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Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP)
They changed the face of military history.
These women could fly. These women served proudly. These women are amazing.
Signing Up and Stepping Up
Women in the 1940s had fairly defined roles in American society. Their primary responsibilities were keeping house and raising children. Piloting Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers and towing targets for live ammunition artillery practice were not standard issue duties for the 1940s American woman. So why did this particular group of women sign up to fly for the U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF) in World War II?
We will not again look upon a woman flying as an experiment. AAF Commanding General Henry "Hap" Arnold, 1944
Not So Sweet in Sweetwater
In 1942, a women's flying training detachment program was created and approved. By 1943, all training took place at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas. Famed aviator Jacqueline Cochran was named Director of Women Pilots.
Life wasn't always sweet at Sweetwater. The training Women Airforce Service Pilots received was as rigorous as that of the male cadets. Although the women were already licensed pilots, they had to learn to fly America's military aircraft. If an instructor felt a trainee was not meeting the requirements during any phase of flying training, that trainee was sent on a check ride with an Army check pilot. If the trainee failed the check ride, she went before the commanding offier and a board who determined whether or not she would stay in the program. If expelled, action was swift. A woman could be in camp one day, and her locker cleaned out the next. Ground school was no picnic either. Hydraulics, meteorology, Morse code, aerodynamics, physics, and airplane maintenance were just some of the required courses.
Add to that, their male-sizes-only "zoot suit" uniforms didn't fit, the weather was hot and dusty or cold and snowy, the bays (barracks) were crowded, the latrines were spartan, and sometimes meat loaf, grits, and squash just wasn't a dream dinner. All in all, becoming a WASP took guts, skill, and stamina.
When I heard about Pearl Harbor, I was horrified. I wanted to do something in the war. That's why I learned to fly. Dori Marland Martin, Class 43-8
Dearest Sis,
Kindly note change of address. I am so happy to be here and can hardly realize that I am actually a part of this marvelous new program. It was a real thrill when I first saw these tremendous air fields, the huge hangars, and the beautiful planes in the air; my heart simply started to pound.
Love, Spook Adaline Alma Blank, WASP Class 43-8, Avenger Field, Sweetwater, TX
Avenger Field, Sweetwater, Texas
A Complicated Commitment
The Women Airforce Service Pilots faced some unexpected challenges and resistance when they signed up. Friends and family wondered, Why on earth is she leaving …her family…her freedom…a good job…a teaching career…the Rockettes…college…? Male instructors at Avenger Field wondered publicly if the women could really fly these military planes, and male pilots worried privately that they could.
Was it possible that a woman could actually fly a plane as well as a man? And if she did – and he was released from stateside duties as a result – did he really want to be sent on combat missions overseas? Success for the Women Airforce Service Pilots was a complicated issue. Jacqueline Cochran herself noted that the female pilots were always reminded to "leave the glamour and the glory" for their brother pilots who were over on the front lines.
But perhaps the most difficult challenge was one the Women Airforce Service Pilots discovered they most cared about when they arrived at Avenger Field. Above all else, they didn't want to fail.
Fifinella- Women Airforce Service Pilots mascot
We have been flying for a week. That PT is so different from those cubs I flew at Spartan that I feel as if I had never been in a plane before. Already my big worry is that I might "wash out." It's going to be plenty tough to come up to Army standards. Several from W-7 "washed" today. Everyone gets depressed when they go; tonight the Recreation Room was like a morgue--you just can't help wondering "Will I be next?"
Love, Spook Adaline Alma Blank, WASP Class 43-8, Avenger Field Sweetwater, TX
Falling in Love a Little
But there was at least one thing that made up for all that doubt and discouragement at Avenger Field in Sweetwater. Flying.
Women Airforce Service Pilots flew 70 hours each of primary and advanced training. They practiced take-offs and landings, snap rolls, parachute bail-outs, night flying, cross country flying, and aerobatics. Primary instructors even flew trainees upside down to demonstrate the importance of safety belts.
Even though the women were learning to fly new planes, they were all experienced pilots. And like most pilots, they savored the freedom of the skies.
Some of them even fell in love a little with their planes.
There's a romance to flying. You're away from the earth, defying gravity, and you have to do your best; there's no safety net. Ethel Meyer Finley, Class 43-5
I am enclosing a picture of our AT6. This is real FLYING. We call it our pin-up ship. 620 horsepower and a beauty. The difference between the BT and this AT6 is about the same as that between an Oklahoma work horse and a Blue Grass bred racer. This is a streamline baby. Handles like a dream. Jacqueline Cochran was here this week. She told us that our class has been assigned to the Army Training Command. We have seventeen girls in training now at a four engine Flying Fortress school in Ohio; our class will go to Army Navigation, Bombardier, and Gunnery Schools; we will train to fly the cadets on their routine mission flights. Doesn't that sound exciting? The future of this experiment depends wholly on us. What a responsibility. Oh, there is never a dull day at Avenger.
"The P-63 was quite an airplane. I just loved it. I flew as many as I could, as far as I could, as fast as I could." - Betty Archibald Fernandes, Class 43-3
Flying on Silver Wings
After all the hours of flying, studying, working, worrying, and dreaming, 1074 female pilots graduated from Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas to become Women Airforce Service Pilots.
The WASP took wing and flew into history.
Along with their diplomas, Women Airforce Service Pilots were handed orders to report to one of 120 Army air bases or air fields across the U.S. Their missions included towing targets, ferrying planes, training bombardiers, tracking radar, providing instrument training to cadets, flying pursuits, testing engineering repairs, and multiple other assignments. In total, Women Airforce Service Pilots flew more than 60 million miles in service to their country.
Although they were stationed at U.S. military bases and flew U.S. Army Air Force planes, Women Airforce Service Pilots were classified as civilians. That seeming contradiction had long been an irritant for WASP. By 1943, the issue had also become a concern for the Secretary of War, Henry Stimson, who, like the rest of the nation, had become convinced of the value of the program to the war efforts. In 1944, Representative John Costello of California sponsored House Bill 4219 to commission the Women Airforce Service Pilots as full-fledged military personnel. It failed.
"Then we got our wings, and it was the most glorious time in our life that we got through it. I made it – got my wings – by golly I can fly." - Susie Winston Bain, Class 44-4
Mission Completed
In October 1944, Hap Arnold, Commanding General of the Army Air Forces, ordered Jacqueline Cochran to deactivate the Women Airforce Service Pilots program.
Director Cochran's final speech on December 7, 1944 at Avenger Field included these words:
"The emotions of happiness and sorrow are pretty close together today, and I am experiencing them both at the same time, as well as the third emotion of pride. Happiness also swells within me from the knowledge that the WASP have successfully completed their twofold mission. By twofold, I mean we have flown scores of millions of miles in relieving the pilot shortage and we have proved that women can be trained as pilots easily and used in many ways in the air effectively. What the WASP have done is without precedent in the history of the world."
Women Airforce Service Pilots Director Jacqueline Cochran
Honored, At Last
In the years following the war, the WASP story was rarely told. After the program was disbanded at the end of 1944, WASP records were sealed, classified, and stored in the government archives for 33 years. In 1976, the United States Air Force announced that women would be permitted to fly military aircraft, labeling it a "first" in U.S. history. As women who had flown for the nation over 30 years earlier, WASP united in an effort to set the record straight. In 1977, with the help of Senator Barry Goldwater (Arizona), Representatives Lindy Boggs (Louisiana) and Margaret Heckler (Massachusetts), and Hap Arnold's son, Bruce Arnold, the WASP were finally granted veteran status. Seven years later, in 1984, their service medals came in the mail.
On March 10, 2010, the Women Airforce Service Pilots were awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in recognition of their pioneering military service, exemplary record, and revolutionary reform in the Armed Forces of the United States of America.
Women Airforce Service Pilots quotes source: http://www.wingsacrossamerica.org/
The Congressional Gold Medal awarded to the WASP in 2010.
Launch Master Timeline
Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) Timeline
1939The World at War, Again
The Allied Powers of Britain, France, Australia and New Zealand declared war on Germany following its invasion of Poland on September 1st. Despite World War I being named "the war to end all wars," World War II was about to begin.
1939Women's Auxiliary Air Corps Proposed
Jacqueline (Jackie) Cochran, famed American aviator, wrote to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt to suggest the formation of an all-female auxiliary pilot corps to fly non-combat stateside missions for the military. Cochran explained that women pilots could fly "...ambulance planes, courier planes, commercial and transport planes, thereby releasing male pilots for combat duty."
1940Your Number's Up
The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 became the first peacetime conscription law in U.S. history. The act required all men between the ages of 21 and 35 (later extended to age 37) to register with a local draft board. Each man was assigned a draft number that was entered into a lottery. Lottery number drawings determined who would be "called up" to military service for twelve months.
1941First Woman to Fly Across the Pond
Jackie Cochran became the first woman to fly a military plane across the Atlantic Ocean. She traveled to England to meet with the women pilots of the British transport command to determine if American female flyers were needed to help the war effort in a besieged Britain.
1941Cochran and Arnold Meet
Army Air Forces (AAF) Commander General Henry "Hap" Arnold met with Cochran and asked her to recruit and train American women pilots to fly with the British transport command. He also asked her to develop a proposal outlining the duties that women pilots might perform for the Army Air Forces.
1941A Date Which Will Live in Infamy
Just before 8 a.m., hundreds of Japanese war planes bombed the U.S. Navy Pacific Fleet ships stationed at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. The strike was a well-planned and surprise retaliation against the U.S. efforts to halt Japan's war with China. In less than two hours, eight battleships, 20 additional ships and almost 200 airplanes were destroyed. Over 2,000 American sailors and soldiers died in this attack.
1941FDR Declares War on Japan
President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared war on Japan and America officially entered World War II.
1941FDR Declares War on Germany and Italy
In his address to Congress, President Franklin Roosevelt said, "On the morning of 11 December, the Government of Germany, pursuing its course of world conquest, declared war against the United States. The long-known and the long-expected has thus taken place. The forces endeavoring to enslave the entire world now are moving toward this hemisphere. Never before has there been a greater challenge to life, liberty, and civilization."
1942We're In the Army Now!
This classic recruitment film was made to encourage women to sign up to serve in the Women's Army Auxiliary Corp (WAAC), commanded by former First Lady of Texas, Oveta Culp Hobby.
1942Citizens of the Nation
"Women who stepped up were measured as citizens of the nation, not as women. This was a people's war and everyone was in it."
Colonel Oveta Culp Hobby
WAAC/WAC Director 1942-1945
1942Colonel Hobby Leads the WAACs
Oveta Culp Hobby, a native Texan and wife of former governor William P. Hobby, became the first director of the Army-based Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC), later known as the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Under her command, 150,000 women served in Army jobs both stateside and abroad. In 1945, Colonel Hobby received the Distinguished Service Medal for her outstanding contributions to the war effort.
1942A Weapon Waiting
To Be Used
In her newspaper column, My Day, First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt wrote: "I believe in this case, if the war goes on long enough, and women are patient, opportunity will come knocking at their doors. However, there is just a chance that this is not a time when women should be patient. We are in a war and we need to fight it with all our ability and every weapon possible. Women pilots, in this particular case, are a weapon waiting to be used."
1942It's a Go!
AAF Commander General Hap Arnold sent a message to General Barton Yount, AAF Commander General of the Flying Training Command saying: "The Air Forces' objective is to provide at the earliest possible date a sufficient number of women pilots to replace men in every non-combatant flying duty in which it is feasible to employ women."
1943We Were WASP
Yvonne Pateman, WASP Class 43-5, recalls life and training as a WASP at Avenger Field.
1943WASP Words
"The director of flying said, "I need you. The hurricane is coming. All of the men want to stay home. When you hear the alarm, we'll sound the siren, and report immediately. We've got to take these planes out." Just before we got to be #1 for take-off in the B-26, this captain had just come back from overseas and he said, "Do you have an instrument rating?" I said, "Yes, sir. Do you?""
Rose Alice Palmer, Class 44-6
from WASP: In their Own Words by Nancy Parrish
1943Avenger Field at Sweetwater, Texas
As more women entered flight training, it became clear that the facilities at the Houston Municipal Airport were no longer adequate. A second training facility was approved at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas. The base was already home to Canadian male trainee pilots. Half of the women pilots of Class 43-4 reported to Avenger Field to begin training on February 14th.
1943Cochran's Convent
Cochran closed the Avenger Field airbase to all activities except female flight training and air emergencies. The Canadian male pilots were transferred to other bases. Populated by women only, Avenger Field became known as "Cochran's Convent."
1943Cochran Named Director
Jacqueline Cochran was officially appointed Air Force Director of Women Pilots and joined the Commander General's offices at the Pentagon.
1943WASP Take Wing
With her appointment as director, all civilian female flying corps were under Cochran's command. AAF Commander General Hap Arnold and Cochran agreed that this consolidated corps needed a new name. Arnold suggested "Women Airforce Service Pilots." Not all the women pilots liked the name or the acronym, however, which prompted General Arnold to issue this statement: "Acronym for all AAF women pilots will be WASP, Women Airforce Service Pilots. Period."
1943Secret Mission
Combat pilot losses continued to rise, which increased the already severe shortage of male pilots. Military leaders realized that many of the losses were due to American pilots' inability to avoid enemy radar detection. A new radar evasion program was developed but there were no test pilots. Cochran volunteered the Women Airforce Service Pilots.
1943Training Ratchets Up
Women Airforce Service Pilots continued to take on more military pilot duties including target and glider towing, radar calibration, bombing range runs, and instrument instruction. Training hours at Avenger Field were increased to 210 flight hours and 560 ground school hours.
1943Supporting the Boys, Quietly
Some male combat pilots refused to fly the B-26 Martin Marauder, a fast twin engine bomber also known as "the widow maker" and "the flying torpedo." AAF Commander General Arnold notified Cochran: "Select some WASP to train at Dodge City to fly B-26 as morale booster for male pilots." Cochran sent 25 Women Airforce Service Pilots with twin engine flying experience for B-26 bomber training.
1944Too Hot to Handle?
B-26 Training Film
1944 official War Department training film for the infamous B-26 Bomber.
Yvonne Pateman, WASP Class 43-5, narrates this video about the Women Airforce Service Pilots and Avenger Field.
"As I landed, taxied to the ramp, and shut down the engine, the finality of it all struck me with a deep and profound feeling of sweet sadness. It was over. I was profoundly sad but also sincerely grateful. To serve my country as a military pilot in wartime had truly been an opportunity of a lifetime."
Marie Mountain Clark, Class 44-1
"I hitched a ride on an Army plane and got as far as New York, or somewhere on the East Coast. Then I wrote fifty letters to every aviation company and airline that you could think of, trying to get a flying job. I didn't know there were that many ways to say no."
Betty Haas Pfister, Class 43-5
1944Santiago Blues and Silver Wings
WASP Class 44-1 became the first class to graduate wearing the official Santiago blue WASP uniform that was designed by Bergdorf Goodman of New York and made by the Neiman Marcus company in Dallas. Jackie Cochran pinned the coveted silver Women Airforce Service Pilots wings above the left pocket of the graduates' jackets.
1944HR 4219 Introduced
"We must have legislation to make the WASP a part of the Army. At the present time, they are not entitled to benefits which should go to them in accordance with the duties they are performing."
AAF Commander General Hap Arnold
1944Carrying On
There was public resistance to granting Women Airforce Service Pilots military status, and although under attack as an organization because of HR 4219, WASP continued to perform valiant military service. In one of their non-flying assignments, several Women Airforce Service Pilots participated in high altitude testing to determine how oxygen affected women pilots.
1944D-Day
At 6:30 a.m., British and Canadian troops landed on the shores of Normandy beaches. U.S. troops deployed at Utah and Omaha Beaches. By the end of the day, approximately 156,000 Allied troops had invaded, with more than 4,000 losses.
1944HR 4219 Defeated
After less than an hour of debate, HR 4219 was defeated by a vote of 188 to 169. The House also recommended the deactivation of the entire Women Airforce Service Pilots program. Those WASP already in training were allowed to complete their service, but no additional WASP were accepted to the program. All Women Airforce Service Pilots who were in service at the time of this decision had to pay their own way home.
1944Grounded, For Now
The Women Airforce Service Pilots program ceased to exist. All WASP military records were sealed, classified, and sent to storage archives for 30 years.
1945VE Day
The Allies declared Victory in Europe (VE) Day after Germany's unconditional surrender on May 7th.
1945Distinguished Service Medal
AAF Commander General Hap Arnold presented Jacqueline Cochran with the U.S. Distinguished Service Medal for her contributions to the war effort.
1945Hiroshima
Japanese Emperor Hirohito refused to accept the terms of unconditional surrender determined by the Potsdam Conference. In an effort to end the war, President Truman decided to drop an atomic bomb on Japan rather than risk American lives in an invasion of the mainland. At 8:16 a.m., the B-29 bomber Enola Gay dropped the bomb nicknamed "Little Boy" on Hiroshima. Over 80,000 Japanese were killed as a direct result of the blast and 90% of the city was destroyed.
1945Nagasaki
Despite the devastation at Hiroshima, the Japanese War Council continued to refuse the terms of unconditional surrender. At 11:02 a.m., a B-29 bomber dropped "Fat Boy" on Nagasaki. 60 to 80,000 people were killed immediately from the bomb's force-- the equivalent of 22,000 tons of dynamite. Determining that continuing the war would "only result in the annihilation of the Japanese people," Emperor Hirohito finally agreed to the terms of unconditional surrender.
1945Japan Surrenders
Emperor Hirohito delivered a radio broadcast telling the country that Japan had accepted the surrender terms of the Potsdam Conference. Witnessed by General Douglas MacArthur and other Allied leaders, Hirohito signed the official Instrument of Surrender on September 2 aboard the USS Missouri. World War II began to draw to a close.
1948Armed Services Reserve Bill
Congress passed the Women's Armed Services Reserve Bill which allowed women to serve in the military reserves. During the next two years, over 300 Women Airforce Service Pilots were commissioned into the reserves as 2nd Lieutenants. They received only non-flying assignments.
1977Veteran Status
By a slim margin, Congress passed Public Law 95-20. The law, which became effective in 1979, granted Women Airforce Service Pilots official military status, but with limited benefits.
2005WASP Museum at Avenger Field
The National WASP World War II Museum opened at Avenger Field in Sweetwater, Texas. Twenty-nine Women Airforce Service Pilots attended the opening ceremonies and left their hand prints in cement.
2009WASP Gold Medal Bill in Senate
Texas Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison introduced Senate Bill S.614 to award the Women Airforce Service Pilots the highest civilian honor- the Congressional Gold Medal. Senator Hutchinson and Maryland Senator Barbara Mikulski signed on every single female senator as a co-sponsor. The bill passed unanimously.
2009WASP Gold Medal Bill in House
Representatives Ileana Ros-Lehtinen of Florida and Susan Davis of California introduced bill H.R. 2014 to award the Women Airforce Service Pilots the Congressional Gold Medal. The bill passed unanimously.
2009Public Law 111-40 Signed
President Obama authorized the WASP Congressional Gold Medal. The law states in part: " ... the Women Airforce Service Pilots of WWII... faced overwhelming cultural and gender bias against women in nontraditional roles and overcame multiple injustices and inequities in order to serve their country; ... the WASP eventually were the catalyst for revolutionary reform in the integration of women pilots into the Armed Services."
"Glamour, hell, it was hard work!"
Shutsy Reynolds, Class 44-5
2010Gold Medal Ceremony
Over 200 Women Airforce Service Pilots attended the Congressional Gold Medal Ceremony at the Capitol in Washington, D.C. Members of all military branches escorted the WASP, many of whom wore their World War II uniforms. Deanie Parrish, WASP Class 44-4, accepted the medal on behalf of all the Women Airforce Service Pilots and each WASP received a replica of the commemorative medal.
2014The Life of Jacqueline Cochran
The military career and later life of legendary aviator Jacqueline Cochran.
Marjorie Sanford Thompson and Sylvia Schwartz Granader remember their days as Women Airforce Service Pilots, Class 43-5.
"How do I feel about being a WASP? Out of nothing, it made me something, because it gave me the courage to try anything!"
Charlyne Creger, Class 44-10
Back to full view
What artifact do you have related to the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP)?
What personal story can you tell related to the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP)?
How do Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) help tell Texas's story?
What other story related to this topic would you like to share?
Jeff Jackson Breaking Eggs in Lampasas
Christine Hunt Baking for the WASP at Avenger Field
From People Across Texas
More Texas History Stories or go back to the Bullock Terrazzo
Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) World War II
African Americans 1821-1865
American Indians BCE- 1600
Buffalo Soldiers 1850-1880
Cattle Ranchers 1850-1880s
Conquistadors 16th Century
Frontier Folk 1820-1850
Missionaries 1500-1750
Roughnecks 1890-1950
Texas Rangers 1821-Present
Vaqueros 1519-present


ECS is seeking a Senior Open Source Intel (OSINT) Analyst to work in our Fort Belvior, VA office. Please Note: This position is contingent upon contract award.
ECS Federal is looking for a Senior Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) Analyst to support our team on the government site at Fort Belvoir, VA.
Participates as a team member or leads a team performing Intelligence Analysis in any one or multiple intelligence disciplines, to include, but not limited to Communications Intelligence (COMINT), Electronics Intelligence (ELINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) or fused-/multi-source intelligence. Will access, categorize, evaluate, integrate, and analyze data, information, and knowledge from multiple sources in support of the Client mission objectives, priorities, or exigent operational needs. Contributes to the development of analytical models and assessments. Participates with the team performing research and analysis of intelligence and related data in support of the customer's mission and may provide functional knowledge to developers in such areas as computer software system design/development, installation and integration planning, testing and support of a wide range of systems that support intelligence functions. Knowledge of the military and/or the intelligence community and intelligence technologies utilized in such areas as telecommunications, collection, signals analysis, imagery analysis, computer science, electronic warfare and/or nuclear/biological/chemical warfare is desired. Experience with data repositories within the Distributed Common Ground System (DCGS), JIOC-I, and the GIG-BE architectures is highly desired.
Participates as a team member or leads a team performing Intelligence Analysis in any one or multiple intelligence disciplines, to include, but not limited to Communications Intelligence (COMINT), Electronics Intelligence (ELINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) or fused-/multi-source intelligence. Will access, categorize, evaluate, integrate, and analyze data, information, and knowledge from multiple sources in support of the Client mission objectives, priorities, or exigent operational needs. Contributes to the development of analytical models and assessments. Participates with the team performing research and analysis of intelligence and related data in support of the customer's mission and may provide functional knowledge to developers in such areas as computer software system design/development, installation and integration planning, testing and support of a wide range of systems that support intelligence functions.
Education (Substitution for Experience): Masters + 4 years OR Bachelors + 6 years OR 10 years of experience.
Experience with data repositories within the Distributed Common Ground System (DCGS), JIOC-I, and the GIG-BE architectures is highly desired.
knowledge of the military and/or the intelligence community and intelligence technologies utilized in such areas as telecommunications, collection, signals analysis, imagery analysis, computer science, electronic warfare and/or nuclear/biological/chemical warfare is desired.


Sweet... can I make a feature request?
In SM1 you setup a caching function for when it read in the tracks so it didn't have to keep re-reading all the files. Can I request a "lite" version of that where it just get the filenames, and then you can click a button to load all the extra track info?
I found that when there were a lot of tracks it would still take a really long time to read all the details like author, time, etc. I'd love to have a "quick" list if possible that can then have the extra details loaded if needed.


There are a few ways to customize the font face of your ad units. If you'd like to quickly change the font settings for every ad unit generated from your account, visit the 'Ad Display Preference' section of your Account Settings page to select a new account-wide font face. This will affect all units you've created in the past, regardless of whether you used the Manage Ads feature. By default, your ads are currently set to 'Standard AdSense font family', which we've found has performed well across browsers and displays.


text:
Shootable: What would have happened if war was over?
Some historians think that in England in 1945, she would have been far too exhausted to even know what a pandemic was. They may be right. Mothering is a hard and admirable occupation. And war, when all around you are dying, can take its toll. But there is also a line of thought that says that a mother's pride might not hold up to the strain of caring for her sick or abandoned child. In 1990, Robin McKie in The Sun and the Sea compared the contrasting experiences of a woman who had lost three children in a war and a mother who'd lost a child to a pandemic. Even after that experience, this woman could not bear to work for a few months and watched her daughter's life fizzle out: "When he went back to school in the autumn, she was a mess." Meanwhile, this mother had to nurse her husband back to health. "I wonder how my mother must have felt," said the daughter, "if she'd left the kids in the street all night long in the cold, wouldn't they have fallen over? I think it must have put a strain on her as a parent that she couldn't have let."
Meantime, back at the front, a woman in the Tank Corps keeps her baby with her in the trenches. Her son is always in her thoughts, and as the enemy attacks she says, "They're coming in round the bend, and my belly's like a topographical map with faces on it." Her son, says the son, "is a little constant reminder of why I'm here."
Again and again, there are accounts of children being left at home to fend for themselves. In The New Science of Mothers by Margaret Myers, published in 1973, a mother in rural Ireland is lying on her back asleep when the first child, who is only five months old, rolls out of her bed and follows her, his arms outstretched in front of him. The mother suddenly moves her eyes away to avoid the vision of the child's body and falls back. "She had been sleeping with the kitchen knives," writes Myers, "but it was inexplicable. The theory was that the baby would rather die than awaken his mother." It happened twice more in the next hour.
A 1947 survey of Wolverhampton hospitals showed that one in four mothers had left a child for hours, on two occasions in a day. The high divorce rate was partly explained by the fact that many married mothers were playing the motherly hand-maid to long-suffering husbands. But many women as well found that the separations made it more difficult to stay on, because of the extra daily care.
Categories health Tags chemistry, nobel prizes, showtime, tennis
In Canada, rare case of brain-eating bacteria found in grilled cheese sandwiches, raising CDC questions about CTE
Japan, South Korea and US must be united, says US Pacific Command chief

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Despite extreme weather threatening to intervene, on March 5th MSG hosted the national "Career Pathways Champions" meetings in Washington D.C. This convening brought together career pathways pioneers from all across the country - in education, workforce, and human services - to discuss the forthcoming "Career Pathways Toolkit."
This exciting project is being completed by MSG and sponsored by the U.S. Department of Labor. The updated toolkit will feature best practices from leading organizations, and will help educators, administrators, and policymakers to align programs and policies to meet the needs of an evolving workforce.
The dialogue was an overwhelming success. Attendees participated in a lively discussion about what works, what doesn't, and what's coming up next. The event also featured appearances by Assistant Secretaries from the U.S. Departments of Labor, Education, and Health and Human Services, who stressed their commitment to inter-agency alignment.


3x0 Swing the ball back and forward around the perimeter.
3 players, 1 ball 2 pylons.
1 in the corner with the ball.
2 and 3 in the guard positions.
1 passes the ball to 2, and cuts to the other corner.
1 passes back to 3.
1 cuts back through the bucket.
The ball is swung back to the other side.
After1 catches the ball he shoots.
After the shot, 3 cuts to the basket for the offensive rebound. To start the drill again.
First catch by 1, stable and watching the passer no look at basket.
Pass between cutter and 2 very fast.
Second catch by 1, in release position (to basket) for the fast shot.
Play until a fixed number of shots are made or how many shots in x minutes.


September is National Cholesterol Education Month, an especially good time to stop and think about the importance of our heart and find new strategies to refocus our efforts to do the things necessary to achieve better heart health.
Family caregivers will naturally think about their senior loved ones, who may already have been diagnosed with heart disease. But they should also be concentrating on themselves and how to prevent or treat their own heart health in order to be healthy enough to keep on caregiving.
Even if you or your senior has been diagnosed with heart disease, you still need to manage both your cholesterol and other lipids to help prevent heart attack and stroke.
One of the best ways to manage heart health is to learn all you can about the actions that can improve blood levels of lipids (fats) like cholesterol, manage weight and eat a more heart healthy diet.
September – seeing that it's National Cholesterol Education Month – is a good time to learn all about it!
The first step in improving your heart health is to know how you are doing right now. This way you can determine where you need to go and which health changes are a priority.
Knowing your lipid numbers will help you focus your attention and decide what lifestyle changes you need to make to get the numbers back on track. When your cholesterol and triglyceride numbers are elevated, it can lead to heart disease, heart attack and stroke. These conditions are preventable with simple lifestyle changes. It is also important to know if what you are doing now is benefiting your heart if you have already been diagnosed too.
These values are generally considered good, though your senior's doctor may provide them with specific individual targets.
Here are a few thing that you and your senior can do to improve your heart health. Most are pretty easy to do, others may take you some time to achieve.
Get yourself and your senior tested if you don't know your numbers, then talk to your doctor about the results. If you were tested a long time ago, it is a good time to check them again and see your progress or if new actions are needed.
Manage your weight and help your senior manage theirs; achieve a healthy weight level — losing 5-10 pounds can make a great difference.
Avoid trans fat in your foods and help your senior restrict trans fats from their diet too; consume less than 2 grams/day but the best would be to eat zero!
Avoid saturated fat – the recommended amount is less than 7% of your overall fat intake each day.
Limit foods high in cholesterol and fried foods to reduce total fat intake.
Stay physically active; find activities that you both enjoy and incorporate them into your daily routine.
Use monounsaturated oils, such as olive and canola oil.
Stop smoking and drink alcohol only in moderation (yes, those recommendations fit here too).
Read the nutrition fact labels on the food you eat or are considering purchasing to learn where the fat is hiding; compare foods to make the best choices.
Include omega 3 fatty acids and antioxidants in your diet and that of your senior loved one.
These are some of the foods associated with each of the cholesterol terms we discussed.
Small changes in your diet, physical activity and weight can produce positive results in your cholesterol levels. Don't think that a little walk, one less doughnut or one pound isn't important!
Helping your senior loved one manage their chronic diseases and prevent catastrophic health events such as stroke is worth a the effort to change habits.
Take control of your health and be committed to your own health as a caregiver! Being well can help you face the physical and emotional daily challenges of being a caregiver.


STRIKER Kevin Smith has agreed to cancel his contract and has now left the club.
26-year old Smith, who started his career at Leeds United, joined the Sons in the summer of 2013 but couldn't command a regular first team slot managing only 3 Championship games from the start, scoring 2 goals in all competitions.
Everyone at DFC wishes him well for the future.


ASV: And Abimelech was prince over Israel three years.
BBE: So Abimelech was chief over Israel for three years.
DBY: Abim'elech ruled over Israel three years.
JPS: And Abimelech was prince over Israel three years.
WEB: Abimelech was prince over Israel three years.


(a) Truncated systems, often in cities, still operating on tasks associated with the removal of rubble from bombed buildings.
(b) Well-laid out contractors' yards still storing locomotives and wagons hopefully for an occasion when they would be needed on some civil engineering project.
(c) Groups of quite large locomotives operated by contractors working in quarries of various types.
The following notes describe one example from each of these categories.
As the DB (Deutsche Bundesbahn) train from Oldenburg ran into Bremen it was possible to see narrow gauge steam locomotives trundling wooden tip wagons of rubble on the west side of the DB line just before the junction with the line from Bremerhaven. This was the 60cm gauge railway operated by Carl Brandt and which formerly ran from bombed sites in the harbour area. At the time of my visit in May 1957 there were still traces of narrow gauge rails across the nearby cobbled streets but the system had been reduced to carrying rubble brought in by lorries to a crushing plant for T. V. G., Bremen, makers of bricks from rubble.
From the lorry tipping dock, the loaded wagons were drawn back almost to the road bordering the west of the site. Then they were taken up an incline leading on to the elevated track, supported on a steel bridge-like structure, to the crushing plant. After tipping into the crusher, the empty wagons were taken to the end of the line over Nordstrasse, then pulled back via the south curve of the high level 'triangle', over the dust heaps and back to near the road crossing before finally reversing to come alongside the lorry tipping dock. Two trains followed each other round this circuit, with one usually hauled by a steam locomotive and the other by a diesel.
The sequence, as described, meant that the locomotive was always at the same end of the train at the lorry tipping dock. The curved elevated section behind the machine shop appeared to be little used. Presumably in the earlier days of operation, the trains of rubble would have come in from across the streets, up the incline to the crusher, then using the elevated curve so that when they descended to go back across the street the locomotive was still at the head of the train.
The crushed rubble was hand-loaded into steel V‑shaped hopper tip wagons hauled by an Orenstein & Koppel 4‑wheel diesel belonging to T. V. G. This company's system seemed very much entangled with that of Carl Brandt.
From near the road crossing close to the lorry tip, a line ran south along the foot of the dust heaps and embankments into a compound surrounded by an approximately 8ft high chain link fence surmounted by barbed wire. The compound housed the workshops for the railway and was used to store the wagons and locomotives after work each day. The steam locomotives stood in the open whilst the diesels were placed under an open-sided shelter formed by extending the roof of the workshops which were all built rather roughly of timber.
At the southern end of Wesseling station (on the Rheinuferbahn line of the Köln-Bonner Eisenbahnen AG) was a connection for a single standard gauge line into Peter Bauwens' depot on the east side of the station. The standard gauge line terminated at a dock on which were laid, at a height corresponding to that of the floor of a standard DB wagon, mixed narrow gauge track to enable 60cm and 90cm gauge stock to be run end‑on to suitably placed rails on standard gauge wagons.
CB 7 (Orenstein & Koppel 12721) in Carl Brandt's compound at Bremen on 15th May 1957.
Crushed rubble being loaded into wagons hauled by an Orenstein & Koppel 4‑wheel diesel belonging to T. V. G., Bremen. In the background is the elevated curved track from the crusher of Carl Brandt. Photograph taken on 11th May 1957.
Peter Bauwens' depot at Wesseling on 7th October 1957 showing the traverser track and also (left to right) No.18 (60cm gauge), 18 (90cm gauge) 32, 8 and 9.
Some of Christian Krutwig's locomotives in store at Esch on 9th June 1957. (L‑R) 47, 28 (with large "5" site number on cabside), 71, 14, 70, 15 and 55.
The mixed narrow gauge track was continued straight back to one side of a traverser, able to move along the whole length of an eleven bay open fronted wooden shed. Most of the bays contained two sets of 90cm gauge tracks but the others had two sets of mixed 60cm and 90cm gauge tracks. There were more mixed gauge storage tracks on the same side of the traverser as the standard gauge loading dock. The outside storage tracks were filled with a vast collection of pumps, compressors, concrete mixers and winches, all mounted on their own rail wagons along with several V‑shaped hopper tipping wagons. Under cover were more rail-mounted items of civil engineering plant but also, in a rather sad state, eight 90cm gauge steam locomotives and two 60cm gauge steam locomotives.
Near to Köln and reached by a standard gauge line from the DB about 1km north of Longerich station (on the Köln-Neuss line) was a store of locomotives and wagons belonging to Christian Krutwig, a quarrying and railway building contractor. This store, near gravel pits at Esch, contained seventeen metre gauge and four 60cm gauge steam locomotives. All were standing in the open, most of the larger locomotives on three tracks parallel to the standard gauge line. These metre gauge lines converged to a single line outside a small workshop. At the time of my visit on a Sunday, one of the two locomotives outside the workshop appeared to be undergoing an overhaul. The four narrower gauge locomotives were on very short lengths of track, raised on piles of wooden sleepers and positioned at right angles to the standard gauge line.
The wagons were stored on tracks at the side of the minor road from Esch to the Militärring road on the north-west side of Köln. There were two main varieties, both side-tipping. Some were of all metal construction and modern appearance whilst the others, of about the same capacity, were of mainly wooden construction. In both cases, the action of tipping the bodies caused the downward facing side to be lifted so allowing the contents to fall out. Tipping was effected by a long handle sticking out at right angles to the sides of the wagons. Only the wooden wagons appeared to have brakes and these were worked from a screwed rod and hand lever operated from a small platform across an extension to the main frame members at one end of the wagon.
Two of Christian Krutwig's wooden tip wagons in store at Esch on 9th June 1957. Note the linkage for raising the side when the wagon is tipped.
Two of Christian Krutwig's steel tip wagons in store at Esch on 9th June 1957.
It is not known whether these locomotives and wagons were ever used in the brown coal workings which stretch from south of Köln and in a curve on the west side of that city to near Grevenbroich, about 32km to the north-west. In this fascinating area, both company and quarry contractors' locomotives were very busy in the summer of 1957, but this vast scale of operations is outside the scope of this short article.


text:
Q: How to Use Console for Input while also using Kivy UI ? (Python with Kivy) Question:
How do I access console for input without causing Kivy UI to freeze up?
Or, alternatively, how do I easily translate 1,000 input requests into Kivy UI format? (I'm skeptical of this at all being quick and easy)
Why I want this:
I have a program that asks for an exorbitant amount of input response from user. Upwards of 1,000 questions. Ideally, I'd have all the user input nested in the UI, but it seems like that would take way too long to program. So I've opted (for the time being) to have the user refer to the Python console to answer all the questions..
Potential Alternative to My Approach:
Find an easy way to implement console input requests into Kivy UI format... But with a 1,000 questions to ask, that approach seems rather daunting.
Current Problem:
When I click on 'Begin', the console then prompts for input.. However, simultaneously, the kv app ceases to respond. Which makes sense. But it'd be nice if it didn't crash when the user tries to click a button without responding to the console input request. I'm just unsure of how to prevent that.
Below is a runnable example...
Python Code:
from kivy.app import App
# kivy.require("1.10.0")
from kivy.lang import Builder
from kivy.uix.screenmanager import ScreenManager, Screen, FadeTransition
from kivy.uix.button import Button
from kivy.uix.label import Label
from kivy.uix.widget import Widget
from kivy.uix.scrollview import ScrollView
from kivy.properties import StringProperty, ObjectProperty, NumericProperty

class ScrollableLabel(ScrollView):
    text = "blah blah blah"

class AnotherScreen(Screen):
    text = StringProperty("BEGIN")
    def new(self):
        text = "SEE CONSOLE!"

class BackHomeWidget(Widget):
    pass

class MainScreen(Screen):
    pass

class ScreenManagement(ScreenManager):
    pass

presentation = Builder.load_file("Test_Running_Console.kv")

class MainApp(App):

    def goofytest(self):
        goofy = input("Enter something: ")

    def build(self):
        return presentation

if __name__ == "__main__":
    MainApp().run()

Kv Code:
#: import FadeTransition kivy.uix.screenmanager.FadeTransition

ScreenManagement:
    transition: FadeTransition()
    MainScreen:
    AnotherScreen:

<SmallNavButton@Button>:
    font_size: 32
    size: 125, 50
    color: 0,1,0,1

<MedButton@Button>:
    font_size: 30
    size_hint: 0.25, 0.1
    color: 0,1,0,1

<BackHomeWidget>:
    SmallNavButton:
        on_release: app.root.current = "main"
        text: "Home"
        pos: root.x, root.top - self.height

<ScrollableLabel>:
    Label:
        id: dataentryinstructions
        text: root.text
        font_size: 20
        text_size: self.width, None
        size_hint_y: None
        height: self.texture_size[1]
        padding_y: 10
        padding_x: 200

<MainScreen>:
    name: "main"
    FloatLayout:
        MedButton:
            on_release: app.root.current = "newgarage"
            text: "Create New"
            pos_hint: {"x":0.3728, "top": 0.4}

<AnotherScreen>:
    name: "newgarage"
    ScrollableLabel:
    BackHomeWidget:
    FloatLayout:
        MedButton:
            text: "Begin"
            pos_hint: {"right":1, "top": 1}
            on_release:
                root.new()
                app.goofytest()
    FloatLayout:
        MedButton
            text: "1. Stuff"
            pos_hint: {"x":0, "top": 0.75}
        MedButton:
            text: "2. Stuff"
            pos_hint: {"x":0, "top": 0.6}
        MedButton:
            text: "3. Stuff"
            pos_hint: {"x":0, "top": 0.45}
        MedButton:
            text: "4. Stuff"
            pos_hint: {"x":0, "top": 0.3}
        MedButton:
            text: "5. Stuff"
            pos_hint: {"x":0, "top": 0.15}

A: input() is a blocking task, and that kind of tasks are not friendly with the GUI since they block the main thread, a possible solution is to execute it in another thread:
import threading

class MainApp(App):
    def goofytest(self):
        thread = threading.Thread(target=self.input_threading)
        thread.daemon = True
        thread.start()

    def input_threading(self):
        goofy = input("Enter something: ")
        print(goofy)

    def build(self):
        return presentation

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Ett telegram (via engelskan, från grekiskan τῆλε, fjärran och γραμμα, skrift) är ett skriftligt meddelande avsett att befordras  telegrafiskt till mottagaren.  Telegrammet var under slutet av 1800-talet och stora delar av 1900-talet ett viktigt kommunikationsmedel för privatpersoner, företag och myndigheter och kännetecknades av att vara snabba (jämfört med posten) och samtidigt vara juridiskt giltiga. De användes också i stor utsträckning för gratulationshälsningar mellan privatpersoner, oftast i form av lyxtelegram. Numera är telegramtjänsten praktiskt taget utslocknad. I Sverige upphörde den 2002, men en privat tjänst för lyxtelegram finns fortfarande i landet.

Den som ville sända ett telegram kunde lämna in det över disk på en telegrafexpedition, ringa in det till telegramrummet eller sända in det via telex. Telegrammet överfördes sedan, i början med morsetelegrafi, senare med fjärrskrivmaskin via kabel (tråd), radio eller telefon till adressorten. Det avlämnades sedan till mottagaren med telegrambud, via telefon, per post eller via telex. Telegrammet betalades per ord.

Förmedling

Inlämning
Från början lämnades alla telegram in i lucka på telegrafexpeditionen. Avsändaren skrev ned telegrammet på en särskild blankett, en telegrafexpeditör tog emot telegrammet, taxerade det och tog emot avgiften. Med den tekniska utvecklingen kom andra inlämningssätt. Man kunde ringa in telegrammen till telegramrummet, och telexabonnenter kunde också telexa in sina telegram. I Sverige försvann inlämningen i lucka 1977, men de andra inlämningssätten fanns kvar ända tills tjänsten upphörde. Telegramrummet anropades på telefon 020-0020.

Telegrammen taxerades vanligen dels med en grundavgift, dels per ord. Avgiften erlades antingen i luckan eller debiterades på det telefon- eller telexabonnemang som uppgavs.

Befordran

När telegrammet tagits emot och taxerats, överfördes det per telegraf, telex eller per telefon till adresstationen. Många gånger behövde ett telegram passera en eller flera transitstationer på väg till adresstationen.

För överföringen följdes särskilda protokoll, som varierade beroende på vilket medium som användes. Vid gentexexpedition kunde ett telegram se ut som följer:

 ZCZC LPA264 LGE906 PLG408
 FRXX CO GBLG 020
 LONDON/LG 20 26 1405

 DUPONT
 15 RUE DE LA REPUBLIQUE
 NANTES

 JOHN AND SUE LEAVE BY ROAD TODAY EXPECTED TO ARRIVE
 EARLY TOMORROW
      DAD

 NNNN

Första raden kallas numbering line. Den börjar alltid med texten ZCZC, som indikerar början på telegrammet. Därefter följer telegrammets löpnummer från avsändande station och från de stationer som passerats längs vägen för transiterade telegram.

Andra raden, pilot line, förekommer enbart när telegrammet hanterats i automatiska förmedlingssystem. Den börjar med telegrammets destinationsindikator enligt ITU-T:s rekommendation F.32. Destinationsindikatorns två första tecken visar land och operatör, de två senare kan användas för att ange en viss telegrafstation inom landet eller XX om det bara finns en station. Därefter följer en tvåställig kod som innehåller telegrammets prioritet och tariff. Nästa kod är avgångsstationens destionationsindikator enligt F.32, och slutligen följer antalet taxerade ord.

Tredje raden benämns preamble line och inleds med avgångsstationens namn. Därefter följer antalet ord i telegrammet samt datum och tid när telegrammet lämnades in.

Efter en blankrad följer telegrammets adress, själva texten och slutligen underskriften. Telegrammet avslutas alltid med NNNN, som visar att överföringen är klar.

Skedde överföringen i stället med remsskrivande fjärrskrivmaskin eller med morse kunde formateringen skilja sig åt, men principen var densamma. Telegram som hade samma inlämnings- och adressort kallades lokaltelegram och förmedlades till nedsatt taxa. Den trafiken rörde sig huvudsakligen om lyxtelegram.

Avlämning
Telegrammen avlämnades via post, telex, telefon eller gångbud som kallades telegrambärare eller stationsbiträden. Telegram levererade märkta med PA en förkortning för franska estafette payée innebar att gångbudet redan hade fått betalt.

Speciella typer av telegram

Ett telegram kunde åsättas olika beteckningar vilket påverkade pris och hur snabbt telegrammet kom fram till mottagaren. Genom åren har det funnits en mängd olika typer och benämningarna har varierat. Nedan följer de senast gällande.

Telegrammets klass beskrev innehållet och korrespondenterna.

 SVH - telegram som avser skydda människoliv i sjö- eller luftfart
 SVH - telegram som avsåg skydda människoliv i fara till sjöss, på land, i luften eller i rymden samt, från WHO, angående epidemier. Dessa befordrades alltid före alla andra telegram
 ETATPRIORITE och ETAT - statstelegram med respektive utan företrädesrätt fick enbart sändas av statschefer, regeringschefer, överbefälhavare, diplomater och vissa FN:organ
 OBS, meteorologiska telegram
 RCT, telegram rörande personer som får skydd enligt genèvekonventionerna
 A, tjänstetelegram, som utväxlas mellan teleförvaltningarna
För tjänstetelegram användes ofta en kodförteckning med femställiga koder, t.ex. NOVEF = felhört i telefon .
 POSTFIN, telegrampostanvisningar, ett slags telegrafisk betalningsförmedling där adressaten hämtade ut pengar på ett namngivet postkontor
 LT, brevtelegram, som var ett slags rabatterat telegram som kunde ta längre tid att komma fram
 LTF, statliga brevtelegram
 CONFERENCE, telegram med företrädesrätt i samband med ITU:s konferenser

Alla andra telegram kallades privata telegram.

Telegrammet kunde också befordras med särskilda extratjänster:

 URGENT, iltelegram, som befordrades före andra telegram
 LX och LXDEUIL, lyxtelegram respektive lyxtelegram för kondoleans

 TFx, telefonerades ut till telefonnummer x
 TLXx, telexades ut till telexnummer x
 FAXx, faxades ut till faxnummer x

Exempel på andra klasser och tjänster som funnits längre tillbaka:
 RP, svar betalt
 TC, kollationering begärd, vilket innebar att hela telegrammet telegraferades tillbaka för att säkerställa att det överförts korrekt
 PC, mottagningsbevis
 SEM, signaltelegram, överfördes till fartyg från en signalstation på land med hjälp av semaforalfabetet
 TR,  télégraphe restante, en motsvarighet till poste restante som innebar att mottagaren fick hämta telegrammet på en telegrafstation
 MP, mains propres, påskrift på telegram som enligt avsändaren inte får lämnas till annan än adressaten personligen
 Nuit, avlämnas även nattetid
 Presse, presstelegram, användes för telegram till tidningar och nyhetsbyråer och avsågs publiceras i en tidning.

Historia
Det första telegrammet mellan Europa och Amerika utväxlades 5 augusti 1858.

Sverige

Uppbyggnad

I mitten av 1800-talet fanns i Sverige ett antal optiska telegraflinjer, vars största nackdel var att de krävde dagsljus och vackert väder för att fungera. 1835 togs de första initiativet till ett svenskt telegrafnät, när uppsalaastronomen Gustaf Svanberg köpte in apparatur för att bygga en linje mellan observatorierna i Stockholm och Uppsala. Linjen kom dock inte att byggas, dels av ekonomiska skäl, dels av rädsla för skadegörelse. 1846 demonstrerade Isak Fredrik von Heland och Anton Ludvig Fahnehjelm en egenkonstruerad telegrafapparat för Carl Akrell, dåvarande chef för optiska telegrafen. Apparaten kom senare också att förevisas för Oscar I och drottning Josefina. Inte heller detta projekt kom att realiseras. Från utlandet kom anbud, bland annat från en amerikansk entreprenör vid namn Robinson. Denne erbjöd sig 1849 bygga en linje mellan Göteborg och Stockholm men erbjudandet avböjdes, inte minst på grund av bristande intresse från handeln.

1852 var dock tiden mogen för en utredning. Åt Carl Akrell uppdrogs att lämna förslag dels på framtida stambanor för järnvägen, dels för en framtida elektrisk telegraf. I utredningen framhöll Akrell nyttan för handeln såväl som för det militära och politiken. Han föreslog två huvudlinjer, en mellan Stockholm och Helsingborg via Uppsala, Västerås, Örebro, Mariestad och Göteborg, dels en mellan Stockholm och Karlskrona via Norrköping och Linköping. Vissa utgreningar skulle finnas på linjerna, och från Helsingborg planerades också en linje till Köpenhamn för att ansluta nätet till resten av Europa. I huvudsak skulle telegrafnätet samordnas med byggandet av stambanorna.

Som första steg anlades en försöksanläggning byggd på Morses system mellan Stockholm och Uppsala. Linjen restes våren och försommaren 1853 till en kostnad av 15 000 riksdaler och i Stockholm förlades telegrafstationen till Axel Oxenstiernas palats. Redan den 16 juli sändes det första testtelegrammet, och under hösten uppläts linjen för gratis trafik så att personalen kunde öva sig. Redan då utväxlades samhällsviktig trafik rörande den svåra  koleraepidemin samma höst. Den 1 november 1853 öppnade linjen officiellt. Landshövding von Kræmer sände det första telegrammet till konung Oscar I. Telegrammet löd: .

För driften av nätet bildades Kongl. Electriska Telegraf-Werket med Akrell som chef. Efter den lyckade invigningen gjorde Akrell och von Heland en studieresa till Danmark och Tyskland för att lära sig mer om hur verksamheten kunde bedrivas och hur utlandstrafiken skulle kunna organiseras. Inte minst med anledning av Krimkriget, som också började 1853, sågs det viktigt att snarast få förbindelser med utlandet, så i mars 1854 påbörjades en fortsättning på Uppsalalinjen till Malmö och redan den 4 juli hade man nått Göteborg och den 1 januari 1855 anslöts linjen till det europeiska telegrafnätet via en sjökabel mellan Hildesborg och Vedbæk.

Nu skedde en snabb utbyggnad av nätet. 1856 hade det nått Gävle på vägen norröver, och 1858 fanns 66 telegrafstationer. En ny utlandsförbindelse öppnade 1860 mellan Haparanda och Torneå vidare mot Helsingfors och Ryssland. Parallellt med telegrafverkets byggnationer lade privata företag sjökablar, till exempel mot Ryssland och Storbritannien, där telegrafverket köpte in kapacitet. Det främsta av dessa företag var Det Store Nordiske Telegraf-Selskab, grundat  1869, som utöver sjökablarna också drev nät i flera andra länder. Telegrafverket hade ett långvarigt samarbete med Store Nordiske som varade till 1963. 1866 ansluts det europeiska nätet till USA med den första fungerande atlantkabeln, och 1870 stod linjen London-Calcutta färdig.

Konsolidering

I början av 1880-talet täckte telegrafnätet stora delar av världen och förband också en betydande andel av Sveriges städer. Utbyggnaden fortsatte men den tidiga försöksverksamheten var över och arbetet blev mer rutinbetonat. 1881 hade slutligen den optiska telegrafen spelat ut sin roll och stängdes. Under decenniet började också telefonen vinna mark i Sverige. Telegrafverket förhöll sig till en början avvaktande, men på de orter där privata telefonföreningar bildades kunde telegramtrafiken minska med upp till 60%, vilket sågs som allvarligt. I slutet av 1880-talet började man därför bygga telefonnät. I samband med detta konverterades ett antal telegrafstationer till rikstelefonstationer, vilket praktiskt innebar att telegrammen förmedlades per telefon till dessa stationer. Samtidigt som telefonen utgjorde en konkurrent till telegrafen, så gjorde den att telefonabonnenterna kunde ringa in sina telegram vilket i sin tur ökade telegramtrafiken.

Med den ökande trafiken krävdes också teknisk utveckling. En form av snabbtelegrafi, Wheatstonesystemet, infördes, först på de internationella linjerna men så småningom också inom landet. Med hjälp av detta kunde kapaciteten nästan fyrfaldigas på ledningarna. För att ytterligare påskynda hanteringen av telegrammen började man använda utrustning utvecklad av Frederick George Creed. Dessa apparater översatte morsesignalerna direkt till tryckt text på en pappersremsa. För att öka antalet ledningar infördes fantomisering på ledningarna och därmed ökades deras kapacitet med en tredjedel.

Ett viktigt steg som togs under denna period var införandet av trådlös telegrafi. 1899 hade marinen börjat med trådlös telegrafi till sina fartyg och ganska snart var många av örlogsfartygen utrustade med radiotelegraf. Trafik för civilt bruk påbörjades 1910, och 1911 startade Telegrafverket sin första kuststation vid Nya Varvet i Göteborg. Radiotrafik med utlandet skedde först på en radiovia mellan kuststationen i Boden och Ryssland år 1917. Radiotelegrafin med utlandet kom att bli mycket viktig i synnerhet under världskrigen, där Stockholms telegrafstation ofta var enda framkomliga vägen, till exempel för trafiken mellan grannhuvudstäderna Bukarest och Sofia. Efter första världskriget ökade trafiken mot USA, men de kabelförbindelser som fanns var hårt belastade. 1 december 1924 öppnades därför trafik med RCA över den nybyggda långvågsstationen i Grimeton utanför Varberg. Under andra världskriget var Grimeton Sveriges enda förbindelse mot USA eftersom all kabeltrafik var avbruten. Så småningom infördes också telegramtrafik över kortvåg med sändare först i Grimeton, senare även i Hörby, Borlänge och Karlsborg, och med huvudmottagarstationen i Vallby utanför Enköping.

Det fasta kortvågradiotelegrafnätet dimensionerades initialt för den starkt ökande telegramtrafiken under och strax efter det andra världskriget, men senare primärt för beredskapsändamål. Den sista reguljära internationella telegrafförbindelsen på kortvåg, till Ho Chi Minh-staden (Saigon), avvecklades 1991.

I samarbete med Svenska nationalföreningen mot tuberkulos lanserades 1912 lyxtelegrammen. Trafiken med lyxtelegram ökade snabbt, och kom under stora delar av 1900-talet att utgöra lejonparten av all inländsk trafik, upp till 80%. Eftersom antalet skickade lyxtelegram ökade i samband med storhelger och andra högtider, kom telegrafens att ständigt dras med ett besvärligt bemanningsproblem.

Annan teknisk utveckling under 1900-talets första hälft var införandet av fjärrskrivmaskiner. På 1930-talet kom de första remsskrivande maskinerna men ganska snart bytte man till maskiner som skrev på papper i löpande bana. Den sista morseförbindelsen lades ned 1948, linjen Haparanda-Torneå. För att öka kapaciteten på nätet och kunna samordna det med det snabbare växande telefonnätet infördes tontelegrafi, ett slags bärfrekvenssystem där en telefonförbindelse kunde användas för flera telegrafiförbindelser.

Från början behövde ett telegram passera alla stationer längs linjen innan det nådde sin adressort, men tidigt hade man centraliserat trafiken till några förmedlingscentraler varav Stockholm, Göteborg och Malmö var de största. Fjärrskrivmaskinerna på stationerna var alltså direkt anslutna till förmedlingscentralerna. Det innebar att telegram mellan två närbelägna orter ändå måste sändas över förmedlingscentralen, vilket medförde ett omfattande arbete med omtelegrafering på dessa. I ett försök i södra Sverige anslöts telegrafstationerna i stället till telexnätet, och kunde därmed koppla sig direkt till telexapparaten på adresstationen. Försöket blev framgångsrikt och infördes över hela landet trots att det krävdes dyrare utrustning på stationerna. Motsvarande typ av trafik på de internationella förbindelserna, Gentex, infördes 1960 mot Nederländerna och utökades därefter snabbt.

Nedgång och avveckling

Under 1950-talet var telegramtrafiken som störst, men den började därefter gå med förlust. Förbättrade och billigare riksförbindelser i telefonnätet gjorde att många valde telefon före telegram för långväga meddelanden, och många företag skaffade telex och kunde kommunicera direkt med varandra på så vis. Den ekonomiska utvecklingen för telegrafen vände också vid denna tid. I nätet fanns ett stort antal telegrafstationer med liten omfattning på trafiken. Det medförde att telegrafexpeditören på dessa stationer inte kunde användas optimalt. Under 1950- och 1960-talet gjordes därför ett 90-tal stationer om till telegrafexpeditioner, som använde telefon till närmaste riktiga telegrafstation för sin trafik. Dessutom centraliserades intelefoneringen av telegram till några större stationer. Televerket började också samarbeta med Pressbyrån för inlämning och utbärning av telegram på omkring 160 orter.

Stockholms telegrafstation hade ända sedan 1871 inhysts i kvarteret Æolus i Gamla stan. Eftersom lokalerna var omoderna och upprepade gånger hade fått anmärkning från arbetarskyddsmyndigheterna fick Ivar Tengbom uppdrag att rita om lokalerna. Ombyggnationen skedde mellan 1951 och 1960, och när de avslutades hade Stockholm en av världens mest moderna telegrafstationer, trots att kostnaderna blev nästan sex gånger mot budget. All teknisk utrustning var ny, och i byggnaden fanns ett invecklat system av rörpost och transportband för att flytta telegram mellan de olika expeditionerna. Man byggde dessutom en 1.250 m lång rörpost till filialtelegrafstationen på Birger Jarlsgatan.

Telegramrörelsen fortsatte dock uppvisa förlust trots taxehöjningar, så för att minska den manuella hanteringen och centralisera trafiken ytterligare infördes 1974 datorsystemet ATESTO. Dit anslöts en mängd telegrafförbindelser och systemet vidareförmedlade automatiskt den största delen av trafiken.

Trots dessa rationaliseringar, och trots reklamkampanjer under 1974 och 1975, minskade trafiken och kostnaderna ökade. Den 3 maj 1977 genomfördes en stor reform, baserad på det som kallades 1972 års telegrafutredning. Med denna reform slopades helt lyxtelegrammen, och i princip all utbärning av telegram och inlämning av telegram i lucka. Adressater utan telefon kunde däremot kallas till telegrammottagning med hjälp av taxi.  Adressaten fick då ringa upp telegramrummet och få telegrammet uppläst. Framför allt koncentrerades all telegramtrafik till två stationer, Stockholm och Göteborg. Därmed försvann 700 telegrafstationer i landet. Många av dessa hade haft minimal omfattning på trafiken. Efter denna reform marknadfördes telegrammet som en sistahandsutväg. Det ledde till mer än en halvering av den inländska trafiken, främst på grund av att lyxtelegrammen försvann. I denna veva började man också med datorstöd i telegramrummet, så att telegrammen gick rakt in i ATESTO-systemet.

Hos allmänheten fanns fortfarande efterfrågan på lyxtelegram, så 1984 återinfördes dessa i form av en lyxfolder. Det var alltså ett vanligt telegram som lades i ett dekorerat omslag. På så vis slapp man den tidskrävande omskrivningen av lyxtelegrammen som behövdes tidigare. 1986 stängdes slutligen telegrafstationen i Göteborg, och Stockholm var därmed den kvarvarande telegrafstation. 1988 bytte tjänsten namn till TeleOperatören, och under det namnet samlades också andra texttjänster. Iltelegrammen och kallelse med taxi slopades 1990. Året efter, 1991, hade ATESTO tjänat ut sin roll och ersattes av Meritel, ett samlat system för all texttrafik. 1993 flyttade telegrafstationen från Kvarteret Æeolus till Jakobsbergsgatan 16-22 tillsammans med andra manuella teletjänster inom Telia. Verksamheten med lyxtelegram såldes 1996 till företaget Rikstelegram AB i Göteborg.

Under 1990-talet subventionerades tjänsten av statsmakterna, men i september 2001 beslutade regeringen att stödet skulle upphöra. Detta år uppgick trafiken till omkring 3 600 avgående och cirka 5 600 ankommande telegram (lyxtelegrammen inte inräknade eftersom de var sålda till Rikstelegram). De vanligaste destinationerna detta år var Italien, Jugoslavien, Polen, Spanien och Storbritannien, och den ankommande trafiken kom främst från Cuba, Irak, Italien, Jugoslavien, Polen och Rumänien . Den 5 februari 2002 meddelade Telia att den internationella och nationella telegramtjänsten skulle upphöra från 1 maj samma år och att kundernas behov av textkommunikation tillgodosågs med billigare och mer moderna metoder som fax, e-post och sms.

Betydelse

Efter hand har telegrammen kommit att få en ceremoniell betydelse, framför allt vid högtidsdagar. Kungahuset sänder än idag gratulationstelegram till olika länder. I samband med bröllopsfester säger man, numera oegentligt, att man läser upp telegram, och åsyftar då att meddelandet ofta är skrivet på förtryckt gratulationskort av telegramtyp, även om det inte behöver ha levererats via en telegramtjänst.

Eftersom varje ord kostade pengar i ett telegram, utformades så småningom en telegramstil, som kännetecknas av meningar reducerade till de viktigaste orden, då ofta hjälpverb och småord kan utlämnas.

Andra betydelser

Den snabba telegrafin, med sina kortfattade telegram, skapade nya förutsättningar för nyhetsförmedlingen. Ordet telegram fick därmed en näraliggande betydelse, som ett kortfattat nyhetsmeddelande som förmedlades av en nyhetsbyrå eller telegrambyrå, till exempel Tidningarnas Telegrambyrå, TT. Ordet kom även en att beteckna en kort notis i nyhetssändningar i radio och TV. Nyhetspresentatören kan då kallas telegramredaktör.

Källor

Telegrafi

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Back in the days when print journalism ruled, major publishers had huge teams of fact-checkers and editors poring over every article before it went to press.
With the move to online publishing, those responsibilities have increasingly fallen on the shoulders of the content manager — a hybrid editor/strategist/project manager role with a bit of search engine optimization (SEO) thrown in.
I'm a content manager. It's my responsibility to make sure every piece of content I create for my clients is stellar — for their goals, their leads and their customers.
Is free from error, jargon and clichés.
Google rewards high-quality content, which is one of the greatest benefits of following these best practices.
Here are 10 ways (plus one bonus tip) to perfect your content before you press that "publish" button.
The goal of your content should always be to provide something of value to your readers so trust in your brand increases. This means when they're ready to purchase, your brand will be top of mind.
Use keyword research to discover popular terms and long-tail phrases that can inspire content. Make sure those terms are placed relevantly in header tags and throughout the content but don't keyword-stuff. As long as the terms are used naturally and relevantly, you'll be fine.
While the debate on human attention span rages on, there's no doubt the amount of content we have access to is larger than ever. According to the "2018 Benchmarks, Budgets and Trends-North America" reports by Content Marketing Institute and MarketingProfs, 91 percent of B2B marketers and 86 percent of B2C marketers use content marketing.
That's a ton of content, in addition to the more than 1 billion hours of YouTube videos watched daily, plus social media posts on Facebook, Instagram and other channels.
With so much content to choose from, breaking up content to make it more visually appealing helps capture and keep user attention, since online readers are apt to scan content. Use subheads, numbered or bulleted lists and short paragraphs to make your content scannable. These techniques fall in line with Google's own Developer Documentation Style Guide.
Unlike intentionally vague titles of great novels that offer mystery and intrigue to readers, writing headlines for the web is an art requiring the perfect blend of searchability and click-worthiness.
You want to craft headlines that include a keyword or two you want to rank for, but it also needs to be compelling enough to grab clicks.
Since the general consensus is that headlines longer than 65 or 70 characters will get cut off by search engines, make sure your keyword appears early in the headline. Such limited space means you should favor straightforwardness over getting cutesy — though there's still room to be creative in what you write.
Adding a strong call to action (CTA) to every web page and blog post is essential.
It tells the consumer the best next step to take.
It guides the user in the right direction.
It is helpful and relevant to the user's pain points.
Make sure the call to action you use on your blog post corresponds with the content and where the user is on the buyer journey. You wouldn't want to add a "Buy Now" button to a top-of-funnel informational piece, but a free consultation offer or a white paper download might make sense.
Linking within content is essential to elevate the user experience. There are external links and internal links. When using either type, the link should be relevant and helpful so that they enhance your search engine optimization process and provide value to the consumer.
External links. These links point to other websites besides the domain the content is on. External links are beneficial because they build credibility when you're linking to a (credible, authoritative) source. They can also be instrumental in creating partnerships with other publishers when they notice your content is linking to them. They can help to make your content more authoritative.
Internal links. These are links to content within the domain the content is on. Using internal links helps Google understand your website structure. They provide a better experience for the user, who can discover more information related to the content topic. They also can help nurture leads, since you're providing additional relevant and helpful content.
Make sure your links open to new tabs. This way, your content is still open for the user, and they won't have to go back and forth within a single window to consume content. You can also help to increase time on page and decrease bounce rate from your site, which can affect search rankings.
Exact match. This is a hyperlinked phrase which plainly states what the website is about.
Partial match. One or two keywords hyperlinked describe what the website is about.
Branded. This hyperlink is the name of the company.
Generic or nonbranded. Generally known as "click here" type anchors.
Anchor text that relates to the content the link is pointing to is best for search engine signals. Be mindful of using outbound anchor text that contains a keyword you want to rank for that depletes your link equity.
For example, if you run a pet store, don't link out to another pet store site using the words "best pet store" in the anchor. A generic keyword would be more appropriate to use as anchor text in this case.
There is a lot of content out there, more than most people have time to read. Developing entertaining and educational content increases the chances of it being clicked, read and shared.
If you need to link to sources to support your content, link to reputable, well-known sources within an industry and the primary source of the information.
When you're citing another source, include the name of the source, as well as a link. Links break, and pages go offline, so citing the name of the primary source helps keep your article credible.
Adding images to content is another great way to break it up and make it more visually appealing to users. Images are also important for search engine optimization. Google image search is the second-most used search platform after Google.com, accounting for more than one-quarter of US searches. By optimizing the images you feature in content with descriptive headlines, descriptions and tags, you can increase your chances of being seen in more image searches.
In February 2018, Google removed the "View Image" button in image search results, which means users have to click over to the website the image is on to see it in full context. This is great news for publishers, as Search Engine Land reports there was an average of a 37 percent increase in clicks from image searches throughout 58 websites since the change.
More users will see your content.
You gain a better return on investment with content because of new leads and sales.
Depending on your content management platform, you may easily have the ability to turn on a social sharing button feature. For platforms like WordPress, there is an array of free social sharing plugins you can add to your layout, which makes social buttons automatically appear on each piece of content.
Create your own CTA graphics for social sharing.
Write out a call to action within a post to join a discussion about it on your Facebook page.
When you can continue the conversation about a piece of content on a social network, engagement for the piece organically increases.
Use keywords, but don't repeat them or overuse them.
Use long-tail phrases that give more context to the content.
Write enticing descriptions that encourage users to click.
It used to be a best practice to cap meta descriptions at 160 characters; then, in late 2017, Google bumped that up to 320 characters, and now it looks like we're back down to the 160 range again. Make sure whatever you're writing is relevant, helpful and valuable, just like the content itself.
Well-written, error-free content says a lot about your brand and shows you care about quality.
Plus it makes content managers like me a little crazy when we see such obvious mistakes in content. Don't drive us batty. Proofread your content!
Megan Krause is a senior editor with Vertical Measures, a Phoenix-based digital marketing agency. Prior to this role she was managing editor at ClearVoice, a content marketing software startup. Megan has more than 15 years' experience in content writing, editing and strategy development, and she loves helping brands create great content that drives leads and boosts conversions. She's passionate about words, language, grammar, punctuation and style. And lasagna.


The proto-libertarian and anarchist Lysander Spooner argued that nowhere did the Constitution explicitly endorse slavery. It was for defenders of the values of 1776 and 1789 to help the slaves overthrow an illegitimate tyranny. In this he had the support of the Republican Frederick Douglass, who also wanted the United States to live up to its founding documents rather than to nullify or negate them. Meanwhile, the Democrats were unashamed advocates of the extension of slavery, and Lincoln was willing to submit to one humiliation after another in order, as he never tired of saying, "to preserve the Union."
John Brown could effortlessly outdo Garrison in any biblical condemnation of slavery. He could also easily surpass Lysander Spooner in his zeal to encourage and arm what the authorities called "servile insurrection." He strongly agreed with Douglass that the Union should be preserved and not dissolved. But he was incapable of drawing up any balance sheet between "preservation" and gradual emancipation, because he saw quite plainly that the balance was going the other way, and that the slave power was influencing and subordinating the North, rather than the other way about. Thus, despite his commitment to the Union, he was quite ready to regard the federal government as an enemy.
Originally a New Englander (and possibly a Mayflower descendant), Brown appeared to adopt and exemplify the adamant Calvinism of Jonathan Edwards, with his strict insistence on predestination and the "elect" and his vivid belief in eternal punishment for sinners. Reynolds gives some hair-raising examples of the culture of corporal punishment and cruel austerity that ruled Brown's own upbringing and the raising of his twenty children, and it is easy to see how such a combination of dogma and discipline might have given rise to the persistent rumor that he was partly unhinged (more than one of his sons became mentally disturbed). However, the story of his longer evolution makes this speculation a highly unsafe one.
For all his attachment to Calvinist orthodoxy, Brown felt himself very close to the transcendental school of Emerson and Thoreau. He formed important friendships in this circle, and relied on a "Secret Six" committee of supporters in Massachusetts, who stood ready to provide money and even weapons for his projects. He can hardly have been unaware of the religious heterodoxy of this group; and when it came to the no less critical matter of choosing his immediate entourage of radical would-be guerrillas, he readily included Jews, Indians, Paine-ite deists, and agnostics. Most of all, however, he insisted on including blacks. This at once distinguished him from most abolitionists, who preferred to act "for" the slaves rather than with them. But Brown had made a friendship with a slave boy at the age of twelve, and would appear to have undergone a Huck Finn—like experience in the recognition of a common humanity. Later he studied the life and tactics of Nat Turner, and of the rebellious Haitian Toussaint L'Ouverture, and decided that a full-scale revolt of the oppressed, rather than any emancipation from above, was the need of the hour.
Reynolds focuses on the three most sanguinary and dramatic episodes in Brown's career: the engagements at Pottawatomie and Osawatomie, in Kansas, and the culminating battle at Harpers Ferry. To read this extended account is to appreciate that Brown, far from being easily incited to rage and rashness, was capable of playing a very long game. He was naturally drawn to Kansas, because it had become the battleground state in a Union that was half slave and half free. The pro-slavery settlers and infiltrators from Missouri were determined to colonize the territory and to pack its polling booths, and in this they often had the indulgence of decrepit and cowardly presidents, including Franklin Pierce. Until the appearance of Brown and his men on the scene, the slave power had had things mostly its own way, and was accustomed to using any method it saw fit. After the murder of the abolitionist editor Elijah Lovejoy, and especially after the famous assault on Senator Charles Sumner by Representative Preston Brooks, Brown decided on a reprisal raid, and slew several leading pro-slavery Kansans in the dead of night. There is no question that this represented only a small installment of payback, though Reynolds nervously characterizes it as "terrorism" and spends a great deal of time and ink in partly rationalizing the deed.
The superfluity of this is easily demonstrated. Not only had the slaveholders perpetrated the preponderance of atrocities, and with impunity at that, but they had begun to boast that northerners and New Englanders were congenitally soft and altogether lacking in "chivalric" and soldierly qualities. What could be more apt than that they should encounter John Brown, careless of his own safety and determined to fill the ungodly with the fear of the risen Christ? Every Cavalier should meet such a Roundhead. After Pottawatomie the swagger went out of the southerners, and after the more conventional fighting at Osawatomie, and Brown's cool-headed raid to liberate a group of slaves and take them all the way to Canada, they came to realize that they were in a hard fight. Furthermore, their sulfurous reaction to this discovery, and their stupid tendency to paint Brown as an agent of the Republican Party, made it harder and harder for the invertebrate Lincolnians to keep the issue of slavery under control.
In his work in Kansas, and his long toil on the Underground Railroad, Brown was essentially mounting a feint. He knew that subscribers and supporters in New England would give him money, and even arms, for these limited and shared objectives. But he wanted to divert the money, and the arms, to the larger purpose of making any further Lincolnian retreats and compromises impossible. For years he had been studying the keystone town of Harpers Ferry, situated at the confluence of the Shenandoah and the Potomac, and handily placed for the potentially guerrilla-friendly Allegheny Mountains.
Reynolds shows that the strategic design was not as quixotic as one has often been led to believe. This northwestern portion of Virginia was generally sympathetic to abolition and to the Union (indeed, its later cleaving into the new free state of West Virginia, in 1862, is the only secession from that epoch that still survives). The fall months were the harvest season, when disaffection among overdriven slaves was more general. And the national political climate was becoming more febrile and polarized.
surrender was J.E.B. Stuart, later Lee's celebrated cavalry officer. Among the officers who supervised at Brown's hanging was Thomas Jackson, soon to become the renowned "Stonewall." Among the soldiers at Brown's execution was a dashing Southern actor, John Wilkes Booth.
If this does not vindicate Brown's view that all had been predestined by the Almighty before the world was made, it nonetheless does do something to the hair on the back of one's neck. As do the words finally uttered in Lincoln's Second Inaugural, about every drop of blood drawn by the lash being repaid by the sword, and the utter destruction of the piled-up wealth of those who live by the bondsman's toil. The final reckoning with slavery and secession was described by Lincoln himself as one great "John Brown raid" into the South, and was on a scale that would have brought a wintry smile to the stern face of Oliver Cromwell. The "Marseillaise" of that crusade ("The Battle Hymn of the Republic," which first appeared, as did many other important documents of the Brown-Emerson alliance, in the pages of this magazine) was an adaptation of the foot soldiers' song about Old Osawatomie Brown. One reserves the term "quixotic" for hopeless causes. Harpers Ferry was the first defeat, as it was also the seminal victory, of a triumphant cause, precisely because it sounded a trumpet that could never call retreat.
So much for the apocalyptic and, if you like, "transcendental" influence of Brown. Reynolds, building on the earlier work of Merrill Peterson, traces another, gentler influence that may be no less consequential. Almost all whites in that epoch feared almost all blacks. And many blacks resented the condescension of anti-slavery organizations—most especially those groups that wanted to free them and then deport them to Africa. John Brown shared his life with slaves, and re-wrote the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution so as to try to repair the hideous wrong that had been done to them. (In issuing these documents, by the way, he exculpated himself from any ahistorical charge of "terrorism," which by definition offers nothing programmatic.) The record shows that admiration for Brown was intense, widespread, and continuous, from Douglass to DuBois and beyond. Our world might be a good deal worse than it is had not numberless African-Americans, from that day to this, taken John Brown as proof that fraternity and equality, as well as liberty, were feasible things and could be exemplified by real people.


Maggie Hughes is a young unwed mother forced to abandon her baby to a merciless public welfare system, and the lengths to which the two will go to find one another in a society that seems desperate to keep them apart.
Set in 1950s Quebec, when the French and English tolerate each other with precarious civility, Joanna Goodman has created a provocative tale of secrets and lies, love and longing, and the unbreakable bond of motherhood in The Home For Unwanted Girls.
Maggie idolizes her Anglo father, who has lofty ambitions for his daughter that don't include marriage to the poor, orphaned French boy who lives on the neighboring farm.
Garbril Phenix has caught Maggie's eye and she refuses to break it off with him even after she is sent away to live with her aunt and uncle. Then the fifteen-year-old girl becomes pregnant, and her ashamed parents make arrangements behind her back.
As soon as Maggie gives birth, her baby daughter Elodie is taken from her, but not before she vows to find her way back to the little girl someday.
Elodie is put into Quebec's impoverished orphanage system to be raised by a child born in sin until she is adopted. Her life takes a tragic turn when a new law is passed that grants psychiatric hospitals more federal funding than orphanages.
Overnight, Elodie and thousands of other orphans are declared mentally ill, and ruining any hope they had of living a normal life outside the home.
Elodie is a bright and perceptive child who knows that something is not right, that she is not insane. While trapped behind bars, she has no choice but to endure the abuses and maltreatment of the nuns who see her as less than human.
After enduring years of harsh labor and brutal punishments, the laws are overturned and Elodie is released from prison, but at seventeen years old, with no education, no resources, and no experience living in the real world, her new life is every bit as difficult as the one she left behind.
As Elodie is continuing to battle, Maggie's life has moved on exactly as her parents hoped it would. She is married to a successful businessman and eager to start a family, but she is unable to forget the daughter that she had taken away from her at such a young age.
Maggie has a fateful reunion that brings old wounds and old loves back to the surface, and with that, she realizes that to take hold of her future, she must reclaim her past, including her daughter.
After her search, marked by doors being slammed in her face, leads to a dead end, she finally understands that it must end where it all began, with her father, who worshipped her as a child, gave her everything, and then took it all away when he was the one to take her daughter from her arms.
Goodman, the author of four previous novels including The Finishing School, does an exceptional job in The Home For Unwanted Girls of confronting a terrible past marked by history that is almost too shocking to comprehend, and in the process gives Maggie and Elodie something women at that time did not have, a chance for truth, happiness, and a chance at redemption.
All of this makes The Home For Unwanted Girls an emotionally raw and a compelling page-turner that you can't put down.
In the early 1950s, Quebec Premier Maurice Duplessis falsely classified thousands of orphans as mentally ill in order to get more funding. At the time, the federal government paid higher subsidies to mental hospitals than it did to orphanages. Overnight, these orphans – considered "children of sin" born to unwed mothers in a time when abortion and contraceptives were illegal – were declared "mentally insane." Orphanages were converted to mental hospitals, schooling stopped and many of the children were shipped off to proper psychiatric institutions run by the Catholic Church, where they suffered heartbreaking sexual and physical abuse. Some were lobotomized and others died there. Without a basic education, the survivors often faced a life of poverty and discrimination that followed them long after they left the hospitals.
I've always been fascinated with Quebec politics, particularly with the long volatile history between French and English. I was first inspired to write about my mother's childhood growing up in Quebec with a French-Canadian mother and an Anglophone father, and the confusion she felt at being neither fully one nor the other in a province that demanded a side be picked. It was during my research that I stumbled upon the shocking history of the Duplessis orphans, and I knew I had to tell their story.


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Historynativ32017-11-29T18:01:33+00:00
There are a number of steps involved in forming a new political party. The steps that created the Libertarian Party of Minnesota were not all done by a single group of people working together. After decades have passed, it is difficult to pull together those various steps, who did them, and to determine which steps actually constitute the founding of the LP of MN. Hopefully, this account will give credit to whom it is due without being overly-concerned about details.
It's clear that the impetus behind the start of our state party, in 1972, was that the Libertarian Party had just been started on the national level, and it was trying to run Dr. John Hospers, a philosophy professor from California and close associate of Ayn Rand, for President of the United States. That news interested a number of Minnesotans, and caused several independent conversations about forming a State LP party branch.
Charles Brekke and Steve Richardson wrote a letter to the Libertarian Party, in Colorado, requesting a charter for a state group. Meanwhile, Frank Haws and Rich Kleinow were discussing the same idea from an organizational aspect, with an eye toward getting Hospers on the ballot in Minnesota. Soon, a plan was being developed by the combined group.
Frank Haws and some of the others who were interested in forming this party, knew Ed Contoski as one of the original sponsors of the early lectures on objectivism, and thought that he would be best suited for the role of State Chairman. Charles Brekke volunteered to be secretary and do as much of the detail work as possible, and Ed was convinced to become party Chair.
The first real meeting was held at the home of Charles and Georgiena Brekke, at 4821 Lyndale Avenue South, Minneapolis.
At that meeting Ed Contoski was elected the first state chairman. Rich Kleinow was elected vice chairman, Charles Brekke secretary, and Claudia Jenson treasurer. Others at the meeting were Frank Haws, Jack and Jane Buxell, Marc and Arnette Putman, and Georgiena Brekke. Charles Brekke had contacted the Minnesota Secretary of State's office and learned that to be officially recognized as a political party in Minnesota it was necessary to have ten members. The eleven original signers of that charter, in alphabetic order, were:
Charles Brekke
Georgiena Brekke
Jack Buxell
Jane Buxell
Ed Contoski
Rich Kleinow
Franklin Haws
Claudia Jensen
Arnette Putman
Marc Putman
Stephen Richardson
These original eleven people were the founders of the Libertarian Party of Minnesota and comprised the Executive Committee.
During the early years, those who decided to form the Libertarian party, both nationally and in Minnesota, were criticized by others in the objectivist movement, and by Ayn Rand herself. Clearly, these were people who wanted to put their beliefs into action. for that we are in debt to their courage and persistence.
In 1974, Rich Kleinow and Claudia Jensen were the first two candidates for the Libertarian Party of Minnesota, on the ballot for Governor and Lieutenant Governor, respectively.
Dale Hemming was the eleventh member of the party, and worked vigorously on behalf of the party in the early years and ran for Congress in 1976 and 1978.
Many early members have moved to other places, and some have become inactive. It should be noted that volunteer work in a young organization often creates "burnout" and "dropout". This is probably more true in a political party, trying to overcome the significant hurdles created by incumbent parties to stifle any new competition. Even so, many more individuals joined the LP of MN during the next few years, and at this time, there are still many active members with 20 years or more.


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