Well, no worries… I am here to tell you that the results are quite comical. You will either feel like your limbs are about to snap at any second, OR you will have an ongoing battle with your mind to stop obsessing about how you should have painted your toenails before class.
Either way, I enjoyed the class and look forward to regularly enjoying the joys of yoga.
What is difficult about these claims is that it is challenging to research large groups of yoga students to prove the benefits. It requires a lot of time and money to research. Furthermore, it is nearly impossible to find a group of volunteers in which no one is already taking pharmaceutical drugs.
This is something that Dr. Loren M. Fishman, a physiatrist who specializes in rehabilitative medicine at Columbia University, knows all too well.
He has been hoping to determine if yoga could be an effective therapy for osteoporosis and has been gathering evidence on yoga and bone health for years. Making it even more challenging is that this idea is not widely accepted in the medical community.
However, in 2004, Dr. Fishman started a small pilot study where he had participants engage in yoga postures, which produced some inspiring results. Eleven people have completed the 2-year-10-minute-a-day yoga protocol and have been successful in increasing their bone mineral density.
Dr. Fishman is optimistic that if a larger study is conducted, similar results may help persuade doctors that yoga, which is low-cost and less dangerous than bone-loss drugs, is worth pursuing.
The impact would be profound, considering that more than 700,000 spinal fractures and more than 300,000 hip fractures occur a year in the U.S.!
Many of these injuries are treated with drugs and these medications have various adverse side effects such as fractures of the femur and gastrointestinal distress.
For people with bone loss, weight-bearing activity is often recommended. Yoga fits this "prescription" perfectly.
"Yoga's side effects include better posture, improved balance, enhanced coordination, greater range of motion, higher strength, reduced levels of anxiety and better gait.
Gaining significant bone mass as an adult is extremely difficult, if not impossible, as argued by most experts. However, Dr. Fishman continued undeterred and invested his own time and money along with three collaborators (Yi-Hsueh Lu of The Rockefeller University, Dr. Gregory Chang of NYU and Bernard Rosner of Brigham and Women's Hospital), who solicited volunteers worldwide for a small pilot study follow-up.
Of the 741 participants of the 2005 to 2015 experiment, 227 completed the 12 assigned yoga poses daily or every other day (which took 12 minutes to complete – each pose held for 30 seconds and then rest for 30 seconds).
The average age of the 227 participants was 68 years old and 84 percent had osteoporosis or its precursor, osteopenia.
In 2010, bone density measurements and x-rays were taken again of the participants, which showed that completing the recommended yoga exercises had improved their bone density in their femur and spine as well as their hips. However, the hip improvements were not statistically significant.
What is even more promising is that, before the study, the x-rays reported that the participants had had 109 fractures. Since engaging in a yoga practice, "more than 90,000 hours of yoga practiced largely by people with osteoporosis or osteopenia, there have been NO reported X-ray detected fractures or serious injuries of any kind related to the practice of yoga in any of the 741 participants," said Dr. Fishman and his collaborators.
Even for people who have suffered significant bone loss… YOGA is a safe solution that can help improve posture and balance, which can ultimately help protect your bones.
Do you practice yoga? What does it do for YOU? We would love to hear from you in the comments below!


No Blue Memories: The Life of Gwendolyn Brooks brings to life the story of one of Chicago's most beloved figures. Brooks was an icon, a poet laureate, and a Pulitzer Prize winner, but she was also a treasured educator and mentor to the countless writers and children who knew her as their very own "Miss Brooks." Weaving together poetry, storytelling, original music performed by a full jazz combo, and striking visuals, No Blue Memories is an exploration of Brooks's beloved city and a story of how she navigated identity, craft, and politics over the course of one of the most remarkable careers in American literary history.
A Chicago-based performance collective, Manual Cinema uses vintage overhead projectors, multiple screens, puppets, actors, live feed cameras, multi-channel sound design, and a live music ensemble to transform the experience of attending the cinema, imbuing it with liveness, ingenuity, and theatricality.


text:
Habitat fragmentation
Fragmentation and destruction of Great Ape habitat in Central Africa, from the GLOBIO and GRASP projects. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.
Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment[1] (suspected of being one of the major causes of speciation[1]), and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species.
Deforestation and increased road-building in the Amazon Rainforest are a significant concern because of increased human encroachment upon wild areas, increased resource-extraction and further threats to biodiversity.
2.1 Natural causes
2.2 Human causes
2.3 Endogenous vs. exogenous
3.1 Habitat Loss and Biodiversity
3.2 Informed Conservation
3.3 Genetic Risks
3.3.1 Gene Flow and Inbreeding
3.3.2 Genetic Drift
3.3.3 Adaptation
3.3.4 Examples of Impacted Species
3.4 Effect on Animal Behaviours
3.4.1 Predation Behaviours
3.4.1.1 Boreal Woodland Caribous
3.4.2 Communication Behaviours
4 Forest fragmentation
4.1 Implications
5 Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation
5.1 Species-oriented approach
5.1.1 Pattern-oriented approach
5.1.2 Variegation Model
Definition[edit]
The term habitat fragmentation includes five discrete phenomena:
Reduction in the total area of the habitat
Decrease of the interior: edge ratio
Isolation of one habitat fragment from other areas of habitat
Breaking up of one patch of habitat into several smaller patches
Decrease in the average size of each patch of habitat
"fragmentation ... not only causes loss of the amount of habitat, but by creating small, isolated patches it also changes the properties of the remaining habitat" (van den Berg et al. 2001)[failed verification]. Habitat fragmentation is the landscape level of the phenomenon, and patch level process. Thus meaning, it covers; the patch areas, edge effects, and patch shape complexity.[2]
In scientific literature, there is some debate whether the term "habitat fragmentation" applies in cases of habitat loss, or whether the term primarily applies to the phenomenon of habitat being cut into smaller pieces without significant reduction in habitat area. Scientists who use the stricter definition of "habitat fragmentation" per se[3] would refer to loss of habitat area as "habitat loss" and explicitly mention both terms if describing a situation where the habitat becomes less connected and there is less overall habitat.
Causes[edit]
Natural causes[edit]
Evidence of habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire, and climate change is found in the fossil record.[1][failed verification] For example, habitat fragmentation of tropical rainforests in Euramerica 300 million years ago led to a great loss of amphibian diversity, but simultaneously the drier climate spurred on a burst of diversity among reptiles.[1]
Human causes[edit]
Habitat fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native plants is cleared for human activities such as agriculture, rural development, urbanization and the creation of hydroelectric reservoirs. Habitats which were once continuous become divided into separate fragments. After intensive clearing, the separate fragments tend to be very small islands isolated from each other by cropland, pasture, pavement, or even barren land. The latter is often the result of slash and burn farming in tropical forests. In the wheat belt of central western New South Wales, Australia, 90% of the native vegetation has been cleared and over 99% of the tall grass prairie of North America has been cleared, resulting in extreme habitat fragmentation.
Endogenous vs. exogenous[edit]
There are two types of processes that can lead to habitat fragmentation. There are exogenous processes and endogenous processes. Endogenous are process that develop as a part of a species biology so they typically include changes in biology, behavior and interactions within or between species. Endogenous threats can result in changes to breeding patterns or migration patterns and are often triggered by exogenous processes. Exogenous processes are independent of species biology and can include habitat degradation, habitat subdivision or habitat isolation. These processes can have a substantial impact on endogenous processes by fundamentally altering species behavior. Habitat subdivision or isolation can lead to changes in dispersal or movement of species including changes to seasonal migration. These changes can lead to decrease in a density of species, increased competition or even increased predation.[4]
Implications[edit]
Habitat Loss and Biodiversity[edit]
One of the major ways that habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity is by reducing the amount of suitable habitat available for organisms. Habitat fragmentation often involves both habitat destruction and the subdivision of previously continuous habitat.[5] Plants and other sessile organisms are disproportionately affected by some types of habitat fragmentation because they cannot respond quickly to the altered spatial configuration of the habitat.[6]
Habitat loss, which can occur through the process of habitat fragmentation, is considered to be the greatest threat to species.[7] But, the effect of the configuration of habitat patches within the landscape, independent of the effect of the amount of habitat within the landscape (referred to as fragmentation per se[3]), has been suggested to be small.[8] A review of empirical studies found that, of the 381 reported significant effect of habitat fragmentation per se on species occurrences, abundances or diversity in the scientific literature, 76% were positive whereas 24% were negative.[9] Despite these results, the scientific literature tends to emphasize negative effects more than positive effects.[10] Positive effects of habitat fragmentation per se imply that several small patches of habitat can have higher conservation value than a single large patch of equivalent size.[9] Land sharing strategies could therefore have more positive impacts on species than land sparing strategies.[9]
Habitat fragmented by numerous roads near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.
Area is the primary determinant of the number of species in a fragment[11] and the relative contributions of demographic and genetic processes to the risk of global population extinction depend on habitat configuration, stochastic environmental variation and species features.[12] Minor fluctuations in climate, resources, or other factors that would be unremarkable and quickly corrected in large populations can be catastrophic in small, isolated populations. Thus fragmentation of habitat is an important cause of species extinction.[11] Population dynamics of subdivided populations tend to vary asynchronously. In an unfragmented landscape a declining population can be "rescued" by immigration from a nearby expanding population. In fragmented landscapes, the distance between fragments may prevent this from happening. Additionally, unoccupied fragments of habitat that are separated from a source of immigrants by some barrier are less likely to be repopulated than adjoining fragments. Even small species such as the Columbia spotted frog are reliant on the rescue effect. Studies showed 25% of juveniles travel a distance over 200m compared to 4% of adults. Of these, 95% remain in their new locale, demonstrating that this journey is necessary for survival.[13]
Additionally, habitat fragmentation leads to edge effects. Microclimatic changes in light, temperature and wind can alter the ecology around the fragment, and in the interior and exterior portions of the fragment. Fires become more likely in the area as humidity drops and temperature and wind levels rise. Exotic and pest species may establish themselves easily in such disturbed environments, and the proximity of domestic animals often upsets the natural ecology. Also, habitat along the edge of a fragment has a different climate and favours different species from the interior habitat. Small fragments are therefore unfavourable for species which require interior habitat. The percentage preservation of contiguous habitats is closely related to both genetic and species biodiversity preservation. Generally a 10% remnant contiguous habitat will result in a 50% biodiversity loss.[14]
Informed Conservation[edit]
Habitat fragmentation is often a cause of species becoming threatened or endangered. The existence of viable habitat is critical to the survival of any species, and in many cases the fragmentation of any remaining habitat can lead to difficult decisions for conservation biologists. Given a limited amount of resources available for conservation is it preferable to protect the existing isolated patches of habitat or to buy back land to get the largest possible continuous piece of land. In rare cases a conservation reliant species may gain some measure of disease protection by being distributed in isolated habitats. This ongoing debate is often referred to as SLOSS (Single Large or Several Small).
One solution to the problem of habitat fragmentation is to link the fragments by preserving or planting corridors of native vegetation. In some cases, a bridge or underpass may be enough to join two fragments.[15] This has the potential to mitigate the problem of isolation but not the loss of interior habitat.
Another mitigation measure is the enlargement of small remnants in order to increase the amount of interior habitat. This may be impractical since developed land is often more expensive and could require significant time and effort to restore.
The best solution is generally dependent on the particular species or ecosystem that is being considered. More mobile species, like most birds, do not need connected habitat while some smaller animals, like rodents, may be more exposed to predation in open land. These questions generally fall under the headings of metapopulations island biogeography.
Genetic Risks[edit]
As the remaining habitat patches are smaller, they tend to support smaller populations of fewer species.[16] Small populations are at an increased risk of a variety of genetic consequences that influence their long-term survival.[17] Remnant populations often contain only a subset of the genetic diversity found in the previously continuous habitat. In these cases, processes that act upon underlying genetic diversity, such as adaptation, have a smaller pool of fitness-maintaining alleles to survive in the face of environmental change. However in some scenarios, where subsets of genetic diversity are partitioned among multiple habitat fragments, almost all original genetic diversity can be maintained despite each individual fragment displaying a reduced subset of diversity.[18]
Gene Flow and Inbreeding[edit]
Gene flow occurs when individuals of the same species exchange genetic information through reproduction. Populations can maintain genetic diversity through migration. When a habitat becomes fragmented and reduced in area, gene flow and migration is typically reduced. Fewer individuals will migrate into the remaining fragments, and small disconnected populations that may have once been part of a single large population will become reproductively isolated. Scientific evidence that gene flow is reduced due to fragmentation depends on the study species. While trees that have long-range pollination and dispersal mechanisms may not experience reduced gene flow following fragmentation,[19] most species are at risk of reduced gene flow following habitat fragmentation.[6]
Reduced gene flow, and reproductive isolation can result in inbreeding between related individuals. Inbreeding does not always result in negative fitness consequences, but when inbreeding is associated with fitness reduction it is called inbreeding depression. Inbreeding becomes of increasing concern as the level of homozygosity increases, facilitating the expression of deleterious alleles that reduce the fitness. Habitat fragmentation can lead to inbreeding depression for many species due to reduced gene flow.[20][21] Inbreeding depression is associated with conservation risks, like local extinction.
Genetic Drift[edit]
Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift. Genetic drift is random changes to the genetic make up of populations and always leads to reductions in genetic diversity. The smaller the population is, the more likely genetic drift will be a driving force of evolution rather than natural selection. Because genetic drift is a random process, it does not allow species to become more adapted to their environment. Habitat fragmentation is associated with increases to genetic drift in small populations which can have negative consequences for the genetic diversity of the populations.[20] However, research suggests that some tree species may be resilient to the negative consequences of genetic drift until population size is as small as ten individuals or less.[18]
Adaptation[edit]
In order for populations to evolve in response to natural selection, they must be large enough that natural selection is a stronger evolutionary force than genetic drift. Recent studies on the impacts of habitat fragmentation on adaptation in some plant species have suggested that organisms in fragmented landscapes may be able to adapt to fragmentation.[22][23] However, there are also many cases where fragmentation reduces adaptation capacity because of small population size.[24]
Examples of Impacted Species[edit]
Some species that have experienced genetic consequences due to habitat fragmentation are listed below:
Macquarie perch
Macquaria australasica[20][25]
Fagus sylvatica[26]
Betula nana[18]
Rhinella ornata[27]
Ochotona princeps[28]
Uta stansburiana[29]
Plestiodon skiltonianus[29]
Sceloporus occidentalis[29]
Chamaea fasciata[29]
Effect on Animal Behaviours[edit]
Although the way habitat fragmentation affects the genetics and extinction rates of species has been heavily studied, fragmentation has also been shown to affect species' behaviours and cultures as well. This is important because social interactions have the ability to determine and have an effect on a species' fitness and survival. Habitat fragmentation alters the resources available and the structure of habitats, as a result alters the behaviours of species and the dynamics between differing species. Behaviours affected can be within a species such as reproduction, mating, foraging, species dispersal, communication and movement patterns or can be behaviours between species such as predator prey relationships.[30]
Predation Behaviours[edit]
Habitat fragmentation due to anthropogenic activities has been shown to greatly affect the predator-prey dynamics of many species by altering the amount of species and the members of those species.[30] This affects the natural predator-prey relationships between animals in a given community [30] and forces them to alter their behaviours and interactions, therefore resetting the so called "behavioral space race".[31] The way in which fragmentation changes and re-shapes these interactions can occur in many different forms. Most prey species have patches of land that are refuge from their predators, allowing them the safety to reproduce and raise their young. Human introduced structures such as roads and pipelines alter these areas by facilitating predator activity in these refuges, increasing predator-prey overlap.[31] The opposite could also occur in the favour of prey, increasing prey refuge and subsequently decreasing predation rates. Fragmentation may also increase predator abundance or predator efficiency and therefore increase predation rates in this manner.[31] Several other factors can also increase or decrease the extent to which the shifting predator-prey dynamics affect certain species, including how diverse a predators diet is and how flexible habitat requirements are for predators and prey.[30] Depending on which species are affected and these other factors, fragmentation and its resulting effects on predator-prey dynamics may contribute to a species extinction.[30] In response to these new environmental pressures, new adaptive behaviours may be developed. Prey species may adapt to increased risk of predation with strategies such as altering mating tactics or changing behaviours and activities related to food and foraging.[30]
Boreal Woodland Caribous[edit]
In the boreal woodland caribous of British Columbia the effects of fragmentation are clearly demonstrated. The species refuge area is peatland bog which has been interrupted by linear features such as roads and pipelines.[32] These features have allowed their natural predators, the wolf and the black bear to more efficiently travel over landscapes and between patches of land.[32] Since their predators can more easily access the caribous' refuge, the females of the species attempt to avoid the area, affecting their reproductive behaviours and offspring produced.[32]
Communication Behaviours[edit]
Fragmentation affecting the communication behaviours of birds has been well studied in Dupont's Lark. The Larks primarily reside in regions of Spain and are a small passerine bird which use songs as a means of cultural transmission between members of the species.[32] The Larks have two distinct vocalizations, the song and the territorial call. The territorial call is used by males to defend and signal territory from other male Larks and is shared between neighbouring territories when males respond to a rivals song.[33] Occasionally it is used as a threat signal to signify an impending attack on territory.[34] A large song repertoire can enhance a males ability to survive and reproduce as he has a greater ability to defend his territory from other males, and a larger number of males in the species means a larger variety of songs being transmitted.[33] Fragmentation of the Dupont's Lark territory from agriculture, forestry and urbanization appears to have a large effect on their communication structures.[34] Males only perceive territories of a certain distance to be rivals and so isolation of territory from others due to fragmentation leads to a decrease in territorial calls as the males no longer have any reason to use it or have any songs to match.[34]
Forest fragmentation[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Forest fragmentation.
Forest fragmentation is a form of habitat fragmentation where forests are reduced (either naturally or man-made) to relatively small, isolated patches of forest known as forest fragments or forest remnants.[1] The intervening matrix that separates the remaining woodland patches can be natural open areas, farmland, or developed areas. Following the principles of island biogeography, remnant woodlands act like islands of forest in a sea of pastures, fields, subdivisions, shopping malls, etc. These fragments will then begin to undergo the process of ecosystem decay.
Forest fragmentation also includes less subtle forms of discontinuities such as utility right-of-ways (ROWs). Utility ROWs are of ecological interest because they have become pervasive in many forest communities, spanning areas as large as 5 million acres in the United States.[35] Utility ROWs include electricity transmission ROWs, gas pipeline and telecommunication ROWs. Electricity transmission ROWs are created to prevent vegetation interference with transmission lines. Some studies have shown that electricity transmission ROWs harbor more plant species than adjoining forest areas,[36] due to alterations in the microclimate in and around the corridor. Discontinuities in forest areas associated with utility right-of-ways can serve as biodiversity havens for native bees [35] and grassland species,[37] as the right-of-ways are preserved in an early successional stage.
Forest fragmentation is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in forests, especially in the tropics.[38] The problem of habitat destruction that caused the fragmentation in the first place is compounded by:
the inability of individual forest fragments to support viable populations, especially of large vertebrates
the local extinction of species that do not have at least one fragment capable of supporting a viable population
edge effects that alter the conditions of the outer areas of the fragment, greatly reducing the amount of true forest interior habitat.[39]
The effect of fragmentation on the flora and fauna of a forest patch depends on a) the size of the patch, and b) its degree of isolation. Isolation depends on the distance to the nearest similar patch, and the contrast with the surrounding areas. For example, if a cleared area is reforested or allowed to regenerate, the increasing structural diversity of the vegetation will lessen the isolation of the forest fragments. However, when formerly forested lands are converted permanently to pastures, agricultural fields, or human-inhabited developed areas, the remaining forest fragments, and the biota within them, are often highly isolated.
Forest patches that are smaller or more isolated will lose species faster than those that are larger or less isolated. A large number of small forest "islands" typically cannot support the same biodiversity that a single contiguous forest would hold, even if their combined area is much greater than the single forest. However, forest islands in rural landscapes greatly increase their biodiversity.[40]
Approaches to understanding habitat fragmentation[edit]
Two approaches that are typically used to understand habitat fragmentation and its ecological impacts.
Species-oriented approach[edit]
The species-oriented approach focuses specifically on individual species and how they each respond to their environment and habitat changes with in it. This approach can be limited because it does only focus on individual species and does not allow for a broad view of the impacts of habitat fragmentation across species.[41]
Pattern-oriented approach[edit]
The pattern-oriented approach is based on land cover and its patterning in correlation with species occurrences. One model of study for landscape patterning is the patch-matrix-corridor model developed by Richard Forman The pattern-oriented approach focuses on land cover defined by human means and activities. This model has stemmed from island biogeography and tries to infer causal relationships between the defined landscapes and the occurrence of species or groups of species within them. The approach has limitations in its collective assumptions across species or landscapes which may not account for variations amongst them.[42]
Variegation Model[edit]
The other model is the variegation model. Variegated landscapes retain much of their natural vegetation but are intermixed with gradients of modified habitat [43] This model of habitat fragmentation typically applies to landscapes that are modified by agriculture. In contrast to the fragmentation model that is denoted by isolated patches of habitat surrounded by unsuitable landscape environments, the variegation model applies to landscapes modified by agriculture where small patches of habitat remain near the remnant original habitat. In between these patches are a matrix of grassland that are often modified versions of the original habitat. These areas do not present as much of a barrier to native species.[44]
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^ a b c d e f Banks, Sam C; Piggott, Maxine P; Stow, Adam J; Taylor, Andrea C (2007). "Sex and sociality in a disconnected world: a review of the impacts of habitat fragmentation on animal social interactions". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 85 (10): 1065–1079. doi:10.1139/Z07-094.
^ a b c Shneider, Michael F (2001). "Habitat loss, fragmentation and predator impact: spatial implications for prey conservation". Journal of Applied Ecology. 38 (4): 720–735. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00642.x.
^ a b c d DeMars, Craig A; Boutin, Stan (September 4, 2017). "Nowhere to hide: Effects of linear features on predator -prey dynamics in a large mammal system". Journal of Animal Ecology. 87 (1): 274–284. doi:10.1111/1365-2656.12760. PMID 28940254.
^ a b Laiolo, Paola; Tella, José L (2005). "Habitat fragmentation affects culture transmission: patterns of song matching in Dupont's lark". Journal of Applied Ecology. 42 (6): 1183–1193. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2664.2005.01093.x. hdl:10261/57878.
^ a b c Laiolo, Paola; Tella, José L (2007). "Erosion of animal cultures in fragmented landscapes". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 5 (2): 68–72. doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[68:eoacif]2.0.co;2.
^ a b Russell, K. N.; Ikerd, H.; Droege, S. (2005-07-01). "The potential conservation value of unmowed powerline strips for native bees". Biological Conservation. 124 (1): 133–148. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2005.01.022.
^ Wagner, David L.; Metzler, Kenneth J.; Leicht-Young, Stacey A.; Motzkin, Glenn (2014-09-01). "Vegetation composition along a New England transmission line corridor and its implications for other trophic levels". Forest Ecology and Management. 327: 231–239. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2014.04.026.
^ Lampinen, Jussi; Ruokolainen, Kalle; Huhta, Ari-Pekka; Chapman, Maura (Gee) Geraldine (13 November 2015). "Urban Power Line Corridors as Novel Habitats for Grassland and Alien Plant Species in South-Western Finland". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0142236. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1042236L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142236. PMC 4643934. PMID 26565700.
^ Bierregaard, Richard (2001). Claude Gascon; Thomas E. Lovejoy; Rita Mesquita (eds.). Lessons from Amazonia: The Ecology and Conservation of a Fragmented Forest. ISBN 978-0-300-08483-2.
^ Harris, Larry D. (1984). The Fragmented Forest: Island Biogeography Theory and the Preservation of Biotic Diversity. The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31763-2.
^ Banaszak J. (ed.) 2000. Ecology of Forest Islands. Bydgoszcz University Press, Bydgoszcz, Poland, 313 pp.
^ Fischer, Joern & B. Lindenmayer, David. (2007). Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis. Global Ecology and Biogeography. 16. 265-280. 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.
^ "Landscape Ecology and Landscape Change" (PDF). Retrieved March 22, 2018.
^ McIntyre, S.; Barrett, G. W. (1992). "Habitat Variegation, An Alternative to Fragmentation". Conservation Biology. 6 (1): 146–147. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610146.x. JSTOR 2385863.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ecological fragmentation.
GLOBIO, an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the natural environment, specifically highlighting larger wilderness areas and their fragmentation
Monash Virtual Laboratory – Simulations of habitat fragmentation and population genetics online at Monash University's Virtual Laboratory.
Defragmentation in Belgium (Flanders) – Connecting nature, connecting people. Accessed: Jan 22, 2009
Wildlife passages – De-Fragmentation in the Netherlands – How to evaluate their effectiveness? Accessed: Jan 22, 2009
Landscape Fragmentation in Europe The technical report from 2006 - the result of a collaboration between the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN) and the European Environment Agency (EEA). Accessed: Feb 22, 2016
Kinver, Mark. (2013, September 26). "Forest fragmentation triggers 'ecological Armageddon'", BBC News.
Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Trophic components
Abiotic component
Biogeochemical cycle
Biotic component
Biotic stress
Ecosystem ecology
Ecosystem model
List of feeding behaviours
Metabolic theory of ecology
Autotrophs
Chemosynthesis
Chemotrophs
Foundation species
Mixotrophs
Myco-heterotrophy
Mycotroph
Organotrophs
Photoheterotrophs
Photosynthetic efficiency
Phototrophs
Primary nutritional groups
Chemoorganotroph
Generalist and specialist species
Intraguild predation
Heterotroph
Heterotrophic nutrition
Insectivore
Mesopredators
Mesopredator release hypothesis
Optimal foraging theory
Planktivore
Prey switching
Chemoorganoheterotrophy
Detritivores
Lithoautotroph
Lithotrophy
Microbial cooperation
Microbial food web
Microbial intelligence
Microbial loop
Microbial mat
Microbial metabolism
Phage ecology
Food webs
Biomagnification
Ecological pyramid
Trophic level
Example webs
Cold seeps
Hydrothermal vents
Intertidal
Kelp forests
North Pacific Gyre
San Francisco Estuary
Ascendency
Cascade effect
Climax community
Competitive exclusion principle
Consumer–resource interactions
Copiotrophs
Ecological network
Ecological succession
Energy quality
Energy Systems Language
f-ratio
Feed conversion ratio
Mesotrophic soil
Nutrient cycle
Oligotroph
Paradox of the plankton
Trophic cascade
Trophic mutualism
Trophic state index
Animal coloration
Anti-predator adaptations
Deimatic behaviour
Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
Plant defense against herbivory
Predator avoidance in schooling fish
Ecology: Modelling ecosystems: Other components
Allee effect
Depensation
Ecological yield
Effective population size
Intraspecific competition
Logistic function
Maximum sustainable yield
Population cycle
Population modeling
Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
Small population size
Density-dependent inhibition
Ecological effects of biodiversity
Ecological extinction
Flagship species
Gradient analysis
Indicator species
Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
Minimum viable population
Neutral theory
Occupancy–abundance relationship
Population viability analysis
Priority effect
Rapoport's rule
Relative abundance distribution
Relative species abundance
Species homogeneity
Species-area curve
Umbrella species
Antibiosis
Biological interaction
Ecological facilitation
Storage effect
Cross-boundary subsidy
Ecocline
Ecotype
Foster's rule
Ideal free distribution
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
Insular biogeography
Landscape epidemiology
Landscape limnology
Metapopulation
r/K selection theory
Resource selection function
Source–sink dynamics
Ecological niche
Ecological trap
Ecosystem engineer
Environmental niche modelling
Marine habitats
Limiting similarity
Niche apportionment models
Niche construction
Niche differentiation
Assembly rules
Bateman's principle
Ecological debt
Ecological deficit
Ecological energetics
Ecological indicator
Ecological threshold
Ecosystem diversity
Extinction debt
Kleiber's law
Liebig's law of the minimum
Marginal value theorem
Thorson's rule
Xerosere
Allometry
Alternative stable state
Balance of nature
Biological data visualization
Ecological forecasting
Ecological humanities
Ecological stoichiometry
Ecopath
Ecosystem based fisheries
Endolith
Functional ecology
Macroecology
Microecosystem
Regime shift
Theoretical ecology
List of ecology topics

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Maintenance Window Documentation for entering Licenses.
Toolbox8 Documentation / Device Options for information on enabling licenses in your configuration.
Toolbox5 Documentation / Device Properties for older devices with firmware state 7.4 or less.


text:
Q: Xerces conflicts string.h Compiling my program I have this error:
/usr/include/xercesc/util/Compilers/GCCDefs.hpp:133:60: error: declaration of 'int strcasecmp(const char*, const char*)' has a different exception specifier
/usr/include/string.h:536:12: error: from previous declaration 'int strcasecmp(const char*, const char*) throw ()'
make: *** [src/test/VFTImageMaterial.o] Error 1

Any idea about this conflict with string.h?

A: You need to define HAVE_STRCASECMP. This probably should be defined automatically by ./configure in config.h - have you run ./configure?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


We have Wensleydale Sheep Fleece for sale in our Shop and at Wool Shows. See Description below. Then visit, call or email to make a purchase.
Natural White and Natural Black Wensleydale Fleece and Locks for hand spinners, felters and all craft lovers. Sourced from local farms.
Sheep are sheared during early Summer each year. Our rare breed Wensleydale fleece is then available and in high demand.
Bags of washed undyed black and white pure Wensleydale Longwool fleece are available.
Also, Wensleydale fleece hand dyed in tempting rainbow shades.
Hand dyed fleeces are priced per gram.
Washed undyed fleeces are priced per kilo.
We also have unwashed greasy fleece for sale, available by any amount on request.
For more information or to make a purchase, please call +44 (0)1969 623558, email sales@wensleydalelongwool.co.uk or visit us at Wool Shows or our Shop in Leyburn, North Yorkshire.


text:
Top Chef Top 10: Floyd Cardoz
As he prepares for the end-of-year opening of NYC's North End Grill, Top Chef Masters contestant Floyd Cardoz muses on some of his favorite things, like TV's The Big Bang Theory and Sudoku.
© Vedderman123 / Shutterstock
1. Museums
"My 13-year-old son, Justin, and I are really into the dinosaurs at the American Museum of Natural History. It's a big thing for us."
2. The Big Bang Theory
"I can't miss that TV show. It's so funny, and it reminds me of my biochemistry background. Guys in my class were a little like that."
3. Single-Malt Scotch
"Oban is my favorite, but I have about 15 different kinds at home. If I see one I haven't tried before, I think, 'I have to taste that.'" © Antonis Achilleos
4. Striped Bass with Indian-Spiced Tomatoes
"Since I always grow heirloom tomatoes, I like to devise new ways to use them; this is one way. I'll serve a version of this dish at North End Grill." Courtesy of HarperCollins Publishers LLC
5. Book
"I'm reading Righteous Porkchop, by Nicolette Hahn Niman, the wife of Niman Ranch's owner. It's disheartening to see how ugly the food business is. But eye-opening to see what's going on." Courtesy of Tommy Hilfiger
6. Jeans
"I already liked Tommy Hilfiger shirts. Then one day I tried on a pair of Tommy jeans. They fit me so well, I always have a pair now." © SSPL via Getty Images
7. National Geographic TV
"It has shows about Darwin and the finches, dominant and recessive genes. On Sunday mornings, the first thing I do is turn on National Geographic." © Alan Buckingham / Getty
8. North End Grill
"I want to have a roof garden. I love vegetable gardening. I'll plant different things, like red and green mustard greens."
9. Games
"I play Sudoku at least once a day. I buy the books—I don't play it on the computer. I skip the first part of the books because it's always too easy for me." © Bebby Wong / Shutterstock
10. Baseball
"The New York Mets are my team. I have a taco stand at Citi Field stadium, where they play, so that's another good reason to go."
More Great Baseball Stadium Food Healthy Fish Dishes Gardening Resources


The Rieker Birthe Z4652 Boots are so practical and stylish, you will want to wear them everywhere this season! The quality leather upper is protected with RiekerTex which makes these boots showerproof and windproof whilst remaining breathable, so you can wear them in all sorts of weathers and your feet will be warm and dry! The ruched front adds fantastic detail and the side zip allows for an easy on and off. These are the perfect option when the weather looks unpredictable.
Inside, the cosy lambswool lining helps to keep you warm and cosy on cold days so you won't need to be layering thick socks inside! Rieker's cushioned Anti Stress insole ensures that you are comfortable for hours on end with easy movement thanks to the shock absorption. The textured rubber sole enhances grip, perfect on damp days. Available in various sizes.


It was spring in the early 1950s when this aerial photo of new homes on West Kibler Street was taken. Riley Creek overflowed its banks, washing was on the line to dry and no vehicles were on the street. The Motter farm extended just to the edge of the curve in street. Several homes now located here were yet to be constructed. An alley acutally exists and appears to be used.


In October 2017, Zurich announced its intention to transfer its Workplace Savings business to Scottish Widows.
We are pleased to confirm that the first stage of this transfer is on track to complete on 3rd April 2018 and that from that date the provider, scheme administrator and ISA Manager for our Retirement Saver, Investment Account and Stocks & Shares ISA plans will be changing to Scottish Widows Administration Services Limited. Confirmation of the transfer will be provided to members of these plans in early April.
Please find below the links to the new terms and conditions for the Zurich Retirement Saver, Zurich Stocks & Shares ISA and Zurich General Investment Account. These new terms and conditions are effective from 1st March 2018.


This is a sponsored post, but all photos and opinions are my own.
I mean, I go through all the trouble to arrange holiday photos every year and then get them printed on some flimsy photo paper. It's not cute at all! So I heard about Basic Invite and tried it out. Because they let you get SAMPLES!!!
How cute are these cards???
I just tested out a few photos I loved to see how they might look on a holiday cards. I tried Christmas and Valentine's Day cards. Right now, they are having a Christmas in July sale! So, I know it's August. But, as usually, I'm late LOL! Use the code HOLI30 for 30% off your order! They don't have to be Christmas cards - the code is valid site-wide! So if you have a birthday or shower coming up, get to ordering!!!
What I thought was really cool about Basic Invite is that even though you are working from templates, you can still customize! Like I design, but aren't crazy about the color scheme? CHANGE IT! There are over 180 different color options so you can make sure the card is exactly how you want.
Like I said, Basic Invite allows you to order a sample of their actual invitation, printed on quality paper, so you can see how it will look before you place a final order. I found this helpful, because as you can see on this card, there is a spacing issue. I didn't notice it when I designed it online. But, if this was the card I wanted to send to all my friends, I have a chance to go back and correct this issue before paying for 100 cards and having to send them out with this imperfection.
I got my samples in about a week, which is cool. I think they came out so nicely!!!
And they offer over 40 different Colors of envelopes! I didn't take advantage of this, but it's fun to know it's an option! I also love that all of the envelopes are peel and seal so I don't have to lick anything LOL!
And, this I think is awesome - you can share a link to Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, or any other form of social media to request friends and family's addresses. They will be stored in your account and added to the envelopes when you order! For Christmas cards there is no extra charge for this service, which is amazing!
One issue I had with the site was that it took a while for my photos to load in order to design the cards. I'm not sure if that's normal though. I was in a hotel using their free wi-fi when I ordered these samples, so that could have been the issue with the upload. But, once the photos were uploaded, design was a piece of cake.
Overall, I'm really impressed with my samples and plan to use Basic Invite for my holiday cards this year! I really like the variety of cards and all of the customization is awesome! I don't have to worry I can't find a card I like that doesn't clash with our wardrobe choices or just my general taste - I can change anything I don't like!
And don't forget their 30% off sale, using the code HOLI30!


The Democracy Fund's local news "systems map" examines the factors that shape today's public square.
Last month, as the national media continued to attract both attention and scorn for its sensational coverage of the 2016 presidential election circus, the Democracy Fund cast a spotlight on another, less ballyhooed pillar of American journalism: local news.
The centerpiece of the Democracy Fund's new Local News & Participation project is an interactive systems map that visualizes how citizens gain information and participate in democracy. Version 1.0 of the map notes that, among other trends, the ability of news organizations to create inclusive public squares is diminishing, as partisanship and personalized content produce fragmented "echo chambers" instead.
With its systems map, the Democracy Fund joins a host of other organizations, including the Dodge Foundation, the Agora Journalism Center, Journalism that Matters and the Center for Collaborative Journalism, that are trying to point the way toward solutions for local news. Tom Glaisyer, program director for the Democracy Fund, says the goal in this case is to help journalists better understand the modern news ecosystem and how it informs civic life.
One question raised by the map is how journalists can facilitate a public square in a media ecosystem that's becoming increasingly fragmented. The interactive map helps show how various factors, including partisanship, advertising-based business models and social media algorithms, contribute to the "echo chamber" effect that distances citizens from diverse perspectives.
A screenshot from The Democracy Fund's local news systems map.
"The public square used to consist of a small number of large outlets with great reach, but as the world becomes more digital, we're ending up with a larger number of smaller outlets," Glaisyer said. "You get a wider range of voices, but the question is how much we're listening to voices with which we disagree? And how do journalists create that interchange?
Glaisyer acknowledges that the map does more to "pose questions back to us" than to offer solutions for the challenges facing local news organizations. But notably, the project does come at a moment when interest — and investment — in the future of local news appear to be surging. From Josh Stearns' and Molly de Aguiar's newsletter The Local Fix to the community journalism courses popping up at J-schools to the experimental initiatives launched recently by both Gannett and Advance, the media space is becoming crowded with efforts to reinvigorate journalism at the local level. Even Hollywood is paying attention to local news (see: "Spotlight"), reminding viewers what public accountability journalism can accomplish at its very best.
Overall, these developments should offer cause for optimism. Sure, big questions remain about how to fund journalism and how to create the public sphere in a digital environment. But as evidenced by the Democracy Fund's systems map and its Local News & Participation project, these questions are increasingly getting the attention they deserve.


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


23rd September 2018. Fashion and entertainment's finest, took Milan by storm with the second edition of the Green Carpet Fashion Awards, Italia. Despite being a new addition to the fashion calendar, the awards have established themselves as one of the world's foremost sustainability and fashion events.
Chopard designed an iconic statuette for The 2018 Green Carpet Fashion Awards, Italia. Made with ethical gold, the award was presented to The Green Carpet Fashion Award winners at La Scala theatre.


Waiting time 11 - 21 min.
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You'll be able to hire a geotechnical engineering service that provides the core software program that compiles the info and transmits it through a secure area over the Web. Safety codes make sure that solely those allowed can view the data, but they can view it anyplace on the planet, whether it's the lab, their workplace or a smartphone. Security measures preserve track of who has seen the information, so you may be sure the data is stored confidential inside your crew. Generally, development supplies testing firms rent the service out on a monthly basis, paying significantly less than what they'd pay in traditional shipping fees, and it is delivered in actual time.
The official Veinlite web site is filled with info on every of our merchandise and the manner in which they can help you in performing tasks associated to radiology, sclerotherapy and much more. Medical professionals and facility buyers can peruse our homepage for full technical details, specs and ordering info on each one of many merchandise from Veinlite.
In Canada, for example, Toronto company videos, particularly marketing presentations, have been absolutely enhanced by know-how. Firms now make use of eye-catching techniques not only to make their presentations wonderful but also to capture the imagination of potential clients. As a rule, it's the customers' imaginations that translate to gross sales of a particular services or products, thanks to technology and the wonders of aggressive marketing and promoting.
These are just some of the quite a few courses obtainable. When evaluating such options, businesses do properly to consider the size and needs of their particular company, the staff obtainable, the cost of the coaching, and its potential profit. They will thereby take full benefit of the thrilling advances in info know-how, harnessing these powerful tools whereas maximizing both efficency and profitibility.


In 2018, 46 people in Butler County died of an overdose, according to the county coroner's office. That figure is exactly half of 2017's 92 deaths.
Fewer Butler County residents died from overdoses in 2018 than in 2017, but local leaders still see a long battle ahead.
In 2018, 46 people in Butler County died of an overdose, according to the county coroner's office. That figure is exactly half of 2017's 92 deaths, and still fewer than 2016's 74 deaths.
Talk to any of the people in Butler County working to curb addiction about that statistic and they'll tell you all the work that is yet to be done.
She said she's heard from some people in law enforcement that many addicts have simply moved on to other substances to avoid heroin laced with fentanyl. She also thinks the decrease mirrors decreases in other areas throughout the nation.


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Powerball jackpot now at $625 million, 4th largest in lottery's history
Drawings will be held every Wednesday and Saturday night at 11 ET until someone wins the jackpot. (Source: MGN Online)
By Gray News Staff |
Posted: Wed 11:07 PM, Mar 20, 2019 |
Updated: Thu 12:54 AM, Mar 21, 2019
(Gray News) – With still no winner in all of 2019, the Powerball jackpot keeps on growing, surpassing the $600 million mark for only the fourth time ever.
At $625 million, the Powerball grand prize is the fourth largest in the lottery's history, according to a press release. It is also the seventh largest jackpot in U.S. lottery history.
"A lot like the flowers in the southwest, this $625 million Powerball jackpot is a spectacular super bloom," said David Barden, Powerball Product Group Chairman and New Mexico Lottery CEO. "It does not happen often – and when it does, everyone wants to be a part of it."
Wednesday night's drawing, in which the winning numbers were 10, 53, 50, 63, 14 and a Powerball of 21, was the 24th drawing in a row without a jackpot winner.
A jackpot winner needs to match numbers on all five white balls and the Powerball. The white balls are numbered 1 through 69 and the Powerball is numbered 1 through 26.
There are other ways to win.
You can get a hundred bucks by matching either four white balls or three white balls and the Powerball, and if you match four white balls plus the Powerball you'd get $50,000.
On Wednesday, four tickets sold in the states of Florida, Kentucky, New Jersey and South Carolina matched all five white balls but not the Powerball to win $1 million. Two other tickets, both from South Carolina, matched all five white balls and utilized the Power Play option, doubling the winnings to $2 million.
Statistically, you only have a one in 292.2 million chance of winning the big prize. But if you were to beat the long odds and hit the jackpot, you'd have an important decision to make: cash or annuity.
Taking the cash up front in the next drawing would get you about $380 million (before taxes), while an annuity would get you the full amount (also, before taxes) in installments across 30 years.
Drawings will be held every Wednesday and Saturday night at 11 ET until someone wins the jackpot. If nobody wins, the jackpot will continue to climb.
When a jackpot winner is determined, the prize will reset at $40 million.
House condemns Trump tweets; Dem files articles of impeachment
Search is on for Ohio girl's missing military 'daddy doll'


Sandals for guys are either hit or a major miss, but I couldn't pass up these guys from Zara. They stole my heart as soon as I saw them.
Some guys just shouldn't show their toes in sandals, and I may be one of those guys. I've had a serious phobia of showing my feet since I was younger. Growing up in the country, I spent one too many days outside working and I think my feet tell that tale. That's why I couldn't pass up these closed toe sandals. It's all the look and feel of my favorite style of sandals without having to showcase my toes for the world to see. I was honestly worried about what shoes I was going to wear for outfit posts this summer, and of course Zara saved the day, like always. Seriously though, have you checked out their Spring collection? If not – do yourself a favor and do so. I'm off to brunch with designer duo Badgley & Mischka, Happy Derby!