This week, we'll be highlighting some of the artists playing KC PsychFest from Thursday through Saturday nights at recordBar.
Taryn Miller's intelligent songwriting and entrancing music is making its way around, and for good reason. Miller's project Your Friend was signed to Domino Records earlier this year. With her debut album, Jekyll/Hyde, Miller constructs a simultaneously comforting and haunting atmosphere, fashioned around somber but colorful vocals.
Miller: The music itself has distinct differences when presented live or by the actual recordings, but I'd say it's spacious and constantly evolving.
The Deli: Give us some background on Your Friend. Do you have a regular cast of musicians that play with you? How long have you been operating under this moniker?
Miller: I've been playing under the moniker for over 2 years now. When it began, the roster was always changing, and that was exciting. But I felt that in order to dig deeper over time, I wanted some sort of solidified group to explore with. I really enjoyed the risk in one-off shows but I wanted the trusting element to be more present. There's always going to be some sort of risk playing with me anyway! It all happened organically though. We all work well together as friends and as bandmates. Nicholas Stahl, Chris Luxem, and Austin Swick are the gentlemen I have played with the longest. I can't imagine playing with anyone else at this point. It feels like a group more than a solo project than it ever has.
Miller: In all honesty, just purely existing. I am very intuitive and tuned in to all that is happening around me at all times. This is my way of documenting it. It's very cathartic for me to do this. I'm inspired by energy, and the lack of it, all at once.
Miller: Touring and still loving each other afterwards. It only made it more apparent that these are the people I should be surrounding myself with. It wouldn't have gone as smoothly without them.
The Deli: Your debut EP Jekyll/Hyde was released on Domino Records earlier this year. What can listeners expect? Do you have plans to record again soon?
Miller: The most rewarding things about having this amazing company backing the project are that the music gets to be heard by people that wouldn't otherwise know it exists, and the tools to make something that I am truly proud of. It's the kind of support that I had always dreamed of. I'm in the process of finishing the writing process of the full-length. The plan is to record it by the end of the year and for it to be available next year. I'd hope that there will be a sense of growth that can be heard with the newer material. I'm definitely in a radically different headspace.
Miller: It means everything from what I've experienced. I've only had the opportunities that I've had from the support of the community. Being involved in it, there is some sort of magic that peaks out of so many different directions. I've gotten to grow as a musician and watch all of my friends do the same. I've learned so much from the local scene and talent within it.
Miller: Locally, everything coming out of SeedCo and a part of the Whatever Forever collective. I'm really looking forward to Karma Vision's release. I fell in love with No Magic this year and practically begged him (Ben Sauder) to let me play live with him. KC-based, All Blood has been really killer to watch. I grabbed their earlier tape and really love how unique the material is. I'm also a big fan of Lazy, The Conquerors, and Shy Boys. There's also a guy, Nathan Dixey—he plays as The Dan Ryan—who also played bass on my EP and sent me his mixes of his upcoming release. I can't wait for it to reach other ears. He lives in Austin now but he's still local to me.
Non-local, I'm all over the place. To keep my head clear I find myself listening to a lot more droney things. Although I have been really excited about the newest Caribou record.
The Deli: Who are you looking forward to seeing at PsychFest?
Miller: The Conquerors, Gemini Revolution, Monta At Odds, Jorge Arana Trio, White Mystery, and I'm still holding out for some surprise Expo 70 appearance.
Miller: This answer would probably change depending on what I've been most into. So, currently, Lower Dens, Timber Timbre, with Nils Frahm closing the show.
Miller: Referencing the last question, it mostly depends on what I'm listening to the most at the time. I would say William Basinski, Steve Reich, Arthur Russell, and Leyland Kirby. William Basinski has transported to me to an entire different form of listening. I could say the same of all of them honestly. I'm definitely drawn to composers. Listening to their work is almost like a glimpse of what their brain appears like on the inside. Steve Reich's arrangements require your attention and I respect that artform. Leyland Kirby has worked in so many different types of environments. I love his spontaneity and also his control and selection. Arthur had sort of the same trajectory. All of his records touch upon something different. From the absolute joyous to morose. He was always creating, and it inspires me.
The Deli: What other goals does Your Friend have for 2014, and beyond?
Miller: The same thing I tell myself every morning: finish this record. It's been very challenging to make this next thing. Now that I'm aware of what ears it could reach I want it to be very representative of myself. I also want to make something that I can be very creative with in the live setting and keep it exciting. Those are the goals as of now. If I look too far ahead, the page in front of me gets blurry.
Miller: I'll cheat and quote Allen Ginsberg. First thought, best thought. I'm beginning to learn what it means to trust your instincts. I feel as though I spend so much time trying to change what's inherent. Stay true to who you are and surround yourself with the people that irrigate and continually inspire that.
Make sure you check out Miller with Your Friend. The group will be playing KC PsychFest this Saturday, October 11, at 8:00 p.m, at recordBar.
Nick Cave & The Bad Seeds came to The Midland on June 18, but we in Kansas City got ready early. Sonic Spectrum's Robert Moore curates a slew of tributes on divergent and linked bands and musicians. Sunday, June 16, was one that pulled the souls out of some of my favorite musicians in town and left them on the recordBar stage for 1 hour 36 minutes and 16 seconds.
First, Shaun Hamontree, Terrence Moore, and Kristin Thompson Conkright brought beautiful harmonies, acoustic guitar, keyboards, and subtle electric guitar to the crooning side of Nick's catalog. Shaun may have been bummed that "The Mercy Seat" didn't work out the way he had envisioned, but I think I felt a commiserating smile on his face when Nick and the Bad Seeds came into trouble on the same Wednesday night.
Then Alex Alexander, Jeff Harshbarger, Ryan Shank, Steve Tulipana, Rich Wheeler, and Cody Wyoming dug electrically into a high-powered set of rarities and well-knowns. Each song was heartfelt and dynamic. Watching Steve rotate through instruments was a blast. Rich's sax brought soothing salve to the wonderfully dissonant guitars while Cody and Steve's sonically different vocals were right for each song. I think "The Weeping Song" may have been my favorite of their set.
Two things I really enjoy about these tribute series are hearing each group's interpretations of the songs and learning what has played a part in influencing their original music. Most of the time, the groups are made up of members that are not in bands together. That kind of cross-pollination and collaboration affects the course and subtle weave of threads that make up Kansas City music.
If you spot a man in a kilt taking professional photos of your band, it's probably Todd Zimmer, and your band is about to have some incredible shots. Apparently he can also write, because he wrote this article!
Here's a link to recordBar's live feed recording of the tribute show. You can check out the rest of Todd's photos, both from the tribute show and the Bad Seeds show, check out his Flickr page at this link.
The Quivers – "He Had It Coming" from Gots To Have It!
Thanks for all your support this year! We look forward to hearing more excellent music in 2014.
Also, don't forget to visit www.voteformmf.com! We have tonight and tomorrow to vote for Midwest Music Foundation, so cast your vote now!


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← A wild journey, and an unlikely friendship: Kevin, King of Egypt. A guest 12thnight Fringe review by Alan Kellogg
A pint-sized activist in a tiny town: Look At The Town! A Fringe review →
Why do people sing together? Crescendo!, a Fringe review
Posted on August 21, 2019 by Liz Nicholls
Crescendo! Chorus Productions and Plain Jane Theatre at Edmonton Fringe 2019
Crescendo! (Stage 12, Varscona Theatre)
Why do people sing? And why do they sing together?
There is something both touching and exhilarating about a musical that takes these questions and runs with it, the way this new "play with music" does. A collaboration between musical theatre specialists Plain Jane Theatre and Chorus Productions, and set in a women's community choir, it gives us a gallery of characters who have their own motivations for joining a choir — and making Thursday a sacred ritual in which they breathe and sing together.
What's the draw? There are as many stories as there are characters. Playwright Sandy Paddick based her idea on real-life interviews. There's prim Bobby (Colleen Tillotson) and anti-prim Darla (Michelle Diaz), who met in rehab, the former for an eating disorder and the latter for drugs. Natalie (Jenny McKillop) has seven kids, so you don't even ask why she's eager to be at choir practice on Thursday nights, and why she always arrives breathless and late. May (Kirstin Piehl) is socially challenged, and singing together is her best shot at meaningful connection.
And then there's Pat (Dawn Sadoway), the intense conductor, whose musical past includes a shot at becoming an opera star. Flashbacks, including a comical jury scene, loop back to shed light on the fate of that youthful dream.
In Kate Ryan's production, the five actors step forward to present, as cameos, a gallery of other choir members. They explain why they joined the choir in the first place — loneliness and the feeling of being stalled figure prominently — and why they stuck with it.
And then there are songs — some of them originals by composer/ musical director Jennifer McMillan (a fine pianist onstage, live at a grand piano), and others gathered from the eclectic choral repertoire. At those moments, the joining of human voices in sound explains everything.
Crescendo! doesn't seem to have arrived at its final form, in truth. With the principal characters there's an assortment of dramatic close-ups and long shots, so to speak. And the shape of the piece seems a little random and in-progress so far. But we'll be hearing more from the Crescendos!
We are all, in our own way, looking for connection, transcendence, and change. I've never been in a choir. But this clearly leaves yoga in the dust.
This entry was posted in Fringe 2019, Reviews and tagged 12thnight.ca, community choirs, Edmonton Fringe 2019, Edmonton International Fringe Theatre Festival. Bookmark the permalink.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


• What steels do you like to work with and use? Why?
• General Heat Treat info?
• Why do you like putting chisel grinds on your knives?
• Titanium knives with carbidized edge: What are they, why are you making them, and how are they made?
• Do you make custom knives?
Q. What steel do you like to work with and use? Why?
Generally, I like A2 and M4 for working knives that'll see field time. I like A2 for its toughness, ease of field touching-up, and decent wear resistance. CPM-M4 is a "high speed tool steel" and is some good stuff. It takes a fine edge, holds it like a pitbull, while remaining relatively tough. At higher RCs (63-64) it holds an edge for a looooong time. If it were more stainless, it would be my new favorite steel.
In the kitchen, I'm a big fan of AEB-L or Titanium knives with carbide edges. AEB-L is very corrosion resistant, sharpens up easily, and holds a great edge for typical kitchen work. It's actually designed as a razor blade steel. Its super fine grain structure allows it to take ultra sharp high polished edges that are ideal for push cuts. As for the titanium, I think the rust-proof nature combined with the decent working edge provided by the tungsten-carbide edge makes for an excellent every-day, negligible maintenance, kitchen user. Of course, new steels are always popping up, so I'm always experimenting with new stuff. While these are what I favor now, that might change down the line.
Q. General Heat Treat info?
Q. Why do you like putting chisel grinds on your knives?
A. I like chisel grinds on defensive blades because it allows me to get some very acute edge geometry. It also gives the appearance of nice and deep pronounced grind lines. With really thin stuff it is almost impossible to do flat grinds without significantly weakening the blade. Some argue that the chisel grind is easier to grind. Maybe…Maybe not… I don't really care. I prefer it for the above reason.
Q. Titanium knives with carbidized edge: What are they, why are you making them, and how are they made?
A. Most people think of Titanium knives as novelty items that hold very little practical value unless you are a diver (recreational, professional/commercial, EOD, etc). For the most part it is true. Titanium is soft, relative to steel, and it won't hold an edge like a good heat-treated steel blade will. However, to the average civilian user, titanium offers a high strength-to-weight ratio, superior corrosion resistance, and a tough and ductile edge (so chipping shouldn't be an issue).
Now, add some tungsten carbide to the mix and things start to look even more favorable for the titanium blade. Tungsten carbide is extremely hard; it's a 9 in the Moh scale. A measurement of hardness on the Moh scale does not readily convert to the Rockwell C measurement most of us are familiar with, but I think it would be roughly in the mid 80′s. If we apply a tungsten carbide edge to a titanium blade, we end up with a very low maintenance (effectively rustproof) piece of cutlery that can hold an edge just as well if not better than most quality steel edges. When a titanium blade is given a decent edge geometry, the carbide allows the titanium to hold a good edge and cut well.
The carbidized edge is a toothy hair scraping sharp vs a higher polished hair splitting sharp of a steel edge. I've been able to slice slivers of paper easily with a polished carbidized titanium blade. While it could no longer easily and cleanly slice paper after about 25-30 cuts through cardboard, I know it could have kept cutting cardboard for much longer without a problem. I have had a few guys put their carbidized Ti knives through the ringer, and all of them are amazed at how well the edges hold up and how easy they are to maintain. One guy used his knife to cut and lay up a yard full of sod. Needless to say the knife was dull afterwards from all the sand and various other grits in the soil, but it required minimal work to bring the edge back to working order. People have reported their Ti knives functioning well in a variety of tasks, including food prep, dressing game, working with wood, and taking apart abrasive packaging materials (e.g. cardboard).
I, and others, have noticed that the carbidized edge will still cut very well even when it feels dull. In fact, the carbide edge can almost be considered self-sharpening: since the carbides are only applied to one side of the titanium blade edge, more carbide is exposed as the titanium wears away on the other side. This is similar to the self-sharpening phenomenon observed with the teeth of beavers. Actual sharpening of a carbidized titanium edge is very simple. See the sharpening and maintenance questions further along in this FAQ for more detail.
So why carbidized Ti knives? I think these knives should work well in the kitchen, where they would be cutting relatively soft, non-abrasive, material (veggies, fruit, meat) in a wet and corrosive environment. Titanium's superior corrosion resistance, coupled with the easily maintained carbide edge, makes these knives perfect for every day kitchen duty. I also suspect that carbidized Ti knives will catch on with the ultralight hiking/backpacking crowd. A strong, lightweight, and very low maintenance knife sounds ideal for the ultralight backpacker – someone who typically isn't out there doing heavy duty work or doing things that require a fine edge.
Titanium also works great for smaller defensive blades. The lighter weight and low maintenance is a huge plus. The carbidized titanium edge is plenty sharp for defensive purposes.
How do I get the tungsten carbide onto the titanium? I currently use a Carbidizer very similar to the Rocklinizer. This tungsten carbide applicator electronically embeds the carbides into the titanium substrate. You can sort of think of it as a micro-weld.
Q. Do you make custom knives?
A. Yes, I do on occasion make knives to a customers personal specifications.


Key ring: "My key ring is a rubber replica of Van Gogh's ear. I got it in a store in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, last year. I do like Van Gogh, but really the ear just feels comfortable to hang onto."
Purse hanger: "My mother-in-law gave me the most fantastic gift: a portable purse hook from Cambria Cove, so you never have to throw your bag on the ground at a restaurant again. They come in a tiny, little pocket of a thing. Mine has an 'L' on it."
Handkerchief: "I like a real, old-school handkerchief. My favorite one is embroidered. My family is from the South, and I can remember all those ladies I grew up with, like my great-aunts, who had handkerchiefs. There's something sweet about them."
Lodis wallet: "In my wallet, I carry a picture of Stanley DeSantis, a very good friend of mine who's no longer alive, so I get to see him every day, which makes me happy."
Colorscience Powder Sunscreen: "It comes in a neat little tube with a brush on the end of it that dispenses the powder — the sunscreen is water-resistant, and you don't even feel it."
By Terry Baume de Rose: "My everyday lip gloss, which comes in a little pot — it's easy, subtle, and pretty."
Pink egg sponge: "I use it when I need to 'zhuzh' my makeup a little bit. It helps redistribute it and does a little fine-tuning."
Robert le Héros cosmetic bag: "In my cosmetic bag I keep Tweezerman tweezers and Canadian hair clips — I have a lot of hair, and it's hard to get up, so these are the only things that work. Also, a Tide stick that I use a lot, and a small tube of Neosporin, and wintergreen Altoids."
Hot-water bottle: "I get cold — really cold — when I travel. I met Anne Bancroft once on a plane, and she had a hot-water bottle with her, so now I tend to travel with one. Restoration Hardware makes fantastic cashmere covers for them. It sounds so terrible to travel with a hot-water bottle, but it keeps me warm!"
iPad: "I always have my iPad set on Things, which is a super-duper organizing application. I also have the complete edition of Sherlock Holmes on here. I had a weird obsession with him growing up."
Adora: "Delicious chocolate calcium chews, so I remember to eat one every day."
Chewable Pepto-Bismol: "Always good to have in case of an emergency."
Halls: "I love my strawberry-flavored Halls."
Band-Aid Blister Block: "The most important thing in my first-aid kit is this. It's a soft, cushy pad that goes over a blister and completely protects it so it won't burst. If you're getting a blister, it will stop it from happening. So whenever I have new shoes that might be a little iffy, I always carry this with me. Always."
The bag: Tod's. "I'm very hard on my bags because I tend to carry a lot of stuff with me. I got this purse a year ago, and it's my most favorite bag I've ever had — it's big, but it's elegant. I just love it."


Summary: Panhellenic Sanctuary of Apollo and Artemis.
The sanctuary occupies a small (1.3 x 5 km) island at the center (between Rheneia and Mykonos) of the Cycladic group and was the political and religious center of the Aegean.
It was said to be the birthplace of Apollo and Artemis. Its oracle was second only to that of Delphi. Delian Festival and Games held every 4 years. In addition to the Hieron of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, the temples and monuments to other divinities and the sanctuary of foreign gods, there was also a thriving residential district and maritime quarter to the south.
Evidence for settlement on Delos goes back the Early Bronze Age. In the later prehistoric period it was, according to legend, a stronghold of Carian pirates until they were driven off by King Minos of Crete.
The cult of Apollo appeared on the island in the Dark Ages and by the Archaic period (when the island was apparently under the control of Naxos), Delos served as the headquarters and religious center of an Ionian League. A religious festival (the Delia) was held (originally every year) to celebrate the birth of Apollo.
Athens, a member of the Ionian League, gained control over the sanctuary and under Peisistratos (ca. 543 B.C.) instigated the first purification of the island (the removal of all tombs in view of the temple). In 490 B.C. the Delians fled to Tenos, but the Persians did not violate the sanctuary.
Delos was made the center of the Athenian controlled Delian League (the alliance of Greek states against future Persian threat) and from 478-454 maintained the treasury of the league (until it was transferred to Athens and partially misappropriated for the rebuilding of the Acropolis). In 426 Athens reorganized the site and festival on an even larger scale and ordered the second purification of the island (the dead were exhumed and removed and a decree passed against birth, death, and pain on the island). In 422 Athens banished the remaining Delians from the island (on the intervention of the Delphic oracle they were allowed to return). Every year Athens sent a sacred embassy by trireme to the Delia festival. At the end of the Peloponnesian War Sparta restored independence to the Delians, but at the time of the 2nd Athenian League (378-314 B.C.) Athens again controlled the sanctuary and island.
Delos is again independent from ca. 314 until 166 B.C. It becomes the center of an island confederacy and enters the most prosperous period of its history. The Hellenistic kings provided many new buildings and offerings for the sanctuary, which was now under the control of 4 Hieropes (priest-administrators) elected annually by the Delians. The financial and trading activities of the island grew while foreign merchants and bankers, especially Roman, settled and installed sanctuaries to foreign deities on the island. In 166 B.C. the Delians were expelled and Rome allowed Athenians to occupy the island. Delos was made a free port (to undermine the commercial position of Rhodes) and in 146 B.C. the destruction of Corinth and the immigration of Corinthian merchants to Delos added to the island's growth. The religious aspects of the island gave way to commercial interests and the Apollo festival became essentially an international trade fair, with as many as 10,000 slaves changing hands in a single day.
In 88 B.C. Menophanes, a general of Mithradates attacked the island, killed or enslaved the population, looted the sanctuary and destroyed the city. In 87 B.C. Sulla retook the island, returned it to Athenian control and aided in its rebuilding. In 69 B.C. Delos was sacked by pirates, and in 66 B.C. the Romans built a fortification wall around the city. The sanctuary and the commercial center, however, continued to decline (in part because of changes in Roman trade routes) and suffer pirate attacks, and by the 2nd century A.D. it was all but abandoned. In the 3rd century A.D. Athens offered the island for sale, but found no buyers.
Excavations: 1873 - present, French School of Archaeology.


In Issaquah, where Schrier has long had a pediatrics practice, she took nearly 70 percent of the votes counted in Election Day. In Sammamish, she won more than 65 percent. Vote counting continues.
Kim Schrier's victory over Dino Rossi in Washington's 8th Congressional District last week was powered by big margins she ran up in King County suburbs, a map of Election Day results shows.
Schrier, a Democrat and first-time candidate, dominated the cities of Issaquah, Sammamish, Auburn and Kent, according to precinct-level data for votes counted on election night by King County Elections.
In Issaquah, where Schrier has long had a pediatrics practice, she took nearly 70 percent of the early votes. In Sammamish, where both she and Rossi live, she won more than 65 percent.
Rossi, a former Republican state senator, had previously carried the 8th District during three unsuccessful bids for statewide office. But he was swept aside this year by Democratic enthusiasm in the midterm backlash against President Donald Trump. Rossi's longtime Sammamish precinct preferred Schrier by an 8-percentage-point margin in the Nov. 6 vote tally.
The portions of the 8th District outside of King County — including eastern Pierce, all of Chelan and Kittitas, and a sliver of Douglas County — favored Rossi by more than 13,000 votes as of Tuesday. But that was overwhelmed by Schrier's lead of more than 28,000 votes in King County.
Schrier became the first Democrat to win the 8th District since its creation after the 1980 census. She was in Washington, D.C., this week for orientation as part of the Democrats' new U.S. House majority.
Vote counting is continuing and final detailed precinct-level data won't be available until the election is certified at the end of the month.


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Gender, Motivation, and Coping In The Evaluation Of Leadership Effectiveness.
LESLIE PRATCH
JORDAN JACOBOWITZ
ABSTRACT. The effects of gender, coping, and motivational orientation in evaluating individual leadership were investigated. The setting was an intensive leadership development program at a leading business school. A Sentence Completion Technique, Jackson's Personality Research Form, and Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices were used to predict peer ratings of leadership at the end of the nine-month program. The data reveal significant gender differences on the measures of motivation, with men showing higher levels of agentic-instrumental tendencies and women exhibiting higher levels of communal-social qualities (p<.05). These qualities, in turn, were differentially correlated with evaluations of leadership. Women exhibiting strong agentic characteristics were negatively perceived as leaders (p <.05). There was no relationship between agentic or communal qualities and evaluations of leadership received by male leaders. Finally, individuals with active coping tendencies were evaluated as more effective leaders for males and females. The findings are discussed in terms of gender role congruency theory.
Recent researchers have emphasized the effects of personal and situational factors onthe emergence of an individual as a small-group leader (e.g., Lord, DeVader, & Alliger, 1986). Included among these personal factors have been personality traits and gender, particularly characteristics that contribute to an individual's emergent leadership effectiveness across different settings through time (e.g., Ellis, 1988; Howard & Bray, 1990; Lombardo & McCall, 1988; Zaccaro, Foti, & Kenny, 1991). Emergent leaders are individuals who assume leadership roles in leaderless groups (e.g., informal meetings, work teams) or in groups in which leaders are incompetent or have been deposed. As individuals become identified as leaders in one situation or group, they frequently are labeled leaders in other situations and groups, improving their likelihood of being appointed or promoted into more senior managerial positions.
Emergent leadership is usually a matter of ability, initiative, resourcefulness, and persistence. Nevertheless, research has suggested that recognition (e.g., acceptance, hiring, salaries, and promotion) may be less certain for women than for men (Baron & Bielby, 1985; Nieva & Gutek, 1981). Most research on gender effects on leadership emergence has been conducted in business organizations (i.e., field studies). Researchers also have examined gender effects in assessment studies (i.e., research assessing the styles of individuals who were not selected initially to occupy leadership positions) and laboratory studies (usually conducted with college students). A meta-analysis of these studies conducted by Eagly and Johnson (1990) showed that stereotypical gender differences were less pronounced in organizational studies than in assessment or laboratory studies. Their findings support the argument that the criteria organizations use for selecting managers and the forces they maintain for socializing managers into their roles minimize tendencies for men and women to manifest gender-stereotypical behaviors in leading or managing other people.
Even in organizational settings, however, gender-based expectations for behavior may influence the styles and evaluations of male and female leaders. Individuals develop expectations for their own and others' behavior based on their beliefs about the behavior that is appropriate for men and women (Eagly, 1987; Gutek & Morasch, 1982; Schein, 1975). In an organizational setting, individuals also develop expectations about behavior that is appropriate for a manager or leader (Phillips & Lord, 1982). It therefore is likely that leaders are perceived simultaneously in terms of their gender and their organizational role. Indeed, research supports the idea that expectations for managerial behavior depend partly on managers' gender (e.g., Eagly, Makhijani, & Kionsky, 1992; Heilman, Block, Martell, & Simon, 1989; Russell, Rush, & Herd, 1988), and several reviewers have reported a differential pattern of evaluation of male and female leadership (e.g., Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Dobbins & Platz, 1986; Eagly et al., 1992; Powell, 1990; Watson, 1988). For example, women in leadership roles tended to be evaluated negatively relative to men when stereotypically masculine features characterized their leadership style, particularly when their style was autocratic or directive. Moreover, women's leadership was evaluated less favorably than men's when the leaders occupied traditionally male-dominated roles and when the raters were men.
Relationships among Gender, Motivation, and the Evaluation of Leadership
Gender differences in motivational orientation have been deemed to be important mediating factors in fashioning differential leadership styles. Some researchers have examined the relationship between the evaluation of leadership effectiveness and gender-mediated differences in leadership style. Masculine and feminine styles can be understood in terms of the content of stereotypes of masculinity and femininity. Factor-analytic studies of people's stereotypes about men and women (e.g., Broverman, Vogel, Broverman, Clarkson, & Rosenkrantz, 1972; Eagly & Steffen, 1984) have shown that popular beliefs about male and female behavior can be summarized, following Bakan (1966), in terms of differences on two dimensions: the agentic and the communal. Women are expected to display high levels of communal (social) qualities, including needs for affiliation, lack of self-centeredness, concern with others, spontaneity, playfulness, and emotional expressiveness. These qualities reflect a more social orientation, openness to experiencing stimuli, especially feelings, and a direct connection to other people. Men are expected to have high levels of agentic (instrumental) attributes, including being independent, masterful, assertive, and instrumentally competent. These qualities reflect a tendency to promote the self, especially self-confidence.
When applied to leadership, gender role stereotypes suggest that female-stereotypical forms of leadership are interpersonally oriented and collaborative, whereas male-stereotypical forms of leadership are task oriented -and dominating (see Cann & Siegfried, 1990). These findings are consistent with the reasoning that the gender role congruency of female leaders' behavior influences the degree to which they experience role conflict and violate other people's expectations about their behavior (e.g., Betz & Fitzgerald, 1987; Jago & Vroom, 1982; Nieva & Gutek, 1981; Powell, 1990; Terborg, 1977; Watson, 1988). To the extent that women exhibit a masculine style, they amplify their role conflict and increase the chances of receiving unfairly negative evaluations. Eagly and Johnson's (1990) meta-analysis showed that the tendency to devalue female leaders was larger when women behaved autocratically than when they behaved in accord with any other style.
Gender role congruency has different ramifications for the evaluation of male leaders' behaviors because male leaders do not face a basic role conflict analogous to the conflict that female leaders face in their dual status as women and leaders. Expectations about behavior that is appropriate for a leader coincide largely with beliefs about the behavior that is appropriate for men, as numerous social scientists have maintained (e.g., Bass, 1990; Eagly et al., 1992; Kruse & Wintermantel, 1986; O'Leary, 1974). Whereas the details of female leaders' behaviors may be scrutinized because of their role conflict, male leaders are not ordinarily constrained by the attitudinal bias of their coworkers. Hence, men are freer to carry out leadership in a variety of masculine or feminine styles without encountering negative reactions because their leadership is ordinarily perceived as legitimate. Assuming a generally satisfactory level of competence, a broader range of behaviors whether those behaviors are congruent or diverge from the male gender role, are more likely to be tolerated in male leaders.
In summary, because the male gender role legitimizes leadership in men, male leaders may be freer to diverge from stereotypes of masculinity. Female leaders are relatively constrained in the behaviors that will be perceived as effective because of the conflict they face as women and leaders.
Relationship between Coping and Emergent and Effective Leadership
A growing body of research has addressed the personal characteristics that contribute to the emergence and effectiveness of an individual as a leader across a wide variety of situations. Impetus for this trend was provided by meta-analyses of the early trait data (e.g., Kenny & Zaccaro, 1983; Lord et al., 1986; McCann, 1992). The findings of those studies indicate that, contrary to previous conclusions, certain individual characteristics, related to affective regulation, stress tolerance, and self-direction were positively associated with leadership effects in many different situations.
Recent researchers have reported positive correlations between effective leadership and a variety of individual characteristics, including internal locus of control orientation (Anderson, Hellriegel, & Slocum, 1977; Boyatzis, 1982; Goodstadt & Hjelle, 1973; Miller & Toulouse, 1986); problem-focused coping (L. E. Atwater & Yammarino, 1993; L. S. Atwater, 1992); stress tolerance (Fiedler & Garcia, 1987; Howard & Bray, 1990; McCall & Lombardo, 1983); self-confidence (Howard & Bray, 1988; Klemp &McClelland, 1987; Lombardo & McCall, 1988); and social perceptiveness and response flexibility (Ellis, 1988; Zaccaro, Foti, et al., 1991; Zaccaro, Gilbert, Thor, & Mumford, 1991).
Consistent with the recent interest in personality and leadership, we have proposed a psychological model of leadership that emphasizes the construct of active coping (Pratch, 1995; Pratch & Jacobowitz, 1997; Shanan, 1990). Conceptually, active coping is characteristic of a psychologically healthy personality structure. Such a structure can tolerate the tension inherent in openly perceiving internal and external events that are challenging or conflict arousing. Moreover, this structure maintains the ability to formulate and carry out strategies to resolve or transcend the challenges or conflicts it encounters. These strategies, which operate consciously and unconsciously, are designed to optimize the adaptive balance between internal psychological needs, aspirations, and morals, on the one hand, and environmental demands, regulations, and constraints, on the other. There is evidence that active coping contributes to the evaluation of small task-group leadership (Pratch, 1995; Pratch & Jacobowitz, 1998).
The model also proposes that active coping is a necessary but not sufficient determinant of effective leadership. Other characteristics, such as motivational orientation, also are required. One test of this model analyzes the differential contributions of active coping and motivation in the evaluation of male and female leaders.
Accordingly, we examined the relationships among gender, motivation, and active coping in MBA students participating in a leadership development program. This program lacked formal role guidelines, maximizing the freedom of personality factors to shape leader behaviors. In addition, the students were selected on the basis of their perceived leadership characteristics. Given those structural forces for minimizing stereotypical personality differences, we expected men and women in the program to differ little in their motives and to perform equally well as leaders. Rather, the individual's coping tendencies should be the key factor in the emergence and evaluation of his or her leadership effectiveness.
Setting and Population
Data for this study were drawn from a larger study on personality factors influencing small task-group leadership in MBA students at the Graduate School of Business at the University of Chicago. The setting for the study was an intensive nine-month Leadership Education and Development program (LEAD), which was designed to make students take responsibility for their own education by defining, planning, and implementing a real-life task in an unstructured task group. Although supervised and graded by faculty, the program was conducted similarly to a leaderless group. The situation was deliberately fluid and undefined, leveling structural factors that might legitimate the authority of a particular individual or class of individuals. Each year, a group of approximately 50 first-yearMBA students developed, planned, and carried out a leadership course required of all incoming students. Because they conducted this course, the participants were known as facilitators. Participation gave facilitators two course credits for which they did not pay.
In 1993, 118 first-year MBA students applied to be facilitators. A committee composed of faculty and the current year's facilitators selected forty-eight students. The selection process involved the evaluation of applicants' essays and interviews. In particular, the selection committee considered the applicant's abilities to function as a part of a team, to lead other students, to inspire trust and motivate others, to be a good "counselor," to manage time, and to handle other commitments for the spring and fall.
The entire group of 48 students met during the spring of 1993 three times a week for three hours each session to develop and plan the fall course. They also met in smaller committees outside the large group throughout the spring and summer. During the fall, they delivered the class they had designed to the incoming students.
Regulations regarding the performance of standard duties and routine activities in LEAD were initially minimal. There were virtually no predefined roles or procedures. The students had to find on their own means of gathering and distributing information to one another, as well as procedures for decision making, planning, and problem solving. Each week a different subgroup of students had the formal responsibility to move the overall group toward its goal. However, the aim of the group was itself vague; students were asked only to design and implement an innovative class on leadership.
Because of the ambiguity and fluidity of role relationships and responsibilities in the program, an opportunity was created for leaders to emerge across a variety of different task-group situations. That is, students who were perceived to be the most effective leaders also were those who emerged as leaders in terms of informal advancement in the group. Because the emergence or success of a person as a leader frequently hinges on peer perceptions of his or her leadership effectiveness, the program provided an ideal setting for the empirical study of the effects of gender, motivation, and coping on the perception of small task-group leadership effectiveness.
The criterion for taking part in this study was that the individual had to have been a 1993 facilitator. The participants included 17 women (mean age = 26.7 years, SD = 3.2 years) and 31 men (mean age = 26.4 years, SD = 1.8 years). Their overall mean age was 26.7 years (SD = 2.4 years, range = 23-37 years). Eighty-eight percent of the students were White, 4% were Indian, 4% were Greek, and 1%, African American. Eighty-nine percent were United States' citizens; the remaining participants were citizens of Canada, Greece, or India. Seven percent were married; one woman was married.
Instruments, Measures, and Items
Predictor Variables
Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM; Raven, Court, & Raven, 1988) was used to control for the potentially confounding effects of intelligence. The APM was constructed to provide a reliable measure of intellectual efficiency that could be used with individuals of more than average intellectual capacity and that could differentiate between individuals of even superior ability. Specifically, the APM was designed to assess eductive ability. The process of eduction involves making meaning out of a confused area of discourse, going beyond what is given to perceive that which is not immediately obvious, spawning new insights, and developing (chiefly nonverbal) constructs that facilitate the handling of complex problems involving several mutually dependent variables. These are capabilities required in managerial decision making and leadership (see Raven et al., 1988). Studies have shown that the APM is one of the best single measures of general intelligence (reviewed by Raven et al., 1988). Additional measurement information, including information on the development of the APM and a review of the empirical evaluation literature, is reported in the manual.
The Personality Research Form E (PRF-E; Jackson, 1989) is a 352-item self-report instrument designed to provide a set of scores for personality traits broadly relevant to the normal functioning of individuals in a wide variety of situations. The PRF-E contains twenty 16-item scales based on motivational constructs developed by Murray (1938), such as achievement, aggression, and play. The median reliability (K-R 20) for the 20 scales is above .91. The manual provides documentation for the convergent and discriminant validity for the 20 scales and reports extensive evidence for the internal consistency and stability of the instrument over time.
PRF-E operations. Twelve scales were selected to assess motivational orientations related to leadership style. The choice of scales was based on their theoretical relationship to gender-stereotyped personality characteristics. The Achievement, Aggression, Autonomy, Dominance, and Endurance scales were chosen for their ability to create a measure of agentic orientation (alpha = .68). The Affiliation, Change, Impulsivity, Nurturance, Play, Sentience, and Succorance scales were considered for their ability to form a measure of communal orientation (alpha = .70). The use of these factors as higher order constructs related to male-female differences in motivational orientation was based on the assumption that students' self-descriptions would correspond to their actual behavior and therefore that their PRF-E profileswould be reflected in their leadership styles. This assumption is supported by the high convergent validities of the scales (alphas as high as .74).
A Sentence Completion Technique (SSCT; Shanan, 1965) was designed to assess active coping as a structural characteristic of personality functioning. It focuses on mental health rather than psychopathology, examining the individual's capacity to adapt and grow. Specifically, it assesses the respondent's capacity to deal with stress. The test itself is a stressful situation: The respondent must make a decision about what to say and commit the self to that response. Although one knows (in completing this test) that one is revealing something about oneself, the particular meaning of that statement is not clear to the respondent. Therefore, the instrument measures coping behaviors that are only semiconsciously controlled.The SSCT consists of 40 sentence stems, 10 stems making up one of four categories. Items in the first two categories elicit responses indicative of the extent to which the respondent is open to experience and capable of clearly articulating aims (Category 1) and sources of frustration and difficulties (Category 2) in terms of people, things, and events in the external environment. Items in the last two categories examine the respondent's tendency to overcome obstacles and continue to strive to achieve aims in a constructive and effective fashion (Category 3) while maintaining positive self-esteem and a gratifying sense of accomplishment (Category 4).
Responses are scored positively or negatively depending on whether the respondent indicates an active or passive orientation to the environment and self. In addition, responses are scored for the investment of psychic energy into one of three motivational categories: self; other people; and impersonal objects, activities, or both. "Self" responses are always scored negatively. "Object" responses are generally scored positively unless they refer to the gratification of primary biological or narcissistic needs (e.g., references to food or money). Person responses also are generally scored positively unless they indicate excessive dependency needs. Theoretically, the differentiation between self (S), objects (0), and persons (P) reflects major aspects of the respondent's motivational hierarchy. One is expected to view persons and impersonal objects as primary valences in the personal field and to organize constructive activity in reference to them. Although some investment in the self is expected among "normal" individuals, exaggerated investment in the self can be expected to leave little energy for coping constructively. Another category of scores involves the number of "rejections" of items. Rejections are scored when responses are not articulated (i.e., when they are absent or vague). There are three types of rejections. Rejection 1 is scored when the respondent does not answer a sentence stem; there is a breakdown of coping with this item. Rejection 2 is scored when the respondent avoids revealing anything about the self; this is essentially a rejection of the question itself. Finally, Rejection 3 is scored when the respondent reveals something about himself or herself but the statement is vague or ambiguous; one does not know exactly what he or she meant. The Final Score reflects adjustments for defensive behaviors and for signs of pathology. High scores are indicative of the respondent's global ability to respond adoptively to stress and to grow; low scores signify excessive reactivity to or dependence on internal impulses or drives and the environment.
The SSCT has been in use for 30 years for a variety of research and applied tasks, such as the selection of medical school students (Jacobowitz, 1976) and research on adult development (Jacobowitz, 1984; Shanan, 1985). Interjudge reliabilities range from .8 to .9, and test-retest reliabilities (over a year) range from .6 to .8. Predictive and construct validity have been demonstrated in a wide variety of settings (reviewed by Shanan, 1990). Previously, we used the SSCT to assess active coping (Pratch, 1995; Pratch & Jacobowitz, in press-b).
SSCT operations. Answers elicited by items in the first two item categories reflect the extent to which the respondent manifests the tendency to identify, openly and clearly, aims and sources of conflict in the perceptual field. The last two categories assess the respondent's readiness to surmount difficulties and to achieve personal aims autonomously, constructively, and successfully. Responses in Categories 1 and 2 are scored as positive or negative according to whether they are focused internally or externally and in terms of whether they are articulated clearly. Category 3 is scored as positive for adaptive, outwardly focused, and autonomous coping responses. Category 4 statements that reveal positive feelings about the self or self-esteem are scored positively. Items in Categories 1 and 2 also are scored P+ (or P-), O+ (or O-), or S- to reflect the respondent's motivational priorities.
The first author scored the SSCTs without knowing any respondent information. Interrater reliability for the categories on 20 tests selected randomly from the entire sample and scored by the second author, who also did not know any respondent information, without discussing scores with the first author was .9.
Criterion Variables
The facilitators were asked to evaluate every other facilitator's leadership behavior during LEAD. The evaluations were made at the end of the program but before grades were distributed. Because there were 48 facilitators, the ratings yielded 47 sets of scores for each participant. Two scales were combined to provide an aggregate measure of leadership effectiveness: Leadership Competence and Overall Leadership Effectiveness. The Leadership Competence scale had the following ratings: 1 = incompetent (has failed on many occasions to perform satisfactorily), 2 = doubtful, 3 = adequate but not outstanding, 4 = very competent and 5 = extremely competent (could always be counted on to do a superior job). The Overall Leadership Effectiveness scale had ratings ranging from 1 (very poor) to 7 (outstandingly effective). The facilitators were asked to consider everything a facilitator was expected to do (e.g., working with other facilitators to develop and implement LEAD, getting along with corporate sponsors, getting along with faculty and peers, etc.) and to assess every other facilitator on his or her overall effectiveness as a leader. To ensure reliability, the 48 facilitators met as a group with one of us before assigning ratings. The scales were discussed and specific operational definitions of scale items were generated and agreed on.
The mean Leadership Competence scale score was 3.14 (SD = 0.48). The mean Overall Leadership Effectiveness scale score was 3.97 (SD = 0.61). Although scaled differently, a 5-point stale is basically a ratio of a 7-point scale. In addition, in this sample, the standard deviation of the 5-point scale also was a multiple of the 7-point scale. Thus, the scales were proportional, indicating that the two scales could be added together without losing information.
Moreover, the correlation between the scales was .94. We therefore added the facilitators' scores on the two scales together to produce a broad, final measure of leadership effectiveness. This measure had a potential range of 2-12 and an actual range of 4.38-9.63 (M = 7.1,SD = 1.08). For each participant, the standard deviation on this measure ranged from 0.2 to 1.12 .
Note that the only criterion of leadership in this study was an individual's leadership effectiveness as judged by other group members. It was not possible to gather an objective performance measure because of the unstructured nature of the setting. The term leadership as used here refers only to an individual's perceived leadership as measured by sociometric selection.
Even task groups made up of individuals who are originally strangers to each other soon take on a social structure. This certainly was the case in LEAD. Initially, most of the students were unacquainted with each other. Thus, status for a given student did not depend on that person's past accomplishments. Moreover, because the task to be accomplished did not require exceptional skills or specialized knowledge, status did not depend primarily on intellectual ability or training. In these conditions, an individual's leadership, as viewed by other group members, must be determined by the person's behavior in that group. In turn, we assumed that individual behavior in that particular group must be a function of the individual's personality, particularly his or her coping style and motivational orientation.
The purpose of the study was explained to the entire group of facilitators in the first spring meeting. It was described as examining the relation between personality and leadership. Students were asked to complete a set of psychological assessment instruments the first two weeks of the program and to evaluate each other on leadership at the beginning of the fall. Participation was voluntary in return for individual feedback on the personality measures after the data were collected. During the first session, students were given 40 minutes to complete the APM following standard group-administration procedures. They returned another day to complete the PRF-E and the SSCT. There was no time limit on the latter measures. The serious nature of the study and the importance of being careful in completing the tests were impressed on the students. Three students did not satisfactorily complete the PRF-E and the SSCT, thus reducing the sample size on those measures.
The measures of leadership were obtained the last week of the program but before grades were distributed. The 48 facilitators evaluated every other facilitator on his or her performance during the program. Raters were told that their ratings would be used to examine the relationship between perceptions of leader behavior and measures of personality. Students were assured confidentiality.
The data were analyzed for the significance of the correlations between the measures of personality and leadership. An analysis of variance was used to compare the male and female facilitators on the measures of coping and motivation.
Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and correlations with leadership effectiveness for intelligence, motivation, and coping by gender. Table 2 shows the means, standard deviations, and correlations with leadership for each of these personality measures for men and women combined. There were no differences greater than .01 in the variances between the male and female groups. Therefore, Table 1 shows the significance level of the F ratios for the male-female comparison on each variable. The power of each of the measures to detect medium effect sizes with an alpha of .05 was less than .30 because of the small sample size. An alpha level of .05 was used for all statistical tests (all one-tailed).
Evaluation of Male and Female Leadership Effectiveness
To ascertain whether male and female leaders were evaluated differently, we compared men's and women's average ratings on leadership. As reported in Table 1, female leaders (M = 7.20, SD = 1.32) were perceived as being slightly more effective on average than their male counterparts (M = 7.05,SD = 0.95), but the difference was not statistically significant. The same effect occurred when the ratings of leadership as perceived separately by the gender of the perceivers were examined. Thus, female leaders were evaluated only marginally more favorably than male leaders, and men did not tend to perceive female leaders less favorably than women perceived female leaders.
Intelligence, Gender, and Leadership
A similar pattern was found on the APM, with women (M = 27.41, SD = 3.86) obtaining slightly but not significantly higher scores than men (M = 26.6, SD = 4.68). The means and standard deviations of the men's and women's scores, reported in Table 1, suggest that if the scores were divided into low, medium, and high ranges, a greater proportion of men would fall in the low range and a greater proportion of women would fall in the high range. However, a 3 x 3 chi-square analysis did not reveal significant differences in the distribution. There was no relationship between the APM and leadership.
Gender, Motivational Orientation, and the Evaluation of Leadership
An examination of Table 1 shows significant gender differences in the facilitators' motives and values. Men scored significantly higher on the agentic variable than did women, t(43) = -3.54, p = .001, whereas women scored significantly higher on the communal variable than did men, t(43) = 2.94, p = .005. Thus, men tended to describe themselves as having more agentic qualities (i.e., stereotypically masculine attributes) than women, whereas women tended to describe themselves as having more communal tendencies (i.e., stereotypically feminine attributes) than men.
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations With Leadership Effectiveness (LE) In Measures of Intelligence, Motivation, and Active Coping by Gender
Measures and Variables M SD N rX.LE M SD N rX.LE pa
Leadership effectiveness 7.2 1.32 17 1 7.05 0.95 31 1 ns
Raven APM 27.41 3.86 17 0.17 26.60 4.68 31 -0.19 ns
PRF-E
Agentic orientation 9.32 1.71 17 -0.49* 11.04 1.51 28 0.17 ***
Communal orientation 10.36 1.72 17 0.32 8.93 1.61 28 0.14 ***
SSCT
Investment in people 5.53 2.37 17 0.25 5.46 2.33 28 0.09 ns
Investment in things 4.59 2.27 17 0.45† 5.00 2.47 28 -0.01 ns
1 5.47 1.62 17 0.17 5.29 1.51 28 0.05 ns
2 4.76 1.64 17 0.72** 5.25 1.94 28 0.23 ns
3 6.24 2.54 17 0.24 6.36 1.99 28 -0.17 ns
4 5.41 3.41 17 0.53** 6.46 2.06 28 -0.12 ns
1 0.12 0.33 17 -0.06 0.39 1.2 28 -0.22 ns
2 0.71 0.85 17 -0.04 1.12 1.17 28 -0.31 ns
3 2.41 2.27 17 -0.61** 3.04 1.89 28 -0.23 ns
Final score 3.59 1.33 17 0.55* 3.32 1.31 28 0.38* ns
Note: LE = Leadership Effectiveness; APM = Advanced Progressive Matrices; PRF-E = Personality Research Form E; SSCT = Shanan Sentence Completion Technique
a F statistics are for mean difference between men and women, not between the correlations from the two subsamples
† p< .10.
* p< .05.
** p< .01.
*** p< .001.
To examine the relationships among communal and agentic orientations, the evaluation of leadership, and gender, we conducted three analyses. First, we studied the correlations between the measure of leadership and motivation for the entire sample and separately by gender. As shown in Table 2, there were no significant correlations between leadership and motivation for the entire sample. When examined by gender, however, a differential pattern of correlations emerged. Table 1 shows a negative and significant correlation between leadership and the agentic variable for women (r = -.49, p< .05). The correlation between leadership and the communal variable was not significant for women. Neither the agentic nor the communal variable was correlated with leadership for men.
Descriptive Statistics and Correlations With Leadership Effectiveness (LE) on Measures of Intelligence, Motivation, and Active Coping for All LEAD Participants
Variable M SD N R
Leadership Effectiveness 7.11 1.08 48 1
Raven APM 26.89 4.38 48 0.04
Agentic orientation 10.39 1.78 45 0.16
Communal orientation 9.51 1.79 45 0.22
Investment in people 5.28 7.99 45 0.19
Investment in objects 5.78 1.83 45 0.21
1 5.36 1.54 45 0.11
3 2.80 2.03 45 -0.42
Final Score 3.42 1.31 45 0.48**
**p< .01
Coping, Gender, and the Evaluation of Leadership Effectiveness
Inspection of Tables 1 and 2 reveals that the key variables for explaining the evaluation of leadership are the dimensions of coping measured with the SSCT. The Final Score, which reflects adjustments for defensive behaviors and signs of psychopathology, was significantly correlated with leadership for the entire sample (r = .48, p< .01) and for men and women separately (women, r = .55, p< .05; men, r = .38,p< .05). A high Final Score indicates the individual's overall ability to respond adoptively to stress and to grow. Thus, the individuals identified as the most effective leaders also were the most active copers.
Table 1 shows a differential pattern of correlations among gender, some coping tendencies, and leadership. Category 2, a measure of the readiness to clearly articulate sources of frustration and difficulties in terms of people, things, and events in the external environment was positively and significantly correlated with leadership effectiveness for women but not men (r = .72, p< .01). Rejection 3, a measure of defensive vagueness and ambiguity, was negatively and significantly correlated with leadership effectiveness for women but not men (r = -.61,p<.01). Category 4, a measure of self-confidence and self-esteem, was significantly correlated with leadership for women but not men (r = .53, p< .05). Finally, O+, for investment in events and things outside the self, was marginally correlated with leadership for women but not men (r = .45, p< .1).
In summary, active coping, as reflected in the Final Score, was correlated with leadership effectiveness for both men and women. There were differences, however, in the specific components of coping and leadership effectiveness for men and women. For men, only the Final Score was related to leadership effectiveness. For women, the ability to identify and face difficulties openly (Category 2 and Rejection 3) in a confident manner (Category 4) was related to leadership effectiveness. Moreover, women exhibited a greater ability than men to be open to the perception of frustrations and difficulties and to clearly articulate both positive and negative motivations rather than deny or defensively avoid coping with demanding or conflict-arousing circumstances.
Overall Evaluation of Leadership
Consistent with the findings of most organizational studies, the difference in the evaluation of male and female leaders was negligible. Indeed, women tended to be judged as being slightly more effective leaders overall by both genders. Thus, in a naturalistic setting in which social class and level of education were controlled, female leadership was considered as effective overall as male leadership. Despite controlling for social class and education, men and women still showed significant differences in stereotypically gender-linked motives and values. This finding is important because reviewers frequently dismiss positive findings as being attributable to the failure of researchers to control for social class and education.
Motivational Orientation and Leader Evaluation
Despite their similarity on the measures of intelligence and leadership effectiveness, the men and women in this study still showed significant differences in their motivational orientation that resembled stereotypically gender-linked characteristics. One might have expected stereotypical gender differences to be less pronounced in this group of MBA students because the criteria used to select such students and the forces for socializing them into their roles might level tendencies for gender-differentiated behavior. Presumably, male and female MBA students are selected for managerial roles (and select themselves for these roles) according to the same set of role-relevant criteria. Within that population, the facilitators constituted an even more limited pool of University of Chicago students, selected for their perceived leadership characteristics. Moreover, business schools tend to train men and women to accept the values and standards of a historically male-dominated corporate culture. The male and female facilitators might have met a threshold level of traditionally masculine motives and values.
Added to these selection and socialization factors is the fact that the facilitators were graded for their contribution tothe program. Men and women alike therefore were probably more concerned about their performance effectiveness than fulfilling gender-differentiated features of societal gender roles. These assumptions about socialization in business school and selection for the facilitator role suggest that the men and women in this study should have differed little in their motives and values.
Despite these forces for minimizing personality differences, we still found traditional gender differences in motivation. This led us to consider the perspectives implying that men and women could reasonably be expected to have differed to some extent in their motives and values. One such perspective recognizes the possibility of men's and women's distinctive, biologically wired-in patterns of maturation. Eagly and Johnson (1990) argued that organizational selection and socialization may not entirely eliminate ingrained gender differences in personality characteristics or behavioral tendencies. Biological sex differences and sex-differentiated life experiences may cause male and female managers to be different kinds of people even if they occupy the same role. Research on children's playgroups indicates that even at an early age, boys and girls show markedly different styles in social interactions (for a review, see Maccoby, 1985). This research provides evidence supporting an agentic-communal distinction such as the one proposed by Bakan (1966), but at a pre-adult phase of development. These differences appear early in childhood and are persistent. Men and women may enter business school with different sets of skills. To the extent that these differences reflect gender differences that are not eradicated by selection or socialization for management, it is not surprising that men and women would exhibit different patterns of motivation even if they were selected for the same role.
Whatever their source, these gender differences appear to play a crucial mediating role in shaping the evaluation of particular male and female leaders. Women who expressed strong agentic orientations (i.e., those who led in a masculine manner) were negatively perceived as leaders. Exhibiting a communal orientation (i.e., leading in a feminine manner) did not create a disadvantage for men relative to women. These findings are consistent with the assumptions that whereas feminine styles ameliorate role conflict for female leaders, adopting feminine styles does not compromise male leaders' success. It appears that, all other factors being equal, men may have more latitude than women to lead in a variety of masculine and feminine styles without consequence for how they are evaluated. The similarity of men and women on leadership, intelligence, social class, and education makes the gender difference in motivation and the differential evaluation of male and female leaders possessing agentic orientations particularly compelling.
When applied to leadership, the communal and agentic orientations suggest that female leaders were more interpersonally oriented and collaborative in their leadership styles, whereas male leaders were more task oriented and dominating. These gender-linked aspects of leadership style mirror Bales' (1950) classic distinction between socioemotional leaders and task leaders as well as the distinction between task-oriented and interpersonally-oriented aspects of leadership that were emphasized in the Ohio State studies (e.g., Hemphill & Coons, 1957; Stogdill, 1963; Stogdill & Shartle, 1955). In the research, task orientation, labeled initiation of structure, included leader behaviors such as having subordinates follow rules and procedures, maintaining high standards for performance, and making leader and follower roles explicit. Interpersonal orientation, labeled consideration,included leader behaviors such as helping and doing favors for subordinates, looking out for their welfare, explaining procedures, and being friendly and available. Task and interpersonal styles of leadership are not incompatible, and most researchers treat them as separate, relatively orthogonal dimensions.
Our findings suggest that women tend to be negatively evaluated when they exhibit more autocratic, directive leadership styles. Research indicates that women, if they are to be regarded as effective leaders, are expected to disprove or overcome a negative bias rooted in the belief that the attributes associated with the female gender role are discordant with those associated with being a leader. Eagly et al. (1992) proposed a social psychological explanation that might account for both the manifest gender differences and the devaluation of agentic women. They suggested that an attitudinal bias might manifest as disapproval directed at women who lead in an autocratic and directive manner. Disapproval would discourage the tendency to behave autocratically and discourage subordinates from participating in decision making and reinforce the tendency to behave democratically and allow subordinates to participate in decision making. By proceeding in a participative and collaborative mode in accomplishing managerial tasks, female managers may foster acceptance from initially skeptical subordinates, thereby removing one barrier to effectiveness.
An additional factor that might have influenced the devaluation of agentic women is the unstructured nature of the setting. In contrast to the majority of leadership studies, which have been performed in organizations, the current study was carried out in a setting in which the constraints of organizational roles were generally minimal or absent. Because the faculty did not provide clear guidelines about the conduct of behavior, there was considerable ambiguity about how students should behave, and facilitators might have reacted in terms of global and readily observable attributes of themselves and other facilitators (e.g., sex, age, race, and general physical appearance). In situations of this type, gender roles, which are rules about how one should behave as male or female, may provide more guidance than they otherwise would and thus produce a bias against gender-discrepant behavior.
This asymmetry in reactions to women's and men's motivational orientations resembles Ridgeway's (1982) findings on conformity and status attainment in small groups. Ridgeway found that friendly, cooperative, interpersonally oriented behavior enhanced women's status and their influence over other group members but had little or no impact on men's status and influence. According to Ridgeway, this stereotypically feminine behavior served to demonstrate women's group-oriented motivation and their lack of self-oriented motivation in a potential leadership situation. This proof of acceptable motivation was evidently a prerequisite for effective leadership by women. Men, by contrast, were not suspected of having self-aggrandizing motives and were not required to prove their group-oriented motivation because group members perceived them as having an inherent right to lead. From Ridgeway's perspective, the ability of feminine leadership styles to ameliorate female leaders' potential role conflict may stem from the specific meaning these styles convey. This meaning could be that a leader is concerned about the success of the group, not about enhancing personal power and status.
Task Orientation Associated With Effective Leadership for Women
The assumption that leaders from whatever gender would have to demonstrate task competency to be perceived as effective leaders was supported by our findings. For men and women alike, an active coping style was significantly correlated with leadership. Nevertheless, certain gender differences in coping style and leadership were found. For one, evaluations of leadership were positively and significantly correlated with the SSCT Category 2 scores, identifying sources of difficulty, for women but not men. Moreover, the correlation between leadership effectiveness and the tendency to be invested in impersonal objects and activities was marginally significant for women but not men.
It appears that female leaders might have been evaluated according to criteria that were not used to judge male leaders' behaviors. The most effective female leaders appeared to be focused on technical problems and difficulties in the external world. This finding is consistent with previous research reporting that female leaders' behaviors are viewed as being more task oriented than men's equivalent behaviors (Eagly et al., 1992). Whereas the finding that women showed more communal qualities may reflect gender role stereotypes in general, the finding that effective female leaders were especially concerned with technical tasks may reflect a more complex theory about women having to perform extremely well to succeed as managers. In support of this idea, past studies have indicated that effective female leaders are expected to exhibit higher levels of both the interpersonally oriented and thetask-oriented aspects of leadership (i.e., greater consideration and initiation of structure; e.g., Russell et al., 1988; Statham, 1987).
The constraints on women's leadership style raise an important issue: Are women evaluated less favorably than men when performing leadership or managerial behaviors even though women's and men's behaviors are objectively equivalent? If individuals are biased to evaluate female leaders' efforts less favorably than male leaders' equivalent efforts, women who aspire to leadership roles would encounter serious barriers to entering these roles and advancing to higher levels within an organization. To the extent that our findings can be generalized to organizational settings, they suggest that female managers may be victims of unfair evaluations. As women enter male-dominated leadership roles, in organizations in which autocratic styles are common, they may encounter significant bias given the evidence of selective devaluation in our study and others.
Eagly et al. (1992) suggested that women wishing to advance in organizations and be treated fairly may try to avoid the behaviors and situations that elicit prejudicial evaluations. They argued that avoidance of autocratic, directive styles, which elicit the devaluation of female leaders, requires that women in leadership roles adopt more democratic, participative styles than men in these roles. To the extent that women avoid male-dominated leadership roles or favor an autocratic and directive style, the selective devaluation phenomena demonstrated in our study would serve to preserve the traditional division of labor and discourage women from seeking or attaining positions of leadership. Our findings indicate that female leaders capable of overcoming the limitations on leadership style must be more self-confident, task-focused and open to the perception of frustration and difficulty than their male counterparts.
Toward a General Model of Leadership
We have proposed that active coping (Pratch & Jacobowitz, 1997) is a necessary but not sufficient determinant of effective leadership; other characteristics, such as the leader's motivational orientation and specific knowledge, skills, and abilities, also are required. We argue that the utility of the latter set of characteristics will depend on the situation but that the underlying stability and openness to change linked to active coping is always necessary for a leader to be effective.
Our findings support the validity of this set of ideas. The strength of the findings cannot be explained by different levels of intelligence. This observation is important because high correlations between managerial performance and general intelligence have been reported across all levels of managerial functioning (reviewed by Bass, 1990). The fact that active coping predicted leadership in an elite sample, selected for intelligence as well as other personality attributes associated with leadership potential, demonstrates the value added by examining the active coping tendencies of individuals in line for leadership jobs.
Using a task group working over a considerable period of time on a meaningful task that determined important consequences, we demonstrated that active coping is associated with the emergence and evaluation of an individual as a leader regardless of gender. We also found a differential pattern of relationships among gender, motivation, and the evaluation of leadership. In contrast to many other studies examining gender effects in leadership, in this study we did not use paper-and-pencil stimulus subjects in artificial situations. The naturalistic setting, the uncontrived nature of the group and its task, the importance of performance for the grade, the extensive contact among the group members, and the measure of leadership in terms of peer ratings all provided a realistic context for the study.
Because of the deliberately fluid and unstructured nature of the program, we could not consider the extent to which features of the group or environment might have influenced students' perceptions of the effectiveness of leaders or the behaviors or styles that would be more effective. In addition, because there was no way to ensure that male and female leaders having strong agentic orientations would display equivalent behaviors in this setting, differences in the evaluation of male and female leaders could have been due to genuine differences in their behavior as well as to perceivers' gender bias. Furthermore, whether leaders are more effective as a result of their differing motivations or styles, and the ways in which gender interacts with these factors, are questions that can be addressed only by taking measures of group outcomes into account along withmeasures of perceived leadership effectiveness.
Replication of this study using groups with different demographic characteristics, in different geographical regions, or in different cultures might reveal differences in leadership emergence. Future research on emergent leadership in small task groups in organizations and including measures of other potential explanatory variables is warranted by the strength of the findings.
To be an effective leader, it is important to be able to strike an appropriate balance between assertiveness and cooperation. Ideally, both male and female leaders will choose their actions sensibly and flexibly depending on the situations they confront. Expressive, relationship-oriented behaviors such as consideration of others, playfulness, and emotional expressiveness are traditionally feminine characteristics that contribute to high morale and cohesiveness in small task groups. Our findings suggest that men and women alike expect women to serve these functions in the workplace. Independence, decisiveness, and ambition also are requisites of effective leadership. Yet, it appears that women are not allowed to display these qualities if they are to succeed as leaders. Given the conflicts, impediments, and disadvantageous stereotypes imposed on female leadership style, it is not surprising that women have to be stronger copers than men to establish legitimacy and credibility as leaders within a small group.
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Akshaye Kalkura has over 13 years of experience in the areas related to networks, security, data centres, VoIP and information security. He is current...ly associated with KPMG and has reviewed and designed network architectures for several clients in various industries – Telecom, FMCG, software, manufacturing, financial services etc.
His experience comprise of engagements related to global network transformation, IPv6, SCADA, Telecom security, data centre design/review, IT/IS audits and testing of Cisco ISR products. He has conducted several trainings related to network, routing protocols, Unix etc. He strongly believes in "Best way to gain knowledge is by sharing knowledge".
It is becoming increasingly important to have a focused effort in ensuring the security of company's data, due to the various methods data can be accessed / exchanged and the increase in the number of threats which pose a security risk to an Organization.
This webinar aims to provide the key components of a network, design considerations, operations and technologies which enable Organizations in building a more secure network and assist in protection of company data.
What are the key components required?
Will implementing the latest products guarantee security of a network?
Is security a one time activity?
Do people play a key role in ensuring the security of an Organization?
Are policies, procedure, standards important?