached to the top of the front by which it could be pulled forward.
Bedsteads were furnished with a canopy, called a tester, and side curtains which could be drawn close to keep out draughts and "night air, " which was thought to be harmful to health. Thick feather mattresses often built the bed so high that steps were required to enable the sleeper to get into it. A long-handled warming pan—a copper or brass dish in which was placed glowing charcoal or embers from the fireplace—was used to warm the sheets before retiring. Many bedrooms were unheated, though some had small open fireplaces. Beds such as those illustrated were used only by a few well-to-do settlers who brought them from their earlier homes in Great Britain or the American colonies, or acquired them at a later period when the pioneers had reached some prosperity.
Much of the pioneer furniture was home-made, in spells of leisure on rainy days and in winter, or by a neighbouring carpenter. The woods most in use were birch, cherry, black walnut, basswood and maple. Black walnut was very popular until the latter half of the eighteenth century, when it was superseded by mahogany in the houses of fashionable society. Patrick Campbell says: " Maple and black clouded birch of New Brunswick and black walnut of Upper Canada are equal for household furnishing and furniture to any in the world. In the Governor's house, the Judge's house, and others, I have seen most beautiful specimens. Yet so prevalent is custom and the desire of emulation the bane of society, that many gentlemen, who cannot well afford it, have mahogany furniture in abundance, and despise what can be got at their door."
This page is planned to show the changes in the shape of the axe from the European tool of the first settlers on this continent to the typical North American axe of the nineteenth century. Many of the early axes were of European manufacture, but apparently almost from the beginning those which were made for this continent were of a pattern somewhat different from most of those in use in the home lands. The type known as the trade axe or hatchet, probably originating in France, was introduced into Canada at an early date, and spread thence throughout North America. From it possibly has developed the special shape peculiar to this continent.
Its characteristic features are, first, the increasing projection of the poll or butt of the axe beyond the helve, to give added weight and power to its drive; second, the flattening of its upper border and the comparatively narrow flare of its blade in contrast to the European type and to the hewing or smoothing axe; and third, the substitution of a curving handle for the alrnost straight European handle.
Local blacksmiths soon began to modify the shape of the axes sent out, and to forge axes themselves, in accordance with their own ideas and the suggestions of their pioneer customers. Hence there were many variations of shape: the drawings illustrate the general tendency of the evolution of the axe in this country. These blacksmith axes were made by folding together the tapering ends of a block of iron, heated so as to be malleable. Into these ends was inserted a strip of steel for the blade, and the whole then welded together The middle portion, thick enough to provide for the projecting poll, was fitted over a handle pattern to form an oval or egg-shaped eye. The helves were generally made of hickory, or sometimes of white oak or ash.
It is impossible to fix precise dates for these changes; but we know that in the first half of the eighteenth century the St. Maurice Forges at Three Rivers were turning out axes. By the time of the founding of Halifax, 1749, the axe of this continent had acquired its peculiar characteristics. This we may infer from a letter of Governor Cornwallis, in which he states that such slow progress had been made in tree felling by his settlers with their European axes that he had employed Massachusetts men with their American axes as being more rapid and efficient.
Emigrants continued to brine with them European axes long after the North American implement had been developed. According to Canniff Old World axes were supplied by the British Government to the Loyalists and other early settlers. These were often of inferior quality, and their shape was unsuited to pioneer needs, being really short-handled ship axes, intended for quite different uses than chopping trees and clearing land. Even as late as the settlement of the Lake Simcoe region, according to an article in the Toronto Globe in 1885, "English axes with straight handles were used by the pioneers at Big Bay Point, and a Yankee pedler tried to persuade them of the superior usefulness of axes with crooked handles."
Not only was the shape of the European axe less suitable for the rapid felling of the huge trees of the North American forest: its steel was not tempered to the severe cold of the Canadian winter, when most of the chopping was done. A letter of Butler in 1781 speaking of the situation of the Niagara Loyalist settlers, says, "A Smith will be requisite for mending and making Plow Simcoe, in September, 1793, writes, Shares, Hoes and Axes. " 'Axes should be made of the best materials, and of the shape and size of the pattern sent. The axe will weigh rather more than 5 pounds. Particular attention must be given to tempering the steel, without which the axe will be of no value, as in the case of . Those made in America, though those already sent over. not so neatly fabricated, are of infinitely more value to the persons who use them. It is customary with the manufacturers in America to warrant the quality of the tools they make for 6 months, and to take back or replace those that are found insufficient. " The breaking of an axe was a tragedy to the settler isolated in the depths of the backwoods. In the letters and reports of George Simpson of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1820-1821 we find several references to this subject: "Our English Hatchets are so badly tempered that they do not stand those of the severity of the Frost, are as brittle as Glass
Canadian manufacture are found to answer much better n this country." The axes are of the worst materials and badly tempered, they should be manufactured of the best Swedish Iron and German Steel and tempered with great are. They are most required when the Thermometer is about 50 degrees below Zero.... The Indians are aware of their inferior quality and invariably reserve a few Skins to obtain a supply from the North West Coy. The small sized hatchets are too large and round in the Eye."
For sharpening the axe the grindstone was used in the settlements, or wherever its transportation was possible; but the isolated pioneer was dependent upon a small home-made whetstone when he was not within easy distance of a grindstone. In the Hudson's Bay Company's territory iron files were used for this purpose. The history of the evolution of the axe, especially in its relation to Canada, has yet to be written; but much useful information may be gathered from Ancient Carpenters' Tools, by H. C. Mercer, the Bucks County Historical Society, Doylestown, Pa. This contains many illustrations, and is the most complete work on the subject of American wood-working tools with which I am acquainted. Some excellent illustrations are to be found in Thoreau MacDonald's booklet, Some Tools of the Pioneers published by him in Toronto, 1936.
The Hewing Axe was used by lumbermen for squaring timbers for rafting and stowage in vessels, and by carpenters for smoothing beams, planks and rafters. For these purposes the inner or left side of the axe in contact with the timber was straight and level. The handle was bent outward to the right so that the knuckles of the workman's hands should clear the log.
The log was placed about knee-high on cross beams laid on the ground. The bark was chopped off to roughly square the log. The required width was marked at the ends and small spikes driven in. Between these spikes was stretched a stout line, chalked with red or black crayon. The hewer, standing on the log, midway of its length, lifted the cord some inches above the log, and when it was drawn taut, released the cord, which snapped back and marked a straight line on the timber. Then, standing on the ground with the log close to his leg, and holding the axe with both hands, he hewed downwards diagonally across the grain. He took care to "hew to the line" evenly and
smoothly, so that the timbers should be of uniform dimensions and smooth surfaced. This was necessary in order that they might fit snugly together in the hold of the ship, and not shift with its rolling in the Atlantic billows on the voyage to Europe.
Some broad axes were made with the right side straight. These were for left-handed hewers. When such workmen were employed it was possible for two sides of the log to be hewn at the same time, the two hewers working from opposite ends. Left-handed hewers were paid higher wages because of the time saved.
The Adze was used for shaping beams and rafters, for levelling and smoothing floor planks and for excavating log troughs and dug-out canoes. The edge of the blade was generally straight, though sometimes a curved or saucer-edged blade was used to produce a rippled surface which gave a pleasing play of light and shade along the smooth surface of the beam or plank. These saucer-edged adzes had to be sharpened by a file or whetstone, it being impossible to apply them to a grindstone for this purpose.
The Cooper's Adze was used for hewing down barrel staves as well as for shaping and finishing wooden bowls and troughs. As will be seen by the drawings, it was more deeply curved downward and also more often saucer-edged than was the carpenter's adze.
Hewing hatchets followed the sape of hewing axes, but, as indicated on the illustrations, they were of smaller dimensions. They were one-handed, their helves were shorter, and though generally bent to the outer side, some were fitted with a handle in the same axis as the eye. They were used for shaping and smoothing smaller timber, the beams and rafters of houses, the ribs of vessels, etc.
The Lathing Hatchet was shaped with a flat top so as to clear the ceiling when driving the nails of the upper laths of partitions and the inside of walls.
The interesting hatchet of Augustus Jones, the early surveyor of Upper Canada, was salvaged many years ago by Levi C. Green, one of the Stoney Creek Greens, to which family Scout Billy Green of 1813 fame belonged. It was formerly in the collection of the now defunct Stoney Creek Historical Society. It weighs about two pounds. It was used probably in cutting obstructing brush-wood and saplings, shaping boundary posts, and blazing trees when Jones was surveying road allowances and lining out lots.
In March, 1803, the ship Boston, of Boston, Massachusetts, arrived in Nootka Sound, on the west coast of Vancouver Island, to trade with the Indians. A dispute arose between the captain and Maquina, the Nootka chief. The Indians captured the ship and massacred all the crew, with the exception of John Jewitt, the blacksmith, and Thompson, the sail maker. Their lives were spared, Jewitt's because he was the armourer and able to forge and repair weapons and tools, and Thompson's whom Jewitt pretended was his father. They were held in captivity for three years, when they were rescued by the captain of another ship from Boston. Jewitt settled in New England, and some
years later wrote an account of his adventures, which contains much useful and interesting information concerning Indian life on the west coast.
Among primitive races metal articles and workers in metal were always desirable acquisitions. Consequently the lives of smiths and armourers were generally spared to become slaves, and the whites who wished to gain the friendship of Indian tribes often sent gunsmiths to live among them. This practice was followed by the French in seeking the alliance of the Senecas along the Niagara, and later by the English, when many of the employees, interpreters and agents of the Indian Department were also skilled workers in metal.
The illustration shows Maquina watching his captive blacksmith at work. The Indian chief wears a dress made of gaudy European trade cloth, sewn together and decorated with brass buttons by Thompson, who, as a sail maker, was able to fashion such materials to suit the native taste.
The plan of the fort is taken from a survey made by Col. Nicolls of the Royal Engineers. The fort was reconstructed in 1932-1934 in conformity with this plan of 1816.
The view of the barracks is from a drawing by Lieut. Sempronius Stretton, now in the Public Archives of Canada. Note soldiers chopping out stump, and sawing planks in pit on the bank; also Indian in canoe spearing fish.
The first raft on the Ottawa River was conducted by Philemon Wright, from Hull (of which he was the founder), to Montreal, in 1806. The timbers were fastened together with wooden pins and bound with flexible willow withes. The raft was guided by long heavy sweeps on all sides, those in front being used to assist in swinging the raft around to avoid rocks and shallow water.
The Conestoga wagon was so called after the Conestoga Valley in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, where this type of vehicle was developed. Wagons such as this, though generally larger, and drawn by four or six horses, carried most of the freight to the American west, before the railroad came, over the Alleghany Mountains by the great National Highway to Pittsburg and beyond. While the wagon here shown is probably the only specimen of its kind in Canada, the farm wagons generally in use during the period most likely were constructed on similar lines. Many of the settlers of Waterloo County came from this region of Pennsylvania, and were members of pacifist sects, Mennonists, Tunkers, etc., who had migrated from Germany earlier in the eighteenth century.
These illustrations show the clothing worn in Lower Canada a century and a half ago. For walking on the slippery streets of Quebec cloth shoes, or stockings worn over ordinary shoes, were worn. Crampons, removable soles with iron spikes, attached to shoes were also worn. Thompson, the building superintendent, complains of the damage done to the handsome new floors of the Chateau Haldimand, at its opening on the Queen's birthday, 18th January, 1787, by the crampons of visitors, which should have been taken off and left at the door. Mrs. Simcoe's Diary mentions that the troops practised walking on snow-shoes on the Plains of Abraham. She also says that women wear hoods lined with eider-down over a muslin cap, as shown in Lambert's drawing. The priest wears a small wig, which was permitted in cold weather.
In the earliest years of British rule the merchants of Montreal began to engage in the fur trade and to equip expeditions to the north and west. The route usually followed was by the Ottawa River and the upper great lakes to Grand Portage, near the head of Lake Superior. After 1796, when this neighbourhood was included in the territory of the United States, Fort William, some miles to the east, became the meeting place of the canoes from Montreal and the fur-traders of the north-west interior. Here the trading goods were unloaded, and the packs of the season's furs taken on board the Montreal canoes for their return voyage.
These Montreal canoes were about 36 feet long and 6 feet wide at the middle, and carried from 3 to 4 tons. They were paddled by crews of 8 to 10 voyageurs, who were commonly called "Mangeurs du Lard," or "Pork Eaters,"
their provisions generally consisting of salt pork and hulled corn or peas. They travelled in "brigades," usually of 4 canoes, to facilitate the passage over the numerous portages on the route. These large canoes were pushed up the steepest places, cushioned on ever- green boughs, or were carried by 6 men, bottom side up. They left Lachine in May, reaching the meeting place early in July. The trading goods consisted of coarse woollen cloths, blankets,
ammunition, twist and carrot tobacco, thread, lines, twine, hardware, cutlery, brass, copper, and iron kettles, silk and cotton handkerchiefs, shoes, nets and fish hooks, spirituous liquors, colours, vermilion especially, beads, silver ornaments, etc.
Meanwhile, the furs gathered in the far north and west were being carried by toboggans and canoes, so as to reach the Lake Superior meeting place by the time of the arrival of the goods from Montreal. For a month or more the portage over the height of land separating the great lakes waterways from those of the northern interior was a busy place, as lines of men laden with packs of furs, or barrels, sacks and bundles of trading goods hurried along the trail to the waiting canoes.
The northern canoes were about half the size of those from Montreal: about 25 feet long by 4 feet wide, with a crew of 4 to 6 men. In portaging they were carried by 2 men at bow and 2 at stern, bottom side down.
In addition to these, there were also light express canoes, used for the speedy transportation of correspondence, news, and passengers, such as officials and partners of the trading companies. These carried no freight beyond the provisions and baggage of the crew and passengers. They were paddled by a crew of 15 men, specially picked and paid extra wages for a speedy voyage. Dr. Bigsby says that the passengers sat on their rolled-up beds amidships, while the crew squatted in two rows on their bags of provisions, paddling 50 strokes to the minute to voyageur songs so timed, and stopping occasionally for a short spell to rest and smoke.
Much information and numerous pictures are to be found in various numbers of The Beaver, the Hudson's Bay Company's quarterly. Schoolcrafts' Indian Tribes gives details of the Indian methods of canoe building, and there are scattered references in J. J. Bigsby's The Shoe and Canoe, and in the numerous volumes of the Champlain Society publications dealing with the fur-trade and northern exploration.
The present Government House is the third building erected for that purpose in Halifax. Its story is told in two brochures published by the Archives of Nova Scotia: Government House, and The Romance of Government House, by J. S. Martell, under direction of the Archivist, Dr. D. C. Harvey. Its two predecessors had been situated on the property now occupied by the Legislative Building, or "Province House"; the first a temporary structure put up at the time of the settlement in 1749, the second during Lawrence's governorship, of which a view taken by Richard Short is herein shown. Both of these were wooden buildings.
In 1793 Governor Wentworth complained to the Legislature that the house was so badly decayed that it was "in Danger of falling into the Cellar." A considerable sum had recently been spent on repairs and further expenditures were made during the following years; but Wentworth continued his complaints and urged the building of a new Government House which would be worthy of the King's representative. Strongly supported by the Provincial Treasurer, Michael Wallace, he won over the Assembly to the project. A site in the southern suburbs was secured and in September, 1800, the corner stone was laid. Five years later Wentworth moved into the new Government
House, unfinished though its rooms were.
Throughout the years of its construction protests were made by the Assembly that it was on a scale far beyond the circumstances of the province, then with a population of but little more than 60,000. By the time that Wentworth retired in 1808 the building had cost more than twice the sum originally authorized: later additions, repairs and furnishings raised the total expenditure to over $31,000.
Among the articles enumerated as having been purchased is a marble chimney piece carved with statuary and ornaments, for which the celebrated British sculptor, Richard Westmacott, in 1804, received the sum of &31-10. Other items contained in a report of 1811 are: For Levee Room: 7 Turkish Sophas, 12 cane bottom Chairs with cushions and covers, 3 Lustres to suspend from ceiling, Looking Glass, Fire Irons and Fenders. For Saloon: A Brussels Carpet, A Fire Rug to match, Fire Screens, Chimney Candlesticks, Mahogany Tables, Chandelier, Looking Glasses, A Steel Register Stove. For Dining Room: 24 Mahogany Chairs, Floor Cloth for Mahogany Sideboard, Curtains, Draperies, Set of Mahogany Dining Tables. Grates in 2 Waiting Rooms. 2 Lanthorns and 2 Footscrapers in Hall. Smoke Jack and Stone Plate in Kitchen. Brass Register Stove in Nursery.
Stoves of some kind were in use in Canada much earlier than is commonly supposed. There is mention of them during the French period. Mrs. Simcoe, in her Diary, says that grates were tried for heating the "canvas house" in which they lived at Newark, but these not answering, stoves were substituted; she also mentions their use in Quebec, and complains of the overheating of the houses in winter.
At the St. Maurice Forges in Lower Canada, stoves were manufactured during the eighteenth century, their characteristic product, known as the Three River Stove, was the "two-decker" box stove, with fire box below and oven above. Stoves long enough to hold a cord-wood stick were sometimes used to heat two rooms by placing it midway of an opening cut in the dividing wall.
Benjamin Franklin invented an open stove for heating. In a pamphlet which he published in 1744 he describes his "newly invented Pennsylvania fire places, composed of five iron plates scru'd and fixed together, with one side open." While retaining its original basic construction, the "Franklin" stove was furnished with various fittings, such as brass railings, and was often decorated with castings of illustrations of Biblical stories.
The first iron foundry in Upper Canada was established about 1820 in Norfolk County by Joseph Van Norman and his partners, the ore being procured from extensive bogs in Charlotteville. The principal products of this Normandale Furnace were bar-iron for blacksmiths, axes, and stoves. The foundry carried on an extensive and profitable business for several years, but about 1852 it ceased to exist owing to financial losses, and the depletion of bog-ore in the immediate vicinity. In 1829 the foundry was placed under the management of Elijah Leonard, an experienced American iron-worker, who later founded the firm of E. Leonard and Sons, in London, Ont., and became a Dominion Senator. In a published autobiography of the family the furnace is described as consisting of a brick stack or chimney about thirty feet high built on the side of a hill. "Motive power was obtained from a stream which turned an overshot wheel about fourteen feet in diameter that drove a double piston bellows by means of cranks. Only one tuyere (pipe through which air is forced) was employed to admit the blast. The ore and charcoal were mixed in the top house, being dumped into the furnace by barrows, and the iron when melted ran down into a hearth about two feet wide and five feet long. Into this receptacle we dipped our ladles and carried off the product direct to the flasks. When in full blast we took off two heats in twenty-four hours." The site can still be seen, but no vestige of the buildings remains. The information about the Normandale Furnace is taken from Pioneer Sketches of the Long Point Settlement, by E. A. Owen.
All able-bodied men were enrolled in the Canadian militia. They received occasional training in drill during the year, but the principal muster was on the birthday of King George Ill, June 4th. Many of them were without fire-arms, and carried sticks, pitchforks, pikes and umbrellas as substitutes. Only a few, veterans of the Revolutionary War or disbanded soldiers, had uniforms. Two of these are shown in the illustration on the left; one of them, a sergeant, is dressing the line with his halbert held horizontally. It is stated that in the battle of Queenston in 1812 none of the militia wore uniforms.
Jefferys, Charles W. 1945 The Picture Gallery of Canadian History Volume 2, p.
Militia Training on the King's Birthday
All able-bodied men were enrolled in the Canadian militia.They received occasional training in drill during the year, but the principal muster was on the birthday of King George III, June 4th.
Chairs, Eighteenth And Early Nineteenth Centuries
Content Contribution
© 2022 C.W. Jefferys Online Catalogue. All Rights Reserved.


Overview This collection consists of handwritten and typed notes and field observations, primarily by William Beebe, during the New York Zoological Society's Department of Tropical Research studies at Simla Station, Trinidad, between 1949 and 1961.
Overview Collection contains correspondence and subject files kept by Grace Davall, who served first as a secretary at the Bronx Zoo from 1923-1952 and as then the Zoo's Assistant Curator for Birds and Mammals from 1952-1970. It includes correspondence between Davall and the public and records pertaining to the acquisition and transport of zoo animals, including legal aspects. Also included are records pertaining to the offspring of Dacca, the zoo's long-lived female tiger.
Overview During his career at NYZS, F. Wayne King held positions as Curator of Herpetology, Chairman of Educational Programs, Director of Conservation and Environmental Education, Director of Conservation, and Director of Zoology. This collection contains the correspondence, subject files, and administrative files of F. Wayne King's work at NYZS.
Overview Harold Cornelius Palmer joined the staff of the New York Zoological Society (NYZS) in 1961 and held the position of Assistant Secretary for the Society from 1968 to 1979. This collection contains correspondence between Palmer and people and organizations related to NYZS while he was Assistant Secretary.
Overview Allyn R. Jennings was appointed General Director in June 1940. He resigned from the position in December 1941. These records consist primarily of correspondence and subject files created by the General Director in 1940. Also included are some correspondence and other records of W. Reid Blair, who retired from the position of Director and General Curator of the Zoological Park in May 1940.
Overview Robert Guestier Goelet served in several executive roles at the New York Zoological Society (NYZS), including President from 1971 to 1975. This collection includes material related to Annual Society and Members Meetings and international conservation programs and projects in Asia, Africa, and South America.


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Self Help Community Centre (SHCC) is a registered Non Government Organisation (NGO) that provides educational and vocational opportunities to over 1,500 disadvantaged children and young adults in the Kro Bei Riel Community, Siem Reap, Cambodia. SHCC also provides sustainable development initiatives and programmes to the wider rural community, educating and empowering the community to become self sufficient.
Self Help Community Center (SHCC) started in 2007 in Siem Reap with three small makeshift classrooms made of wood and bamboo on a small plot of leased land to give 250 underprivileged kids in the Kro Bei Riel Community a chance of early childhood education.
Ten years later, SHCC has been providing not just classrooms but also a safe haven to over 1,500 disadvantaged children in Cambodia. With the ultimate goal to create a capable and self-sufficient community by empowering Cambodia's youth through education and provide the proper tools to enable them to build their livelihood at an early start, SHCC has been helping lift so many lives from poverty.
In order to permanently break free from the cycle of poverty, the SHCC works through an empowerment model at the grassroots level. In place is a sustainable development model that directly benefits its community through educating the younger generations now to support their families to become self-sufficient in the future. Other than kindergarten classes, they offer educational and vocational courses in English, social work, organic farming, arts and crafts, sports education, hygiene, nutrition and environmental issues. Proudly, they hire and maintain a permanent paid staff of native Cambodians.
In the past, TFWA Care has stepped in and provided funds to build high school classrooms. To further help achieve their goals this year, TFWA Care will once again team up with SHCCC and provide funding to purchase new land and the construction of three additional kindergarten classrooms. Extra proceeds will go to the first year of its operational cost. Once at place, hundreds more kids will be able to benefit from a well-deserved early childhood education. And consequently, this will free up the time so that their parents are able to work or develop their own business. The cycle of a self- sufficient and sustainable Cambodia continues.
The Youth Development Scholarship provides selected students in Grades 10 - 12 the opportunity to complete high school as well as learn valuable leadership, life skills and social work skills. There are many factors that are considered when selecting students for the YDC Programme – all students must show potential but not necessarily academically. Most importantly they must show potential as leaders and good role models, not only for their fellow SHCC students but also the wider community.
The students come from a range of backgrounds but all suffer from poverty at differing levels and would not be able to attend high school without the support of a scholarship.
The support of TFWA Care is enabling 36 students from the SHCC to complete a three-year high school education. Thanks to their time at high school, these students will be able to play a leading role in the development of their community, helping them, their families and their peers to break out of the poverty cycle.


text:
A [responsive image](http://picture.responsiveimages.org/) polyfill.
* Authors: Scott Jehl, Mat Marquis, Shawn Jansepar (2.0 refactor lead), and many more: see Authors.txt
* License: MIT

[![build-status](https://api.travis-ci.org/scottjehl/picturefill.svg)](https://travis-ci.org/scottjehl/picturefill)

Picturefill has two versions:
* Version 2 is a strict polyfill of the [Picture element draft specification](http://picture.responsiveimages.org/) and is the main version in development.
* Version 1 mimics the Picture element pattern with `span` elements. It is maintained in the 1.2 branch.

## Usage, Demos, Docs
To find out how to use Picturefill on your sites, visit the project and demo site:

[Picturefill Documentation, Downloads, and Demos Site](http://scottjehl.github.com/picturefill/)

## Contributing
For information on how to contribute code to Picturefill, check out `Contributing.md`

## Issues
If you find a bug in Picturefill, please add it to [the issue tracker](https://github.com/scottjehl/picturefill/issues)

## Support

Picturefill supports a broad range of browsers and devices (there are currently no known unsupported browsers), provided that you stick with the markup conventions provided.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


The Development Grants scheme provides financial support to individual researchers and/or research teams to undertake health and medical research within Australia at the proof-of-concept stage that specifically drives towards a commercial outcome within a foreseeable timeframe.
Research that aims to improve the health and health care outcomes which targets an unmet or poorly met healthcare need for Australians is highly valued. Partnerships with industry/commercial partner/s for the proposed research are not essential at the application stage. However, applicants must provide comprehensive evidence of their strategies to commercialise their product and bring it to market.
Applications are subject to the eligibility requirements set out in the Development Grant Scheme Guidelines 2019.
Minimum Data due Wednesday 23 January 2019 at 1700 AEDT.