text:
#  NEW HART'S RULES

# _The Oxford Style Guide_

#  NEW
HART'S
RULES

#  _The Oxford Style Guide_

_Second edition_

Anne Waddingham

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries

© Oxford University Press 2005, 2014

The moral rights of the author have been asserted

Adapted from _The Oxford Guide to Style_ (2002)
by R. M. Ritter
First published 2005
Second edition published 2014

Impression: 1

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and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
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Data available Library of Congress Control Number: 2014933815

ISBN 978–0–19–957002–7

ebook ISBN 978–0–19–164914–1

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and other countries.

# Preface

_New Hart's Rules_ is a guide to style designed for people writing or working with text in English. Its twenty-one chapters give a full account of such matters as capitalization, hyphenation, abbreviation, italicization, notes and references, work titles, quotations, bibliography, and publishing terms. Advice is given on dealing with scientific and foreign-language material, and on preparing lists, tables, and illustrations. The text is clearly written and laid out, with short paragraphs and many illustrative examples.

_Hart's Rules for Compositors and Readers at the University Press, Oxford_ was first printed in 1893. Horace Henry Hart (1840–1916) was Printer to the University of Oxford and Controller of the University Press between 1883 and 1915. _Hart's Rules_ was originally a slim twenty-four-page booklet intended only for staff of the printing house at the Clarendon Press, the learned imprint of Oxford University Press, but Hart decided to publish it for the public after finding copies of it for sale. In all, _Hart's Rules_ was published in thirty-nine editions. Over time its size and influence grew, and it came to be regarded as the essential handbook for editors and typesetters. In 2002 a new edition was published under the name _The Oxford Guide to Style_. It revised and expanded _Hart's Rules_ , and was published in a larger format. _New Hart's Rules_ marked a return to the _Hart's Rules_ name and small 'handbook' format that have been renowned for more than a hundred years.

_New Hart's Rules_ has been written for contemporary writers and editors of all kinds. Whereas the original _Hart's_ concentrated on style appropriate to academic publications, _New Hart's Rules_ responds to the challenge of a wider constituency. Authors, including self-publishers, copy-editors, proofreaders, designers, typesetters, and anyone working on ebooks, websites, and other digital products, newspapers, magazines, reports, or theses will find here the advice they need on the language and presentation of their text.

_New Hart's Rules_ continues to explain the 'house style' traditionally used at Oxford University Press, but it also gives a full account of widely used contemporary practices in all areas of writing and publishing, and makes clear the differences, where they exist, between British and American style; a new chapter focusing exclusively on this topic has been added in this edition.

Most of the illustrative examples in _New Hart's Rules_ are taken from the Oxford English Corpus, a database containing hundreds of millions of words of real English, or from the Oxford Reading Programme. The book's spellings and recommendations are consistent with those given in the current range of Oxford dictionaries, and with those in the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_.

_New Hart's Rules_ forms part of a trio of books designed specifically for writers and editors, along with the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ and the _New Oxford Spelling Dictionary_. These three books continue to form the complete reference set for everyone who is concerned to reach the highest standards in producing written works. They are intended to be used alongside a current Oxford dictionary such as the newly relaunched Oxford Dictionary website (www.oxforddictionaries.com), the _Concise Oxford English Dictionary_ (twelfth edition, 2011) or the slightly larger _Oxford Dictionary of English_ (third edition, 2010), which also includes encyclopedic material. For copy-editors the standard reference is Judith Butcher's _Copy-Editing: The Cambridge Handbook for Editors, Authors and Publishers_ (fourth edition, 2006).

This edition of _New Hart's Rules: The Oxford Style Guide_ is also available online, on the Oxford Dictionaries website. The site is updated regularly and gives you free access to our largest dictionary and thesaurus of current English as well as bilingual dictionaries for many languages. It also offers information on usage, grammar, and writing, our Word of the Day, a language blog, and more. In addition, the Gold subscription package features millions of example sentences and specialist language reference resources—including this book and the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_. Find Oxford Dictionaries online at www.oxforddictionaries.com.

# Contents

_Editorial team_

1. The parts of a book

2. Preparing copy

3. Spelling and hyphenation

4. Punctuation

5. Capitalization

6. Names

7. Italic, roman, and other type treatments

8. Work titles in text

9. Quotations and direct speech

10. Abbreviations and symbols

11. Numbers and dates

12. Languages

13. Law and legal references

14. Science, mathematics, and computing

15. Lists and tables

16. Illustrations and artwork

17. Notes and references

18. Bibliography

19. Indexing

20. Copyright and other publishing responsibilities

21. US and British English

Proofreading marks

Glossary of printing and publishing terms

Index

# Editorial team

# Editor in chief of 2014 edition

Anne Waddingham

# Editor in chief of 2005 edition

Rosemary Roberts

# Project managers

Jamie Crowther

Rebecca Lane

# Project manager of 2005 edition

Angus Stevenson

# Contributors to both editions

Jane Bainbridge

Roger Bennett

Anthony Esposito

Ralph Evans

Nicola Freshwater

Carolyn Garwes

Orin Hargraves

Jacqueline Harvey

Leofranc Holford-Strevens

Simon Lancaster

Richard Lawrence

Ray Loughlin

Dorothy McCarthy

Susan Ratcliffe

Nick Rollin

Julian Roskams

Tom Stableford

Anne Waddingham

Maurice Waite

# Design

Michael Johnson

# Special thanks to

Nick Allen

Melinda Babcock

Sarah Barrett

Katrina Campbell

Nic Gibson

Barbara Horn

Veronica Hurst

Rebecca Kaye

Elizabeth Knowles

Judith Luna

Kathleen Lyle

Katherine Martin

David MacDonald

Maureen MacGlashan

Don McConnell

Peter Momtchiloff

Sandy Nicholson

Sarah Price

Kim Richardson

David Shirt

Melissa Spielman

Della Thompson

Bill Trumble

George Tulloch

Jane Ward

Kieran Waddingham

Sean Waddingham

Frances Whistler

John Woodruff

# CHAPTER 1

#  The parts of a book

# 1.1 General principles

A book usually consists of three sections: **preliminary matter** (also called **prelims** or **front matter** ), the **main text** , and **end matter**. All books have some kind of prelims, all have a text, and most works of non-fiction have end matter. The prelims and end matter usually contain a number of items or sections, subject to a given order and to conventions that control their presentation.

In discussing the parts of a printed book the following terms are used:

• **spread** or **double-page spread** —the pair of pages (left-hand and right-hand) exposed when the book is opened at random; the term **opening** is also used. The terms are sometimes distinguished, with a 'spread' being a pair of pages that are designed as an entity, for example in a highly illustrated book, and an 'opening' being any pair of facing pages.

• **recto** —the right-hand page of a spread: a recto always has an odd page number.

• **verso** —the left-hand page of a spread: a verso always has an even page number.

The recto is regarded as the 'more important' of the two pages of a spread. The main text always begins on a recto, and in a book divided into parts (Part I, Part II, etc.) a new part begins on a fresh recto, even though the preceding page may be blank. The design of a book may require that a new chapter begin on a fresh recto. The main items or sections in the prelims customarily begin on a fresh recto.

Readers of ebooks and other nonprint materials are often able to adjust the display of text to their preferences, and consequently the concepts of double-page spreads, rectos, and versos are not as meaningful in digital contexts. Publishers and authors need to consider carefully how material that depends on highly designed spreads in print will transfer to nonprint publication.

# 1.2 Preliminary matter

## 1.2.1 Constituents

Preliminary matter is any material that precedes the main text of the book. Preliminary pages are usually numbered with lower-case Roman numerals (rather than Arabic numerals) so that any late changes to the content or extent of the prelims will not affect the pagination of the main text. Page numbers (called **folios** ) are not shown on every page of the prelims, though every page has its number (see also 1.5.1).

Prelims will always include some, and may include all, of the following items or sections, usually (but not always) in this order:

half-title page

half-title verso

frontispiece

title page

title page verso

dedication

foreword

preface

acknowledgements

contents

lists of illustrations, figures, and maps

list of tables

tables of cases and legislation (law books)

list of abbreviations

list of contributors

note to the reader

epigraph

Some but not all of these sections have headings in print, which are usually set to the same design as chapter headings. To facilitate navigation, digital or online versions may differ from print in having items in a different order (moving copyright information to the back, for example), or may include headings such as _Dedication_ that don't traditionally appear in print.

Besides prelims and end matter, a hardback (or **case-bound** ) book may have **endpapers** at both ends of the book, often of slightly stronger paper than the text; endpapers consist of a single sheet, half of it pasted to the inside of the case and half forming a **flyleaf** or blank page at the beginning or end of the book. Figures, maps, or other illustrations are sometimes printed on the endpapers; any that are essential should be repeated within the text, because endpapers may be obscured or removed altogether in library copies of the book or when it is published in paperback or as a digital edition.

## 1.2.2 Half-title

The half-title page is the first page (p. i) of the book (after a flyleaf, if any) and thus falls on a recto. It contains the main title, and only the main title, of the book (or the title of the volume if the work is in more than one volume).

Not all books now have a half-title, and it may sometimes be dispensed with as a space-saving measure (see 1.8).

## 1.2.3 Half-title verso

The verso of the half-title page (p. ii) is often blank, though it may carry announcements from the publisher such as a list of other books in the series to which the volume belongs, or a list of other works by the same author. Sometimes it will be given over to a frontispiece (see below). The half-title verso falls opposite the title page and may be incorporated into a special design for this important spread.

## 1.2.4 Frontispiece

A frontispiece is an illustration that, in print, faces the title page, an important position that is justified by the significance or representative content of the image. In a biography a frontispiece is usually a portrait of the subject, in a work of history it might be a map or a facsimile of a document, and so on.

If the book has integrated illustrations (see 16.1.1), the frontispiece is likely to be printed on text paper like all the other illustrations. If the book has plates, the frontispiece, like other pictures, will usually be printed on glossy art paper; in this case the frontispiece will appear on the verso of a single leaf **tipped in** (that is, inserted and pasted) between the half-title verso and the title page. Note that tipping-in is a costly process and is best avoided if possible.

Like any illustration, a frontispiece will generally be identified by a caption, which may be printed beneath the image or close by (at the foot of the title page verso, for example). The frontispiece is, exceptionally, listed on the contents page (see 1.2.11 below).

As a frontispiece may not always be reproduced in all subsequent editions of a book (a paperback edition, for example), the author should avoid referring to it in the text.

## 1.2.5 Title page

The title page (p. iii) presents at least the following details:

• the complete title and subtitle of the work

• a volume number, if any

• the name of the author or editor

• the publisher's name (called the **imprint** ).

It may also include other, similar, information: for example a series title; the names of other people involved in the book's preparation, such as a translator or an illustrator; the place of publication or the cities in which the publisher has offices; the publisher's logo or **colophon** (device or emblem); and the date of publication.

The roles of people other than the author are defined by an introductory phrase, such as:

Selected and edited by

Translated by

With illustrations by

## 1.2.6 Title page verso

The title page verso (p. iv, also, variously, called the **copyright** , **biblio** , or **imprint** page) contains the essential printing and publication history of the work. It presents at least the following details:

• publisher's imprint

• date of publication

• publishing history

• copyright line

• copyright notice(s)

• assertion of moral rights

• limitations on sales

• cataloguing in publication data

• ISBN

• statements concerning performing rights

• printer's name and location.

### Publisher's imprint

The imprint consists of:

• the publisher's name (or the name of a subdivision of the company if this bears a separate name)

• the publisher's full registered postal address

• the place of publication.

It may also include the names of associated companies or offices, and the cities in which they are located.

### Date of publication

The date of publication is given on the title page verso, whether or not it appears on the title page. For the first edition of a work the date of publication is usually the same as the copyright date (see below).

### Publishing history

The publishing history of the book includes:

• reference to simultaneous co-publications of the work (with the name and location of the co-publishers)

• a description of the current version of the work (for example its edition number, if other than the first, or its status as a reprint)

• the sequence of editions, reprints, and publication in different bindings that has preceded the current version of the work, each of which is dated.

An **edition** is a version of a book at its first publication and at every following publication for which more than minor changes are made: a book goes into a new edition when it is revised, enlarged, abridged, published in a new format, or published in a different binding. A new edition requires a new ISBN (see below).

A **reprint** or **impression** is a republication of a book for which no corrections or only minor corrections are made. The publishing history usually distinguishes between these two states, describing them as 'reprinted' and 'reprinted with corrections'. The publishing history usually details the issuing of multiple reprints in a single year: _Reprinted 2004 (twice)_.

### Copyright line

To qualify for protection under the Universal Copyright Convention, and for reasons of best practice, copyright ownership in a work must be stated in a particular form, giving the copyright holder's name and the year of first publication, preceded by the copyright symbol:

© Ann Jones 2014

A work may have multiple copyright holders, such as co-authors, an illustrator, a translator, or the contributor of an introduction; the rights of each of them must be separately stated.

Copyright may be held by the publisher rather than by the creator(s) of the work, who in this case will have assigned the rights permanently, rather than have licensed them to the publisher.

For guidelines on copyright see Chapter 20.

### Copyright notice(s)

Many publishers include one or more copyright notices in their books, explicitly reserving certain rights in the work. Such notices relate to reproduction, electronic storage, transmission in other forms, and rebinding. An example may be seen on the title page verso of this book.

### Assertion of moral rights

Under the UK's Copyright Act 1988 certain 'moral rights' in the work are enjoyed by its creator. Of these the right of paternity (the right to be identified as the author of the work) does not exist unless the author has explicitly asserted it. The assertion of this right, or of the author's moral rights in general, is recorded on the title page verso in a form such as:

The author's moral rights have been asserted

For an explanation of moral rights see Chapter 20.2.4.

### Cataloguing in publication (CIP) data

Some national libraries, notably the British Library and the Library of Congress, compile catalogue records of new books before their publication. Publishers may include such records in full on the title page verso of the book, or may simply note that they are available. CIP data may not be altered in any way, even if it contains errors, without the written permission of the issuing library.

The CIP data is usually the means of stating the **ISBN** (International Standard Book Number), because this number is essential to the catalogue record. If CIP data is not reproduced in full the ISBN must be included elsewhere on the title page verso. The ISBN uniquely identifies the book in the particular edition to which it is attached. A new ISBN is needed for every new edition of the book, including reissue in a different binding and ebook editions. Each volume of a multi-volume work usually has its own ISBN, as may the set as a whole, though in some cases (notably where the volumes are not separately available for sale) a single number may be used for the whole set. The previous ten-digit ISBNs were replaced by thirteen-digit ISBNs in 2007; during the transition period, both were included.

A serial publication, such as a journal, magazine, or yearbook, has an **ISSN** (International Standard Serial Number), which is the same for all issues of the work.

The CIP data will often be accompanied by an indication of what impression a particular book represents. This may be a single number, or a series of numbers, the lowest number of which is that of the current impression. So the following line denotes a second impression:

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

### Performing rights agencies

The public performance of dramatic and musical works is generally controlled on behalf of copyright holders by agents whom they empower to license performing rights. A clause stating that the right to perform the work is restricted, and giving the name and address of the agent to whom application must be made for permission to mount a performance, usually appears on the title page verso of printed plays and music.

### Printer's name and location

The printer's name and location must be included on the title page verso.

### Other information

The title page verso may present further information about the book as a publication. Typical elements include details of the design and production of the book, including the name and size of the typeface used and the name and location of the typesetting firm.

## 1.2.7 Dedication

The dedication is a highly personal expression on the part of the author. The publisher usually accepts its wording and content unchanged, and its design is usually subject to the author's approval when that of the rest of the book is not. Whenever possible the dedication falls on a recto (usually p. v), but if, for reasons of space, it must be relocated to a verso, one must be chosen that gives it sufficient prominence (for example the last verso preceding the first page of the text).

## 1.2.8 Foreword

The foreword is a recommendation of the work written by someone other than the author. He or she is usually named at the end of the piece, or in its title, and in the contents list. The distinction between the foreword and the preface (see below) should be noted and the correct title given to each of these sections of the front matter. The foreword usually begins on a fresh recto.

## 1.2.9 Preface

The preface is the section where the author sets out the purpose, scope, and content of the book. In the absence of a full acknowledgements section, the author may include in the preface brief thanks to colleagues, advisers, or others who have helped in the creation of the work.

In a multi-author work the preface may be written by the work's editor ( _Editor's preface_ ). All works in a series may contain the same preface by the series editor ( _Series editor's preface_ ), which precedes the preface by the author of each work. Successive editions of a work may have their own prefaces, each of which is appropriately titled (for example _Preface to the second edition_ ). If one or more earlier prefaces are reprinted in a new edition, they follow, in reverse numerical order, the preface belonging to that new edition; for example:

Preface to the paperback edition

Preface to the second edition

Preface to the first edition

The preface usually begins on a fresh recto, as do each of multiple prefaces unless reasons of economy dictate otherwise.

## 1.2.10 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements (or, in US spelling, _Acknowledgments_ ) are of two types: those recognizing the ideas, assistance, support, or inspiration of those who have helped the author to create the work; and those listing the copyright holders in material (such as quotations and extracts) reproduced in the book. The first type may, if those acknowledged are few, be included in the preface (see above). The second type relate to the legal requirement to acknowledge the sources of reproduced material and in many cases to gain permission from copyright holders or their licensees for its use, and as such the wording printed should be exactly as required by the copyright holder, even if this is inconsistent with style used elsewhere in the book. (For guidelines on copyright see Chapter 20.)

It is best to separate the two types of acknowledgement. The author's personal thanks follow the preface and are called simply 'Acknowledgements'. The names of those who hold copyright in verbal material (such as epigraphs or quotations) are listed in a separate section headed 'Copyright acknowledgements', which can appear either in the prelims or in the end matter. Acknowledgement lines for figures, tables, and similar illustrations reproduced in the text are best listed alongside the illustration's caption rather than on a separate page, unless otherwise specified by the copyright holder.

## 1.2.11 Contents

The list of contents (headed _Contents_ ) always falls on a recto. It records the title and initial page number of every titled section that follows it in the prelims, part titles, chapter titles, and all sections in the end matter, including the index. It usually includes reference to the frontispiece if one is present (see 1.2.4). lists in the prelims are referred to on the contents page as _List of Illustrations, List of Abbreviations_ , etc., even though their own headings are best formulated simply as _Illustrations, Abbreviations_ , etc.

Part titles, preceded by the word _Part_ and a number, are listed in full, and a page number is given unless it is that of the following chapter in the part. The word _Chapter_ may, but need not, appear before the number and title of each chapter, though if it is used in the list of contents it should also appear at the head of each chapter in thetext. It is customary to use upper-case Roman numerals for part numbers (see 1.3.3) and Arabic numerals for chapter numbers (see 1.3.4).

In complex works, such as textbooks, headings within chapters may be included on the contents page or even as a subsidiary table of contents at the start of each chapter. In a multi-author volume authors' names as well as chapter titles are given in the contents list.

The wording, punctuation, capitalization, use of italics, and form of authors' names in the contents list must match the headings as they appear in the text itself. No full point is needed at the end of any heading, nor are leader dots wanted between titles and page references. The numerals on the contents page at the editing stage will be those of the script, or 'dummies' such as xxx or 000; on hard copy they should be circled to indicate that they are not to be printed; in electronic files they can be omitted as they will be inserted automatically by the publishing software, along with the table of contents (so it may not be necessary for an editor to compile one—check with the client). At page-proof stage the typesetter should have inserted the correct page references, but they must be checked by the proofreader.

The first volume of a multi-volume work published simultaneously or at short intervals should contain a contents list and list of illustrations (if relevant) for the entire set. Each subsequent volume needs lists only for that volume.

## 1.2.12 Lists of illustrations, figures, and maps

Illustrations numbered sequentially through the work are presented in a single list. Different types of illustrative material, numbered in separate sequences, are presented in separate lists, usually in the order illustrations, figures, maps.

Such a list consists of the captions, which may be shortened if they are discursive, and the sources or locations of the illustrative material where relevant. As with the contents, the correct page numbers for all illustrative material that is integrated with the text (though not those of plates in a separate section) may need to be inserted at page-proof stage, if not done automatically by the publishing software.

## 1.2.13 List of tables

A list of tables is useful only when the work contains many tables of particular interest. The list gives the table headings, shortened if necessary, and page numbers; sources appear in the text beneath each table.

### Tables of cases and legislation

In most law books the judgments referred to in the text are listed, usually alphabetically by significant name, with the corresponding pagination or section number. The table may be subdivided according to jurisdiction, especially if there is a large number of cases. International cases may be listed by country.

Tables of legislation are ordered in a similar way but may be listed either alphabetically or chronologically.

## 1.2.14 List of abbreviations

The text of a book should be so presented as to 'explain' itself without recourse to external sources of information. Abbreviations that readers may be unable to interpret must be included in a list with the full form spelled out alongside each one. Well-known abbreviations that need no explanation (such as AD, BC, _UK_ , and _US_ ) are not included in the list, nor are any that will be common knowledge to the expected readership of the work, although even here, for an international readership, it is safest to include all the abbreviations. In a multi-author book or work that will not be read serially, a list of abbreviations can obviate the need to spell them out the first time they are used in every chapter. If a term occurs only very rarely in the text it is better to spell it out at each occurrence than to use an abbreviation. The practice of spelling out a short form at the first instance of its use does not obviate the need for inclusion of a list of abbreviations. See also Chapter 10.

If the abbreviations are used in text or notes the list is best placed in the prelims of the book; if, however, abbreviations are used only in the bibliography, endnotes, or appendices, the list may be presented at the head of the relevant section. Arrange the list alphabetically by abbreviated form.

## 1.2.15 List of contributors

In a multi-author work it is customary to list the contributors and provide relevant information about each one, such as institutional affiliation or post held, a short biography, or details of other publications. The more detailed and discursive the entries are, the more appropriate it will be to place the list in the end matter of the work rather than the preliminary pages.

The list should be ordered alphabetically by contributor's surname (though names are presented in natural order, not inverted), and names should match the form in the contents list and the chapter headings. The presentation of each entry should as far as possible be standardized.

## 1.2.16 Epigraph

An epigraph is a relevant quotation placed at the beginning of a volume, part, or chapter, and is distinguished typographically from other displayed quotations. An epigraph relating to the entire volume is placed on a new page, preferably a recto, immediately before the text or in another prominent position within the prelims. Epigraphs for parts or chapters may be placed on the verso facing the part or chapter title or under the heading of the part or chapter to which they relate. The use of epigraphs and their positioning must be consistent throughout the work.

Epigraph sources are usually ranged right (see 2.5.1) under the quotation. The author's name and the title and date of the work are usually sufficient: further details are not normally included because readers are not expected to want to verify the quotation.

## 1.2.17 Other sections

Many publications need a short explanation of conventions, terminology, or forms of presentation used in the text, or guidance on how to use the book. Such information is best placed as near as possible to the beginning of the text and often carries the title _Note to the reader_ or _How to use this book_.

# 1.3 Text

The text of a work, whether it is in a single volume or multiple volumes, should ideally unfold in a form in which each division is of equivalent scale and consistent construction. As part of marking up the text on-screen or on hard copy, the copy-editor will need to identify the hierarchy of headings that articulate the structure and all displayed elements of the text—those elements such as quotations, lists, notes, text boxes, tables, equations, and so on that need special presentation on the page. The designer specifies an appropriate typographic treatment for the body text and for each displayed element, and the typesetter applies the appropriate design and layout. For digital products, the elements are tagged electronically for later conversion. See 2.1 for further details.

## 1.3.1 Volumes

It is usual for each volume of a work published in multiple volumes to have its own pagination, index, bibliography, and so on. Even if the numbering of text pages is consecutive from one volume to the next, the preliminary pages of each volume begin with page i. Volumes may be numbered or titled or numbered and titled, as appropriate to the content of the work: each volume in a collection of correspondence or a biography, for instance, may be distinguished by a range of years, the volumes in a complete edition of an author's works by the names of different genres such as _Poems, Plays, Essays_.

Large scholarly works, especially those published over many years, are sometimes made available in **fascicles** (or **fascicules** ) rather than volumes. While fascicles are technically separate works, each with its own ISBN, they are designed to be bound together and are, accordingly, through-paginated. The first fascicle contains preliminary material for the whole publication and the last the index or other end matter; any front matter or end matter included with the intermediate fascicles is discarded when the fascicles are combined into a book or books.

## 1.3.2 The introduction

The introduction is properly part of the text of the book (except in special contexts such as editions of literary texts, where the editor's introduction forms part of the prelims). The Arabic pagination begins with the first page of the introduction, which therefore must fall on a recto. The introduction may be treated (and numbered) as the first chapter of the work, or it may be headed simply _Introduction_ , the numbered chapters following thereafter; when an introduction (or conclusion) addresses the work as a whole, it is usually left unnumbered.

## 1.3.3 Parts

It is useful to arrange a long or complex work in parts when the text falls into logical divisions of similar length. Parts should be numbered and may be titled; although Roman numerals are traditionally used for parts ( _Part I, Part II_ ), Arabic numerals may be used or numbers spelled out ( _Part One, Part Two_ ). The part number and title are bestplaced on a recto with a blank verso following; part title pages are included in the Arabic pagination of the book but the page numbers are not shown. Text describing the purpose of the part, or a part table of contents, may appear on the part opening page.

Parts are divided into chapters, which are numbered consecutively throughout the work.

## 1.3.4 Chapters

Most works in prose are divided into chapters, which usually have a number (customarily in Arabic numerals) and often—especially in non-fiction—a title. The use of the word _Chapter_ before the number is optional (see 1.2.11). Chapter titles should be of similar length and style throughout a work and as succinct as possible—overlong titles cause design difficulties at chapter openings and may need to be cut down for running heads (see 1.5.3). Note numbers and similar cues should not appear in chapter titles but be moved to the text proper.

New chapters are usually allowed to begin on either a verso or a recto (unlike new parts—see above); exceptionally, when chapters are short or economical setting is required, they may run on—start on the same page as the end of the preceding chapter—after a specified number of lines' space. This is more common in fiction than in non-fiction. The first page of a new chapter lacks a running head, and the **folio** (page number) is either omitted or appears at the foot of the page (as a **drop folio** ), even when on other pages it falls in the head margin (see 1.5.1).

The first line following the chapter heading is set **full out** (flush with the left-hand margin), with no paragraph indentation. In some designs large and small capitals are used for the first word or line of a chapter, as in 'HE was gone'. If the first word is a single capital letter (for example _I, A_ ), then the second word is printed in small capitals, with no further capital. If the chapter starts with a personal name, then the whole name is in capitals and small capitals, not just the first name or title: 'MR THORNTON had had some difficulty...'.

## 1.3.5 Sections and subsections

Chapters may be divided into sections and subsections by the use of **subheadings** (or **subheads** ). There may be more than one level of subheading, though only complex works such as textbooks will generally need more than three. Too many levels of subheading are difficult to design and may be more confusing than helpful to the reader. Headings should not contain note numbers or similar cues.

Sections, subsections, or even individual paragraphs may be numbered if this will be useful to the reader—as it will when the text contains numerous cross-references. As in the present book, section headings are 'double-numbered', with the two numbers closed up either side of a full point; subsection headings are triple-numbered, the number reflecting the different levels of the headings: within Chapter 9 the first A-level heading is numbered 9.1, and the first B-level heading within section 9.1 is numbered 9.1.1, and so on.

The first line after a subheading is set flush with the left-hand margin, with no paragraph indentation. If the first sentence of a new section refers to the subject articulated in the heading it must begin by reiterating the subject rather than referring back to it with a pronoun. Not:

**1.3 Text**

This should ideally unfold in a form in which each division is of equivalent scale and construction.

but

**1.3 Text**

The text of a work should ideally unfold in a form in which each division is of equivalent scale and construction.

## 1.3.6 Paragraphs

Paragraphs are units of thought reflecting the development of the author's argument, and no absolute rules control their length. In the most general terms, one-sentence paragraphs are likely to be too short and paragraphs that exceed the length of a page of typeset material are likely to be too long to hold the reader's attention. However, it is inadvisable for an editor to alter the author's delivery by running together short paragraphs or splitting long ones without fully considering the effect on the integrity of the text, and the author should normally be consulted about such changes. Different considerations apply to websites, where readability is improved by short paragraphs and frequent headings (shorter and more frequent than would be normal in print). See also Web editing in 2.1.2 and Print versus Web style in 2.3.2.

The first line of text after a chapter, section, or subsection heading is set full out to the left-hand margin, with no paragraph indentation. The first line of every subsequent paragraph is normally indented; the style in which paragraphs are separated by a space and the first line of every paragraph is set full out is characteristic of documents and some reference works, and also of material on the Internet. Infictional dialogue it is conventional (though by no means obligatory) to begin a new paragraph with every change of speaker (see 9.2.4).

Complex works, such as textbooks and practitioner texts, sometimes have numbered paragraphs throughout, the numbers being set against headings or simply at the beginnings of paragraphs; this device facilitates all kinds of internal referencing. In this case the double- and triple-numbering system outlined in 1.3.5 above is applied. Numbered paragraphs may also be used when an author wishes to enumerate long points in an argument. Equations referred to in the text should be numbered and displayed; the numbering is enclosed in parentheses and set full right, aligned with the last line of the equation (see also 14.6.6).

## 1.3.7 Conclusion, epilogue, afterword

A conclusion sums up the work's findings and puts them in context. It may be numbered and titled as the final chapter of the work or (as with the introduction) headed simply _Conclusion_.

An epilogue or an author's note is nothing more than a short concluding comment on the text. An afterword is much the same, though it is typically written by someone other than the author. Neither of these sections bears a chapter number, though the headings are usually set to the same design as the chapter headings. One would not normally have more than one or two of these concluding sections in any book.

# 1.4 End matter

End matter (also called **back matter** ) consists of any material that supplements the text. Sections in the end matter are, generally speaking, placed in order of their importance to the reader in using and interpreting the text, with the proviso that the index is always placed last. A series of sections might be ordered as follows:

appendix

glossary

endnotes

bibliography

notes on contributors

index

End matter is paginated in sequence with the text, and the sections carry headings that are usually set to the same design as the chapter headings, though the material itself is often set in smaller type than the text, in keeping with its subsidiary position. As noted in 1.2.1, ebooks may have some traditional front-matter items relocated to the back.

## 1.4.1 Appendix

An appendix (or **annex** , as it is sometimes called in the publication of documents) presents subsidiary matter that relates directly to the text but cannot comfortably be accommodated within it, such as a chronology or the texts of documents discussed. Multiple appendices appear under the collective heading _Appendices_ , each with its own subheading and descriptive title. Appendices may be numbered with Arabic or Roman numerals or marked with letters.

## 1.4.2 Glossary

A glossary is an alphabetical list of important terms found in the text, with explanations or definitions. It is not a substitute for explaining terms at their first occurrence in the text. The glossary may simply repeat the textual explanation or it may expand upon it, but in any event the definitions in text and glossary must conform.

Each entry in a glossary begins a new line. Entries may be arranged in two columns (terms on the left and definitions on the right), or the definition may run on from the headword term; in the latter case turnover lines are often indented and entries spaced off from one another to make the headwords more prominent. Bold type is often used for headwords.

## 1.4.3 Endnotes

Endnotes are an alternative to footnotes, used in a single-author work where it is not essential (or customary in the discipline concerned) to position notes on the same page as the text to which they refer. In multi-author volumes, notes and other apparatus are usually placed at the end of each chapter or essay to preserve the integrity of the author's work: it would be inappropriate in these circumstances to position the reference material in a sequence at the end of the work. For the decision to place notes at the foot of the page, the end of the chapter, or the end of the work see 17.2.2; for setting out notes see 17.2.4; for running heads in endnotes see 1.5.3.

## 1.4.4 Bibliography

There are many ways of presenting citations of other works and materials of potential interest to the reader. The simplest is to list them alphabetically by authors' surnames (in which case names are inverted to expose the ordering principle) or, in specialist works that require it, chronologically. In some cases a bibliographic essay is more appropriate—as the name suggests, a discussion of sources with the citations embedded—or an annotated bibliography, in which comments on some or all of the sources are included.

A list that contains only works cited in the book is properly called _References_ or _Works cited_. A list called _Bibliography_ contains the works cited in the book and additional works of likely interest to the reader. A _Select bibliography_ may be limited to works thought important by the author, or works cited multiple times in the text. A list of _Further reading_ usually contains works not cited in the text. In general-interest non-fiction works a more seductive heading, such as _Now read on_ . . , may be used for a similar list. For choice and preparation of bibliographies see Chapter 18.

## 1.4.5 Index

The subject index, an alphabetical list of topics covered in the book, with references to the pages on which discussion occurs, is the last element in the end matter. A single index is preferred unless there is a strong case for subdivision into (say) an _Index of works_ and a _General index_. Other indexes that may be needed include an alphabetical list of names (in a biography for example), first lines (of poetry), or an index locorum (an index of places) in a classical work. See Chapter 19.

# 1.5 Folios and running heads

## 1.5.1 Introduction

The term **folio** has two meanings in print production: it is used of the sheets of a script and also of the page number as a designed element on a typeset page. The latter meaning is the one relevant to this section. A **running head** (or **running headline, headline, header,** or **running title** ) is a book title, chapter title, or other heading which appears at the top of every page or spread. Folios and running heads usually fall on the same horizontal line in the head (or top) margin of the page, though the designer may decide to position them in the foot (bottom) margin—in which case the text is called a **running foot** (or **running footline** or **footer** )—or even at the fore-edge (outer margin). They thus appear outside the text area of the page. Another option is to use running heads but to place folios at the foot of the page. Technically the entire line is the running head, but in editorial parlance the term is restricted to the textual material, excluding the folio.

## 1.5.2 Folio

The folio (set in lower-case Roman numerals in the prelims and in Arabic numerals for the text and end matter of the book) usually appears at the outer top edges of the spread, or centred at the foot.

All pages are counted in the pagination sequence, but the folio is not shown on some pages, including some in the prelims, turned pages (that is, those on which material is printed in landscape format), those taken up entirely by illustrations, figures, or tables, and blank pages. On a chapter opening page the folio usually appears in the foot margin (see 1.3.4).

## 1.5.3 Running heads

Running heads are not found in all books: for instance, they may not appear in modern fiction or in highly designed illustrated books.

Running heads, like folios, are omitted from some pages of the book. These include: any section of the prelims that has no section heading (half-title, title, and imprint pages, the dedication and epigraph); part titles; any page on which a chapter heading occurs (including sections in the front matter and end matter); blank pages. They are often omitted on turned pages and on full-page illustrations, figures, or tables.

The content of the running heads depends on the nature of the book. As a general rule, if the same running head is not used on verso and recto, the larger section generates the head on the verso and the smaller that on the recto: for example, the book or part title may be used on the verso, the chapter title on the recto; in a textbook the chapter title might be used on the verso and a numbered subheading on the recto (though running heads that change every few pages should if possible be avoided for the sake of economy). In a multi-author work authors' names normally appear on the verso and chapter titles on the recto. In encyclopedias it is common to reflect the first headword on the verso and the last on the recto in the running heads, whereas dictionaries tend to give the first and last headword on each page in that page's running head.

Sections in the prelims and end matter generally carry the same running head on the verso and recto. Ideally, however, running heads for endnotes should change on every page, indicating the text pages or chapters to which each page of notes refers: for example _Notes to pages 157–99_ , or _Notes to_ _Chapter 6_ , rather than just _Notes_.

Running heads should match the material from which they are derived in every respect—wording, capitalization, and so on. This is usually generated automatically by desktop publishing software; however, if the book, chapter, or other titles used are very long they must be truncated for the running heads, which should not exceed about forty characters (including spaces) for most books, as a very rough rule of thumb—in this case, supply a list of shortened heads with the copy for the rest of the book.

# 1.6 Errata slips

An errata slip lists errors in a printed book and their corrections; if there is only one correction the correct term is _erratum slip_. A slip inserted loose in a book should be labelled with the author's name, book title, and ISBN; alternatively the slip may be tipped (pasted) in. In a later printing or edition, if the text itself has not been corrected, the errata may be set as part of the prelims or end matter. When fixed to, or printed in, the book the errata may be called **corrigenda** (singular _corrigendum_ ). Note that errata slips should be used only in the event of there being serious mistakes or errors of fact in the book.

A list of errata should be as concise as possible, making clear the location, the substance of the error, and the form of the correction. Italic type is used for editorial directions, and punctuation is included only where it is part of the error and/or the correction.

p. 204, line 15: _for_ live wire _read_ earth wire

p. 399, line 2: _for_ guilty _read_ 'not proven'

For ebook and other digital editions, it is much easier to correct the error than to prepare an errata slip.

# 1.7 Paper and book sizes

## 1.7.1 Paper sizes

The dimensions of a book depend on the dimensions of the sheet (the **quad sheet** ) on which it is printed. For many centuries the dimensions of the common sizes of sheet have been proportioned so that they can be folded to produce viable page sizes without wastage (a small allowance is made for trimming the folded sheet). For example, quarto (4to or 4to) and octavo (8vo or 8vo) are obtained by folding standard sizes two and three times respectively.

Measured in millimetres the common metric paper sizes (untrimmed) are:

International paper sizes have been standardized still further by the ISO (International Standards Organization): A is the commonest, used for business correspondence, photocopying, etc.; B is used for posters, wall charts, and similar large items; C is used for envelopes and folders to fit A-series sizes. Measured in millimetres A and B (trimmed) sizes are:

Figure 1.1 International paper sizes A

## 1.7.2 Book sizes

The following are the standard octavo trimmed and untrimmed page sizes, and the dimensions of the quad sheets from which they are derived, in millimetres:

**Size** | **Millimetres**
---|---
metric crown 8vo |
trimmed | 186 × 123
untrimmed | 192 × 126
quad | 768 × 1,008
metric large crown 8vo |
trimmed | 198 × 129
untrimmed | 204 × 132
quad | 816 × 1,056
metric demy 8vo |
trimmed | 216 × 138
untrimmed | 222 × 141
quad | 888 × 1,128
metric royal 8vo |
trimmed | 234 × 156
untrimmed | 240 × 159
quad | 960 × 1,272
A5 |
trimmed | 210 × 148
untrimmed | 215 × 152.5
quad | 860 × 1,220

Dimensions are always given with height before width; for landscape formats reverse the pairs of numbers.

Mass-market paperbacks are often produced in what are known as **A format** and **B format** sizes. The first of these is 178 × 111 mm, B format is 196 × 129 mm.

# 1.8 Even workings

The pages of the publication are printed on the quad sheet in an order determined by the pattern of folding to be applied to it during the binding process; the arrangement or 'imposition' of the pages on both sides of the sheet is complex.

Each sheet forms a section or **signature** of the finished book; depending on the size of the sheet and the format of the book, the signature may consist of four, eight, sixteen, thirty-two, sixty-four, or even more pages. In the interests of economy it is desirable to ensure that the entire text of the book fits neatly into an exact multiple of the number of pages in each signature so that there are no blank pages at the end of the final section. At a late stage in the production of a print book it may be necessary to restrict the extent of the text in order to fit it exactly, or as nearly as possible, into signatures—that is, to achieve an 'even working'. This must be done without disrupting the pagination of the main text. The usual recourse is to reduce the number of pages in the prelims (which are not part of the main sequence of pages), often by sacrificing the luxury of blank versos and using them for sections that would ideally be placed on rectos; another option is to limit the extent of the end matter, normally by shortening the index or setting it in smaller type.

# CHAPTER 2

#  Preparing copy

# 2.1 Definitions

## 2.1.1 Introduction

Historically, handwritten **copy** (the text) was called **manuscript** and the term lingers on even today, although text printed out should more properly be called **typescript** or **script**.

### Production workflow

The technical stages of the traditional production process, which transforms the material from typescript to printed work, are, very generally speaking (and not always in this order):

• development editing

• copy-editing

• design

• typesetting

• proofreading

• correction (the last two stages may be repeated on successive sets of 'revised proofs')

• proof checking

• indexing

• final correction

• printing and binding.

Some of these steps may be omitted, depending on the readership or on budget and time constraints. See the following sections for a brief description of development editing and copy-editing (2.1.2), design (2.1.3), reading and checking of the proofs (2.1.5), and typesetting (2.1.4). These specialist operations are frequently outsourced. Indexing is detailed in Chapter 19.

Modern production methods rarely proceed in such a linear fashion and are focused on creating content that can be repurposed for many different publishing outputs, not just print.

The content is stored in a neutral format, which means that it is typically coded with **XML tags**. XML allows the creation of customized **markup languages**. It allows content to be structured, stored, and transmitted in a form that is independent of software or hardware. Crucially, the XML tags describe content rather than presentation, e.g. a tag such as <strong> can be rendered as bold text in print or as red text on a website. The XML can subsequently be transformed to generate outputs as diverse as **HTML** for web publication, **EPUB** files for ebooks, interactive whiteboard material for classrooms, online learning environments, and archive files, as well as traditional print. XML files can also be packaged along with, or accessed by, custom software in the form of an app.

The preparation of files in a digital workflow usually starts with pre-editing (basic file cleanup and tagging), and the processes involved in editorial quality control (editing, checking, testing) are flexible and can take place in parallel as well as serially. This means that, in web publishing especially, traditional boundaries between editing as an initial stage and proofreading as a final stage have been eroded as these roles have merged and a web editor may be required to do several additional tasks (see 2.1.2). Nevertheless, editing and proofreading remain discrete tasks in many publishing houses, so are treated separately in 2.1.2 and 2.1.5.

## 2.1.2 Copy-editing

Whereas a development editor liaises closely with the author during the writing stage, the copy-editor is responsible for the technical preparation of the author's material for publication. These responsibilities, at their simplest, comprise:

• Correcting, or raising queries about, the author's spelling, word use, grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure

• standardizing the presentation of the material in respect of its 'editorial style' and conventions (see 2.3)

• ensuring all elements of the work—that is, headings, displayed quotations, lists, figure captions, references, note copy, etc.—are tagged correctly. These tags are often applied at the pre-editing stage by the XML supplier, but the copy-editor must verify their accuracy. If pre-editing has not been performed, the copy-editor must code or tag the material in the first instance. The tag can be in the form of a word-processor paragraph style or a tag inserted in the file, such as <H1> closed up to a main heading, or an encircled code written in the margin of hard copy. This is a key task for generating correct XML tagging (see 2.1.1); it also highlights features that require the designer's attention (2.1.3)

• indicating where items such as tables, figures, and illustrations should appear in the text to ensure that they are introduced in appropriate places when the pages are assembled

• cross-checking the material to ensure that elements purporting to be identical or related match each other (for example that the chapter titles on the contents page match the chapter openings, that the discussion in text relates accurately to the content of pictures and their captions), cross-references lead the reader to the right destination, note numbers refer correctly to the notes themselves, and so on

• monitoring the factual integrity of the material (for example keeping track of and regularizing the spelling of proper names, ensuring that columns of numerical data add up, checking that the author defines and uses special terms consistently)

• correcting the electronic file accurately or marking the typescript clearly to ensure that the material can be set in type or converted to digital format with minimum difficulty

• being alert to any material that has unsuitable cultural references, or seems potentially defamatory (see 20.5), blasphemous (20.10), or contravenes copyright (20.1–20.4) or that is not inclusive, i.e. is biased with regard to gender, race, sexual orientation, or disability, or that deals with sensitive areas in an offensive or outmoded way.

Dictionaries such as the _Oxford Dictionary of English_ or the _Concise Oxford English Dictionary_ discuss debatable points of usage, such as the split infinitive and the use of _hopefully_ as a sentence adverb, and may usefully be consulted by editors who are uncertain whether an author's phrasing is acceptable English or appropriate to the given context.

It is now generally regarded as old-fashioned or gender biased to use _he_ in reference to a person of unspecified sex, as in _every child needs to know that he is loved_. _He or she_ is often preferred, and in formal contexts is probably the best solution, but can become tiresomely long-winded when used frequently. Alternatively use of _they_ in this sense ( _everyone needs to feel that they matter_ ) is generally accepted in speech and in writing, especially where it occurs after an indefinite pronoun such as everyone or someone, but should not be imposed by an editor if an author has used _he or she_ consistently.

The level of responsibility the copy-editor carries for the structure of the material, factual accuracy, clarity of expression, and other authorial concerns is determined by the publisher, and should be clearly articulated in the brief. The editor should always be sensitive to the author's voice, and not undertake substantive editing or rewriting without discussing it with the author or publisher first.

### On-screen (online) editing

Most copy-editing is done in word-processing software, although an editor may also be required to work in spreadsheet or presentation software, text editors, and in content management system editing interfaces (see 2.1.1). The copy-editor should be aware of the internal software tools that allow more efficient and accurate editing, such as templates and styles, global search and replace, macros, revision marking, and shortcut keys, as well as the pitfalls that can accompany these features. For example, it is unwise to replace text globally in documents containing quotations or bibliographic references, where original spelling must be retained. Add-ons can also usefully contribute to the editor's arsenal, such as consistency checkers, bibliographic software, clipboard managers, and third-party macros. Although copy-editing can be successfully completed without any of these tools or features, an editor practised in these techniques can work more effectively, and produce files that are optimized for the next production stage, whether print or digital.

See also 2.4 for a discussion of proofreading on-screen.

### Web editing

Copy-editing and proofreading may be required at any stage in the creation and maintenance of websites, a cyclical process that may see the roles merged (see 2.1.1). Web editors should be aware of the differences between how a web page is used compared with print (more information can be found in the many works on usability) and bear in mind that the user may access the material from one of several portals (links), and not in the linear fashion found in printed matter. In essence this involves breaking up the information into smaller chunks that focus on the essentials, interspersed with concise headings and well-planned links.

In addition to the copy-editing tasks described earlier in 2.1.2, web editors may also be required to:

• repurpose existing text into a more suitable form for the website

• write links and summaries

• compose metadata to optimize the site for search engines

• source images and other media

• test and comment on interactive elements such as video

• check for accessibility issues, including writing alternative labels ( **alt tags** ) for images, for interpretation by screen readers

• create or update the site map.

### Proof-editing

**Proof-editing** is the process whereby unedited material that is laid out in pages, with any figures, tables, notes, and running heads in situ, is corrected. The layout may have been done in word-processing or desktop-publishing software; sometimes only PDFs are supplied. The source is usually a corporate or self-publishing author, typically seeking proofreading services. It may not be apparent at first that more in-depth treatment is needed, so such material should be assessed carefully. If the word-processor files are available, amendments are usually done with revision tracking. It is essential that the author/client understands that the level of intervention needed is likely to be greater than a 'normal' proofread, so it is advisable to send them some sample marked pages to make this clear, as this may also affect negotiations over time and budget. Otherwise the usual requirements for a copy-edit or substantive edit apply, coupled with suggestions for improvements in layout if applicable. PDFs will need to be marked like a page proof (see 2.1.5), although if extensive changes are needed, it may be preferable to convert the files into word-processor documents to work with more efficiency on-screen; you may need to explain your reasons for this and seek approval before proceeding.

## 2.1.3 Design

The designer's role is to determine the appearance of the material on the printed page or screen. The designer creates a design template in which are included the typefaces, type sizes, spacing, and position on the page of all the elements of the material identified earlier. Much of this is done via the template styles, and if the documents have been prepared correctly, the word-processor paragraph and character styles can be imported into the typesetting template and mapped to the designer's styles, saving a great deal of time. This is one reason why it is desirable to format a document with word-processor styles. The designer may also produce specimen pages for approval by the publisher and author, and as guidance for the typesetter.

## 2.1.4 Typesetting

The typesetter produces a **proof** , by applying the design to the material in the electronic file (see 2.1.3), or by rekeying the material if the file is not available, or is incompatible, or unsuitable for some reason.

## 2.1.5 Proofreading

A proof is, as the name suggests, the means of 'proving' (or trying out) the typesetter's work. Most books today are 'set straight to page' and the first proof is a **page proof**.

Historically, text was set as a galley proof, in which the typographic design was applied but the material was not paginated and extraneous items such as footnotes, tables, figures, and illustrations were not integrated. The purpose was to allow the textual material to be checked and corrected—that is, to be finalized—before pages were made up because corrections after pagination might cause expensive disruption to the layout. This was especially true for books with complex layout but now it is easier to generate page proofs with low-resolution image scans (see 16.4.1) and adjust the text ( **copy-fitting** ) and other elements accordingly; another round of page proofs is then generated for further checking. Although modern systems make page make-up much more flexible, corrections should still not be made unless essential because they can cause delay, and run the risk of introducing new errors.

The proofreader's task is to read and correct the proof. If material has been rekeyed, it is best to read the proof 'against copy' but usually it is set from XML generated from word-processor files (see 2.1.3 and 2.1.4), so is read without reference to the typescript, known as reading 'cold' or 'blind' or 'by eye'. In general terms the proofreader's responsibilities comprise:

• checking for errors—either the typesetter's, in rekeyed material, or ones the copy-editor has missed, or the author's, in text that is being proof-edited (see 2.1.2)

• ensuring that the transformation of the material into typeset and paginated form has not resulted in poor presentation (such as bad word breaks where words are hyphenated at line endings, a short line at the top of a page, a table, figure, or illustration wrongly positioned, or a running head on a page that should have none)

• checking the integrity of the design—that is, ensuring that all like elements have been set in like manner (the proofreader is not asked to verify the technical implementation of the design, only to check by eye that it has been consistently applied)

• ensuring that page references (for example on the contents page or in cross-references) have been correctly inserted.

Most of the first two points are dealt with by the typesetting software, and copy-editors and proofreaders should be aware that page makeup is now frequently wholly automated so they should not work on the assumption that the typesetter will see any comments left in the copy-edited file. Prefer to send an accompanying email with the files if there is anything that needs to be brought to the typesetter's attention.

The changes marked on the first proof are executed by the typesetter and a revised proof is generated for checking by the proofreader. One or more further stages of correcting and checking may be needed before the material can be **passed for press** or signed off as ready to be printed and bound. See 2.1.1 for discussion of conversion of electronic files into digital products.

# 2.2 Making changes to copy

Most copy is amended on-screen (sometimes called **online editing** ) in word-processing software or in a **content management system**. If changes need to be approved by, for example, the author or a production editor, revision tracking is used; queries can be inserted as comments or presented in a separate document or email. It is essential that all comments and revision histories are removed before the next stage of production.

When material must be edited on paper, a form of markup adapted from the proof-correction symbols (see 2.4) is used. Codes identifying the different elements are written in the left-hand margin. Cues locating the position of non-text items, such as illustrations and figures, are best placed in the right-hand margin. Instructions for the typesetter may be written in any convenient position where they will be seen before amending or keying the matter to which they relate. Codes, cues, and instructions should all be circled: by convention, circled material is observed by the typesetter but is not itself set in type. The typesetter is sent the electronic files and a printout marked with the copy-editor's changes: the setter does not rekey the material but needs only to intervene where a change is wanted.The copy-editor should mark amendments very clearly in the body of the text, as the typesetter will only be glancing down the page looking for changes, not reading line by line. Red pen is favoured as it is obvious and scannable; however, some publishers prefer blue for text changes and red for codes, cues, and instructions. Ambiguous characters, especially if handwritten, should be clarified with a circled comment.

Similarly, if the script is to be entirely rekeyed, all corrections to the text itself are best positioned in the body of the material, above or (if there is space) on the line of type, so that the setter can readily see how they are to be integrated.

An example of marked-up typescript is shown in Figure 2.1.

# 2.3 Editorial style and house style

## 2.3.1 Editorial style and decision-making

Editorial style controls the way in which words, individual characters, and numbers are presented on the printed (or electronic) page. Stylistic consistency is an important characteristic of published material because it removes one possible cause of interference between the text and the reader. Inconsistent styling, whether of the words themselves or their presentation on the page, may distract or even mislead, and can affect the credibility of a publication, just as a work that is well finished in these respects can project an air of general reliability.

The essential features of editorial style relate to:

• spelling (including the use of hyphens)

• punctuation

• capitalization

• abbreviations

• treatment of numbers, dates, and time

• use of italic and bold type

• use of quotation marks.

All of these matters are dealt with elsewhere in this book. For spelling and hyphenation see Chapter 3; for punctuation see Chapter 4; for capitalization see Chapter 5; for abbreviations see Chapter 10; for numbers see Chapter 11; for the uses of italic type see Chapter 7; for quotation marks see 4.14 and 9.2.3.

Other conventions that are the subject of editorial decisions include:

• the components and typographic style of bibliographic citations

• the content of notes and in-text references and their relation to bibliographic citations

• the editorial treatment of displayed epigraphs and quotations and their sources

• the punctuation of lists

• the style of in-text references to non-text items such as illustrations, figures, and tables, and cross-references

• the order and contents of prelims and end matter

• the content of running heads.

For coverage of bibliography see Chapter 18; for notes and in-text references see Chapter 17; for quotations see Chapter 9; for lists and tables see Chapter 15; for illustrations and figures see Chapter 16; for prelims, end matter, and running heads see Chapter 1.

Stylistic precepts come into play only where there are alternative solutions of equal or comparable validity. For example, a style decision is needed between 'co-operate' and 'cooperate', each of which is a viable spelling of the word; a choice must be made between 'sine qua non' (roman) and ' _sine qua non_ ' (italic), either of which can be defended. It follows, therefore, that no appeal need be made to stylistic conventions or record kept of them where text is incorrect—for example, a place name beginning with a lower-case letter is not in normal circumstances the subject of a style decision—or where orthodox practice makes a mode of presentation all but incorrect: for example, to style the title of a published book other than in italic in open text would be so unusual as to be tantamount to an error in most book publishing contexts.

It is important to recognize that style decisions are 'made' by leaving text unchanged as well as by changing it; the copy-editor must identify forms that are diagnostic of particular style points and record them explicitly for application throughout the script. The following example contains a number of implicit style decisions:

In 1539 the monastery was 'dissolved', and the Abbot, in distress of mind—recognising that there was no alternative but to co-operate with the King's officers—blessed his monks (they numbered fifty-seven), prayed with them, and sent them out from the abbey gates to follow their vocation in the world.

If this passage were left unaltered the editor would have 'decided':

• to use single quotation marks

• to capitalize the titles of office holders ( _Abbot, King_ )

• not to capitalize informal references to institutions ( _monastery, abbey_ )

• to use closed em rules for parenthetical dashes

• to use - _ise_ not - _ize_ endings

• to spell out numbers (or, at least, those up to 100)

• to use the serial comma.

## 2.3.2 House style

A publisher's house style embodies its preference for how copy is set and laid out on the page. It thus encompasses some elements that control design as well as editorial presentation, including:

• the layout of headings, paragraphs, quotations, lists, and notes

• the make-up of typeset pages

• the application of hyphenation at line endings.

Some or all aspects of the publisher's house style are usually set out in a **style sheet** or **style guide**. Ideally this document will form part of the instructions sent to authors, so that they can follow the house style in creating the work. If this is not done, or if authors follow a different style, it may be necessary for the copy-editor to change the editorial style of the work in the course of editing it.

In some cases—where consistency across multiple publications is important to the integrity of the material—house style or an appropriate adaptation of it should always be imposed; examples include:

• issues of a journal

• individual volumes in a multi-volume publication (including reference works)

• closely integrated series.

How much importance is attached to house style in the case of separate works, however, depends on the policy and traditions of the publisher. In some cases it may be unnecessary or even unwarrantable to impose house style. Where an author has attended carefully and consistently to editorial style and the conventions pose no practical difficulties they may be best left alone: the copy-editor can probably spend editorial time more usefully than in overturning a serviceable and watertight system of editorial decisions, and an imperfect conversion of the author's to the publisher's style will damage rather than improve the work. On the other hand two factors should be noted: it is easier for an experienced copy-editor to impose a familiar house style than to learn an author's style and to check that it has, in fact, been consistently applied; further, those handling the work in the later stages of production may assume that house style has been used and may unwittingly compromise the consistency of the text by making corrections that match house style rather than the author's own style.

Even when house style is in use, it may need to be adapted to the special requirements of particular works. For example, in a historical context modern spellings of place names might be inappropriate; and in a specialist context general practice should not supplant scholarly usage of foreign words or technical terms.

### Print versus Web style

The copy-editor should be aware that different stylistic considerations hold sway when working with web pages (see Web editing in 2.1.2), and house style may reflect this. For example, to improve readability on-screen, a house style might stipulate a maximum length for sentences; encourage shorter paragraphs, and more bulleted lists and headings; and minimize the use of punctuation, hyphens, and capitals to reduce visual distractions. Link style may be prescribed, e.g. substituting _click here_ with a descriptive target, such as _book online_. These may run counter to the house style for print, so it is helpful to make these differences clear.

## 2.3.3 Editorial style sheets

No house style, however detailed, will cater for all the editorial or design decisions needed to set a publication in type. Just as the designer needs to specify typography for every book, so the copy-editor needs to record particular decisions on editorial style for every book, sometimes supplementing the house-style guidelines, sometimes preparing a completely new set of 'rules' that govern the text. When the editing task is complete this file, setting out the editorial decisions that have been made and applied to the text as a whole, has many uses. It is, of course, crucial to the copy-editor's own work as a record of decisions that have been made—no editor can hold the minutiae of editorial style in his or her head through an entire script. It may be sent to the author as a convenient means of accounting for minor changes made throughout the work. Some publishers send the editorial style sheet to the typesetter for reference. The proofreader ought to receive the style sheet with the proofs so that he or she can tell whether particular style points have been considered and decided by the copy-editor. And the style sheet should be preserved for use by the editor of a future edition of the book or of a related volume.

There are different ways of presenting editorial decisions in a style sheet—a simple alphabetical list, for example, in a word-processed document or a spreadsheet—but for purposes of easy retrieval and comprehension by those who work on the text after the copy-editor a generic approach is clearest. Under headings such as:

• spelling and hyphenation

• punctuation

• capitalization

• abbreviations

• numbers

• italics

• quotation marks

the copy-editor should record high-level decisions, subordinate decisions, and individual examples. So, for example, the section on spelling and hyphenation might begin with a statement that British English spelling is used and that a particular dictionary is taken as the authority; next, decisions on particular words or groups of words should be recorded (such as those with the suffix - _ize_ or - _ise_ ); and finally a list of examples (ordered alphabetically) will be needed. The section on numbers would start with a general statement about the threshold chosen for changing from words to numerals, and go on to list exceptions (such as dates, round numbers, numbers used with units of measure).

# 2.4 Marking proofs

The requirement of any proof correction marks is that they be comprehensible to the person who must implement the changes they represent. In publishing houses, the use of standard proofreading symbols has been long established, and they represent an efficient means of communicating what needs to be done to a file (typically by the typesetter, in a traditional workflow). In wider contexts, however, such as websites, corporate literature, and self-publishing, the symbols are frequently unfamiliar to the individual amending the files, so instructions must be used instead. This section discusses both situations and applies equally to hard-copy proofs or PDFs, where markup is achieved with the software's commenting tools.

### Markup with proofreading symbols

The symbols used to correct proofs in British publishing are those set out in BS 5261, Part 2: 2005. An earlier, 1976 standard, vestiges of which persist in many authors' and proofreaders' practice, used instructions such as 'itals' to change the type style to italic, and some different symbols such as _#_ to indicate a word space. The US and Australian systems are similar to the 1976 UK standard.

The task of the proofreader in marking proofs is to attract the typesetter's attention to the presence of a correction, to locate the correction accurately in the body of the material, and to mark the correction clearly in the margin of the proof. A minimal mark is made in the body of the text and the substance of the correction in either margin. Traditionally, literal errors made by the typesetter are marked in red, and alterations and instructions made by the editor or proofreader in blue, although nowadays publishers may not impose this system because for text set from authors' files, typesetters' errors are confined to rekeyed matter, if any.

Figure 2.2 shows the folio illustrated in Figure 2.1 as a marked proof. Figure 2.3 shows the same page in finalized form.

Adding BSI symbols to PDFs with the commenting tools is slow compared with manual mark-up but it can be expedited using preformed 'stamps'. Alternatively hand-marked hard copy can be scanned and transmitted electronically to the typesetter. The choice will depend on the extent of amendments and the availability of a sheet-fed scanner.

### Markup with instructions

Instead of using BSI symbols, proofs can be marked with instructions, e.g. _change 'nad' to 'and'_ , or _insert comma after 'however'_. On PDFs this can be achieved with sticky notes or text boxes, different colour boxes being used to distinguish queries from instructions. Frequently used instructions can be copied and pasted from a 'master' file. Heavily corrected text can be copied _en bloc_ and pasted into a text box, then corrected by the proofreader so that the recipient can copy and paste it into the source file without further amendment, although formatting may need to be reinstated.

Figure 2.1 Marked-up typescript copy

Figure 2.2 Proofread proof

Figure 2.3 Final proof

Note that some PDF editors allow direct editing of the text but for published works it is generally better for the amendments to be made in the source file, i.e. in the software that was used to create the file before conversion to PDF, particularly if the changes involve reflowing text.

For a discussion of proof-editing, see 2.1.2.

# 2.5 Technical issues for the copy-editor and proofreader

### A note about Unicode

Unicode is an international encoding system by which each letter, digit, and symbol is assigned a unique numeric value that applies across different platforms and programs. Each character is assigned a code point and a character name (conventionally written in small caps), e.g. capital A is U+0041 LATIN CAPITAL LETTER A and a degree symbol is 00B0 DEGREE SIGN. The Unicode standard contains over 100,000 characters (with capacity for over a million), and is intended to cover most writing systems worldwide. Unicode-compliant fonts are now widely used; none contains all of the characters but the most common accents and symbols that were once a problem to transfer from one type of hardware or software to another can now be successfully reproduced.

There are several input methods for inserting non-keyboard characters into a document, including character mapping applets, or certain keyboard combinations that involve the Alt key and the hexadecimal code point, or the decimal equivalent. For example, in a Windows application, type the hexadecimal code point after a space, then press Alt and X together, and release the keys to insert the character. In HTML special sorts are inserted with an entity tag, such as for a nonbreaking space. Use your preferred input method but strive to use the correct Unicode character, especially for special sorts, as many look very similar, for example the Greek lower-case β and the German eszett ß. Code points and character names for various symbols and spaces are therefore used in Hart's to encourage good practice (see Table 14.4 for various mathematical symbols), although a successful outcome will depend on that character being available in the chosen font. There are various websites that list the characters, their code points, and their HTML entity tags.

## 2.5.1 Spacing

The height of type and of vertical spaces is measured in **points**. A **pica** is the standard unit of typographic measurement, equal to 12 points; the pica is used particularly to express the total amount of space a text will require, and the text measure (or width of a full line of type) is usually defined in picas.

### Vertical spacing

Vertical or interlinear spacing within the body of the text is called **leading** (from the strips of lead formerly inserted between lines of type). The amount of leading affects readability—text that is 'set solid' (that is, without interlinear space) can be tiring to the eye, but too much leading also interferes with ease of reading, and of course takes up more space. The term 'leading' is sometimes also used to refer to the distance from the bottom of one line of type to the bottom of the next, but to avoid confusion it is better to refer to this as the **linefeed**.

The description of the type size is sometimes found on a title page verso. '11 on 12 point' or '11/12 point', for example, indicates that the lines of type are 12 points apart and the text is set in 11 point; in this case, therefore, there is leading of 1 point between the lines of type.

### Justification

Copy can be arranged within the text area in one of four ways: **ranged left** (or **flush left** ) so that the left-hand side is aligned but the right is uneven ( **ragged right** or **unjustified** ); **ranged right** so that the right-hand side is aligned and the left ragged; **justified** so that both left- and right-hand sides are aligned to the limits of the 'text measure'; or **centred** so that each line is balanced on the midpoint of the text measure.

Justified copy is produced by evenly varying the spaces between words on each line; spaces that are not permitted to vary in this way are called 'fixed' spaces (such as that between a note cue and the first word of the note). Ragged and centred text has invariable word spacing, as does poetry. Justified text characteristically employs line-end hyphenation to avoid excessive word spacing; ragged text characteristically does not employ it, or uses it to only a limited extent.

### Horizontal spacing

An **em** is a unit for measuring the width of printed matter, originally reckoned as the width of a capital roman M, but in digital fonts equal to the current typesize, so an em in 10 point text is 10 points wide. An em space is indicated in hard-copy markup by the symbol □. The Unicode code point is U+2003. An **en** space (U+2002) is a unit of horizontal space equal to half an em. For em rules and en rules see 4.11.

A **thin space** (U+2009) is a fifth (sometimes a sixth) of an em space and is usually indicated in hard-copy markup by the symbol ⫯. A **hair space** (U+200A) is a very thin space, thinner (sometimes by half) than a thin space. Both are used in contexts where the visual relationship of characters requires some spacing but not full word spacing (for example, where two punctuation marks follow each other). Both are fixed or invariable, and both generally behave as nonbreaking (that is, the matter preceding and following them cannot be separated at a line ending but is treated as a single character). A popular alternative to the thin space is the character **no-break space** (U+00A0).

A single word space is used after all sentence punctuation (not a double space, as was conventional in typewritten text). TeX (specialist software for composing technical material such as mathematics; see 14.6.6) inserts a sentence space that is slightly wider than a single space. It should be noted that most browsers will ignore multiple consecutive spaces. The typesetter should use a non-breaking word space between a pair of initials to prevent their being split across a line: for example, _T. S_. | _Eliot_ (not _T_. | _S_. _Eliot_ ). Some styles use the same device to link abbreviations and numbers that belong together: _3 km, pp_. _6–10_ , etc. (see also 14.1.4, 14.1.5).

The first line of a paragraph after a heading, epigraph, or section break should be set full out to the left, and subsequent paragraphs indented. For work that is to be typeset or converted to XML, it is preferable to apply a word-processor style with a built-in indent rather than keying spaces or tabs. Alternatively some styles prefer paragraphs separated by a space with the first line of each new paragraph set full out to the left. This is most commonly found on websites, in reports and some kinds of reference work (such as this one).

## 2.5.2 General principles for typeset matter

Besides checking the accuracy of the typesetter's work, the proofreader is charged with ensuring that the page is presented so as to be easy to read and pleasing to the eye. To this end some generally accepted rules have become established, though the extent to which they are adhered to depends on circumstances and design considerations.

### Short lines

Traditionally, printers ensured that the last line of a paragraph did not consist of a single syllable, or numerals alone, or a word of fewer than five characters. This rule is no longer followed strictly, but others controlling the position on the page of short lines are still usually observed. The last line of a paragraph should not fall at the top of a new page or column: this is known as a **widow**. An **orphan—** the first line of a paragraph that falls at the bottom of a page or column—is undesirable, though it is now tolerated in most bookwork.

### Line endings

No more than two successive lines should begin or end with the same word. Although practice is now less carefully controlled than formerly, many publishers set a limit to the number of lines in succession that may end with hyphens (typically, not more than three or four). The last line on a recto page should not end with a hyphen. Columns, lists, etc. should ideally not be split; if they are split the break should be in as unobtrusive a place as possible. For information on word division see 3.4.

### Page depth

Pages should all be the same depth, so that matter aligns across the head and foot of the spread. The same provision applies to columns in multi-column setting. If absolutely necessary to avoid awkward page breaks, facing pages may be made a line short or long. Complete pages of material set in a type size different from that of the main text (appendices, notes, etc.) should be made up to the depth of the text page, to the nearest line.

### Vertical spacing

Interlinear spacing between the lines of type should be uniform in normal texts. Where non-text items occur, extra space (or 'style space') is left between the illustration, figure, or table and the surrounding text. In the interests of preserving a constant page depth or avoiding awkward page breaks, style space may be slightly reduced or increased at need. Complex texts such as dictionaries may achieve equal page depth by varying the leading in adjacent columns of pages. See also 2.5.1.

### Centred material

Centred displayed material should be set with invariable word spacing and each line should be separately centred. Wherever possible a short single word standing alone on the last line should be avoided.

# CHAPTER 3

#  Spelling and hyphenation

# 3.1 Spelling

## 3.1.1 General principles

A good dictionary such as the _Concise Oxford English Dictionary_ or the _Oxford Dictionary of English_ should be consulted on matters of spelling and inflection; for US English texts a dictionary such as the _New Oxford American Dictionary_ is indispensable. The dictionary will give guidance on recommended spellings and acceptable variants, and cover irregular or potentially problematic inflections. The main rules of spelling and inflection are outlined below.

English has an exceptional tolerance for different spellings of the same word. Some, such as _bannister_ and _banister_ , are largely interchangeable, although a dictionary will always indicate which is the preferred or dominant version. Other words tend to be spelled differently in different contexts: for instance, _judgement_ is spelled thus in general British contexts, but is spelled _judgment_ in legal contexts and US English. On the other hand, _accomodation_ and _millenium_ are commonly encountered in print but are not regarded as correct or acceptable spellings of _accommodation_ and _millennium_.

Unless specifically instructed to follow the preferred spellings of a particular dictionary, an editor does not generally need to alter instances where a writer has consistently used acceptable variants, such as _co-operate_ or _caviare_ , rather than the preferred spellings, which in current Oxford dictionaries are _cooperate_ and _caviar_. However, comparable or related words should be treated similarly: for instance, if _bureaus_ rather than _bureaux_ is used then prefer _chateaus_ to _chateaux_ , and standardize on _-ae-_ spellings in words such as _mediaeval_ if the author has consistently written _encyclopaedia_. For more on house style and editorial style see 2.3.1 and 2.3.2.

## 3.1.2 British and US spelling

Certain general tendencies can be noted in US spelling:

• _e_ where British English has _ae_ or _oe_ : _estrogen, leukemia, hemoglobin_

• _-ense_ for _-ence_ : _defense, offense, pretense, license_ (noun and verb)

• _-er_ for _-re_ : _caliber, center, maneuver, miter, scepter_

• _k_ for _c_ : _skeptic, mollusk_

• _-ll_ for _-l_ : _appall, fulfill, distill, enroll_

• _o_ for _ou_ : _mold, molt, smolder_

• _-og_ for _-ogue_ : _analog, catalog_ (see 3.1.7)

• _-or_ for _-our_ : _color, honor, labor, neighbor, harbor, tumor_

• _z_ for _s_ : _analyze, paralyze, cozy_ (but _advise, surprise_ ).

In British spelling _fetus_ is used in technical texts but _foetus_ in general readership; US usage is always _fetus_.

For _sulfur/sulphur_ see 21.4.1.

Further details are given in sections 3.1.3 to 3.1.9 and in Chapter 21.

## 3.1.3 Verbs ending in -ise or -ize

For most verbs that end with - _ize_ or - _ise_ , either termination is acceptable in British English. The ending - _ize_ has been in use in English since the 16th century, and is not an Americanism, although it is the usual form in US English today. The alternative form - _ise_ is far more common in British than it is in US English. Whichever form is chosen, ensure that it is applied consistently throughout the text.

Oxford University Press has traditionally used - _ize_ spellings. These were adopted in the first editions of the _Oxford English Dictionary, Hart's Rules_ , and the _Authors' and Printers' Dictionary_ (the predecessor of the _Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ ). They were favoured on both phonetic and etymological grounds: - _ize_ corresponds more closely to the Greek root of most - _ize_ verbs, - _izo_.

For some words, however, - _ise_ is obligatory: first, when it forms part of a larger word element such as - _cise_ (= cutting), - _mise_ (= sending), - _prise_ (= taking), or - _vise_ (= seeing); and second, when it corresponds to nouns with - _s_ \- in the stem, such as _advertise_ and _televise_. Here is a list of the commoner words in which an - _ise_ ending must be used in both British and US English:

In British English, words ending - _yse_ ( _analyse, paralyse_ ) cannot also be spelled - _yze_. In US English, however, the - _yze_ ending is usual ( _analyze, paralyze_ ).

## 3.1.4 -ie- and -ei-

The well-known spelling rule ' _i_ before _e_ except after _c_ ' is generally valid when the combination is pronounced - _ee_ -:

There are exceptions, notably _seize_. _Caffeine, codeine_ , and _protein_ are all formed from elements ending in - _e_ followed by - _in_ or - _ine_ , and _plebeian_ is from the Latin _plebeius_.

The rule is not valid when the syllable is pronounced in other ways, as in _beige, freight, neighbour, sleigh, veil, vein_ , and _weigh_ (all pronounced with the vowel as in _lake_ ); in _eider, feisty, height, heist, kaleidoscope_ , and _sleight_ (all pronounced with the vowel as in _like_ ); and in words in which the _i_ and _e_ are pronounced as separate vowels, such as _holier_ and _occupier_.

## 3.1.5 -able and -ible

The rules governing adjectives that end in - _able_ or - _ible_ relate to etymology: adjectives ending in - _able_ generally owe their form to the Latin ending - _abilis_ or the Old French - _able_ , and words in - _ible_ to the Latin - _ibilis_. When new adjectives are formed from English roots they take - _able_ , as in _conceivable_ and _movable_. New words are not generally formed with the - _ible_ suffix.

With some exceptions, words ending in a silent - _e_ lose the _e_ when - _able_ is added:

However, in British English some words of one syllable keep the final _e_ when its loss could lead to ambiguity:

In words ending - _ce_ or - _ge_ the _e_ is retained to preserve the soft _c_ or _g_ :

bridgeable |  changeable |  knowledgeable
---|---|---
manageable |  noticeable |  serviceable

whereas if the word ends with a hard _c_ or _g_ the ending is always - _able_ :

amicable |  navigable
---|---

In US usage, before a suffix beginning with a vowel the final - _e_ is often omitted where in British usage it is retained, as in _blamable, likable_ , and _sizable_. But it is always retained after a soft _c_ and _g_ , as in British usage.

## 3.1.6 Nouns ending in -ment

When - _ment_ is added to a verb which ends in - _dge_ , the final _e_ is retained in British English:

abridgement

acknowledgement

judgement (but note that _judgment_ is the usual form in legal contexts)

In US English the form without the _e_ is more usual ( _abridgment, acknowledgment, judgment_ ).

## 3.1.7 Nouns ending in -logue

Some—but not all—nouns that end in - _logue_ in British English are often spelled - _log_ in US English. _Analogue_ and _catalogue_ usually end in - _log_ in America, and a few other words, such as _dialogue_ and _homologue_ , have the - _log_ form as an accepted variant.

## 3.1.8 -ce and -se endings

_Practice_ is the spelling of the noun in both British and US English, and it is also the spelling of the verb in the US. However, in British English the verb is spelled _practise_. _Licence_ is the spelling of the noun and _license_ of the verb in British English, whereas in US English both the noun and the verb are _license_.

US spellings of _defence_ and _pretence_ are _defense_ and _pretense_.

## 3.1.9 -ae- in the middle of words

The - _ae_ \- spellings of _encyclopaedia_ and _mediaeval_ are being superseded by the forms _encyclopedia_ and _medieval_ , although they are still acceptable variants. The dated ligature - _æ_ \- should be avoided, although note that the title of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ is styled thus. _Archaean, haematology_ and similar, largely technical words retain the - _ae_ \- in British English, but in US English are spelled _Archean, hematology_ , etc. The - _e_ \- spelling is predominant in technical writing, whether British or US in origin.

# 3.2 Inflection

The chief rules whereby words change form to express a grammatical function are described below. In some cases there are acceptable variant forms in addition to those forms shown.

## 3.2.1 Verbs

Verbs of one syllable ending in a single consonant double the consonant when adding - _ing_ or - _ed_ :

beg, begging, begged

rub, rubbing, rubbed

When the final consonant is _w, x_ , or _y_ this is not doubled:

tow, towing, towed

vex, vexing, vexed

When the final consonant is preceded by more than one vowel (other than _u_ in _qu_ ), or by a diphthong that represents a long vowel, the consonant is not normally doubled:

appeal, appealing, appealed

boil, boiling, boiled

clean, cleaning, cleaned

conceal, concealing, concealed

reveal, revealing, revealed

Verbs of more than one syllable ending in a single consonant double the consonant when the stress is placed on the final syllable:

allot, allotting, allotted

occur, occurring, occurred

Verbs that do not have stress on the final syllable do not double the consonant:

benefit, benefiting, benefited

budget, budgeting, budgeted

gallop, galloping, galloped

offer, offering, offered

profit, profiting, profited

target, targeting, targeted

Exceptions are:

input, inputting, inputted

output, outputting, outputted

kidnap, kidnapping, kidnapped

worship, worshipping, worshipped

Another exception is _focus, focusing, focused,_ which can double the _s_ as an acceptable alternative: _focussing, focused_.

Verbs ending in - _l_ normally double the _l_ in British English regardless of where the stress occurs in the word:

annul, annulling, annulled

enrol, enrolling, enrolled

grovel, grovelling, grovelled

travel, travelling, travelled

Exceptions in British English are:

parallel, paralleling, paralleled

In US English the final _l_ generally doubles only when the stress is on the final syllable. So words such as _annul_ and _enrol_ inflect the same way in America as they do in Britain, but these verbs are different:

grovel, groveling, groveled

travel, traveling, traveled

tunnel, tunneling, tunneled

In some cases US English spells the basic form of the verb with - _ll_ as well ( _enroll, fulfill_ ).

Note that _install_ has a double _l_ in both British and US English, but _instalment_ has a single _l_ in British spelling and doubles it in US English.

Verbs generally drop a final silent _e_ when the suffix begins with a vowel:

argue, arguing, argued

continue, continuing, continued

But a final _e_ is usually retained to preserve the soft sound of the _g_ in _ageing, twingeing, whingeing_ (but not in US English). _Singeing_ (from _singe_ ) and _swingeing_ (from _swinge_ ) are thus distinguished from the corresponding forms _singing_ (from _sing_ ) and _swinging_ (from _swing_ ). _Raging_ is an exception. An _e_ is added to _dyeing_ (from _dye_ ) to distinguish it from _dying_ (from _die_ ).

A group of verbs— _burn, learn, spell_ —have an orthodox past tense and past participle ending in - _ed_ , but in British English also have an alternative form ending in - _t_ ( _burnt, learnt, spelt_ ). Note that the past of _earn_ is always _earned_ , never _earnt_ , and that of _deal_ is _dealt_ , not _dealed_ , in both British and US English.

## 3.2.2 Plurals of nouns

Nouns ending in - _y_ form plurals with - _ies_ ( _policy, policies_ ), unless the ending is - _ey_ , in which case the plural form is normally - _eys_ ( _valley, valleys_ ).

Proper names ending in - _y_ retain it when pluralized, and do not need an apostrophe:

the Carys

the three Marys

Nouns ending in - _f_ and - _fe_ form plurals sometimes with - _fs_ or - _fes_ :

handkerchief, handkerchiefs

proof, proofs

roof, roofs

safe, safes

sometimes - _ves_ :

calf, calves

half, halves

knife, knives

shelf, shelves

and occasionally both - _fs_ and - _ves_ :

dwarf, dwarfs _or_ dwarves

hoof, hoofs _or_ hooves

For nouns ending in - _o_ there is no fixed system. As a guideline, the following typically form plurals with - _os_ :

• words in which a vowel (usually _i_ or _e_ ) precedes the final - _o_ ( _trios, videos_ )

• words that are shortenings of other words ( _demos, hippos_ )

• words introduced comparatively recently from foreign languages ( _boleros, placebos_ )

• words of many syllables ( _aficionados, manifestos_ )

• proper names used allusively ( _Neros, Romeos_ ).

Names of animals and plants normally form plurals with - _oes_ ( _buffaloes, tomatoes_ ). In other cases practice varies quite unpredictably: _kilos_ and _pianos, dominoes_ and _vetoes_ are all correct. With some words a variant is well established; for example, both _mementoes_ and _mementos_ are used.

### Compound nouns

Compound words formed by a noun and a following adjective, or by two nouns connected by a preposition, generally form their plurals by a change in the key word:

**Singular** | **Plural**
---|---
Attorney General | Attorneys General
brother-in-law | brothers-in-law
commander-in-chief | commanders-in-chief
court martial | courts martial _or_ court martials
cul-de-sac | cul-de-sacs _or_ culs-de-sac
father-in-law | fathers-in-law
fleur-de-lis | fleurs-de-lis
Governor General | Governors General
Lord Chancellor | Lord Chancellors
man-of-war | men-of-war
mother-in-law | mothers-in-law
passer-by | passers-by
Poet Laureate | Poets Laureate _or_ Poet Laureates
point-to-point | point-to-points
sister-in-law | sisters-in-law
son-in-law | sons-in-law

### Plurals of animal names

The plurals of some animal names are the same as the singular forms, for example _deer, grouse, salmon, sheep_. This rule applies particularly to larger species and especially to those that are hunted or kept by humans. In some contexts the - _s_ is optional: the usual plural of lion is _lions_ , but a big-game hunter might use _lion_ as a plural. For this reason the style is sometimes known as the 'hunting plural': it is never applied to small animals such as mice or rats.

The normal plural of _fish_ is _fish_ :

a shoal of fish |  he caught two huge fish
---|---

The older form _fishes_ may still be used in reference to different kinds of fish:

freshwater fishes of the British Isles

### Foreign plurals

Plurals of foreign (typically Latin, Greek, or French) words used in English are formed according to the rules either of the original language:

alumnus, alumni

genus, genera

nucleus, nuclei

stratum, strata

or of English:

arena, arenas

suffix, suffixes

Often more than one form is in use:

bureau, bureaus _or_ bureaux

chateau, chateaus _or_ chateaux

crematorium, crematoriums _or_ crematoria

referendum, referendums _or_ referenda

The plural of _formula_ is now more commonly _formulas_ than _formulae_ in British and US English, even in mathematical or chemical contexts. In general the English form is preferred: for example, use _stadiums_ rather than _stadia_ , and _forums_ rather than _fora_ , unless dealing with the ancient world. Incidentally, _index_ generally has the plural _indexes_ in reference to books, with _indices_ being reserved for statistical or mathematical contexts; conversely, _appendices_ tends to be used for subsidiary tables and _appendixes_ in relation to the body part. Always check such words in a dictionary if in any doubt.

Words ending in - _is_ usually follow the original Latin form:

basis, bases

crisis, crises

## 3.2.3 Adjectives

Adjectives that form comparatives and superlatives through the addition of the suffixes - _er_ and - _est_ are:

• words of one syllable (e.g. _fast, hard, rich_ )

• words of two syllables ending in - _y_ and - _ly_ (e.g. _angry, early, happy_ ) and corresponding _un_ \- forms when these exist (e.g. _unhappy_ ). Words ending in - _y_ change the _y_ to _i_ (e.g. _angrier, earliest_ )

• words of two syllables ending in - _le_ (e.g. _able, humble, noble_ ), - _ow_ (e.g. _mellow, narrow, shallow_ ), and some ending in - _er_ (e.g. _clever_ )

• some words of two syllables pronounced with the stress on the second syllable (e.g. _polite, profound_ )

• other words of two syllables that do not belong to any classifiable group (e.g. _common, pleasant, quiet_ ).

Words of one syllable ending in a single consonant double the consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel

glad, gladder, gladdest

hot, hotter, hottest

but not when it is preceded by more than one vowel or by a long vowel indicated by a diphthong

clean, cleaner, cleanest

loud, louder, loudest

Words of two syllables ending in - _l_ double the _l_ in British English:

cruel, crueller, cruellest

Adjectives of three or more syllables use forms with _more_ and _most_ ( _more beautiful, most interesting_ , etc.).

## 3.2.4 Adverbs

Adverbs ending in - _ly_ formed from adjectives (e.g. _richly, softly, wisely_ ) generally do not have - _er_ and - _est_ forms but appear as _more softly, most wisely_, etc. Adverbs that form comparatives and superlatives with - _er_ and - _est_ are:

• adverbs that are not formed with - _ly_ but are identical in form to corresponding adjectives (e.g. _runs faster, hits hardest, hold it tighter_ )

• some independent adverbs (e.g. _soon, likely_ ).

# 3.3 Hyphenation

## 3.3.1 General principles

Since hyphenation often depends on the word's or phrase's role and its position in a sentence, and because it is to an extent dependent on adopted style or personal taste, it cannot be covered fully in a dictionary. This section sets out the basic principles and current thinking on hyphens.

## 3.3.2 Soft and hard hyphens

There are two types of hyphen. The **hard hyphen** joins words or parts of words together to form compounds (e.g. _anti-nuclear, glow-worm, second-rate_ ). Use of the hard hyphen is described in the rest of this section. The **soft hyphen** indicates word division when a word is broken at the end of a line; for the soft hyphen and word division see 3.4.

## 3.3.3 Compound words

A compound term may be open (spaced as separate words), hyphenated, or closed (written as one word). However, there is an increasing tendency to avoid hyphenation for noun compounds: Oxford Dictionaries Online specifies _airstream_ rather than _air-stream_ and _air raid_ rather than _air-raid_ , for example.

It is, of course, vital to make sure that individual forms are used consistently within a single text or range of texts. If an author has consistently applied a scheme of hyphenation, an editor need not alter it, although a text littered with hyphens can look fussy and dated. Editors can find the dominant form of a particular compound in a suitable current dictionary such as the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_.

Some compounds are hyphenated where there is an awkward collision of vowels or consonants:

drip-proof |  take-off |  part-time
---|---|---

but even here some are now typically written as one word:

breaststroke |  earring |  hitchhiker
---|---|---

Formerly in British English, a rule was followed whereby a combination of present participle and noun was spaced if the noun was providing the action ( _the walking wounded_ ) but hyphenated if the compound itself was acted upon ( _a walking-stick_ —that is, the _stick_ itself was not _walking_ ). The so-called 'walking-stick rule' is no longer borne out in common use: _walking stick_ and many other such combinations ( _clearing house, colouring book, dining room_ ) are now written as two words.

Compound modifiers that follow a noun do not need hyphens:

the story is well known | the records are not up to date
---|---
an agreement of long standing | poetry from the nineteenth century

but a compound expression preceding the noun is generally hyphenated when it forms a unit modifying the noun:

a well-known story  | up-to-date records
---|---
a long-standing agreement  | nineteenth-century poetry

A distinction may be made between compounds containing an adjective, such as _first class_ or _low level_ , and compound nouns, such as _labour market_ : when compounds of the first sort are used before a noun they should be hyphenated ( _first-class seats, low-level radioactive waste_ ), but the second sort need not be ( _labour market liberalization_ ).

Compound adjectives formed from an adjective and a verb participle should be hyphenated whether or not they precede the noun:

double-breasted suits  | Darren was quite good-looking
---|---

Where a compound noun is two words (e.g. _a machine gun_ ), any verb derived from it is normally hyphenated ( _to machine-gun_ ). Similarly, compounds containing a noun or adjective that is derived from a verb ( _glass-making, nation-builder_ ) are more often hyphenated than non-verbal noun or adjective compounds ( _science fiction, wildfire_ ).

House styles vary greatly in their treatment of compound nouns and it is worth choosing a good dictionary such as the _Oxford Dictionary of English_ or Oxford Dictionaries Online for guidance, but if a specific preference is not stated, it is as well to decide on your own choices for, e.g., _decision maker/decision-making,_ and apply them consistently. Most styles seem to agree on _policymaker_ but not on which to use out of _policymaking, policy-making_ , or _policy making_ for example. Much depends on the familiarity of the readership with a particular usage, for example the compound noun _climate change_ would be unacceptable if hyphenated and _jobseeker_ would jar as two words, at least in the UK, where _Jobseeker's Allowance_ is an accepted term. Agreement on the hyphenation of compound adjectives is more common:

decision-making process  | cake-making equipment
---|---

but again there is a drift towards using one or two words

an international peacekeeping force  | high quality teaching
---|---

unless ambiguous

cross-training of staff _rather than_ cross training of staff

When a phrasal verb such as _to hold up_ or _to back up_ is made into a noun a hyphen is added or it is made into a one-word form ( _a hold-up, some backup_ ). Note, however, that normal phrasal verbs should not be hyphenated:

continue to build up your pension | time to top up your mobile phone
---|---

not

continue to build-up your pension | time to top-up your mobile phone
---|---

Do not hyphenate adjectival compounds where the first element is an adverb ending in - _ly_ :

a happily married couple  | a newly discovered compound
---|---

Adverbs that do not end in - _ly_ should be hyphenated when used in adjectival compounds before a noun, but not after a noun:

a tribute to the much-loved broadcaster

Dr Gray was very well known

Do not hyphenate italic foreign phrases unless they are hyphenated in the original language:

an _ex post facto_ decision

an _ad hominem_ argument

the collected _romans-fleuves_

a sense of _savoir-vivre_

Once foreign phrases have become part of the language and are no longer italicized, they are treated like any other English words, and hyphenated (or not) accordingly:

a laissez-faire policy

a bit of savoir faire

In general do not hyphenate capitalized compounds (although see 4.11.1):

British Museum staff

New Testament Greek

Latin American studies

Compound scientific terms are generally not hyphenated—they are either spaced or closed:

herpesvirus

radioisotope

liquid crystal display

sodium chloride solution

### Capitalizing hyphenated compounds

When a title or heading is given initial capitals, a decision needs to be made as to how to treat hyphenated compounds. The traditional rule is to capitalize only the first element unless the second element is a proper noun or other word that would normally be capitalized:

First-class and Club Passengers

Anti-aircraft Artillery

In many modern styles, however, both elements are capitalized:

First-Class and Club Passengers

Anti-Aircraft Artillery

## 3.3.4 Prefixes and combining forms

Words with prefixes are often written as one word ( _predetermine, antistatic, subculture, postmodern_ ), especially in US English, but use a hyphen to avoid confusion or mispronunciation, particularly where there is a collision of vowels or consonants:

but _predate_ (existing before a certain date) despite potential confusion with the meaning _to catch prey_.

Note that _cooperate, coordinate_ , and _microorganism_ are generally written thus, despite the collision of _o_ s, and _preoperative_ is used to accord with _postoperative_.

A hyphen is used to avoid confusion where a prefix is repeated ( _re-release, sub-subcategory_ ) or to avoid confusion with another word ( _re-form/reform, re-cover/recover_ ).

Hyphenate prefixes and combining forms before a capitalized name, a numeral, or a date:

When it denotes a previous state, _ex_ \- is usually followed by a hyphen, as in _ex-husband, ex-convict_. There is no satisfactory way of dealing with the type _ex-Prime Minister_ , in which the second element is itself a compound. A second hyphen, e.g. _ex-Prime-Minister_ , is not recommended, and rewording is the best option. The use of _former_ instead of _ex_ \- avoids such problems, and is more elegant. Note that in US style an en rule is used to connect a prefix and a compound ( _the post–World War I period_ ).

The prefix _mid_ \- is now often considered to be an adjective in its own right in such combinations as _the mid nineteenth century_ ; before a noun, of course, all compounds with _mid_ should be hyphenated:

a mid-grey tone |  a mid-range saloon car
---|---

_Email_ and _website_ are commonly one word (but _web page_ ); _ebook_ is gaining ground over _e-book_ but less familiar terms such as _e-learning_ are currently hyphenated.

## 3.3.5 Suffixes

Suffixes are always written hyphenated or closed, never spaced.

The suffixes - _less_ and - _like_ need a hyphen if there are already two _l_ s in the preceding word:

bell-less |  shell-like
---|---

Use a hyphen in newly coined or rare combinations with - _like_ , and with names, but more established forms, particularly if short, are set solid:

tortoise-like |  Paris-like |  ladylike
---|---|---
catlike |  deathless |  husbandless

The suffixes - _proof, -scape_ , and - _wide_ usually need no hyphen:

childproof |  moonscape |  nationwide
---|---|---

When a complete word is used like a suffix after a noun, adjective, or adverb it is particularly important to use a hyphen, unless the word follows an adverb ending with - _ly_ :

military-style 'boot camps'

some banks have become excessively risk-averse

GPS-enabled tracking

an environmentally friendly policy

There can be a real risk of ambiguity with such constructions: compare

a cycling-friendly chief executive

rent-free accommodation in one of the pokey little labourer's cottages

with

a cycling friendly chief executive

rent free accommodation in one of the pokey little labourer's cottages

## 3.3.6 Numbers

Use hyphens in spelled-out numbers from 21 to 99:

twenty-three |  thirty-fourth
---|---

For a full discussion of numbers see Chapter 11.

## 3.3.7 Compass points

Compass points are hyphenated:

south-east | south-by-east | south-south-east
---|---|---

but the compound names of winds are closed:

southeaster |  northwesterly
---|---

In US usage individual compass points are compound words:

southeast |  south-southeast
---|---

Capitalized compounds are not usually hyphenated: note that, for example, _South East Asia_ is the prevailing form in British English and _Southeast Asia_ in US English.

## 3.3.8 Other uses

Use hyphens to indicate stammering, paused, or intermittent speech:

'P-p-perhaps not,' she whispered.

'Uh-oh,' he groaned.

Use hyphens to indicate an omitted common element in a series:

three- and six-cylinder models | two-, three-, or fourfold
---|---
upper-, middle-, and lower-class accents | countrymen and -women

When the common element may be unfamiliar to the reader, it is better to spell out each word:

ectomorphs, endomorphs, and mesomorphs

Hyphens are used in double-barrelled names:

Krafft-Ebing's _Psychopathia Sexualis_ ( _Krafft-Ebing_ is one man's surname)

In compound nouns and adjectives derived from two names an en rule is usual ( _Marxism–Leninism_ ), although for adjectives of this sort a hyphen is sometimes used ( _Marxist-Leninist_ ). A hyphen, rather than an en rule, is always used where the first element of a compound cannot stand alone as an independent word, as in _Sino-Soviet relations_. See 4.11.1.

# 3.4 Word division

## 3.4.1 General principles

Words can be divided between lines of printing to avoid unacceptably wide spaces between words (in justified setting) or at the end of a line (in unjustified setting). The narrower the column, the more necessary this becomes. Some divisions are better than others, and some are unacceptable because they may mislead or confuse the reader. Rules governing division are based on a combination of a word's construction (i.e. the parts from which it is formed) and its pronunciation, since exclusive reliance on either can yield unfortunate results. The following offers general guidance only; for individual cases, consult the _New Oxford Spelling Dictionary_. See also 2.5.2 for a discussion of the general principles of page layout and proofreading. For word division in foreign languages, see Chapter 12, under the languages concerned.

A hyphen is added where a word is divided at the end of a line. This is known as a **soft hyphen** or **discretionary hyphen** :

con-

trary

If a word with a hard hyphen is divided after its permanent (keyed) hyphen, no further hyphen is added:

well-

developed

In most texts the hyphens in the examples above ( _con-trary_ and _well-developed_ ) will use the same symbol (-). Sometimes, as in dictionaries or other reference works in which it is important for the reader to know whether an end-of-line hyphen is a permanent one or not, a different symbol, such as -, is used when words are divided:

con-

trary

A tilde (~) is also occasionally used:

con~

trary

In copy to be keyed, add a 'close up' mark (see Appendix Proofreading marks) to any permanent (hard) hyphen that falls at the end of a line, to indicate that it must be typed and set close to the next word. A stet mark (from Latin, 'let it stand') was formerly used, marked as three dots under the character.

## 3.4.2 Principles of word division

The main principle governing the guidelines that follow is that the word division should be as unobtrusive as possible, so that the reader continues reading without faltering or momentary confusion. All word divisions should correspond as closely as possible to a syllable division:

con-tact |  jar-gon
---|---

However, syllable division will not be satisfactory if the result is that the first part is misleading on its own and the second part is not a complete recognizable suffix. For example, do not divide _abases_ , as neither _aba-ses_ nor _abas-es_ are acceptable.

An acceptable division between two parts of one word may be unacceptable when applied to the same form with a suffix or prefix: _help-ful_ is perfectly acceptable, but _unhelp-ful_ is not as good as _un-helpful_.

The _New Oxford Spelling Dictionary_ therefore uses two levels of word division—'preferred' divisions (marked |), which are acceptable under almost any circumstances, and 'permitted' divisions (marked ¦), which are not as good, given a choice. Thus _unhelpful_ is shown as _un_ | _help_ ¦ _ful_.

The acceptability of a division depends to a considerable extent on the appearance of each part of the word, balanced against the appearance of the spacing in the text. For instance, even a division that is neither obtrusive nor misleading, such as _con-tact_ , may be possible but quite unnecessary at the end of a long line of type, whereas a poorer division, such as _musc-ling_ , may be necessary in order to avoid excessively wide word spaces in a narrow line. In justified setting, word spaces should not be so wide that they appear larger than the space between lines of type.

Whether the best word division follows the construction or the pronunciation depends partly on how familiar the word is and how clearly it is thought of in terms of its constituent parts. For instance, _atmosphere_ is so familiar that its construction is subordinated to its pronunciation, and so it is divided _atmos-phere_ , but the less familiar _hydrosphere_ is divided between its two word-formation elements: _hydro-sphere_.

## 3.4.3 Special rules

Do not divide words of one syllable:

though |  prayer |  helped
---|---|---

Do not leave only one letter at the end of a line:

aground ( _not_ a-ground)

Avoid dividing in such a way that fewer than three letters are left at the start of a line:

Briton ( _not_ Brit-on)

rubbishy ( _not_ rubbish-y)

However, two letters are acceptable at the start of a line if they form a complete, recognizable suffix or other element:

Nearly all words with fewer than six letters should therefore never be divided:

Divide words according to their construction where it is obvious, for example:

• between the elements of a compound word:

table-spoon |  railway-man
---|---

• between the root word and a prefix or suffix:

un-prepared |  wash-able
---|---

except where such a division would be severely at odds with the pronunciation:

dem-ocracy ( _not_ demo-cracy) | chil-dren ( _not_ child-ren)
---|---
archaeo-logical _but_ archae-ologist | psycho-metric _but_ psych-ometry
human-ism _but_ criti-cism | neo-classical _but_ neolo-gism

When the construction of a word is no help, divide it after a vowel, preferably an unstressed one:

preju-dice |  mili-tate |  insti-gate
---|---|---

or between two consonants or two vowels that are pronounced separately:

splen-dour |  Egyp-tian |  appreci-ate
---|---|---

Divide after double consonants if they form the end of a recognizable element of a word:

chill-ing |  watt-age
---|---

but otherwise divide between them:

Words ending in - _le_ , and their inflections, are best not divided, but the last four letters can be carried over if necessary:

brin-dled |  rat-tled
---|---

With the present participles of these verbs, divide the word after the consonant preceding the _l_ :

chuck-ling |  trick-ling
---|---

or between two identical preceding consonants:

puz-zling

Divide most gerunds and present participles at - _ing_ :

carry-ing |  divid-ing |  tell-ing
---|---|---

Avoid divisions that might affect the sound, confuse the meaning, or merely look odd:

exact-ing ( _not_ ex-acting) | co-alesce ( _not_ coal-esce)
---|---
le-gend ( _not_ leg-end) | lun-ging ( _not_ lung-ing)
re-appear ( _not_ reap-pear) | re-adjust ( _not_ read-just)

Words that cannot be divided at all without an odd effect should be left undivided:

Hyphenated words are best divided only at an existing hard hyphen but can, if necessary, be divided a minimum of six letters after it:

counter-revolution~

ary

Even where no hyphen is involved, certain constraints must be observed on line breaks:

• Divide abbreviations and dates only after a hard hyphen or an en rule:

UNESCO

AFL-|CIO

1914–|18

• Numbers should not be divided, even at a decimal point: _643.368491_. However, very large numbers containing commas may be divided (but not hyphenated) after a comma, though not after a single digit: _6,493,|000,000_. They cannot be divided at the same places if written with spaces instead of commas: _6 493 000 000_.

• Do not separate numbers from their abbreviated units:

15 kg |  300 BC
---|---

• If possible, do not separate a person's initials from their surname, and do not split two initials; a single initial should certainly not be separated from the surname.

• Do not separate a name from a following modifier:

Louis XIV |  Samuel Browne, Jr.
---|---

# CHAPTER 4

#  Punctuation

# 4.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with particular situations where punctuation can be problematic or may be treated in different ways. It does not attempt to give a full account of the ways that punctuation is used in English. Some sections—such as those on the comma splice and on the use of apostrophes to form plurals—give guidance on correct usage, and explain styles that must be followed in order to write good English. Other sections, for example that on the serial comma, describe situations where a number of styles are possible but where a particular one should be adopted in order to produce a consistent text or adhere to a particular house style. See 21.2 for more details of US English usage.

# 4.2 Apostrophe

## 4.2.1 Possession

Use _'s_ to indicate possession after singular nouns and indefinite pronouns (for example _everything, anyone_ ):

the boy's job  | the box's contents  | anyone's guess
---|---|---

and after plural nouns that do not end in _s_ :

people's opinions  | women's rights
---|---

With singular nouns that end in an _s_ sound, the extra _s_ can be omitted if it makes the phrase difficult to pronounce ( _the catharsis' effects_ ), but it is often preferable to transpose the words and insert _of_ ( _the effects of the catharsis_ ).

Use an apostrophe alone after plural nouns ending in _s_ :

our neighbours' children  | other countries' air forces
---|---

An apostrophe is used in a similar way when the length of a period of time is specified:

a few days' holiday  | three weeks' time
---|---

but notice that an apostrophe is not used in adjectival constructions such as _three months pregnant_.

Use an apostrophe alone after singular nouns ending in an _s_ or _z_ sound and combined with _sake_ :

for goodness' sake

Note that _for old times' sake_ is a plural and so has the apostrophe after the _s_.

Do not use an apostrophe in the possessive pronouns _hers, its, ours, yours, theirs_ :

a friend of yours  | theirs is the kingdom of heaven
---|---

Distinguish _its_ (a possessive meaning 'belonging to it') from _it's_ (a contraction for 'it is' or 'it has'):

give the cat its dinner  | it's been raining
---|---

In compounds and _of_ phrases, use ' _s_ after the last noun when it is singular:

my sister-in-law's car  | the King of Spain's daughter
---|---

but use the apostrophe alone after the last noun when it is plural:

the King of the Netherlands' appeal  | Tranmere Rovers' best season
---|---

A **double possessive** , making use of both _of_ and an apostrophe, may be used with nouns and pronouns relating to people or with personal names:

a speech of Churchill's  | that necklace of her's
---|---

In certain contexts the double possessive clarifies the meaning of the _of_ : compare _a photo of Mary_ with _a photo of Mary's_. The double possessive is not used with nouns referring to an organization or institution:

a friend of the Tate Gallery  | a window of the hotel
---|---

Use' _s_ after the last of a set of linked nouns where the nouns are acting together:

Liddell and Scott's _Greek–English Lexicon_

Beaumont and Fletcher's comedies

but repeat ' _s_ after each noun in the set where the nouns are acting separately:

Johnson's and Webster's lexicography

Shakespeare's and Jonson's comedies

An ' _s_ indicates residences and places of business:

at Jane's  | going to the doctor's
---|---

In the names of large businesses, endings that were originally possessive are now often acceptably written with no apostrophe, as if they were plurals: _Harrods, Currys_. This is the case even when the name of the company or institution is a compound, for example _Barclays Bank, Citizens Advice Bureau_. Other institutions retain the apostrophe, however, for example _Levi's_ and _Macy's_ , and editors should not alter a consistently applied style without checking with the author.

An apostrophe and _s_ are generally used with personal names ending in an _s, x_ , or _z_ sound:

but an apostrophe alone may be used in cases where an additional _s_ would cause difficulty in pronunciation, typically after longer names that are not accented on the last or penultimate syllable:

Nicholas' or Nicholas's  | Lord Williams's School
---|---

_Jesus's_ is the usual non-liturgical use; _Jesus'_ is an accepted archaism.

It is traditional to use an apostrophe alone after classical names ending in _s_ or _es_ :

This style should be followed for longer names; with short names the alternative _Zeus's_ , for instance, is permissible. When classical names are used in scientific or other contexts their possessives generally require the additional _s_ :

Mars' spear

but

Mars's gravitational force

Use ' _s_ after French names ending in silent _s, x_ , or _z_ , when used possessively in English:

Dumas's  | Descartes's
---|---

When a singular or plural name or term is italicized, set the possessive ' _s_ in roman:

Do not use an apostrophe in the names of wars known by their length:

Hundred Years War

It is impossible to predict with certainty whether a place or organizational name ending in _s_ requires an apostrophe. For example:

Land's End  | Lord's Cricket Ground
---|---
Offa's Dyke  | St James's Palace
St Thomas' Hospital (not 's)

but

All Souls College  | Earls Court
---|---
Johns Hopkins University  | St Andrews

Check doubtful instances in the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ , or on the institution's own website (other websites may be unreliable), or in a gazetteer or encyclopedic dictionary.

## 4.2.2 Plurals

Do not use the so-called 'greengrocer's apostrophe', for example _lettuce's_ for 'lettuces' or _video's_ for 'videos': this is incorrect. The apostrophe is not necessary in forming the plural of names, abbreviations, numbers, and words not usually used as nouns:

the Joneses  | several Hail Marys  | three Johns
---|---|---
CDs  | the three Rs  | the 1990s
whys and wherefores  | dos and don'ts  | the Rule of 9s

However, the apostrophe may be used when clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects:

dot the i's and cross the t's  | she can't tell her M's from her N's
---|---
find all the number 7's |

Such items may also be italicized or set in quotes, with the _s_ set in roman outside any closing quote:

subtract all the _x_ s from the _y_ s

subtract all the ' _x_ 's from the ' _y_ 's

## 4.2.3 Contraction

Use an apostrophe in place of missing letters in contractions, which are printed without spaces:

Except when copying older spellings, do not use an apostrophe before contractions accepted as words in their own right, such as _cello, phone, plane_ , and _flu_.

When an apostrophe marks the elision of an initial or final letter or letters, such as _o', 'n'_ , or _th'_ , it is not set closed up to the next character, but rather followed or preceded by a full space:

rock 'n' roll

R 'n' B

it's in th' Bible

how tender 'tis to love the babe that milks me

In contractions of the type _rock 'n' roll_ an ampersand may also be used: see 10.2.2.

There is no space when the apostrophe is used in place of a medial letter within a word:

Formerly ' _d_ was added in place of - _ed_ to nouns and verbs ending in a pronounced vowel sound:

but a conventional _ed_ ending is now usual in such words:

subpoenaed  | shanghaied
---|---

The ' _d_ construction is still found, usually in poetry and older typography, especially to indicate that an - _ed_ is unstressed— _belov'd, bless'd, curs'd, legg'd_ —rather than separately pronounced— _belovèd, blessèd, cursèd, leggèd_.

An apostrophe is still used before the suffix when an abbreviation functions as a verb:

KO's  | OK'ing  | OD'd
---|---|---

# 4.3 Comma

## 4.3.1 Restrictive and non-restrictive uses

There are two kinds of relative clause, which are distinguished by their use of the comma. A defining or restrictive relative clause cannot be omitted without affecting the sentence's meaning. It is not enclosed with commas:

Identical twins who share tight emotional ties may live longer

The people who live there are really frightened

A clause that adds information of the form _and he_ / _she is, and it was_ , or _otherwise known as_ (a non-restrictive or non-defining clause) needs to be enclosed with commas. If such a clause is removed the sentence retains its meaning:

Identical twins, who are always of the same sex, arise in a different way

The valley's people, who are Buddhist, speak Ladakhi

Note that in restrictive relative clauses either _which_ or _that_ may be used in British English, but in non-restrictive clauses only _which_ may be used. Restrictive:

They did their work with a quietness and dignity which he found impressive

They did their work with a quietness and dignity that he found impressive

Non-restrictive:

This book, which is set in the last century, is very popular with teenagers

In US English _which_ is not used for restrictive clauses, unlike British usage of _which_ or _that_.

Similar principles apply to phrases in parenthesis or apposition. A comma is not required where the item in apposition is restrictive or defining—in other words, when it defines which of more than one people or things is meant:

The ancient poet Homer is credited with two great epics

My friend Julie is absolutely gorgeous

Note, however, that when the name and noun are transposed commas are then required:

Homer, the ancient poet, is credited with two great epics

Julie, my friend, is absolutely gorgeous

Use a comma or commas to mark off a non-defining or non-restrictive word, phrase, or clause which comments on the main clause or supplies additional information about it. Use a pair of commas when the apposition falls in the middle of a sentence; they function like a pair of parentheses or dashes, though they imply a closer relationship with the surrounding text:

I met my wife, Dorothy, at a dance

Their only son, David, was killed on the Somme

Ensure that a parenthetical phrase is enclosed in a pair of commas; do not use one unmatched comma:

Poppy, the baker's wife, makes wonderful spinach and feta pies

not

Poppy, the baker's wife makes wonderful spinach and feta pies

Do not use a comma when what follows has become part of a name:

Dave, the builder from down the road, said...

but

Bob the Builder

## 4.3.2 Comma splice

A comma alone should not be used to join two main clauses, or those linked by adverbs or adverbial phrases such as _nevertheless, therefore_ , and _as a result_. This error is called a comma splice. Examples of this incorrect use are:

I like swimming very much, I go to the pool every week

or

He was still tired, nevertheless he went to work as usual

This error can be corrected by adding a coordinating conjunction (such as _and, but_ , or _so_ ) or by replacing the comma with a semicolon or colon:

I like swimming very much, and go to the pool every week

He was still tired; nevertheless he went to work as usual

or by splitting it into two full sentences.

## 4.3.3 After an introductory clause or adverb

When a sentence is introduced by an adverb, adverbial phrase, or subordinate clause, this is often separated from the main clause with a comma:

Despite being married with five children, he revelled in his reputation as a rake

Surprisingly, Richard liked the idea

This is not essential, however, if the introductory clause or phrase is a short one specifying time or location:

In 2000 the hospital took part in a trial involving alternative therapy for babies

Before his retirement he had been a mathematician and inventor

Indeed, the comma is best avoided here so as to prevent the text from appearing cluttered.

Use a comma when a preposition is used as an adverb:

In the valley below, the villages looked very small

If commas are omitted, be vigilant for ambiguities:

In 2000 deaths involving MRSA in males increased by 66 per cent

Prefer _In 2000_ ,... or recast the sentence.

A comma should never be used after the subject of a sentence except to introduce a parenthetical clause:

The coastal city of Bordeaux is a city of stone

The primary reason that utilities are expanding their non-regulated activities is the potential of higher returns

not

The coastal city of Bordeaux, is a city of stone

The primary reason that utilities are expanding their non-regulated activities, is the potential of higher returns

When an adverb such as _however, moreover, therefore_ , or _already_ begins a sentence it is usually followed by a comma:

However, they may not need a bus much longer

Moreover, agriculture led to excessive reliance on starchy monocultures such as maize

When used in the middle of a sentence, _however_ and _moreover_ are enclosed between commas:

There was, however, one important difference

_However_ is, of course, not followed by a comma when it modifies an adjective or other adverb:

However fast Achilles runs he will never reach the tortoise

## 4.3.4 Commas separating adjectives

Nouns can be modified by multiple adjectives. Whether or not such adjectives before a noun need to be separated with a comma depends on what type of adjective they are. **Gradable** or **qualitative** adjectives, for example _happy, stupid_ , and _large_ , can be used in the comparative and superlative and be modified by a word such as _very_ , whereas **classifying** adjectives such as _annual, mortal_ , and _American_ cannot.

No comma is needed to separate adjectives of different types. In the following examples _large_ and _small_ are qualitative adjectives and _black_ and _edible_ are classifying adjectives:

a large black gibbon native to Sumatra

a small edible fish

A comma is needed to separate two or more qualitative adjectives:

a long, thin piece of wood

a soft, wet mixture

No comma is needed to separate two or more classifying adjectives where the adjectives relate to different classifying systems:

French medieval lyric poets

annual economic growth

randomized controlled trial

Writers may depart from these general principles in order to give a particular effect, for example to give pace to a narrative or to follow a style, especially in technical contexts, that uses few commas.

## 4.3.5 Serial comma

The presence or lack of a comma before _and_ or _or_ in a list of three or more items is the subject of much debate. Such a comma is known as a serial comma. For a century it has been part of Oxford University Press style to retain or impose this last comma consistently, to the extent that the convention has also come to be called the **Oxford comma**. However, the style is also used by many other publishers, both in the UK and elsewhere. Examples of the serial comma are:

mad, bad, and dangerous to know

a thief, a liar, and a murderer

a government of, by, and for the people

The general rule is that one style or the other should be used consistently. However, the last comma can serve to resolve ambiguity, particularly when any of the items are compound terms joined by a conjunction, and it is sometimes helpful to the reader to use an isolated serial comma for clarification even when the convention has not been adopted in the rest of the text. In

cider, real ales, meat and vegetable pies, and sandwiches

the absence of a comma after _pies_ would imply something unintended about the sandwiches. In the next example, it is obvious from the grouping afforded by the commas that the Bishop of Bath and Wells is one person, and the bishops of Bristol, Salisbury, and Winchester are three people:

the bishops of Bath and Wells, Bristol, Salisbury, and Winchester

If the order is reversed to become

the bishops of Winchester, Salisbury, Bristol, and Bath and Wells

then the absence of the comma after _Bristol_ would generate ambiguity: is the link between Bristol and Bath rather than Bath and Wells?

In a list of three or more items, use a comma before a final extension phrase such as _etc_., _and so forth, and the like_ :

potatoes, swede, carrots, turnips, etc.

candles, incense, vestments, and the like

It is important to note that only elements that share a relationship with the introductory material should be linked in this way. In:

the text should be lively, readable, and have touches of humour

only the first two elements fit syntactically with _the text should be_ ; the sentence should rather be written:

the text should be lively and readable, and have touches of humour

## 4.3.6 Figures

In general text most styles use commas to separate large numbers into units of three, starting from the right:

£2,200

2,016,523,354

but it will depend on the nature of the material; for example technical texts use a thin or non-breaking space as a thousands separator; for more about numbers see Chapter 11 and 14.1.3.

## 4.3.7 Use in letters

In formal contexts commas are used after some salutations in letters and before the signature:

Dear Sir,...

Yours sincerely,...

US business letters use a colon after the greeting. On both sides of the Atlantic, however, punctuation is now sometimes omitted, particularly after email salutations (if any) and in informal writing. For more on addresses see 6.2.4.

## 4.3.8 Other uses

A comma is often used to introduce direct speech: see 9.2.2.

A comma is placed after _namely_ and _for example_ when part of a parenthetical phrase:

We categorized them into three groups—namely, urban, rural, or mixed

Take, for example, the shutting of a small girl in a locker by three older girls

but no comma is needed when introducing an item or list:

The theoretical owners of the firm, namely the shareholders...

If they are off the road, for example on a grass verge, the district council then has to be notified

A comma is generally required after _that is_. Oxford style does not use a comma after _i.e_. and _e_. _g_. to avoid double punctuation, but US usage does (see 21.2.1).

# 4.4 Semicolon

The semicolon marks a separation that is stronger than a comma but less strong than a full point. It divides two or more main clauses that are closely related and complement or parallel each other, and that could stand as sentences in their own right. When one clause explains another a colon is more suitable (see 4.5).

Truth ennobles man; learning adorns him

The road runs through a beautiful wooded valley; the railway line follows it closely

In a sentence that is already subdivided by commas, a semicolon can be used instead of a comma to indicate a stronger division:

He came out of the house, which lay back from the road, and saw her at the end of the path; but instead of continuing towards her, he hid till she had gone

In a list where any of the elements themselves contain commas, use a semicolon to clarify the relationship of the components:

They pointed out, in support of their claim, that they had used the materials stipulated in the contract; that they had taken every reasonable precaution, including some not mentioned in the code; and that they had employed only qualified workers, all of whom were very experienced

This is common in lists with internal commas, where semicolons structure the internal hierarchy of its components:

I should like to thank the Warden and Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford; the staff of the Bodleian Library, Oxford; and the staff of the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York

Since it can be confusing and unattractive to begin a sentence with a symbol, especially one that is not a capital letter, the semicolon can replace a full point:

Let us assume that _a_ is the crude death rate and _b_ life expectancy at birth; _a_ will signal a rise in...

# 4.5 Colon

The colon points forward: from a premise to a conclusion, from a cause to an effect, from an introduction to a main point, from a general statement to an example. It fulfils the same function as words such as _namely, that is, as, for example, for instance, because, as follows_ , and _therefore_. Material following a colon need not contain a verb or be able to stand alone as a sentence:

That is the secret of my extraordinary life: always do the unexpected

It is available in two colours: pink and blue

Use the colon to introduce a list; formerly a colon followed by a dash : — was common practice, but now this style should be avoided unless you are reproducing antique or foreign-language typography:

We are going to need the following: flashlight, glass cutter, skeleton key,...

She outlined the lives of three composers: Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert

The word following a colon is not capitalized in British English (unless it is a proper name, of course), but in US English it is often capitalized if it introduces a grammatically complete sentence:

Mr Smith had committed two sins: First, his publication consisted principally of articles reprinted from the _London Review_...

A colon should not precede linking words or phrases in the introduction to a list, and should follow them only where they are introduced by a main clause:

She outlined the lives of three composers, namely, Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert

She gave this example: Mozart was chronically short of money

Do not use a colon to introduce a statement or a list that completes the sentence formed by the introduction:

Other Victorian authors worth studying include Thackeray, Trollope, and Dickens

A dash can also be used in a similar way to a colon, but they are not interchangeable: a dash tends to be more informal, and to imply an afterthought or aside (see 4.11.2).

A colon is used after the title of a work to introduce the subtitle. It may be followed by a capital or a lower-case letter (Oxford style uses a capital):

_Finding Moonshine: A Mathematician's Journey through Symmetry_

_Monster: The Autobiography of an L.A. Gang Member_

A colon may introduce direct speech: see 9.2.2.

# 4.6 Full point

The full point is also called **full stop** or, particularly in US use, **period**. Full points are used to mark the end of sentences, and in some classes of abbreviation. Do not use a full point in headings, addresses, or titles of works, even where these take the form of a full sentence:

_All's Well that Ends Well_

_Mourning Becomes Electra_

If the full point of an abbreviation closes the sentence, there is no second point:

a generic term for all polished metal—brass, copper, steel, etc.

I came back at 3 a.m.

For more on abbreviations see Chapter 10. See 9.2.3 for a discussion of the relative placing of full p11oints and closing quotation marks.

# 4.7 Ellipses

An ellipsis (plural _ellipses_ ) is a series of points (...) signalling that words have been omitted from quoted matter, or that part of a text is missing or illegible. Omitted words are marked by three full points ( _not_ asterisks) printed on the line. They can be set as a single character (Unicode code point U+2026 HORIZONTAL ELLIPSIS), and many word processors will autocorrect three dots into a single glyph. Some publishers prefer either normal word spaces or fixed (narrower) spaces between the points (... or...). A normal word space is set either side in running text:

I will not... sulk about having no boyfriend

Political language... is designed to make lies sound truthful

An ellipsis at the end of an incomplete sentence is not followed by a fourth full point. When an incomplete sentence is an embedded quotation within a larger complete sentence, the normal sentence full point is added after the final quotation mark:

I only said, 'If we could...'.

A comma immediately before or after an ellipsis can generally be suppressed, unless it is helpful to the sense. If the sentence before an ellipsis ends with a full point it is Oxford practice to retain the point before the ellipsis, closed up to the preceding text. Every sequence of words before or after _four_ points should be functionally complete. This indicates that at least one sentence has been omitted between the two sentences. If what follows an ellipsis begins with a complete sentence in the original, it should begin with a capital letter:

I never agreed to it.... It would be ridiculous.

For more details on the use of ellipses in presenting quoted material see 9.3.3.

Sentences ending with a question mark or exclamation mark retain these marks before or after the ellipsis:

Could we...?

Could we do it?... It might just be possible...!

An ellipsis can be used to show a trailing off on the part of a speaker, or to create a dramatic or ironic effect:

The door opened slowly...

I don't... er... understand

It is also used, like _etc_., to show the continuation of a sequence that the reader is expected to infer:

in 1997, 1999, 2001...

the gavotte, the minuet, the courante, the cotillion, the allemande,...

Note that other languages use ellipses in different ways: Chinese and Japanese, for example, use six dots in two groups of three. For ellipses in mathematical notation see 14.6.2.

# 4.8 Question mark

## 4.8.1 Typical uses

Question marks are used to indicate a direct question. Do not use a question mark when a question is implied by indirect speech:

He wants to know whether you are coming

She asked why the coffee hadn't materialized

Requests framed as questions out of idiom or politeness do not normally take question marks:

May I take this opportunity to wish you all a safe journey

Will everyone please stand to toast the bride and groom

although a question mark can seem more polite than a full point:

Would you kindly let us know whether to expect you?

I wonder if I might ask you to open the window?

Matter following a question mark begins with a capital letter:

You will be back before lunch, right? About noon? Good.

although short questions that are embedded in another sentence are not followed by a capital:

Where now? they wonder

Embedded questions that are not in quotation marks are often not capitalized. The question mark follows the question at whatever point it falls in a sentence:

The question is, what are the benefits for this country? What about the energy?

When the question is presented as direct speech (whether voiced or formulated in someone's mind), it should be capitalized and set in quotation marks:

'Why not?' she wondered

She wondered, 'Why not?'

Note that a question mark at the end of a sentence functions like a full point, and that double punctuation should not be used. For a full account of the use of punctuation with quotation marks see 9.2.3.

## 4.8.2 Use to express uncertainty

Use a question mark immediately before or after a word, phrase, or figure to express doubt, placing it in parentheses where it would otherwise appear to punctuate or interrupt a sentence. Strictly, a parenthetical question mark should be set closed up to a single word to which it refers, but with a normal interword space separating the doubtful element from the opening parenthesis if more of the sentence is contentious:

The White Horse of Uffington (? sixth century BC) was carved...

Homer was born on Chios(?)

However, this distinction is probably too subtle for all but specialized contexts, and explicit rewording may well be preferable. The device does not always make clear what aspect of the text referred to is contentious: in the latter example it is Homer's birthplace that is in question, but a reader might mistakenly think it is the English spelling ( _Chios_ ) of what is _Khios_ in Greek.

A question mark is sometimes used to indicate that a date is uncertain; in this context it may precede or follow the date. It is important to ensure that the questionable element is clearly identified, and this may necessitate the use of more than one question mark. In some styles the exact spacing of the question mark is supposed to clarify its meaning, but the significance of the space may well be lost on the reader, who will not grasp the difference between the following forms:

? 1275–1333  | ?1275–1333
---|---

or

1275–1333 ?  | 1275–1333?
---|---

It would be clearer to present the first form with two question marks and the second with one only; and in general the question mark is better placed in the after position:

1275?–1333?  | 1275?–1333
---|---

Similarly, care must be taken not to elide numbers qualified by a question mark if the elision may introduce a false implication: in a context where number ranges are elided, _1883–1888?_ makes clear that the first date is certain but the second in question; _1883–8?_ suggests that the entire range is questionable.

More refined use of the question mark, with days and months as well as years, is possible but tricky. While _10? January 1731_ quite clearly throws only the day into question, _10 January? 1731_ could, in theory, mean that the day and year are known but the month is only probable. In such circumstances it is almost always preferable to replace or supplement the form with some explanation:

He made his will in 1731 on the 10th of the month, probably January (the record is unclear)

or

He made his will on 10 January? 1731 (the document is damaged and the month cannot be clearly read)

A distinction is usually understood between the use of a question mark and _c_. ( _circa_ ) with dates: the former means that the date so qualified is probable, the latter that the event referred to happened at an unknown time, before, on, or after the date so qualified. (Note that the period implied by _c_. is not standard: _c_.1650 probably implies a broader range of possible dates than does _c_.1653.)

A question mark in parentheses is sometimes used to underline sarcasm or for other humorous effect:

With friends (?) like that, you don't need enemies

# 4.9 Exclamation mark

The exclamation mark—also called an **exclamation point** in the US—follows emphatic statements, commands, and interjections expressing emotion. In mathematics, an exclamation mark is the factorial sign: 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24; 4! is pronounced 'four factorial'. In computing it is a delimiter symbol, sometimes called a 'bang'. See Chapter 14.

Avoid overusing the exclamation mark for emphasis. Although often employed humorously or to convey character or manner in fiction, in serious texts it should be used only minimally.

As with a question mark, an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence functions like a full point, and double punctuation should not be used. For a full account of the use of punctuation with quotation marks see 9.2.3.

# 4.10 Hyphen

For the use of hyphens in compound words and in word division see Chapter 3.

# 4.11 Dashes

## 4.11.1 En rule

The en rule (US **en dash** ) (–) (Unicode code point U+2013 EN DASH) is longer than a hyphen and half the length of an em rule. (See 4.11.2 for a definition of an em). Many British publishers use an en rule with space either side as a parenthetical dash, but Oxford and most US publishers use an em rule.

Use the en rule closed up in elements that form a range:

In specifying a range use either the formula _from... to..._ or _xxxx–xxxx_ , never a combination of the two ( _the war from 1939 to 1945 or the 1939–45 war_ , but not _the war from 1939–45_ ). For more on ranges see Chapter 11.

The en rule is used closed up to express connection or relation between words; it means roughly _to_ or _and_ :

Dover–Calais crossing  | Ali–Foreman match
---|---
editor–author relationship  | Permian–Carboniferous boundary

It is sometimes used like a solidus to express an alternative, as in _an on–off relationship_ (see 4.13.1).

Use an en rule between names of joint authors or creators to show that it is not the hyphenated name of one person. Thus _the Lloyd–Jones theory_ involves two people (en rule), _the Lloyd-Jones theory_ one person (hyphen), and _the Lloyd-Jones–Scargill talks_ two people (hyphen and en rule).

In compound nouns and adjectives derived from two names an en rule is usual:

Marxism–Leninism (Marxist theory as developed by Lenin)

Marxist–Leninist theory

although for adjectives of this sort a hyphen is sometimes used. Note the difference between _Greek–American negotiations_ (between the Greeks and the Americans, en rule) and _his Greek-American wife_ (American by birth but Greek by descent, hyphen). Elements, such as combining forms, that cannot stand alone take a hyphen, not an en rule: _Sino-Soviet, Franco-German_ but _Chinese–Soviet, French–German_.

Spaced en rules may be used to indicate individual missing letters:

the Earl of H – – w – – d

'F – – – off!' he screamed

The asterisk is also used for this purpose (see 4.15).

## 4.11.2 Em rule

The em rule (US **em dash** ) (—) (Unicode code point U+2014 EM DASH) is twice the length of an en rule. (An **em** is a unit for measuring the width of printed matter, originally reckoned as the width of a capital roman M, but in digital fonts equal to the current typesize, so an em in 10 point text is 10 points wide.) Oxford and most US publishers use a closed-up em rule as a parenthetical dash; other British publishers use the en rule with space either side.

No punctuation should precede a single dash or the opening one of a pair. A closing dash may be preceded by an exclamation or question mark, but not by a comma, semicolon, colon, or full point. Do not capitalize a word, other than a proper noun, after a dash, even if it begins a sentence.

A pair of dashes expresses a more pronounced break in sentence structure than commas, and draws more attention to the enclosed phrase than brackets:

The party lasted—we knew it would!—far longer than planned

There is _nothing_ —absolutely nothing—half so much worth doing as simply messing about in boats

Avoid overuse of the dash in this context and the next; certainly, no more than one pair of dashes should be used in one sentence.

A single parenthetical dash may be used to introduce a phrase at the end of a sentence or replace an introductory colon. It has a less formal, more casual feel than a colon, and often implies an afterthought or aside:

I didn't have an educated background—dad was a farm labourer

Everyone understands what is serious—and what is not

They solicit investments from friends, associates—basically, anyone with a wallet

Do not use it after a colon except in reproducing antique or foreign-language typography.

Use an em rule spaced to indicate the omission of a word, and closed up to indicate the omission of part of a word:

We were approaching — when the Earl of C— disappeared

Asterisks or two or more en rules are also employed for this purpose (see 4.11.1, 4.15).

An em rule closed up can be used in written dialogue to indicate an interruption, much like an ellipsis indicates trailing off:

'Does the moon actually—?'

'They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist—'

A spaced em rule is used in indexes to indicate a repeated word (see Chapter 19). Two spaced em rules (—) are used in some styles (including Oxford's) for a repeated author's name in successive bibliographic entries (see Chapter 18).

# 4.12 Brackets

The symbols (),  ], {}, and < > are all brackets. Round brackets () are also called **parentheses** ; [ ] are **square brackets** to the British, though often simply called **brackets** in US use; **{ }** are **braces** or **curly brackets** ; and < and > are **angle brackets**. For the use of brackets in mathematics see [14.6.5.

## 4.12.1 Parentheses

Parentheses or round brackets are used for digressions and explanations, as an alternative to paired commas or dashes. They are also used for glosses and translations, to give or expand abbreviations, and to enclose ancillary information, references, and variants:

He hopes (as we all do) that the project will be successful

Zimbabwe (formerly Rhodesia)

They talked about power politics (Machtpolitik)

_TLS_ ( _Times Literary Supplement_ )

£2 billion ($3.1 billion)

Geoffrey Chaucer (1340–1400)

Parentheses are also used in enumerating items in a list (see Chapter 15).

## 4.12.2 Square brackets

Square brackets [ ] are used chiefly for comments, corrections, or translations made by a subsequent author or editor:

They [the Lilliputians] rose like one man

Daisy Ashford wrote The Young Visiters [ _sic_ ]

For more on the use of brackets in quotations see Chapter 9.

## 4.12.3 Braces

Braces or curly brackets { } are used chiefly in mathematics, computing, prosody, music, and textual notation; their usage varies within each of these fields. A single brace may be used set vertically to link two or more lines of material together:

## 4.12.4 Angle brackets

Angle brackets < >, the less-than or greater-than signs (Unicode code points U+003C and U+003E respectively), sometimes known as wide angle brackets, are used in pairs to enclose computer code or tags. They are used singly in computing, economics, mathematics, and scientific work to show the relative size of entities, the logical direction of an argument, etc. In etymology they are used singly to mean 'from, derived from' (<) and 'gives' or 'has given' (>):

< Urdu _murġῑ_ hen _> murġ_ bird, fowl

In mathematics and science narrow angle brackets 〈 〉 are used (U+27E8 and U+27E9 MATHEMATICAL LEFT and RIGHT ANGLE BRACKET respectively); in these fields < >, respectively, signify 'less than' and 'greater than'. See 14.6.5.

Narrow angle brackets are also used to enclose conjecturally supplied words where a source is defective or illegible:

He came from _Oxon_ : to be 〈pedagogue〉 to a neighbour of mine

Avoid angle brackets around URLs (see 18.8.3).

## 4.12.5 Punctuation with brackets

Rules governing punctuation are the same regardless of the type of bracket used. A complete sentence within brackets is capitalized and ends in a full point unless the writer has chosen to place it within another sentence:

The discussion continued after dinner. (This was inevitable.)

The discussion continued after dinner (this was inevitable).

No punctuation precedes the opening parenthesis except in the case of terminal punctuation before a full sentence within parentheses, or where parentheses mark divisions in the text:

We must decide ( _a_ ) where to go, ( _b_ ) whom to invite, and ( _c_ ) what to take with us

## 4.12.6 Nested brackets

In normal running text, avoid using brackets within brackets. This is sometimes inevitable, as when matter mentioned parenthetically already contains parentheses. In such cases Oxford prefers double parentheses to square brackets within parentheses (the usual US convention). Double parentheses are closed up, without spaces:

the Chrysler Building (1928–30, architect William van Alen ( _not_ Allen))

the album's original title (( _I_ ) _Got My Mojo Working_ ( _But It Just Won't Work on You_ )) is seldom found in its entirety

References to, say, law reports and statutes vary between parentheses and square brackets; the prescribed conventions should be followed (see also Chapter 13).

# 4.13 Solidi and verticals

## 4.13.1 Solidus

The solidus (/, plural _solidi_ ) is known by many terms, such as the **slash** or **forward slash, stroke, oblique, virgule, diagonal,** and **shilling mark**. It is in general used to express a relationship between two or more things. The most common use of the solidus is as a shorthand to denote alternatives, as in _either_ / _or, his_ / _her, on_ / _off, s_ / _he_ (she or he). The solidus is generally closed up, both when separating two complete words ( _and_ / _or_ ) and between parts of a word ( _s_ / _he_ ).

The symbol is sometimes misused to mean _and_ rather than _or_ , and so it is normally best in text to spell out the alternatives explicitly in cases which could be misread ( _his or her_ ; _on or off_ ). An en rule can sometimes substitute for a solidus, as in _an on–off relationship_. In addition to indicating alternatives, the solidus is used in other ways:

• to form part of certain abbreviations, such as _a_ / _c_ (account), _c_ / _o_ (care of), _n_ / _a_ (not applicable), and _24_ / _7_ (twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week)

• to indicate line breaks when successive lines of poetry are run on as a single line, though Oxford traditionally prefers to use a vertical (|) instead (see 4.13.2, 9.4.1)

• to replace the en rule for a period of one year reckoned in a format other than the 1 January to 31 December calendar extent: _49_ / _8 BC, the fiscal year 2000_/ _1_

• to separate the days, months, and years in dates: _5_ / _2_ / _99_ (see also 11.5)

• to separate elements in a URL: <http://www.oup.com/oeddicref>.

In scientific and technical work the solidus is used to indicate ratios, as in _miles_ / _day, metres_ / _second_. In computing it is called a **forward slash,** to differentiate it from a **backward slash** , **backslash** , or **reverse solidus** (\\): each of these is used in different contexts as a separator (see 14.5.3,14.6.3).

## 4.13.2 Vertical

The vertical rule, line, or bar (|), also called the **upright rule** or simply the **vertical** , has specific uses as a technical symbol in the sciences (see 14.5.3, 14.6.5) and in specialist subjects such as prosody. More commonly, it may be used, with a space either side, to indicate the separation of lines where text is run on rather than displayed, for instance for poems, plays, correspondence, libretti, or inscriptions:

The English winter—ending in July | To recommence in August

A solidus may also be used for this purpose. When written lines do not coincide with verse lines it may be necessary to indicate each differently: in such cases use a vertical for written lines and a solidus for verse.

When more than one speaker or singer is indicated in a run-together extract, the break between different characters' lines is indicated by two verticals (set closed up to each other).

In websites, spaced vertical lines are sometimes used to separate elements in a menu:

News | History | Gallery | Music | Links | Contact

The vertical line is used in the syntax of some computing languages and scripts, and is sometimes referred to as a **pipe**.

# 4.14 Quotation marks

Quotation marks, also called **inverted commas** , are of two types: single ('') and double (" "). Upright quotation marks (' or ") are also sometimes used. People writing for the Internet should note that single quotation marks are regarded as easier to read on a screen than double ones. British practice is normally to enclose quoted matter between single quotation marks, and to use double quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation:

'Have you any idea', he said, 'what "red mercury" is?'

The order is often reversed in newspapers, and uniformly in US practice:

"Have you any idea," he said, "what 'red mercury' is?"

If another quotation is nested within the second quotation, revert to the original mark, either single–double–single or double–single–double.

Displayed quotations of poetry and prose take no quotation marks. In reporting extended passages of speech, use an opening quotation mark at the beginning of each new paragraph, but a closing one only at the end of the last. For more on quotations see Chapter 9, which also covers direct speech and the relative placing of quotation marks with other punctuation.

Use quotation marks and roman (not italic) type for titles of short poems, short stories, and songs (see Chapter 8):

'Raindrops Keep Falling on my Head'

'The Murders in the Rue Morgue'

Use quotation marks for titles of chapters in books, articles in periodicals, and the like:

Mr Brock read a paper entitled 'Description in Poetry'

But omit quotation marks when the subject of the paper is paraphrased:

Mr Brock read a paper on description in poetry

not

Mr Brock read a paper on 'Description in Poetry'

Quotation marks may be used to enclose an unfamiliar or newly coined word or phrase, or one to be used in a technical sense:

'hermeneutics' is the usual term for such interpretation

the birth or 'calving' of an iceberg

the weird and wonderful world of fan fiction, or 'fanfic'

They are often used as a way of distancing oneself from a view or claim, or of apologizing for a colloquial or vulgar expression:

Authorities claim to have organized 'voluntary' transfers of population

I must resort to a 'seat of the pants' approach

Kelvin and Danny are 'dead chuffed' with its success

Such quotation marks should be used only at the first occurrence of the word or phrase in a work. Note that quotation marks should not be used to emphasize material.

Quotation marks are not used around the names of houses or public buildings:

Chequers  | the Barley Mow
---|---

# 4.15 Asterisk

A superscript asterisk * is used in text as a pointer to an annotation or footnote, especially in books that have occasional footnotes rather than a formal system of notes (see also 14.1.6). It can also indicate a cross-reference in a reference work:

Thea *Porter and Caroline *Charles created dresses and two-piece outfits based on gypsy costume

Asterisks may be used to indicate individual missing letters, with each asterisk substituting for a missing letter and closed up to the next asterisk: _that b******!_ En rules are also used for this purpose (see 4.11.1).

On websites and in emails asterisks are sometimes used to indicate emphasis, in place of quotation marks, or to show where italicization would normally be used, for example in the titles of books or other works that are mentioned:

The engagement, the debate, the willingness to engage—*that's* what's important

Maybe some people can handle these little romances as *harmless fun*, but I can't

Asterisks should not be used in place of dots for ellipsis.

For uses in computing see 14.5.3; for other uses see 10.3.

# CHAPTER 5

#  Capitalization

# 5.1 General principles

Capital letters in English are used to punctuate sentences, to distinguish proper nouns from other words, for emphasis, and in headings and work titles. It is impossible to lay down absolute rules for all aspects of capitalization; as with hyphenation, the capitalization of a particular word will depend upon its role in the sentence, and also to some extent on a writer's personal taste or on the house style being followed. Also, certain disciplines, especially history, have their own particular styles of capitalization. However, some broad principles are outlined below. Editors should respect the views of authors, except in cases of internal discrepancies. Both authors and editors should strive for consistency: before writing or editing too much of a work, consider the principles that should govern capitalization, and while working through the material create a style sheet showing capitalization choices, and stick to it.

Excessive use of capitals in emails and on online forums is frowned upon (it is regarded as 'shouting'); on websites, words in capitals can be difficult to read, and it is better to use colour for emphasis.

For the use of capitals in work titles see 8.2.2 and 8.8. For capitalization in lists and tables see Chapter 15, in quotations and verse Chapter 9, in legal references 13.2.3, and in bibliographies 18.2.5. Small capitals are discussed at 7.5.2. For capitalization in languages other than English see Chapter 12 under the language concerned.

# 5.2 Sentence capitals

Capitalize the first letter of a word that begins a sentence, or the first of a set of words used as a sentence:

This had the makings of a disaster. Never mind.

Come on. Tell me!

Capitalize the first letter of a syntactically complete quoted sentence. If, as occasionally happens in fiction or journalism, quotation marks are not used, the first word is generally not capitalized:

Sylvie replied, 'She's a good girl.'

I thought, 'There goes my theory.'

The question is, does anyone have an antidote?

Quoted single words or phrases that do not constitute a sentence are not capitalized:

He'd say 'bye' and run down the wide school steps

Certain young wines do not 'travel well'

For a full discussion of quotation marks and the punctuation that accompanies them see 9.2.

In British English, matter following a colon begins with a lower-case initial, unless it is a displayed quotation or extract, but in US style a capital letter may be used after a colon if it introduces a complete sentence.

# 5.3 Use to indicate specific references

## 5.3.1 Use to create proper names

Initial capitals mark out the status of words so that the reader interprets them correctly. Ordinary proper names are usually recognizable even when they are set (through error or because of the preference of the person named) with lower-case initials. However, where a proper name consists of common nouns and qualifiers, initial capitals are needed to distinguish the specific usage from a general descriptive usage. Consider the difference in meaning, conferred by the application of initial capitals, between the following usages:

Tate Britain is the national gallery of British art

the National Gallery contains incomparable examples of British art

the city of London attracts millions of visitors every year

the City (London's financial district)

the sun sets in the west

nationalist movements that posed a threat to the interests of the West

Some words are capitalized to distinguish their use in an abstract or specific sense. In the names of religious denominations the word _church_ is capitalized, as in _the Baptist Church_ , but _church_ has a lower-case initial in general references to buildings, as in _a Baptist church_. (Note, however, that it would be usual to capitalize the full name of a specific building, as in _Pond Street Baptist Church_.)

Similarly, _State_ is capitalized when it is used in an abstract or legal sense, as in _the separation of Church and State_ , and in specific names of US states ( _New York State_ ), but a reference to states in general will have a lower-case initial: _seven Brazilian states_. There is no need to capitalize the word _government_ , whether it refers to a particular body of persons or to a general concept or body.

Historians commonly impose minimal capitalization on institutional references; this may sometimes appear unconventional and should not be permitted if it will obscure genuine differences in meaning (as, for example, between _the catholic church_ and _the Catholic Church_ ), although readers will seldom misunderstand lower-case forms in context. The style is common in, and appropriate to, much historical work, but editors should not introduce it without consulting with the author and/or publisher.

It is as well, generally, to minimize the use of initial capitals where there is no detectable difference in meaning between capitalized and lower-case forms. _Left_ and _right_ are generally capitalized when they refer to political affiliations, but no reader would be likely to misinterpret the following in a book about British political life:

He is generally considered to be on the left in these debates

simply because it was not capitalized as

He is generally considered to be on the Left in these debates

Overuse of initial capitals is obtrusive, and can even confuse by suggesting false distinctions.

Capitals are sometimes used for humorous effect in fiction to convey a self-important or childish manner:

Poor Jessica. She has Absolutely No Idea.

Am irresistible Sex Goddess. Hurrah!

## 5.3.2 Formal and informal references

When one is referring back, after the first mention, to a capitalized compound relating to a proper name, the usual practice is to revert to lower case:

Cambridge University | their university
---|---
the Ritz Hotel | that hotel
Lake Tanganyika | the lake
National Union of Mineworkers | the union
the Royal Air Force | the air force

Capitals are sometimes used for a short-form mention of the title of a specified person, organization, or institution previously referred to in full:

the Ministry

the University statute

the College silver

the Centre's policy

the Navy's provisions

This style is found particularly in formal documents. Over the course of a book it is important to keep the practice within bounds and maintain strict consistency of treatment; it is easier to apply the rule that full formal titles are capitalized and subsequent informal references downcased.

Plural forms using one generic term to serve multiple names should be lower case:

Lake Erie and Lake Huron

lakes Erie and Huron

the Royal Geographical Society and Royal Historical Society

the Royal Geographical and Royal Historical societies

Oxford University and Cambridge University

Oxford and Cambridge universities

The rationale for this practice is that the plural form of the generic term is not part of the proper name but is merely a common description and thus ought not be capitalized.

# 5.4 Institutions, organizations, and movements

Capitalize the names of institutions, organizations, societies, movements, and groups:

the World Bank | the British Museum
---|---
the State Department | the House of Lords
Ford Motor Company | the United Nations
the Crown | War On Want
the Beatles |

Generic terms are capitalized in the names of cultural movements and schools derived from proper names:

the Oxford Movement  | the Ashcan School
---|---

Notice that the word _the_ is not capitalized.

The tendency otherwise is to use lower case unless it is important to distinguish a specific from a general meaning. Compare, for example:

the Confederacy (the secessionist side in the American Civil War)

confederacy ( _as in_ 'a federation of states')

Romantic (nineteenth-century movement in the arts)

romantic ( _as in_ 'given to romance')

Certain disciplines and specialist contexts may require different treatment. Classicists, for example, will often capitalize _Classical_ to define, say, sculpture in the fifth century BC as opposed to that of the Hellenistic era; editors should not institute this independently if an author has chosen not to do so.

# 5.5 Geographical locations and buildings

Capitalize names of geographical regions and areas, named astronomical and topographical features, buildings, and other constructions:

the Milky Way ( _but_ the earth, the sun, the moon, _except in astronomical contexts_ ( _see_ _14.7.1_) _and personification_ )

New Englandthe Big Applethe Eternal City

Mexico City ( _but_ the city of Birmingham)

London Road ( _if so named, but_ the London road _for one merely leading to London_ )

the Strait of Gibraltarthe Black Forest

the Thames Estuary ( _but_ the estuary of the Thames)

the Eiffel TowerTrafalgar Square

the Bridge of SighsTimes Square

_River, sea_ , and _ocean_ are generally capitalized when they follow the specific name:

the East River  | the Yellow River
---|---
the Aral Sea  | the Atlantic Ocean

However, where _river_ is not part of the true name but is used only as an identifier it is downcased:

the Danube river

When _river_ precedes the specific name it can be either upper or lower case, depending on the style adopted:

the River Tamar _or_ the river Tamar

'The River Plate' is always capitalized, being a conventional mistranslation of _Río de la Plata_ ('Silver River'). Names of well-known or previously mentioned rivers may be written without the specifying word ( _the Amazon, the Mississippi_ ). A lower-case identifier may be added where some clarification is required—to differentiate between the Amazon river and forest, or the Mississippi river and state.

Capitalize compass directions only when they denote a recognized political or cultural entity:

North Carolina  | Northern Ireland ( _but_ northern England)
---|---
the mysterious East  | the West End

Usage in this area is very fluid, and terms may be capitalized or downcased depending on context and emphasis. For example, a book dealing in detail with particular aspects of London life might capitalize _North London, South London_ , etc., while one mentioning the city merely in passing would be more likely to use _north London_ and _south London_. Adjectives ending in _-ern_ are sometimes used to distinguish purely geographical areas from regions seen in political or cultural terms: so

Kiswahili is the most important language of East Africa

but

Prickly acacia is found throughout eastern Africa

For treatment of foreign place names see 6.2.

# 5.6 Dates and periods

Capitalize the names of days, months, festivals, and holidays:

Tuesday  | March  | Easter
---|---|---
Good Friday  | Ramadan  | Passover
Thanksgiving  | Christmas Eve  | the Fifth of November
New Year's Day  |  |

Names of the seasons are lower case, except where personified:

William went to Italy in the summer

O wild West Wind, thou breath of Autumn's being

Capitalize historical periods and geological time scales:

the Devonian period  | Early Minoan
---|---
the Upper Palaeozoic era  |
the Bronze Age  |
the Middle Ages ( _but_ the medieval period)  | the Renaissance
the Dark Ages  |

Modern periods are more likely to be lower case; check such instances with the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ :

the space age

the age of steam

the jazz age

the belle époque

Use lower case for millennia, centuries, and decades (see also 11.6):

the first millennium  | the sixteenth century  | the sixties
---|---|---

# 5.7 Events

Initial capitals are generally used for the formal names of wars, treaties, councils, assemblies, exhibitions, conferences, and competitions.

The following examples are indicative:

the Crucifixion  | the Inquisition
---|---
the Reformation  | the Grand Tour
the Great Famine  | the Boston Tea Party
the Gunpowder Plot  | the Great Fire of London
the First World War  | the Siege of Stalingrad
the Battle of Agincourt  | the French Revolution
the Treaty of Versailles  | the Triple Alliance
the Lateran Council  | the Congress of Cambrai
the Indian and Colonial Exhibition  | the One Thousand Guineas

Note that _war_ and equivalent terms are capitalized when forming part of the conventional name of a specific conflict, but are lower case when part of a looser, more descriptive designation:

the Peninsular campaign

the Korean conflict

After the first mention, any subsequent references to _the war_ etc. are in lower case.

# 5.8 Legislation and official documents

The names of laws and official documents are generally capitalized:

the Declaration of Independence  | the Corn Laws
---|---

_Act_ is traditionally capitalized even in a non-specific reference; _bill_ is lower case if it is not part of a name:

a bill banning unlicensed puppy farms

the Bill of Rights

the requirements of the Act

the Factory and Workshop Act 1911

For legal citations see Chapter 13.

# 5.9 Honours and awards

The full formal names of orders of chivalry, state awards, medals, degrees, prizes, and the like are usually capitalized, as are (in most styles) the ranks and grades of award:

the George Cross

Companion of the Order of the Bath

Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire

Bachelor of Music

Licentiate of the Royal Academy of Dancing

Fellow of the Royal Society

Nobel Prize for Physics

the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture

but

an Olympic gold medal

Honours relating to a non-English-speaking country usually appear with an initial capital but with all other words in lower case; ranks may be translated or given in the original language, but in either case are best set lower case:

grand officer/ _grand officier_ of the Légion d'honneur

# 5.10 Titles of office, rank, and relationship

Words for titles and ranks are generally lower case unless they are used before a name, as a name, or in forms of address:

Winston Churchill, the prime minister  | Prime Minister Winston Churchill
---|---
he was elected prime minister  | Yes, Prime Minister
the US president  | President Obama
the king of England  | King Henry
the queen of Castile  | Queen Elizabeth
an assembly of cardinals  | Cardinal Richelieu
the rank of a duke  | the Duke of Wellington
a feudal lord  | Lord Byron
a professor of physics  | Professor Higgins
Miss Dunn, the head teacher  | Head Teacher Alison Dunn
a Roman general  | Good evening, General!

Exceptions to this principle are some unique compound titles that have no non-specific meaning, which in many styles are capitalized in all contexts. Examples are:

Advocate General  | Attorney General
---|---
Chancellor of the Exchequer  | Chief Justice
Dalai Lama  | Foreign Secretary
Governor General  | Holy Roman Emperor
Home Secretary  | Lord Chancellor
Prince of Wales  | Princess Royal

Regardless of their syntactic role, references to specific holders of a rank or title are often capitalized:

a letter from the Prime Minister

the Archbishop of Canterbury

Use of this style can lead to difficulties in contexts where titles of office appear frequently: in such cases it is generally clearer and more consistent to stick to the rule that the title of office is capitalized only when used before the office-holder's name.

It is usual to capitalize _the Pope_ and the reigning monarch ( _the King/Queen_ ) but not all styles do. When it refers to Muhammad, _the Prophet_ is capitalized (but note _an Old Testament prophet_ ). See also 5.11 for religious names.

Historians often impose minimal capitalization, particularly in contexts where the subjects of their writing bear titles: _the duke of Somerset_. This style can be distracting in works for a general readership.

Capitalize possessive pronouns only when they form part of the titles of a holy person, or of a sovereign or other dignitary:

Personal pronouns referring to the sovereign are capitalized only in proclamations: _We, Us, Our, Ours, Ourself_ , etc.

Words indicating family relationships are lower case unless used as part of a name or in an address:

he did not look like his dad  | Hello, Dad!
---|---
she has to help her mother  | Maya tried to argue with Mother
ask your uncle  | Uncle Brian

# 5.11 Religious names and terms

Use capitals for all references to the monotheistic deity:

Use lower case for pronouns referring to God where the reference is clear, unless the author specifies otherwise. In any event, write _who, whom, whose_ in lower case. Capitalize _God-awful_ and _God-fearing_ but downcase _godforsaken_.

Use lower case for the gods and goddesses of polytheistic religions:

the Aztec god of war  | the goddess of the dawn
---|---

Capitalization of religious sacraments or rites in different religions (and contexts) is not uniform. Note, for example:

but

the Mass  | the Eucharist  | Anointing of the Sick
---|---|---

# 5.12 Personification

Personified entities and concepts are capitalized:

O Freedom, what liberties are taken in thy name!

If the Sun and Moon should doubt, they'd immediately go out

Ships and other craft are traditionally female Formerly, it was also conventional to use _she_ of nations and cities in prose contexts, but this is old-fashioned, and the impersonal pronoun is now used:

he left the _Titanic_ before she foundered on her maiden voyage

Britain decimalized its ( _not_ her) currency in 1971

The device is still found in poetic and literary writing:

And that sweet City with her dreaming spires

She needs not June for beauty's heightening

The names of characters in a play who are identified by their occupation are capitalized in stage directions and references to the text (in the text their names would generally be in small capitals):

[ **First Murderer** appears at the door]

# 5.13 People and languages

Adjectives and nouns denoting place, language, or indigenous people are capitalized:

Related verbs tend to retain the capital ( _Americanize, Frenchify, Hellenize_ ), but note that _anglicize_ and _westernize_ are usually lower case.

As a very general rule, adjectives based on nationality tend to be capitalized where they are closely linked with the nationality or proper noun, and lower case where the association is remote or merely allusive. For example:

Brussels sprouts  | German measles  | Irish setter
---|---|---
Turkish delight  | Shetland pony  | Michaelmas daisy
Afghan hound  | Venetian red  | Portuguese man-of-war

but

venetian blinds  | morocco leather  | italic script
---|---|---

However, there are many exceptions, such as _Arabic numbers, Chinese whispers, Dutch auction, French kissing_ , and _Roman numerals_ , and any doubtful instances need to be checked in a dictionary. _Caesarean_ (section) can take either an initial capital or (more commonly in medical texts) lower case.

Note that in many European languages adjectives of nationality are lower case: the English word 'French' translates as _français_ in French and _französisch_ in German. See Chapter 12.

# 5.14 Words derived from proper nouns

Capitals are used for a word derived from a personal name or other proper noun in contexts where the link with the noun is still felt to be alive:

Lower case is used in contexts where the association is remote, merely allusive, or a matter of convention:

gargantuan  | pasteurize  | protean
---|---|---
quixotic  | titanic  | wellington boots

Some words of this type can have both capitals and lower case in different contexts:

Bohemian (of central Europe) _but_ bohemian (unconventional)

Philistine (of biblical people) _but_ philistine (tastes)

Platonic (of philosophy) _but_ platonic (love)

Stoic (of ancient philosophy) _but_ stoic (impassive)

Retain the capital letter after a prefix and hyphen:

pro-Nazi  | anti-British  | non-Catholic
---|---|---

Use lower case for scientific units (see also 14.1.4) and poetic metres derived from names:

In compound terms for concepts such as scientific laws the personal name only is capitalized:

In medical texts, eponymic derivations may be downcased: _Parkinson's disease, parkinsonism, parkinsonian._ See 14.3.6.

# 5.15 Trade names

In general proprietary terms should be capitalized:

but write related verbs, for example _to skype_ and _to google_ , with a lower-case initial, although it is preferable to use generic verbs and nouns if possible ( _use a VoIP service, do an online search_ ).

Some company and proprietary names use unusual configurations of upper- and lower-case letters; these should be followed:

# 5.16 Ships, aircraft, and vehicles

Capitalize names of ships and vehicles, using italics for individual names but not for types, models, or marques:

the _Cutty Sark_

HMS _Hood_

_The Spirit of St Louis_

a Boeing 747 Jumbo Jet

the Supermarine Spitfire Mk Ia

a Mini Cooper S

the International Space Station

the _Curiosity_ Mars rover

It is worth noting that people serve _in_ not _on_ ships and the definite article is omitted when using the ship prefix (HMS, RRS, SS, etc.):

He went aboard HMS _Victory not_ He went aboard the HMS _Victory_

# 5.17 Names including a number or letter

It is usual to capitalize names that include a number or letter:

# CHAPTER 6

#  Names

# 6.1 References to people

## 6.1.1 General principles

Use the form of name individuals are most commonly known by, or known to prefer:

J. K. Rowling ( _not_ Joanne Rowling)

k. d. lang ( _all lower-case_ )

George Orwell ( _not_ Eric Arthur Blair)

Tom Hanks ( _not_ Thomas Hanks)

When mentioned in passing, a person's name usually need appear only in the form by which the bearer is best known. For example, a writer's married name or hereditary title is important only if the person wrote or was known by it (e.g. _Alfred, Lord Tennyson_ ). In text, authors need clarify titles and names altered by marriage or by any other means only to avoid confusion or to make a point:

Michael (later Sir Michael) Tippett

Laurence (later Lord) Olivier

George Orwell (born Eric Arthur Blair)

George Eliot (pseudonym of Mary Ann, later Marian, Evans)

Initials before a surname are separated by full points, with a space after each:

J. S. Bach  | E. H. Shepard  | Hunter S. Thompson
---|---|---

although some designs, particularly those of newspapers and scientific publications, omit the full points and spaces:

JRR Tolkien  | PJ Harvey  | George W Bush
---|---|---

Normally, names given entirely in initials have points but no spaces ( _J.A.S_., _E.H.S_., _J.R.R.T_.). When people are commonly known by their free-standing initials, these forms have neither points nor spaces ( _FDR, JFK_ ).

## 6.1.2 Alternative names

Distinguish between adopted names, pseudonyms, nicknames, and aliases.

• The owner of an **adopted name** uses it for all purposes, and may have adopted it legally. In this case, 'born', 'né(e)', 'formerly', or the like may be used:

Marilyn Monroe, born Norma Jean Mortensen

Joseph Conrad (formerly Teodor Józef Konrad Korzeniowski)

• **Né** (feminine form **née** ), meaning 'born' in French, is used to indicate a previous forename or surname. In English it is most commonly applied to indicate a married woman's maiden name, after her adopted surname. It is not italicized:

Susan Wilkinson (née Brown)

Frances (Fanny) d'Arblay, née Burney

Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven, née Margaret Roberts

Do not use 'née' in conjunction with pseudonyms, aliases, or nicknames, but only where the new name is adopted. Some writers differentiate between using 'née' for a married woman's maiden name and 'born' for a person's previous name changed by a process other than marriage. This distinction is acceptable, and should not be changed when consistently applied.

• A **pseudonym** is a name adopted for a specific purpose, such as a pen name or stage name. It can be derived from the bearer's true name, or be wholly distinct from it:

Boz (Charles Dickens)

Q (Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch)

Alain-Fournier (Henri-Alban Fournier)

• A **nickname** (more formally, **soubriquet** ) can supplement or supplant the owner's original name

the Sun King (Louis XIV of France)

the Fat Controller (Sir Topham Hatt)

Charlie 'Bird' Parker

Through use it can eventually replace the owner's name, either occasionally ( _Ol' Blue Eyes, Il Duce_ ), partially ( _Fats Waller, Capability Brown, Grandma Moses_ ), or entirely ( _Muddy Waters, Twiggy, Banksy_ ). While no rules govern whether a nickname is put in quotation marks, the tendency is for quotation marks to be used when the nickname is inserted within or precedes another name (Eldrick 'Tiger' Woods), and not when used alone.

Nicknames and other familiar terms of address are capitalized:

the Admirable Crichton  | Capability Brown  | the Famous Five
---|---|---
the Iron Duke  | Al 'Scarface' Capone  | Uncle Sam

## 6.1.3 Identifiers

_Junior_ and _senior_ are added to differentiate a son and father with the same name. Each has several abbreviations ( _Jun_., _Jnr, Jr_ ; _Sen_., _Senr, Snr, Sr_ ). Use the abbreviation _Jr_ (with a point in US use) for Americans, prefaced by a comma unless it is known that the bearer of the name did not use one. In British usage _Jun_. is more common, although rarely used, and the comma is not usual. In both cases the identifier precedes any abbreviations indicating degrees, honours, or scholarly affiliations.

Unlike _junior, senior_ never forms part of the bearer's name and is therefore used only as an ad hoc designation for purposes of clarifying identities. Although abbreviated forms exist (see above), the spelled-out form, with a lower-case initial, is normally used.

In French ' _fils_ ' is an ad hoc designation added after a surname to distinguish a son from a father, as 'Dumas _fils_ '; ' _père_ ' does the same to distinguish a father from a son, as 'Dumas _père_ '. Both are italic in English.

## 6.1.4 Titles

Titles that follow a name are separated from it by a comma. Abbreviated titles of honour, such as _MBE_ and _FRS_ , are usually in capitals, with a comma preceding the first and separating each subsequent title; occasionally the first comma is dropped. As with other such abbreviations (see Chapter 10), abbreviated titles composed of all-capital letters have no full points in modern style (e.g. _DFC, FRA_ ); those with a combination of upper- and lower-case letters traditionally do (e.g. _B_. _Sc_., _D_. _Phil_., _Ph_. _D_.), but today are usually rendered without the points ( _BSc, DPhil, PhD_ ), as are _Mr, Mrs, Dr_ (see 21.4.4 for US usage).

Mr Joseph Andrews

Joseph Andrews, Esq.

Mrs Abigail Andrews

Dr John Andrews

Mary Andrews, DPhil

Admiral of the Fleet Viscount Jellicoe, GCB, OM, GCVO, SGM

Do not combine _Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, Dr_ , etc. with any other title. Note that _Esq_. is now rarely used but, if present, should not be combined with _Mr_ and comes before all other titles that follow a name. (Formerly _Mr_ was used for manual workers or those without a university degree, and _Esq_. for professional men or those with a degree.) For titles of judges see 13.8.

There is no comma in some combinations of titles:

His Grace the Archbishop of Armagh  | His Honour Judge Perkins
---|---

Orders, decorations, degrees, or fellowships are not usually included in title pages, although some academic books use them, excluding first degrees if the author has a postgraduate qualification. They are also not normally used in text except at first mention—and then only in the proportion required by the subject matter. For example, HRH The Prince of Wales, KG, KT, GCB, OM, AK, CD, QSO, PC is more simply styled _Prince Charles, the Prince of Wales_ , or just _the Prince_.

## 6.1.5 Peers and courtesy titles

The peerage of the United Kingdom has five grades—for men: duke, marquess ( _not_ marquis), earl, viscount, and baron; for women (either in their own right or as the wife, widow, or former wife of a peer): duchess, marchioness, countess, viscountess, and baroness. Note that _count_ is not a British title.

_Dame_ is the equivalent of a knight of the Orders of Chivalry, and is always used with a forename with or without the surname, depending on context.

Downing Street announced MacArthur would now be known as Dame Ellen

Dame Vera Lynn, widely known as "The Forces' Sweetheart"

The title _Lady_ is used in reference to female peers, the female relatives of peers, and the wives and widows of knights. It is used with or without a forename and surname, depending on her title.

_Lord_ is a title given formally to a baron, and is used less formally to refer to a marquess, earl, or viscount, prefixed to a family or territorial name ( _Lord Derby_ ). It is also used, prefixed to a forename, as a courtesy title for a younger son of a duke or marquess ( _Lord John Russell_ ). Dukes are not referred to as _Lord_ —, but as _the Duke of_ —. Baronets (and knights) are entitled to the prefix _Sir_. _The Hon_. is a courtesy title used by a younger son of an earl, and all sons and daughters of a viscount or baron.

The courtesy title _Master_ (or _Mistress_ ) is used by heirs of Scottish peerages.

Debrett's website or _Correct Form_ (Debrett's, 2010) are useful sources of guidance on forms of address.

## 6.1.6 Saints' names

Saints' names can be problematic, as they exist as titles for individuals, as place names, and as surnames.

• In British usage, English 'saint' is abbreviated as _St_ ( _St_. for 'street' is conventionally distinguished by having a full point). US usage retains the full point (see 21.4.4). It is not hyphenated except in some personal names such as _St-John_. It is always capitalized in names.

• In French a capital _S_ and hyphen are used if the name refers to the name of a place, institution, or saint's day, or is a family name or title: for example, _Saint-Étienne, Sainte-Beuve, Saint-Christophe-en-Brionnais, la Saint-Barthélemy_. A lower-case _s_ with no hyphen is used if the reference is to the person of a saint, for example _saint Jean, sainte Jeanne d'Arc_. Abbreviations are _S_., feminine _Ste_ , for the persons of saints, in other contexts _St_ -, feminine _Ste_ -.

• In German use _Sankt_ , abbreviated _St_.; for the saints themselves _hl_. ( _heilig_ ).

• In Italian 'saint' before a consonant in the masculine form is _San_ (for example _San Filippo_ ); before impure _S_ (that is, an _s_ followed by another consonant), the form is _Santo_ : _Santo Stefano_. The feminine form before a consonant is _Santa_ , as in _Santa Maria_. In both genders before a vowel the form is _Sant'_ and the words are elided: _Sant'Agostino, Sant'Agnese_.

• In Portuguese 'saint' is masculine _São_ , sometimes _Santo_ before a vowel; feminine _Santa_.

• In Spanish 'saint' is masculine _San_ (before _Do-, To-_ it is _Santo_ ); the feminine is _Santa_.

Abbreviations of names derived from saints' names are generally alphabetized under the full form (that is, _St Andrews_ would be found under _Saint_ rather than under _St_ or _A_ ).

## 6.1.7 Welsh, Scottish, and Irish names

### Welsh names

Surnames were not used in Welsh culture until the Tudor period and became standard practice only from the seventeenth century. Before that both men and women took their names from their fathers. The male patronymic particles are _ap_ (preceding a consonant) and _ab_ (preceding a vowel), both meaning 'son of'. The female patronymic particle is _ferch_ , meaning 'daughter of'. All are lower case. Sometimes the patronymic is doubled, naming the person's father and grandfather in the form 'son/daughter of X son of Y':

Gruffudd ap Madog

Llywelyn ab Owain

Hywel Fychan ap Gruffydd ap Hywel

Angharad ferch Morgan

Alphabetizing such names can be complex but general guidance is to organize them in the first instance on the personal (first) name. Alternatively use the particle (the system used in Welsh phone books, for example) but not on the capitalized 'surname', which is actually the antecedent's name.

### Irish and Scottish names

The Irish prefix _O'_ means 'grandson of'. In the English form use a closing quotation mark (apostrophe) with no space, as _O'Brien, O'Neill_. In Irish one alternative to this is the capital _O_ and full space; another is the more authentic Gaelic _Ó_ , followed by a full space: _Ó Cathasaigh, Ó Flannagáin_. Women's surnames begin with Ní or Nic. Follow the bearer's preference, if known.

_Mac_ means 'son of'. Styling names with _Mac_ can lead to problems, depending on whether they are rendered in Gaelic or English forms, or somewhere in between. Spelling rests on the custom of the person bearing the name, and variations in English spelling ( _MacDonald_ , _Macdonald, McDonald, M'Donald_ , etc.) must be followed, even though they do not reflect any variation in the Gaelic forms. In Irish, names with _Mac_ are written as two words, for example _Michéal Mac Mathúna_ (or _Mac Mathghamhna_ ) 'Michael MacMahon'. As a general rule, leave alone spelling variants found within a text unless you have good reason to believe that the same person's name is being spelled in different ways. However spelled, any name so prefixed is treated as _Mac_ in alphabetical arrangement.

## 6.1.8 Names containing prefixes

With prefixes to proper names such as _de, du, van den_ , or _von_ , follow the bearer's preference, if known. Within an alphabetical listing supply cross-references where necessary.

### de

In accordance with French practice _de_ should not have an initial capital ( _de Candolle, de Talleyrand-Périgord_ ), except when anglicized ( _De Quincey_ ) or at the beginning of a sentence. Before a vowel _d'_ is used ( _d'Alembert_ ). When the surname is used by itself, without given name, initials, or title, _d'_ should be retained ( _d'Alembert_ ), but _de_ only if the following element is monosyllabic ( _de Thou_ ) or disyllabic ending in a syllable with mute _e_ ( _de Gaulle_ ); otherwise omit ( _Toqueville_ not _de Toqueville_ ). Names prefixed with a lower-case _de_ or _d'_ should be alphabetized under the surname:

Alembert, Jean le Rond d'  | Mairan, Jean-Jacques de
---|---
Chazelles, Jean-François, comte de  |

Anglicized names of this form are alphabetized on the prefix.

In Netherlands Dutch, _de_ (which is the definite article) is capitalized when the bare name is used alone, to distinguish it from its ordinary use. In English that is not necessary, though not wrong if followed consistently. The prefix does not form the basis for alphabetization, as _Groot, Geert de_. In Belgium the reverse is true, with _De Bruyne, Jan_.

Prefixes in Italian names are capitalized and are the basis for alphabetization:

De Sanctis, Gaetano  | Della Casa, Adriana
---|---
Del Corno, Francesco  | Di Benedetti, Vittorio

An exception is made for aristocratic names beginning _de'_ , or _degli_ : _Medici, Lorenzo de'_ ; these are capitalized under the main name rather than the prefix. This also applies to _De_ , which is sometimes a dialectal form of _di_ ( _De Simone_ ), or sometimes a Latinism ( _De Sanctis_ ).

In Spanish names _de_ is lower case and omitted in bare surname references, and does not form the basis for alphabetization. For example _Luis Barahona de Soto_ (alphabetized under _B_ ), _Diego de Hurtado de Mendoza_ (under _H_ ), _Lope de Vega Carpio_ (under _V_ ). The prefix _del_ , as in _del Castillo_ , is a contracted form of _de el_.

### de la

In modern French the compound particle _de La_ has only one capital ( _de La Fontaine_ ). The _de_ is dropped in the absence of a forename: _La Fontaine said_... When anglicized the prefix may deviate from this practice ( _de la Mare, De La Warr_ ); follow established convention or the bearer's preference. Names prefixed with _de La_ are alphabetized under _La_ : _La Fontaine, Jean de_.

In Spanish _de la_ is lower case: _Claudio de la Torre_ but the short form is _La Torre_ (alphabetized under _T_ ). Similarly _Bartolomé de las Casas_ is shortened to _Las Casas_.

### du

_Du_ normally has an initial capital, and names are alphabetized under _D_ accordingly: _Du Deffand, Marie, marquise_. Variations exist with lower-case _du_ , with the name alphabetized according to the surname; this is also the case where the surname is actually formed from a title: _Maine, Louise de Bourbon, duchesse du_.

### le, la

The definite article is capitalized when it occurs at the beginning of a French surname: _Le Pen_. (Note, however, that it is lower case in place names except at the beginning of a sentence.) In both cases the names are alphabetized on the article.

### van, van de, van den, van der

In the Netherlands, _van, van de, van den_ , and _van der_ , prefixed to a surname, are not capitalized except when there is no given name, initial, or title before _Van_ , to distinguish it from the ordinary preposition meaning 'of' or 'from'. In Belgium the reverse is usually true, with a capital _V_ used in alphabetizing; Afrikaans employs both conventions. In Britain and the US well-known names of Dutch origin, such as _Vincent Van Gogh_ , are usually alphabetized on the prefix: _Van Gogh, Vincent_.

### von, von dem, von den, von der, vom

As a Germanic prefix to a proper name _von_ usually has no initial capital, except at the beginning of a sentence. In some Swiss names the _Von_ is capitalized ( _Peter Von der Mühll_ ). Where the surname stands alone _von_ is omitted ( _Liebig_ , not _von Liebig_ ), and the name is not alphabetized on the prefix ( _Liebig, Gertrud von_ ). The related forms _von dem, von den, von der_ , and _vom_ are usually retained, however, and form the basis for alphabetization.

## 6.1.9 Foreign names

### Arabic

Names beginning with the definite article _al_ (or variants such as _el, ul_ , or _an_ ) should always be hyphenated: _al-Islām, al-kitāb_. The _a_ is capitalized at the start of a sentence but is otherwise lower case. In alphabetizing, the article is ignored and the person is listed under the capital letter of their last name. Thus _Aḥmad al-Jundī_ would be listed as _al-Jundī, Aḥmad_ , and alphabetized under _J_ ; the article is not inverted, and can even be deleted if the style is imposed consistently. Compound place names of the type _Shajar al-Durr_ would be listed thus, however, not transposed as _al-Durr, Shajar_.

Familial prefix elements such as _abū_ (father of), _umm_ (mother of), and _ibn_ or _bin_ (son of) may appear as part of ordinary names. They are then in lower case and do not determine alphabetical position: _Muḥammad bin Aḥmad_ would be listed as _Aḥmad, Muḥammad bin_. The prefix elements are not connected to the following name by hyphens. _Ibn_ or _bin_ is often abbreviated to _b_. in indexes and bibliographical references, and _bint_ (daughter) may be abbreviated to _b_. or _bt_. On the other hand, such constructs may appear in established surnames, in which case the prefix should be capitalized and should determine alphabetical position: for example, the medieval author Muḥammad Ibn Saʿd would be listed as _Ibn Saʿd, Muḥammad_.

Transliterated modern Arabic names often employ established westernized spellings that may not follow normal rules of transliteration: _Hussein_ rather than _Husayn, Nasser_ rather than _Nāṣir, Naguib_ rather than _Najīb_. In each case the most commonly occurring spelling of the bearer's name is acceptable, except in specialist contexts. Sometimes _Ibn_ is used to indicate that the following name is not the father's (but e.g. the grandfather's) or is a nickname; this attempts to reproduce a distinction made in Arabic script, where lower-case _ibn_ corresponds to _bn_ without the initial _alif_.

### Chinese

Chinese personal names normally consist of a single-syllable family name or surname, followed by a two-syllable personal name ( _Ai Weiwei_ ). In formal contexts the family name should be used ( _Ai_ or _Mr Ai_ ). In romanization capitals are used for the first letter, both of the family and of the personal name. In the Wade–Giles transliteration system the two elements of the personal name are separated by a hyphen (for example _Mao Tse-tung_ ), whereas in the Pinyin system they are run together as a single word ( _Mao Zedong_ ). When a form of name has a long-established history, for example _Sun Yat-sen_ or _Chiang Kai-shek_ , this should be preferred. Names are not inverted for alphabetization.

In pre-modern times two-syllable names were frequently found, for example _Wang Wei_. More recent figures may use a westernized form of surname, giving the initials for the personal name first and placing the family name last, for example _T_. _V_. _Soong, H_. _H_. _Kung_. In indexing and alphabetizing such names the order should be inverted in Western fashion.

### French

The definite article ( _le, la_ ) is capitalized when it occurs at the beginning of a French surname, and the name is alphabetized under _L_. Do not confuse this with the use of an article to refer to a person whose name itself does not incorporate it:

le Guerchin (Guercino)  | la Delaporte (Marguerite Delaporte)
---|---

Note that the article only accompanies the surname, not the forename. See also **de, de la, du** at 6.1.8.

When a first name is abbreviated in a French text, if the second letter of the name is an _h_ , the _h_ is retained:

Th. Gautier (Théophile Gautier)  | Ch. Mauron (Charles Mauron)
---|---

The honorifics _Monsieur_ (Mr), _Madame_ (Mrs), and _Mademoiselle_ (Miss) can be used alone or in conjunction with a surname. They are abbreviated as _M, Mme_ , and _Mlle_ (no point). _Mademoiselle_ as a form of address for adult women has now largely given way to _Madame_ in everyday contexts.

### German

Honorifics are _Herr_ (Mr), _Frau_ (Mrs), and _Fräulein_ (Miss): these are abbreviated as _Hr_., _Fr_., and _Frl_. Unmarried women are now also usually called Frau; usage may differ regionally and according to the age of the speaker.

Whether individuals include the _Eszett_ (ß) in their names is a matter of personal style in German or Austrian names, though it is rare in Swiss names. See also **von, von dem, von den, von der, vom** at 6.1.8.

### Greek

Traditional practice is to write ancient Greek names in a Latinized form (for example _Hercules_ rather than _Herakles_ ), although the Greek form is often used when discussing Greek literature, art, religion, etc. One would discuss the twelve labours of _Herakles_ in Greek art and poetry, but in a general context one would refer to the labours of _Hercules_. A further rule is to give familiar names in their traditional English—that is, Latinized—form, but retain the Greek spelling for less familiar ones. It is difficult to give guidance as to which names are familiar and which are not, but in nonspecialist contexts, avoid Greek spelling when the Latinized name is a household name.

Some scholars differentiate separate bearers of the same name through Latinizing and Hellenizing alone, using _Thucydides_ for the historian but _Thoukydides_ for his uncle the politician; _Callimachus_ for the poet but _Kallimachos_ for the Athenian general. Probably no one would call the philosopher _Platon_ ; on the other hand, a lesser light by that name would normally be called _Platon_ by modern scholars. No one would call the philosopher _Aristotle_ anything else, though another man of the same name would be _Aristoteles_ ; similarly with _Homer_ and _Hesiod_ ( _Homeros_ and _Hesiodos_ ).

The following is a basic guide to Latinized forms of Greek names:

**Greek** |

**Latin**

---|---
ai |

ae

k |

c

kh |

ch

ei |

i or ei

oi |

oe

-os |

-us

-ros |

-er

ou |

u

u |

y

Some examples:

**Greek** | **Latin**
---|---
Achilleus, Akhilleus  | Achilles
Aias  | Aiax, ( _English_ ) Ajax
Kallimachos, Kallimakhos  | Callimachus
Lusandros, Lysandros  | Lysander
Odysseus  | Ulixes, ( _English_ ) Ulysses
Oidipous  | Oedipus
Thoukydides  | Thucydides

For transliteration see 12.7.

### Hebrew and Jewish

A Hebrew name may be rendered in English in a variety of ways: _Jacob_ , for example, may also be _Ya'acov_ or _Ya'akov_ ; similarly _Haim, Hayyim, Chaim_ , and _Chayim_ are all variants. Beyond ensuring that the same person is always referred to in the same way, one cannot standardize automatically throughout a text because any variant may represent the personal preference of the individual concerned or an established convention regarding how their name is spelled.

The _ben_ that occurs in many Hebrew names means 'son of'; this is the traditional Jewish way of naming Jewish males. The female form is _bat_ 'daughter of'. In pre-modern times a man would usually be known simply as the son of his father: _Avraham ben David_ (Avraham the son of David). In scholarly works this is often abbreviated to _Avraham b. David_ ; for works aimed at a more general readership, the full form is probably clearer. The _Ben_ that often figures in modern Israeli names represents a different usage: now part of the surname, it should be hyphenated to it and capitalized, as in _David Ben-Gurion_ , and alphabetized under _B_. The unhyphenated _David Ben Gurion_ is wrong, as it suggests that _Ben_ is a middle name.

### Italian

The forms of address are _Signor_ (Mr), _Signora_ (Mrs), and _Signorina_ (Miss), abbreviated as _Sig_., _Sig.ra_ , and _Sig.na_. _Signor_ adds an _-e_ when it is not followed by a name. Adult women may be addressed as _Signora_ , regardless of marital status, particularly in formal contexts. _Dottor_ ('Doctor', though used also of any graduate) adds an _-e_ in similar circumstances; the feminine form is _Dottoressa_. Those with higher degrees are _Professore_ or _Professoressa_. Titles followed by a surname are lower case: _la signora Cappelletti, il dottor Ferro_. See also **de** at 6.1.8.

### Japanese

Japanese names usually take the form of a single surname, followed by a personal name: _Itō Hirobumi, Omura Mizuki_. The surname forms the basis for alphabetization. The suffixes _-san_ (gender-neutral), _-sama_ (polite form), _-chan_ (affectionate diminutive), and _-kun_ (for addressing an inferior; also used by boys in addressing one another) are used only in speech, or transcriptions of speech.

In Western contexts it is conventional, especially in translations, to transpose the names— _Mizuki Omura_. (The writer known in the West as Kazuo Ishiguro would be Ishiguro Kazuo in Japan.) Well-known artists are often identified only by the personal name element, leaving out any reference to family, for example _Hokusai_ rather than _Katsushika Hokusai_. Similarly, writers who are well known by their personal name may be so identified: _Bashō_ rather than _Matsuo Bashō_.

Historically, it is common for two elements of a name to be separated by _no_ , indicating the subordination of the second element to the first: _Ki no Tsurayuki_. Here, too, the name should appear in direct order.

### Korean

In Korean names the surname precedes the personal name, unless a particular individual's name has become westernized. There are five predominant surnames in Korea— _Kim, Yi, Pak, Chŏng_ , and _Ch'oe—_ and more than a third of people will use one of the first three. Note that Anglicizations sometimes introduce variants, e.g. _Lee_ or _Rhee_ for _Yi_ , _Park_ for _Pak, Cheung_ for _Chŏng_. Personal names usually consist of two elements separated from one another by a hyphen: _Kim Jong-Un_.

### Portuguese

As in Spanish practice, the surname is normally composed of two elements: the mother's maiden name and the father's surname, the latter forming the basis for alphabetization. Unlike Spanish, however, the mother's maiden name comes before the father's surname. Alphabetization is according to the last element in the surname: _Manuel Braga da Cruz_ is ordered under _Cruz, Manuel Braga da_.

Standard forms of address are _Senhor_ (Mr), _Senhora_ (Mrs or Miss), _Minha Senhora_ (a more polite form of Mrs), or _Dona_ (Mrs or any older woman). _Menina_ (Miss) is used only before a given name. Professional or conferred titles normally come after the _Senhor, Senhora_ , etc.: _Senhor Professor, Senhora Doutora_. In Brazilian usage _Senhorita_ is used for 'Miss', and it is considered more polite to use _Senhor_ and _Senhora_ in conjunction with the first name rather than surname.

### Russian

The gender-neutral honorific _tovarishch_ (Comrade) is now rarely used; it has been supplanted by the pre-Revolution forms _gospodin_ (Mr) and _gospozha_ (Mrs or Miss), which are used mostly in writing, and then only with the surname following. Russian names follow the patronymic pattern of given name, father's name with the suffix _-ovich_ (son of) or _-ovna_ (daughter of), and surname. While the surname is inherited, it is rarely used in speech. Correctly, transliterated abbreviated names with initials composed of two letters, one capital and one lower-case, should not be further reduced, as they are derived from a single Cyrillic letter, for example _Ya_. for Yakov, _Yu_. for Yuri, and _Zh_. for Zhores. For transliteration see 12.15.

### Scandinavian

The ancient Scandinavian traditions of conferring patronymic names from one generation to the next—whereby, for example, _Magnus Pálsson_ (Magnus, son of Pál) names his son _Pál Magnusson_ and his daughter _Björk Magnúsdóttir_ —are still found in Iceland, although they have not been used consistently elsewhere for the past one or two centuries; since 1923 only existing surnames have been allowed to be used in Iceland. Icelandic alphabetization is still by given name rather than surname, with _Finnur Jónsson_ under _F_ and _Vígdís Finnbogadóttir_ under _V_. After using a person's full Icelandic patronymic name, it is customary to use their personal name in subsequent references, even in formal contexts. Other Scandinavian names follow the usual pattern; Danish and Norwegian surnames often end in - _sen_ but Swedish in - _sson_ , where the first _s_ is the genitive ending ( _Pettersson_ , Peter's son).

### Spanish

Standard forms of address are _Señor_ (Mr), _Señora_ (Mrs), _Señorita_ (Miss), abbreviated as _Sr, Sra_ , and _Srta_. _Señorita_ as a form of address has now largely given way to _Señora_ in everyday contexts.

Surnames are usually composed of two elements, the father's family surname followed by the mother's family surname (derived from her father's family name). So if, for example, _Señor Roberto Caballero Díaz_ marries _Señorita Isabel Fuentes López_ , their son might be _Jaime Caballero Fuentes_. The wife's surnames normally do not alter with marriage. In unofficial contexts the second half of a married woman's compound surname may be replaced by the husband's first surname and joined to her first surname by the conjunction _de_ , although this is becoming rare: in the case above, _Isabel Fuentes López_ could be _Isabel Fuentes de Caballero_ , or _Señora de Caballero_.

Compound surnames may be joined with a _y_ , or in Catalan surnames _i_ :

José Ortega y Gasset  | Josep Lluís Pons i Gallarza
---|---

The second element may be dropped in everyday use; Cervantes's full name was _Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra_ , and prominent figures in Spanish public life may be referred to with only one surname:

Mariano Rajoy  | Javier Bardem
---|---

In journalistic shorthand they would be referred to as _Rajoy_ and _Bardem_.

Conversely, a person may become known by the second element of their surname, particularly if the expected one is very common: the poet Federico García Lorca is generally known as _Lorca_ , the politician José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is referred to as _Zapatero_ , or _Rodríguez Zapatero_ (but never just _Rodríguez_ ), and Pablo Ruiz Picasso, son of José Ruiz Blasco and María Picasso, is known universally as _Picasso_.

Where two elements are used, alphabetization is normally according to the first element in the surname.

# 6.2 Place names

## 6.2.1 General principles

Choosing the appropriate spelling of a name for a town, city, country, or geographical feature can be a tricky and sensitive matter. Consulting an authoritative recent atlas, or a dictionary that includes encyclopedic information, such as the _Oxford Dictionary of English_ or the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ , will help to establish the currently accepted form, but in many cases a choice must be made between alternative spellings.

Note that place names are always rendered in roman type, even if the form used is a foreign, unnaturalized one with unfamiliar spelling or accents:

rue St-Honoré  | Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Roma
---|---

The modern tendency is to replace English versions of place names by the correct form in the local language, but it is far from being a universal rule: few writers in English would refer to _Roma_ or _München_ for Rome or Munich, for example. Be aware, also, that some local forms closely resemble their anglicized variant: be wary with _Lyon_ and _Lyons, Marseille_ and _Marseilles, Reims_ and _Rheims_.

The following list provides examples of current Oxford preference for the names of some foreign cities when given in general—as opposed to specialist or historical—context:

Ankara ( _not_ Angora)  | Beijing ( _not_ Peking)
---|---
Brussels ( _not_ Bruxelles _or_ Brussel)  | Florence ( _not_ Firenze)
Gdansk ( _not_ Danzig)  | Geneva ( _not_ Geneve)
Livorno ( _not_ Leghorn)  | Lyons ( _not_ Lyon)
Marseilles ( _not_ Marseille)  | Reims ( _not_ Rheims)
Sichuan ( _not_ Szechuan _or_ Szechwan)  | Vienna ( _not_ Wien)

It is important to be aware of the sensitivities and contentious issues reflected in choices of name. Some particular points are expanded below:

• The island containing England, Wales, and Scotland is _Britain_ ; _Great Britain_ is more usual when these countries are considered as a political unit; _Great_ is a historical geographical term, to contrast it with Lesser Britain, an ancient name for Brittany. The _United Kingdom_ is a political unit that includes these countries and Northern Ireland (but not the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands). The _British Isles_ is a geographical term that refers to the United Kingdom, Ireland, and the surrounding islands, and does not connote ownership.

• _America_ is a land mass consisting of the continents of North and South America. It should be used to mean 'the United States' only when the context is very clear. _North America_ is a continent that contains Canada, the United States, Mexico, and the countries of _Central America_ (which is classed as the southernmost part of North America).

• The official names of some Indian cities have changed since 1995, with _Mumbai_ replacing _Bombay, Chennai_ superseding _Madras, Kolkata_ supplanting _Calcutta_ , and _Bengaluru_ succeeding _Bangalore_. A book about modern India should certainly use the new forms, although if the work is intended for a general readership the names may be glossed with their traditional forms.

• The country between Poland and Russia is _Belarus_ , not _Belorussia_ or _Byelorussia_ and certainly not _White Russia_.

• In contemporary contexts place names in China should be spelled with the Pinyin rather than the Wade–Giles system (see 12.3.3): _Beijing_ and _Guangzhou_ rather than _Peking_ and _Kwangchow_. The old name of the latter, _Canton_ , may be felt to be more appropriate in historical contexts.

• The area of the Congo in Africa needs particular care. The country known as Zaire between 1971 and 1997 is the _Democratic Republic of Congo_ (capital, Kinshasa), whereas its much smaller neighbour is _Congo_ or _Republic of Congo_ (capital, Brazzaville); the latter is sometimes distinguished as _Republic of Congo-Brazzaville_.

Names of features such as lakes, oceans, seas, mountains, and rivers can lay traps for the unwary: strictly speaking, a descriptive term should not be added to a name in which it is already present. For example the _meer_ in _IJsselmeer_ and _mere_ in _Windermere_ mean 'lake', and the first part of the name of the _Rio Grande_ means 'river' in Spanish.

Romanization can cause difficulties with place names; some guidance is given in Chapter 12 under the individual language.

## 6.2.2 Chronology

Places where the official language has changed owing to historical events may need to be identified or benefit from a gloss: _Breslau_ ( _now Wrocław_ ). In specialist or historical works the subject, historical period, and prospective readership will govern which language or form is used for a particular place name, though the usage for any given region must be consistent; editors should not automatically change a name given in the text to its modern equivalent. When the place name itself—not merely its linguistic form—has changed, do not use the new name retrospectively: refer to the Battle of _Stalingrad_ , even though since 1961 the city has been _Volgograd_. This applies no less when the old name is restored: the _Petrograd Soviet_ and the _Siege of Leningrad_ should not be placed in _St Petersburg_ , though naturally '(now St Petersburg)' may be added if readers are thought to need it.

## 6.2.3 Locating places

It is sometimes necessary to distinguish places of the same name, to identify small places, or to clarify the name of a place when it has changed. In general it would be pedantic to refer to 'Paris, France' on the off-chance that one reader in a million might assume that 'Paris' standing alone referred to the place in Texas. Context will often make plain which of two places of the same name is meant: in a book about English churches it would be unnecessary to refer to 'Boston, Lincolnshire'. However, in the same book, a reference to 'Richmond' would require identification (unless, of course, the surrounding matter located it unambiguously in Surrey or Yorkshire).

A small place may be located by reference to a larger place, a county, a surrounding area, or a country:

Fiesole near Florence

Newton, Warwickshire

St-Julien-de-Jonzy in Burgundy

Kinshasa, the capital of the Democratic Republic of Congo

It is important to avoid anachronisms in these cases: a modern reference to Hampstead might identify it as 'in north London', but a reference to John Constable's taking a house there in the nineteenth century should identify Hampstead as 'near London' or 'north of London', or 'in Middlesex'. Similarly, care should be taken with historical subject matter not to 'correct' references because they do not conform with modern reality: for example, the town of Abingdon was in Berkshire until boundary changes in 1974 'moved' it to Oxfordshire.

## 6.2.4 Addresses

Use a comma to separate the elements in a run-on postal address, although the comma preceding the postcode may be omitted:

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford OX2 6DP, UK

Commas should be omitted altogether if the address is on separate lines, as on an envelope:

Great Clarendon Street

Oxford

OX2 6DP

UK

There is no comma after the street number:

23 Arnold Road

Postcodes are printed in capitals with no points or hyphens: _OX2 6DP_. Ensure that the letter _O_ and the number _0_ are distinguished. Postcodes are frequently set in small capitals rather than full capitals.

### North American

US addresses have a zip code after the name of the town or city and the postal abbreviation of the state. The standard zip code consists of five numerals (with an optional further code of four more numerals, introduced by a hyphen) and is separated from the state abbreviation by a space:

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 ( _or_ 10016-4314)

On an envelope this address would be laid out as:

198 Madison Avenue

New York, NY 10016 ( _or_ 10016-4314)

Note that the convention for Manhattan addresses is to spell out numbers for avenue names and use figures for street names:

25 W. 43 St.

the corner of Fifth and 59th

In Canadian addresses the postal code is placed on the last line. The postal abbreviation of the province is written on the same line as the town or city name:

202 Hanson Street

Toronto, ON

Canada

M4C 1A7

Apartment addresses are written as, for example:

310-99 Gerard St

or

99 Gerard St, Apt 310

or

99 Gerard St, #310

### European

The words _rue, avenue, boulevard_ , etc. are not capitalized in French street names:

56 rue de Rivoli  | 12 boulevard Louis Pasteur
---|---
place de la République  |

The definite article in place names is lower case except at the start of a sentence ( _le Havre_ ). Street numbers precede the name in France but follow it in Belgium.

Composite French place names are hyphenated:

Saint-Étienne-du-Mont  | Vitry-le-François
---|---
Saint-Denis-de-la-Réunion  | rue du Faubourg-Montmartre

In German, Dutch, and Swedish addresses the equivalent of the word 'road' or 'street' is amalgamated with the name, so the issue of capitalization does not arise. Street numbers follow the name:

Friedrichstraße 10  | Eriksgatan
---|---

Italian and Spanish street names take lower-case initials, and street numbers follow the name; Portuguese street names take upper-case initials:

piazza Luigi di Savoia 20  | glorieta Puerta de Toledo 4
---|---
Travessa das Amoreiras  |

# CHAPTER 7

#  Italic, roman, and other type treatments

# 7.1 General principles

## 7.1.1 Introduction

In most contexts roman type is the standard typeface used for text matter, but it can be varied, for reasons of emphasis, additional clarity, or common convention, through the use of other typographic styles or forms. Each of these—italic, roman text in quotation marks, bold, capitals and small capitals, and underlining—is used to indicate a departure of some sort from normal text or to alert the reader to interpret the words so distinguished in a particular way. Initial capitals are also used to delineate particular classes of word; see Chapter 5.

## 7.1.2 Punctuation and typography

All internal punctuation within a phrase or work title set in a different type style is set in that style, including colons between titles and subtitles, and exclamation or question marks that form part of the quoted matter. Punctuation not belonging to the phrase or title is set in roman. Ensure that formatting is precise.

Have you read _Westward Ho!_?

In the exclamation mark is in italics because it is part of the title, but the question mark is in roman because it belongs to the surrounding context. Similarly, the plurals _s_ and _es_ and the possessive _'s_ affixed to italicized or other typographically distinguished words are set in roman:

several old _Economist_ s and _New Yorker_ s

the _Majestic_ 's crew

They are set in the variant typography where they form part of the word:

It's not _John's_ fault but _Mary's_

We fitted several of the _blancs_ in our luggage

Occasionally it may be necessary to indicate italics in text that is already italicized, especially in foreign text. In this instance the opposite font—roman type—is chosen:

_Discuss the principle_ caveat emptor _in common-law jurisdictions_

He hissed, ' _Do you have the slightest_ idea _how much trouble you've caused?_ '

Some publishers indicate italics in italicized text by putting it within quotation marks:

_A study of Dickens's 'Hard Times'_

Not all styles do this, however, especially in blocks of italic text, such as a caption.

Within italic titles Oxford style does not convert to roman any material that would be italic in open text (for example ships' names or other work titles):

_The Voyage of the Meteor_ (not _The Voyage of the_ Meteor)

but other styles do. Where italic type is shown on hard copy by underlining or italic type, editors should indicate the opposite font by encircling the word or words and inserting the 'change italic to roman type' mark (see Appendix Proofreading marks) in the margin.

Use of underlining in this context is not recommended: see 7.6. For a further discussion of titles within titles see 8.2.8.

# 7.2 Italic type

Italic type is used to indicate emphasis or stress; to style titles, headings, indexes, and cross-references; to indicate foreign words and phrases; and in specific technical contexts (see Chapter 14).

## 7.2.1 Emphasis and highlighting

Setting type in italics indicates emphasis by setting off a word or phrase from its context:

An essay's _length_ is less important than its _content_

I don't care _how_ you get here, just _get here_

Such style, such _grace_ , is astounding

Employ italics sparingly for emphasis. It may be better to achieve the same effect by making the emphasis clear through the sentence structure, or by using intensifying adjectives and adverbs:

The actual purpose of her letter remained a mystery

rather than

The _purpose_ of her letter remained a mystery

Italic may also be used to highlight a word, phrase, or character where it is itself the object of discussion:

the letter _z_ | spell _labour_ with a _u_ | the past tense of _go_ is _went_
---|---|---

Quotation marks may also be used in this way (see 7.3 below): decide which will be clearer and more intelligible to the reader, and apply that style consistently in comparable contexts.

Technical or recently coined terms and words being introduced, defined, or assigned a special meaning are often italicized at first mention:

The unit of cultivation was the _strip_... a bundle of strips made up what was known as a _furlong_

a pair of endocrine structures termed the _adrenal glands_

Bold type is also used for this purpose in some contexts (see 7.4 below).

When an author or editor adds italics to a quotation for emphasis, indicate that this has been done by adding 'my italics', 'author's italics', or 'italics added' in square brackets after the italicized word or words, or in parentheses at the end of the quotation or in the relevant footnote or endnote. (Using 'my emphasis' or 'emphasis added' is an acceptable alternative where italics are the only form of emphasis used.)

The committee had decided not to put it in the petition, 'but intimate it _to the prince_ ' (BL, Harley MS 6383, fo. 122a: my italics)

## 7.2.2 Foreign words and phrases

Italic type is used in English texts for words and phrases that are still regarded as foreign or need to be distinguished from identical English forms:

the _catenaccio_ defensive system employed by the Italians

an _amuse-gueule_ of a tiny sardine mounted on a crisp crouton

When a foreign word becomes naturalized into English (that is, no longer regarded as distinctively foreign) it is usually printed in roman like other English words:

the phrase is repeated ad nauseam throughout the book

Mortimer describes the scene with characteristic brio

Convention and context rather than logic determine when foreign words are sufficiently assimilated into English to be printed in roman type. In modern English the use of italics for foreign words is less prevalent than it used to be, and newly adopted foreign terms may pass into roman text very quickly. The best advice is to treat any one item consistently within a given text and follow the newest edition of a suitable dictionary, such as the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ or the _Shorter Oxford English Dictionary_. Take into account also the subject's conventions and the intended readers' expectations: if in doubt over the degree of assimilation of a particular word, the more cautious policy is to italicize, but in a work written for specialists whose terminology it may be a part of, it may be wiser not to.

On the other hand, consistency or context may require words normally romanized in general English to revert to italicization (or, as in German, capitalization), to avoid their looking out of place among related but less assimilated foreign words.

A _coup d'état_ depends upon the predisposition of the people to accept the _fait accompli_ [fait accompli].

It is also sometimes important to go on italicizing a foreign word, however familiar, where there is an English word with the same spelling, as with _Land_ for a province of Germany or _pension_ for a Continental boarding house.

When a word is sufficiently assimilated to be printed in roman, it may still retain its accents, as with 'pâté', 'plié', and 'crèche'; or it may lose them, as with 'cafe', 'denouement', 'elite', and 'facade' (these forms are the ones shown in current Oxford dictionaries).

Foreign words assimilated into English tend to lose gender inflections, so that the English 'rentier'—now assimilated into the language in roman type—applies to both male and female, though the French feminine form of _rentier_ is _rentière_. While in English the default gender is normally masculine, the dominant anglicized form of some words may be the feminine one: an example is 'blonde', which in British English is the usual form for both sexes, although 'blond' is still sometimes used for a man and is the dominant US form.

The explanation or translation of a foreign word or phrase may be presented in any of a number of ways, using roman type in quotation marks or parentheses, as appropriate:

_bracchium_ means 'arm'

Old French _dangier_ is derived from Latin _dominium_ 'power', 'authority', which is the basic sense of Middle English _daunger_

Napoleon said England was a nation of _boutiquiers_ (shopkeepers)

Complicated contexts will require greater diversity: any sensible system is acceptable so long as it is consistently applied and is clear to the reader.

Foreign proper names are not italicized, even when cited in their original language:

rue St-Honoré  | Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Roma
---|---

## 7.2.3 Titles of works

Work titles are discussed fully in Chapter 8. Use italics for titles of books, periodicals, plays, films, TV and radio series, and music albums:

_The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test_ | _Past & Present_
---|---
_Look Back in Anger_ | _West Side Story_
_Fawlty Towers_ | _La dolce vita_

Italics are used for long poems (those of book length, or divided into books or cantos), but roman in quotation marks is used for shorter poems, songs, articles, and individual episodes in broadcast series. The titles of paintings, sculptures, and other works of art are also italicized, as are titles of operas, oratorios, collections of songs, etc.

## 7.2.4 Other uses of italic

Italic type is also found in the following contexts:

• stage directions in plays

• dictionaries, for part-of-speech markers, foreign words in etymologies, usage labels, and example sentences

• in some styles, for introducing cross-references as in _see_ or _see under_ , and other directions to the reader, such as _opposite_ and _overleaf_

• enumeration such as ( _a_ ), ( _b_ ), ( _c_ ) in lists, in some styles (see 15.1.5)

• names of ships, aircraft, and vehicles (see 5.16)

• names of parties in legal cases (see Chapter 13)

• biological nomenclature (see Chapter 14)

• science and mathematics (see Chapter 14).

# 7.3 Quotation marks

Quotation marks are discussed at 4.14 and 9.2.3. They are used with roman type in the titles of short poems, songs, chapters in books, articles, and individual episodes in broadcast series; the names of the Bible, the Torah, the Koran, and other religious texts and their subdivisions are written in roman without quotation marks. They are also used to distinguish colloquialisms in formal contexts and to give the implication 'so-called'.

# 7.4 Bold type

Bold or boldface is a thick typeface **like this**. **Bold type** is indicated on hard copy by a wavy underline. Where a distinction is to be made between two bold typefaces (e.g. bold and semibold), the convention is to use a double wavy line for bold and a single one for semibold.

Bold may be used instead of italic to highlight a newly introduced term, often one that is going to be defined or explained:

**Percale** is a fine weave that produces a relatively fine and strong fabric for sheets.

The **Pharisees** were sincere and pious Jews... The **Sadducees** were a group of aristocratic Jews... The **Essenes** had serious disagreements with both the Pharisees and the Sadducees.

This device is used particularly in textbooks, guidebooks, and other educational or instructional texts, less so in more literary contexts:

The village of **Avrolles** (14 km), where the road changes from D943 to D905, has a church with a detached bell tower.

Bold is often used for headwords in dictionaries and encyclopedias; for certain components of citations in bibliographies and reference lists; in indexes to draw attention to types of reference or important references; to indicate cross-referencing generally; for vectors and matrix symbols in science and mathematics; and in titles and headings.

Avoid using bold for emphasis in the course of normal printed matter, as the effect is usually too startling in running text; avoid typographical distinction altogether, or prefer instead the less obtrusive italic.

# 7.5 Capitals

## 7.5.1 Full capitals

Full capitals are usually used for initialisms ( _MA, ECG, RSS_ ; see Chapter 10), and for people known by their initials ( _JFK, J. K. Rowling_ ; see Chapter 6); acronyms may be all capitals or initial capital ( _UNESCO/Unesco_ ; see also 10.2.4 and 21.4.4).

The use of initial capitals is discussed in Chapter 5.

Full capitals (and small capitals) may be used for displaying text on half-title and title pages, for logos and imprints, and for other types of special presentation and display. They are indicated on hard copy by a triple underline. In word processing prefer upper case to the attribute 'All Caps'.

Full capitals are usually too prominent to be used for emphasis in open text, but they are sometimes used, as are small capitals, to mimic inscriptions or to reproduce original orthography:

The earliest Scandinavian coins, inscribed 'CNVT REX ÆNOR' ('Cnut, king of Danes'), seem to have been struck... no later than 1015

## 7.5.2 Small capitals

Small capitals are about two-thirds the size of large capitals, as in THIS STYLE OF TYPE, and are indicated on hard copy by a double underline. In typography, the term 'even s. caps.' instructs that the word(s) should be set entirely in small capitals, rather than a combination of capitals and small capitals.

Although small capitals are traditionally used in a number of set contexts, which are described below, they are not available in certain typefaces. It is possible to reduce capital letters to the size of small capitals, but this method is not suitable for ebooks and other electronic publications. For a text that requires a great many small capitals, a typeface that already includes them should be selected.

The main uses of small capitals are as follows:

• for specifying eras (AD, BC, BCE, AH; see Chapter 10). In an italic context they may be set in italics; otherwise, small capitals are generally set only in roman type

• for displayed subsidiary titles and headings, for signatures in printed correspondence, for academic qualifications following names displayed in a list, and sometimes for postcodes

• for reproduced all-capital inscriptions, headlines, notices, and so forth, if these are not reduced to capital and lower case. Formerly, full-capital abbreviations (such as _BBC_ ) were often set in even small capitals. While this practice has fallen out of widespread use, it remains a convenient alternative for those disciplines routinely requiring full-capital abbreviations in text, which otherwise can look jarring on the printed page

• in some styles, for the first word or words of chapters: these may be styled with spaced capital and small capital letters 'THUS' to introduce the text (see 1.3.4)

• in chemistry to denote molecular configurations D and L and oxidation states

• for cross-references and indexing:

**sing the praises of** see PRAISE

• in some styles, for authors' names in bibliographies

• for characters' names in plays:

CECILY When I see a spade I call it a spade.

GWENDOLEN I am glad to say that I have never seen a _spade_.

• for Roman numerals in references, sigla (letters or symbols used to denote a particular manuscript or edition of a text), and play citations with more than one level

• for centuries in French and generally in Latin:

le XIème [ _or_ XIe] siècle

# 7.6 Underlining

In word processor files, do not use underlining when italic is intended. Underlining text on hard copy or proofs indicates that it is to be set in italics. When underlining matter in this way, ensure that the underlining includes all matter that is to be italicized, but nothing else. Mistakes are particularly common with internal and surrounding punctuation. Consider:

'The novel Bell, Book, and Candle', _not_ 'The novel Bell, Book, and Candle'

'The colours were red, white, and blue', _not_ 'The colours were red, white, and blue'

In typeset material it is undesirable to use underlining, as it cuts through the descenders of the characters and in some typefaces may obscure the identity of similar letters ( _g_ and _q_ , for example). Italic type is preferable as a distinguishing mark, though in some cases underlining is required or is uniquely useful—for example in some scientific and mathematical notation, or in the precise reproduction of a manuscript, inscription, or correspondence, where it is needed to approximate underlining in the original.

As underscoring on hard copy or proofs indicates to the typesetter that italic is wanted, any instances where underlining is required must be marked in a different way: for example, with a highlighted underscore, which can be explained to the designer and typesetter in a note.

In non-print contexts such as websites avoid underlining as a substitute for (or in addition to) italics to indicate work titles or for emphasis, as users expect underlining to indicate a hyperlink. Browsers have their own styles for the display of hyperlinks so it is not necessary to add underlining to links in copy.

# CHAPTER 8

#  Work titles in text

# 8.1 General principles

The text of one work often contains references to others. They may be discussed at length or mentioned fleetingly in passing, with extended bibliographic information or none at all. Work titles mentioned in the text should be styled according to consistent conventions, which will normally match those used in the notes or bibliography, if these are present. It should be noted that newspapers and magazines often follow their own style, which differs from other non-fiction works.

'Work titles' is a category of convenience, the boundaries of which may be indistinct. The works considered here are often in written form, but also include broadcast works, film, digital works (including games, apps, and podcasts), musical works, and works of art. The definition of a title is by no means unproblematic, especially outside the area of printed works, not least because the distinction between a formal title and a description is to some extent a matter of convention and arbitrary decision.

# 8.2 Titles of written works

## 8.2.1 Introduction

The typography and capitalization of the title of a written work depend on whether or not it was published and on the form in which it was published. Publication is not synonymous with printing: works were widely disseminated before the invention of printing and, in the modern era, many ebooks do not exist in hard copy form. Conversely, material that is printed is not necessarily published.

For capitalization of titles see 8.2.3; for use of 'the' see 8.2.7.

## 8.2.2 Typography

### Free-standing publications

The title of a free-standing publication is set in italic type. This category comprises works whose identity does not depend on their being part of a larger whole. Such works may be substantial but they may also be short and ephemeral, if published in their own right. They thus include not only books of various kinds (for example novels, monographs, collections of essays, editions of texts, or separately published plays or poems) but also periodicals, pamphlets, titled broadsheets, and published sale and exhibition catalogues:

_For Whom the Bell Tolls_

_Gone with the Wind_

_The Importance of Being Earnest: A Trivial Comedy for Serious People_

_Sylvie and Bruno_

_A Tale of Two Cities_

_The Merchant of Venice_

the third canto of _Childe Harold's Pilgrimage_

_The Economist_

_Farmer and Stockbreeder_

a pamphlet, The Douglas System of Economics, which found a wide sale

_Essay toward Settlement_ , a broadsheet petition published by 19 September 1659

The names of albums, CDs, and collections of songs are given in italic, whereas those of individual songs are in roman with quotation marks: see 8.6.

Digital resources (ebooks, apps, video games, podcasts etc.) should also be in italic: see 8.5.1.

Branded board and card games (Scrabble, Magic: The Gathering) are capitalized and usually roman with no quotation marks; generic names (chess, bridge) are roman lower case.

The names of sacred texts (see 8.3) are set in roman; the titles of ancient epic poems are usually set in italic (the _Iliad_ , Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ ). The Mahābhārata is both a sacred text and an epic poem—roman can be used when reference is made in general terms and italic for a particular published text.

The titles of works published in manuscript before the advent of printing are italicized. They may be consistently styled like those published in print (it is pointless to ask whether, for example, a medieval work that survives in a unique copy was widely distributed, and irrelevant to inquire whether it has been printed in a modern edition):

the document we now call _Rectitudines singularum personarum_ , which originated perhaps in the mid-tenth century

### Items within publications

The title of an item within a publication is set in roman type within single quotation marks. This includes titles of short stories, chapters or essays within books, individual poems in collections, articles in periodicals, newspaper columns, individual texts within larger editions, sections within websites, and individual blog articles (see 8.5.1):

'The Monkey's Paw'

'The Old Vicarage, Grantchester'

'Sailing to Byzantium'

'Tam o' Shanter'

'Three Lectures on Memory', published in his first volume of essays, _Knowledge and Certainty_

she began writing a weekly column, 'Marginal Comments', for _The Spectator_

today's recommendation is 'Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year' from OUPblog

There is room for flexibility here. For example, the titles of longer poems—such as Byron's _Don Juan_ or Tennyson's _In Memoriam_ —are usually italicized, as are individual Canterbury tales:

the first true editor of the _Canterbury Tales_

the aristocratic noble love of _The Knight's Tale_ gives way to the more earthy passions of _The Miller's Tale_ and _The Reeve's Tale_

### Series titles

A series of books is not itself a work, and its title is not given the same styling as its component works. The overall title of a series is not normally needed when a book is mentioned, but if given should be set in roman type with the first and principal words capitalized:

the Rough Guides

Studies in Biblical Theology

_The Social Structure of Medieval East Anglia_ , volume 9 of Oxford Studies in Social and Legal History

Descriptions of an edition should not be considered series titles and should not be capitalized, but a publisher's named edition of the works of a single author may be treated as a series title:

the variorum edition of her _Complete Poetry_

Dent published the Temple Edition of the Waverley Novels in forty-eight volumes

Titles of series of works of fiction may either be italicized like book titles or set in quotation marks, but loose descriptions of fictional series should not be treated as titles:

_The Forsyte Saga_ | the 'His Dark Materials' trilogy, _or_ the _His Dark Materials_ trilogy
---|---
the Barsetshire novels  |

Style the titles of series of works of art like those of series of books (with the exception of series of published prints, which are given italic work titles):

a series of paintings entitled Guyana Myths

a series of prints, in issues of six, _Studies from Nature of British Character_

### Unpublished works

The title of an unpublished work is set in roman type within single quotation marks. This category includes titles of such unpublished works as dissertations and conference papers, and longer unpublished monographs. (However, don't assume that all doctoral dissertations, for example, remain unpublished: in some universities, publication accompanies the awarding of the degree, or dissertations may be available online only.) The same styling is applied to internal reports, provisional titles used for works before their publication, and titles of works intended for publication but never published, or planned but never written:

his undergraduate dissertation, 'Leeds as a Regional Capital'

'Work in Progress' (published as _Finnegans Wake_ )

Forster later planned to publish an 'Essay on Punctuation'

an unpublished short play, 'The Blue Lizard'

This treatment is accorded to unpublished works that are essentially literary compositions. Do not style descriptions of archival items as work titles. References to such material as unpublished personal documents, including diaries and letters, and legal, estate, and administrative records should be given in descriptive form with minimal capitalization:

Dyve's letter-book is valuable evidence

the diary of Robert Hooke for 3 April

the cartulary of the hospital of St John

the great register of Bury Abbey

the stewards' accounts in the bursars' book for 1504–5

Capitalized names are sometimes given to certain manuscripts. It is best to follow the author's usage (provided it is consistent on its own terms).

the marginal illustrations in the Luttrell Psalter

poems contained in the Book of Taliesin (a thirteenth-century manuscript then preserved at Peniarth)

## 8.2.3 Capitalization

The capitalization of work titles is a matter for editorial convention; there is no need to follow the style of title pages (many of which present titles in full capitals).

The initial word of a title is always capitalized. The traditional style is to give maximal capitalization to the titles of works published in English, capitalizing the first letter of the first word and of all other important words (for works in other languages see Chapter 12 and 8.8 below). Nouns, adjectives (other than possessives), and verbs are usually given capitals; pronouns and adverbs may or may not be capitalized; articles, conjunctions, and prepositions are usually left uncapitalized. Exactly which words should be capitalized in a particular title is a matter for individual judgement, which may take account of the sense, emphasis, structure, and length of the title. Thus a short title may look best with capitals on words that might be left lower case in a longer title:

_An Actor and his Time_

_All About Eve_

_Six Men Out of the Ordinary_

_Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice Found There_

_What a Carve Up!_

_Will you Love me Always?_

The first word of a subtitle is traditionally capitalized, whatever its part of speech (this is the Oxford style):

_Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered_

_Film Theory: An Introduction_

Alternatively, full capitalization may be applied to the main title while the subtitle has simply the capitalization of normal prose:

_Rebirth, Reform and Resilience: universities in transition 1300–1700_

In titles containing a hyphenated compound capitalize all parts ( _Through the Looking-Glass, A Behind-the-Scenes Account of the War in Cuba_ ).

It is possible to give minimal capitalization to very long titles (usually from older sources) while applying full capitalization to most titles:

_Comfort for an afflicted conscience, wherein is contained both consolation and instruction for the sicke, against the fearfull apprehension of their sinnes, of death and the devill, of the curse of the law, and of the anger and just judgement of God_

And it is usual to apply minimal capitalization to the titles of works, most especially poems or traditional songs, that are in fact their opening words:

'Wish me luck as you wave me goodbye'

If the traditional style is to capitalize the principal words within a work title, a more modern practice—in line with a general tendency to eliminate redundant capitalization—is to capitalize the first word of a title and then to apply the capitalization of normal prose. This style of minimal capitalization, which has long been standard in bibliography, has been adopted more quickly in academic and technical publishing than in general contexts. Even in academic contexts it is applied more frequently to items in roman (such as the titles of articles) than it is to italic titles, and maximal capitalization may be retained for the titles of periodicals after it has been abandoned for the titles of books:

_Sheep, their breeds, management and diseases_

_When champagne became French: wine and the making of a national identity_

'Inequality among world citizens' in the _American Economic Review_

## 8.2.4 Spelling

The original spelling of a title in any language should generally be preserved. US spellings should not be replaced by British ones, or vice versa. However, as with direct quotations from text (see 9.3.1), a limited degree of editorial standardization may be acceptable where the exact original orthography is of no particular relevance. Thus in the titles of early modern works:

• orthographic signs (including the ampersand) and abbreviations may be retained or expanded, and superscript letters reproduced or brought down, according to editorial preference

• the original's use of the letters _i_ and _j_ , and of _u_ and _v_ , may be consistently modernized, though it is generally safest to retain the printed forms

• a double _v_ ( _vv_ ) may be changed to the letter _w_

• the long _s_ should always be regularized to _s_ ( _Perspective Practical_ , 1672, not _Perſpective Practical_ ).

However, before implementing any of these changes, it is important to consult with the author, and to accede to their wishes if they prefer the original forms to be reproduced.

## 8.2.5 Punctuation

The original punctuation of work titles should generally be retained. However, some punctuation may be inserted to articulate a title in a way that is achieved on a title page by means of line breaks. In addition, title page forms may be made to run more smoothly by amending archaic semicolons and colons to commas; similarly, full points within a title may be changed to commas, semicolons, or colons:

The Great Arch

English State Formation as Cultural Revolution

on a title page may be rendered in text as

_The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution_

and

_The mathematicall divine; shewing the present miseries of Germany, England and Ireland: being the effects portended by the last comet_

may be rendered as

_The mathematicall divine, shewing the present miseries of Germany, England and Ireland, being the effects portended by the last comet_

Similarly,

_A treatise of the bulk and selvedge of the world. Wherein the greatness, littleness, and lastingness of bodies are freely handled_

may be rendered as

_A treatise of the bulk and selvedge of the world, wherein the greatness, littleness, and lastingness of bodies are freely handled_

Again, particularly with archaic titles, it is important to explain your proposed practice to the author.

Two other changes should be made systematically:

• Use a colon to separate the main title from a subtitle (replace a dash or rule of any kind in this position with a colon).

• Place a comma before and after the word _or_ (or its equivalent in any language) between parallel alternative titles. The second title should be given an initial capital, whether maximal or minimal capitalization is employed:

_The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism_

_Parkinson's law, or, The pursuit of progress_

_Senarius, sive, De legibus et licencia veterum poetarum_

## 8.2.6 Truncation

A long title may be silently truncated, with no closing ellipsis, provided the given part is grammatically and logically complete (use a trailing ellipsis if the shortened title is grammatically or logically incomplete). Do not insert the abbreviation _etc_. or a variant to shorten a title (but retain it if it is printed in the original). Use an ellipsis to indicate the omission of material from the middle of a title.

Opening definite or indefinite articles may be omitted from a title to make the surrounding text read more easily. More severely shortened forms are acceptable if they are accurately extracted from the full title and allow the work to be identified; this is particularly helpful if a work is mentioned frequently and a full title given at its first occurrence.

## 8.2.7 Use of the

It is a common convention in referring to periodicals to include an initial capitalized and italicized _The_ in titles which consist only of the definite article and one other word, but to exclude the definite article from longer titles. Even when this convention is adopted, the definite article must be omitted from constructions where the article does not properly modify the title (see also 8.9):

_The Economist_

the _New Yorker_

he wrote for _The Times_ and the _Sunday Times_

he was the _Times_ correspondent in Beirut

in the next day's _Times_

In the name of the Bible, other sacred texts, and ancient epic poems the definite article is lower case roman, and may be dropped if syntactically expedient:

he spent tuppence on a secondhand _Iliad_ , and was dazzled

## 8.2.8 Titles within titles

When the title of one work includes that of another this should be indicated with a minimum of intervention in the styling of the main title. The subsidiary title is sometimes placed within single quotation marks:

_The History of 'The Times'_

Or, if the main title is italic, the subsidiary title may be set in reverse (roman) font:

_Hardy's Tragic Genius and_ Tess of the D'Urbervilles

Of course, whichever system is used, practice should be consistent throughout the work.

Underlining text to distinguish it is not recommended: see 7.6.

When one Latin title is incorporated in another the subsidiary title will be fully integrated grammatically into the main title, and there should be neither additional capitalization nor quotation marks:

_In quartum librum meteorologicorum Aristotelis commentaria_

## 8.2.9 Italics in titles

Within italic titles containing a reference that would itself be italic in open text (for example ships' names), do not revert to roman in Oxford style (see 7.1.2):

_The Voyage of the Meteor_ (not _The Voyage of the_ Meteor)

## 8.2.10 Editorial insertions in titles

See 4.12.2 for a discussion of square brackets. Use square-bracketed insertions in titles very sparingly. The editorial _sic_ should be used only if it removes a real doubt; _sic_ is always italic, while the brackets adopt the surrounding typography:

his _Collection of_ [ _Latin_ ] _nouns and verbs... together with an English syntax_

one of them, 'A borgens [bargain's] a borgen', setting a text written in a west-country dialect

_The seven cartons_ [ _sic_ ] _of Raphael Urbino_

## 8.2.11 Bibliographic information and locations

A work mentioned in text may or may not be given a full citation in a note; in either case bibliographic detail additional to its title may be included in the text. Broadly speaking, the elements that are given in the text should be styled according to the conventions that govern citations in the notes or bibliography, but some minor variation may be appropriate (an author's full forename, for example, may be used rather than initials). Dates of publication are sometimes useful in text, and may be given in open text or in parentheses. Do not include place of publication routinely, but only if relevant to the discussion. Likewise STC (short-title catalogue) numbers may be given in specialist contexts or if helpful in the identification of a rare early work.

Bibliographic abbreviations and contractions used in the notes (e.g. _edn, vol., bk, pt, ch._ ) are generally acceptable in parenthetical citations in text but should be given in full in open text ( _edition, volume, book, part, chapter_ ). Do not capitalize words representing divisions within works ( _chapter, canto, section_ , and so on). Abbreviations used for libraries or archival repositories in notes may be retained in parenthetical citations but should be extended to full forms in open text.

Locations within works can be described in a variety of ways in open text ('in the third chapter of the second book'; 'in chapter 3 of book 2'; 'in book 2, chapter 3'). Parenthetical references may employ the more abbreviated styles used in notes. In some contexts, for example where a text is discussed at length, short citations (for example 2.3.17 to represent book 2, chapter 3, line 17) may be acceptable even in open text. In such forms the numbers should be consistently either closed up to the preceding points or spaced off from them. The text should follow the conventions of the notes as to the use of Arabic or Roman numerals for the components of locations, for example acts, scenes, and lines of plays, or the divisions of classical or medieval texts. In the absence of parallel citations in the notes it is best to use Arabic numerals for all elements.

# 8.3 Sacred texts

## 8.3.1 The Bible

### General considerations

It is the normal convention to set the title of the Bible and its constituent books in roman rather than italic type, with initial capitals. Terms for parts or versions of the Bible are usually styled in the same way (the Old Testament, the Pentateuch, the Authorized Version). Specific modern editions of the Bible (for example the _New English Bible_ ) should be given italic titles. Terms such as _scripture_ or _gospel_ should not be capitalized when used generically, but may be either upper or lower case when applied to a particular book of the Bible. It is not necessary to capitalize the adjective _biblical_ , or the word _bibles_ used of multiple copies of the Bible:

the Acts of the Apostles  | the Gospel of St Luke
---|---
a commentary on one of the gospels  |

Formerly, biblical references to chapters and verses used lower-case Roman numerals for chapter, followed by a full point, space, and verse number in Arabic (ii. 34). Modern practice is to use Arabic numerals for both, separated by a colon and no space (Luke 2:34). Fuller forms (the second epistle of Paul to the Corinthians) are generally more appropriate to open text, and more or less abbreviated citations (2 Cor. or 2 Corinthians) to notes and parenthetical references in text, but the degree of abbreviation acceptable in running text will vary with context.

### Versions of the Bible

The Bible traditionally used in Anglican worship, called the Authorized Version (AV), is an English translation of the Bible made in 1611. The Vulgate, prepared mainly by St Jerome in the late fourth century, was the standard Latin version of both the Old Testament (OT) and New Testament (NT). Two modern English versions are the _English Standard Version_ ( _ESV_ ), an update of the 1971 _Revised Standard Version_ , most recently revised in 2011, and the _New International Version_ ( _NIV_ ), first published in 1973–8, and revised in 1985 and 2011. The Roman Catholic Bible was translated from the Latin Vulgate and revised in 1592 (NT) and 1609 (OT); the _New Jerusalem Bible_ is a modern English translation (1985). Many versions are available in digital format.

The Septuagint (LXX) is the standard Greek version of the Old Testament, originally made by the Jews of Alexandria but now used (in Greek or in translation) by the Orthodox Churches. Neither Septuagint nor Vulgate recognizes the distinction between 'Old Testament' and 'Apocrypha' made by Protestants.

### Books of the Bible

Names of books of the Bible are conventionally abbreviated as follows:

**Old Testament** |
---|---
Genesis | Gen.
Exodus | Exod.
Leviticus | Lev.
Numbers | Num.
Deuteronomy | Deut.
Joshua | Josh.
Judges | Judg.
Ruth | Ruth
1 Samuel | 1 Sam.
2 Samuel | 2 Sam.
1 Kings | 1 Kgs
2 Kings | 2 Kgs
1 Chronicles | 1 Chr.
2 Chronicles | 2 Chr.
Ezra | Ezra
Nehemiah | Neh.
Esther | Esther
Job | Job
Psalms | Ps. ( _pl_. Pss.)
Proverbs | Prov.
Ecclesiastes | Eccles.
Song of Songs ( _or_ Song of Solomon) | S. of S.
Isaiah | Isa.
Jeremiah | Jer.
Lamentations | Lam.
Ezekiel | Ezek.
Daniel | Dan.
Hosea | Hos.
Joel | Joel
Amos | Amos
Obadiah | Obad.
Jonah | Jonah
Micah | Mic.
Nahum | Nahum
Habakkuk | Hab.
Zephaniah | Zeph.
Haggai | Hag.
Zechariah | Zech.
Malachi | Mal.

The first five books are collectively known as the Pentateuch (Five Volumes), or the books of Moses. Joshua to Esther are the Historical books; Job and Psalms are the Didactic books. The remainder of the Old Testament contains the Prophetical books. The major prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel; the minor prophets are Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

**New Testament** |
---|---
Matthew | Matt.
Mark | Mark
Luke | Luke
John | John
Acts of the Apostles | Acts
Romans | Rom.
1 Corinthians | 1 Cor.
2 Corinthians | 2 Cor.
Galatians | Gal.
Ephesians | Eph.
Philippians | Phil.
Colossians | Col.
1 Thessalonians | 1 Thess.
2 Thessalonians | 2 Thess.
1 Timothy | 1 Tim.
2 Timothy | 2 Tim.
Titus | Titus
Philemon | Philem.
Hebrews | Heb.
James | Jas.
1 Peter | 1 Pet.
2 Peter | 2 Pet.
1 John | 1 John
2 John | 2 John
3 John | 3 John
Jude | Jude
Revelation | Rev.
|
|
**Apocrypha** |
1 Esdras | 1 Esdras
2 Esdras | 2 Esdras
Tobit | Tobit
Judith | Judith
Rest of Esther | Rest of Esth.
Wisdom | Wisd.
Ecclesiasticus | Ecclus.
Baruch | Baruch
Song of the Three Children | S. of III Ch.
Susanna | Sus.
Bel and the Dragon | Bel & Dr.
Prayer of Manasses | Pr. of Man.
1 Maccabees | 1 Macc.
2 Maccabees | 2 Macc.

## 8.3.2 Other sacred texts

As with the Bible, the names of Jewish and Islamic scriptures, and of other non-Christian sacred texts, are cited in roman rather than italic.

In references to the texts of Judaism and Islam, as with the Bible, there are alternative conventions for naming, abbreviating, and numbering the various elements. The forms adopted will depend on the nature of the work and on authorial and editorial preference.

### Jewish scriptures

The Hebrew Bible contains the same books as the Old Testament, but in a different arrangement. The Torah or Law has Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy; Prophets has Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve; Writings or Hagiographa has Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, Chronicles. Although nowadays divided as in Christian bibles, Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles were (and still may be) each traditionally counted as one book; similarly Ezra-Nehemiah.

The Talmud is the body of Jewish civil and ceremonial law and legend, comprising the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Talmud exists in two versions: the Babylonian Talmud and the Jerusalem Talmud. In most non-specialist works only the former is cited.

### Islamic scriptures

The Islamic sacred book is the Koran, or Qu'ran/Quran. The Koran is divided into 114 unequal units called 'suras' or 'surahs'; each sura is divided into verses. Every sura is known by an Arabic name; this is sometimes reproduced in English, sometimes translated, for example 'the Cave' for the eighteenth. The more normal form of reference is by number, especially if the verse follows: ' _Sura_ 18, v. 45', or simply '18. 45'. References to suras have Arabic numbers with a full point and space before the verse number, though the older style of a Roman numeral or colon is also found.

The Sunna or Sunnah is a collection of the sayings and deeds of the Prophet; the tradition of these sayings and deeds is called Hadith.

# 8.4 References to Shakespeare

The standard Oxford edition of Shakespeare is _The Complete Works_ , edited by Stanley Wells and Gary Taylor (Oxford University Press, 1986, compact edn 1988). No single accepted model exists for abbreviating the titles of Shakespeare's plays and poems, although in many cases the standard modern form by which the work is commonly known may be thought to be abbreviated already, since the complete original titles are often much longer. For example, _The First Part of the Contention of the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster_ is best known as _The Second Part of King Henry VI_ , and _The Comical History of the Merchant of Venice, or Otherwise Called the Jew of Venice_ as _The Merchant of Venice_. The table below shows the more commonly found forms used by scholars. Column two gives the forms used in the _Shorter Oxford English Dictionary_ ; column three gives those specified for the Oxford editions series. Column four lists still shorter forms, which are useful where space is at a premium and in the references of specialist texts where familiarity with the conventions is assumed.

'F1 and 'F2' are sometimes used to mean the First Folio and Second Folio respectively, and 'Q' to mean the Quarto edition.

# 8.5 Films, broadcast works, and digital media

Content may be experienced by the user in many ways other than through print. Electronic games, ebooks, audio books, websites, and apps are a few examples. The treatment of titles is generally similar to that of printed works.

## 8.5.1 Films and broadcast works

The titles of films and broadcast works (both individual programmes and series) are set in italic. The titles of episodes in series are set in roman in quotation marks. They are commonly given full capitalization, though minimal capitalization is acceptable if applied consistently. If necessary further information about the recording may be included in open text or within parentheses:

_Look Back in Anger_

_West Side Story_

the film _A Bridge Too Far_ (1977)

his first radio play, _Fools Rush In_ , was broadcast in 1949

the Granada TV series _Nearest and Dearest_

the American television series _The Defenders_ ('The Hidden Fury', 1964)

the video _Stones in the Park_ (1969)

## 8.5.2 Digital media

The titles of apps and podcasts should be treated like free-standing publications, set in italics with important capitals. Titles of ebooks and audio books should follow the same style as a print edition.

Discover great days out with the new _Trust Trails_ app for iPhone and iPad

From altruism to Wittgenstein, philosophers, theories and key themes, download the _In Our Time_ philosophy podcast

_The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes_ is available in a variety of ebook formats from Project Gutenberg

Thomas Hardy's _The Return of the Native_ , in a new reading by Nicholas Rowe

Website titles are set roman, without quotation marks, although websites that also have a print version are treated in the same way as their hard-copy cousins; weblog (blog) titles may be roman or italic but should be treated consistently.

Please join me on Facebook, and follow me on Twitter.

Hans Rosling's Gapminder blog

The _British National Formulary_ is available as a book, a website and a mobile app.

Titles of web pages (within a website) and individual blog posts or podcast items are roman with quotation marks:

the 'Morris Dance' page of Wikipedia

in the Language blog post 'Lincoln's rhetoric in the Gettysburg Address'

Titles of periodicals such as _Slate_ and the _Huffington Post_ , which are published online only, are treated like print titles, in italics with essential capitals; sites that feature their domain names as part of their title are usually treated similarly with important capitals even if the URL is rendered in lower case: _Politics.co.uk, NYTimes.com_.

Electronic games include video games, arcade games, and console games. Their titles are set in italic and given maximal capitalization:

_Team Fortress 2_

the _Pikmin_ series

_The Sims 3: University Life_ is the ninth expansion pack

Database names are set roman with essential capitals, e.g. the British Armorial Bindings database. Computer filenames, when referenced in running text, should be set roman and should include the file extension (filename.docx).

# 8.6 Musical works

## 8.6.1 General principles

The styling of musical work titles is peculiarly difficult because of the diversity of forms in which some titles may be cited, issues related to language, and longstanding special conventions. The most comprehensive source for the correct titles of musical works is _The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians_ , 2nd edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London, 2001), available as part of Oxford Music Online.

## 8.6.2 Popular music and traditional songs

Song titles in English are set in roman type with quotation marks, capitalized according to the style adopted for titles in general:

'Three Blind Mice'  | 'Brown-Eyed Girl'
---|---

This is irrespective of whether the title forms a sentence with a finite verb:

'A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square'

'Papa's Got a Brand New Bag'

In contrast, traditional ballads and songs, which draw their titles directly from the first line, may follow the rules for poetry. Here, only the first and proper nouns are capitalized:

'Come away, death'  | 'What shall we do with the drunken sailor?'
---|---

The names of albums, CDs, and collections are given in italic, with no quotation marks:

_A Love Supreme_ | _Forever Changes_
---|---
_Younger Than Yesterday_ | _In the Land of Grey and Pink_

This results in the combination of, for example, 'Born to Run', from _Born to Run_ (roman in quotation marks for song, italic for album).

## 8.6.3 True titles

A distinction is usually made between works with 'true' titles and those with generic names. The boundary between the two types of title is not always clear, but, as with all other difficult style decisions, sense and context provide guidance, and consistency of treatment within any one publication is more important than adherence to a particular code of rules.

True titles are set in italic type with maximal or minimal capital initials according to the prevailing style of the publication:

Britten's _The Burning Fiery Furnace_ | Elgar's _The Apostles_
---|---
Tippett's _A Child of our Time_ |

Foreign-language titles are usually retained (and styled according to the practice outlined in 8.8 below). By convention, however, English publications always refer to some well-known works by English titles, especially when the original title is in a lesser-known language:

Berlioz's _Symphonie fantastique_ | Schubert's _Die schöne Müllerin_
---|---
Liszt's _Années de pelerinage_ |

but

Berg's _Lyric Suite_

Bartók's _Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta_

Stravinsky's _The Rite of Spring_

Operas and other dramatic works may be named in the original language or in English according to any sensible and consistent system—for example, in the original language if the reference is to a performance in that language, in English if the reference is to a performance in translation. A translated title may be given if the reader may not otherwise recognize the work:

Mozart's _The Magic Flute_

Janáček's _Z mrtvého domu_ ('From the house of the dead')

Some works, however, are by convention always named in the original language:

Puccini's _La Bohème_ | Weber's _Der Freischütz_
---|---

The titles of individual songs, arias, anthems, and movements are styled in roman in quotation marks, as are nicknames (that is, those not provided by the composer):

'Skye Boat Song'

'Dove sono' from _The Marriage of Figaro_

the sacred madrigal 'When David heard that Absalom was dead'

the 'Rigaudon' from _Le Tombeau de Couperin_

the 'Jupiter' Symphony

the 'Enigma Variations'

It is customary to use minimal capital initials for titles derived from the words of a song (see 8.6.2).

## 8.6.4 Generic names

Titles derived from the names of musical forms are set in roman type with initial capitals. Identifying numbers in a series of works of the same form, opus numbers, and catalogue numbers are all given in Arabic numerals; the abbreviations 'op.' and 'no.' may be capitalized or not, while the capital abbreviations that preface catalogue numbers are often set in small capitals without a full point and closed up to the numeral (though Oxford style is to use full capitals and a full point and to space off the numeral). The names of keys may use musical symbols # and ♭ or the words 'sharp' and 'flat'. Note the capitalization, punctuation, and spacing in the examples below:

Bach's Mass in B minor _or_ B Minor Mass

Brahms's Symphony no. 4/Fourth Symphony

Handel's Concerto Grosso in G major, op. 3, no. 3

Mozart's Piano Trio, K496

Beethoven's String Quartet in C sharp minor, op. 131 _or..._ C# minor, op. 131

Tempo marks used as the titles of movements are also set in roman type with initial capitals, as are the sections of the mass and other services:

the Adagio from Mahler's Fifth Symphony

the Credo from the _Missa solemnis_

the Te Deum from Purcell's Morning Service in D

## 8.6.5 Hybrid names

Certain titles are conventionally styled in a mixture of roman and italic type. They include works that are named by genre and title such as certain overtures and masses:

the Overture _Portsmouth Point_ | the Mass _L'Homme armé_
---|---

Note, however, that in other styles the generic word is treated as a descriptor:

the march _Pomp and Circumstance_ , no. 1  | the _Firebird_ suite
---|---

Instrumentation that follows the title of a work may be given descriptively in roman with lower-case initials, or as part of the title. A number of twentieth-century works, however, include their instrumentation as an inseparable part of the title.

_Three Pieces_ for cello and piano

but

_Serenade for Strings_ | _Concerto for Orchestra_
---|---

# 8.7 Works of art

## 8.7.1 General principles

The formal titles of works of visual art, including paintings, sculptures, drawings, posters, and prints, are set in italic. Full capitalization is still usual, though with longer titles there may be difficulties in deciding which words should be capitalized:

Joseph Stella, _Brooklyn Bridge_

_The Mirror of Venus_

the etching _Adolescence_ (1932) and the painting _Dorette_ (1933)

the huge chalk and ink drawing _St Bride's and the City after the Fire, 29th December 1940_

the wartime poster _Your Talk may Kill your Comrades_ (1942)

Consistently minimal capitalization is also possible for works of art:

Petrus Christus's _Portrait of a young man_

Works may be referred to either by a formal title or by a more descriptive form:

he painted a portrait entitled _James Butler, 2nd duke of Ormonde, when Lord Ossory_

he painted a portrait of James Butler (later second duke of Ormonde) when the subject was Lord Ossory

Titles bestowed by someone other than the artist or sculptor are usually given in roman with no quotation marks:

La Gioconda  | the Venus de Milo
---|---

Works that discuss numerous works of art need consistent conventions and abbreviations for the parenthetical presentation of such information as the medium, dimensions, date of creation or date and place of first exhibition, and the current ownership or location of the works mentioned:

_Andromeda_ (bronze, _c_.1851; Royal Collection, Osborne House, Isle of Wight)

_The Spartan Isadas_ (exh. RA, 1827; priv. coll.)

## 8.7.2 Series of works of art

Place the titles of series of unique works of art in roman type with maximal capitalization and without quotation marks. Series of published prints may be given italic titles:

a series of paintings of children, Sensitive Plants, with such names as _Sweet William_ and _Mary Gold_

his finest series of prints, _Gulliver's Travels_ and _Pilgrim's Progress_

# 8.8 Non-English work titles

For general guidance on works in languages other than English see Chapter 12. The rules governing the capitalization of titles in some languages, such as French, are complex, and in less formal contexts it is acceptable to treat foreign-language titles in the same way as English ones.

Take care to distinguish the title, date of publication, and author of the original from the title, date, and translator of an English version. Ideally the title of the translation should not be used as if it were the title of the original work, but this rule may be relaxed in some contexts.

English titles may be used for works performed in English translation. The common English titles of classical works may be used in place of the Greek or Latin originals, and common English or Latin titles may be used for ancient or medieval works originally written in Greek, Arabic, or Persian:

Virgil's _Eclogues_

Avicenna's _Canon of Medicine_

Aristotle's _De caelo et mundo_

The title in the original language may be accompanied by an English translation, especially if its sense is not implied by the surrounding text. Place such translations in quotation marks within parentheses (square brackets are sometimes used), in roman type with an initial capital on the first word. The true titles of published translations are set in italics, like those of other publications.

_Auraicept na n-éces_ ('The primer of the poets')

the lament 'O, Ailein duinn shiùbhlainn leat' ('Oh, brown-haired Allan, I would go with you')

a translation of Voltaire's _Dictionnaire philosophique_ (as _A Dictionary of Philosophy_ , 1824)

Except in specialist contexts the titles of works in non-Roman alphabets are not reproduced in their original characters but are transliterated according to standard systems (with minimal capitalization) or replaced by English translations. Words actually printed in transliteration in a title are rendered as printed, not brought into line with a more modern style of transliteration:

Ibn Sīnā's _Kitāb shifā' al-nafs_

Chekhov's _The Cherry Orchard_

his translation of the Bhagavadgita was published in London (as _The Bhagvat-geeta_ ) in 1785

# 8.9 Integration of titles into text

Integrate the title of a work syntactically into the sentence in which it is mentioned.

Do not separate an author's name from a work title simply by a comma; where appropriate employ a possessive form. An initial definite or indefinite article may be omitted from a title if this helps the sentence to read more smoothly:

the arguments in Darwin's _Origin of Species_

Always treat the title of a work as singular, regardless of its wording:

his _Experiences of a Lifetime_ ranges widely

Phrasing that places the title of a work as the object of the prepositions _on_ or _about_ (as in the third of the following examples) should be avoided. The style should be:

a paper on the origins of the manor in England

a paper, 'The origins of the manor in England'

not

a paper on 'The origins of the manor in England'

When part or all of a book's title or subtitle, or any other matter from the title page, is quoted it should be styled as a quotation, not as a work title, that is in roman not italic type and with the original punctuation and capitalization (unless full capitals) preserved:

_The Enimie of ldlenesse_ , printed in 1568, was presented as a manual 'Teaching the maner and stile how to endite, compose, and write all sorts of Epistles and Letters'

# CHAPTER 9

#  Quotations and direct speech

# 9.1 General principles

A direct quotation presents the exact words spoken on a particular occasion or written in a particular place. It can be of any length, but there are legal restrictions on how much of another's work one may repeat; for more on copyright see Chapter 20.

A direct quotation or passage of direct speech should be clearly indicated and, unlike a paraphrase, should exactly reproduce the words of the original. Although the wording of the quoted text should be faithfully reproduced, the extent to which the precise form of the original source is replicated will vary with context and editorial preference.

Quotations from early manuscripts may call for more or less complex and specialist conventions that are not discussed here.

# 9.2 Layout of quoted text

## 9.2.1 Displayed and run-on quotations

Quotations can be run on in text or broken off from it. A prose quotation of fewer than, say, fifty words is normally run on (or **embedded** ) and enclosed in quotation marks, while longer quotations are broken off without quotation marks. But there is no firm rule, and the treatment of particular quotations or groups of quotations will depend on editorial preference, context, and the overall look of the displayed text. A passage that contains multiple quotations, for example, may be easier to read if all are displayed, even if some or all of them contain fewer than fifty words. Or it may be thought helpful to display a single, short quotation that is central to the following argument.

Quotations that are broken off from text (called **displayed** or **block** quotations, or **extracts** ) begin on a new line, and can appear in various formats: they may be set in smaller type (usually one size down from text size), or in text-size type with less leading (vertical space between the lines); set to the full measure, or to a narrower measure; set with all lines indented from the left, or block centred (indented left and right); or set justified or unjustified. A commonly encountered style is shown below; the text is indented one em left and right:

Most of those who came in now had joined the Army unwillingly, and there was no reason why they should find military service tolerable. The War had become undisguisedly mechanical and inhuman. What in earlier days had been drafts of volunteers were now droves of victims. I was just beginning to be aware of this.

Displayed quotations should not be set entirely in italic type even if they appeared thus in the original publication (although individual words may of course be italicized). If two or more quotations that are not continuous in the original are displayed to follow one another with none of the author's own text intervening, the discontinuity is shown by extra leading.

More than one line of quoted verse is normally displayed, line by line. Some other material, for example lists, whether or not numbered, and quoted dialogue, is suitable for line-by-line display. For verse quotations see 9.4 below; for extracts from plays see 9.5.

Because displayed quotations are not enclosed by quotation marks, any quoted material within them is enclosed (in British style) by single quotation marks, not double. A quotation within a run-on quotation is placed within double quotation marks:

These visits in after life were frequently repeated, and whenever he found himself relapsing into a depressed state of health and spirits, 'Well', he would say, 'I must come into hospital', and would repair for another week to 'Campbell's ward', a room so named by the poet in the doctor's house.

Chancellor was 'convinced that the entire Balfour Declaration policy had been "a colossal blunder", unjust to the Arabs and impossible of fulfillment in its own terms'.

If a section consisting of two or more paragraphs from the same source is quoted, quotation marks are used at the beginning of each paragraph and the end of the last one, but not at the end of the first and intermediate paragraphs.

## 9.2.2 Introducing quotations and direct speech

When quoted speech is introduced, interrupted, or followed by an interpolation such as _he said_ , the interpolation is usually separated from the speech by commas:

'I wasn't born yesterday,' she said.

'No,' said Mr Stephens, 'certainly not.'

A voice behind me says, 'Someone stolen your teddy bear, Sebastian?'

A colon may also be used before the quoted speech. A colon is typically used to introduce more formal speech or speeches of more than one sentence, to give emphasis to the quoted matter, or to clarify the sentence structure after a clause in parentheses:

Rather than mince words she told them: 'You have forced this move upon me.'

Philips said: 'I'm embarrassed. Who wouldn't be embarrassed?'

Peter Smith, general secretary of the Association of Teachers and Lecturers, said: 'Countries which outperform the UK in education do not achieve success by working teachers to death.'

Very short speeches do not need any introductory punctuation: and neither does a quotation that is fitted into the syntax of the surrounding sentence:

He called 'Good morning!'

He is alleged to have replied that 'our old college no longer exists'.

The words _yes_ and _no_ and question words such as _where_ and _why_ are enclosed in quotation marks where they represent direct speech, but not when they represent reported speech or tacit paraphrasing:

She asked, 'Really? Where?'

He said 'Yes!', but she retorted 'No!'

The governors said no to our proposal.

When I asked to marry her, she said yes.

## 9.2.3 Quotation marks

Modern British practice is normally to enclose quoted matter between single quotation marks, and to use double quotation marks for a quotation within a quotation:

'Have you any idea', he said, 'what "red mercury" is?'

The order is often reversed in newspapers, and uniformly in US practice:

"Have you any idea," he said, "what 'red mercury' is?"

If another quotation is nested within the second quotation, revert to the original mark, either single-double-single or double-single-double.

### Quotation marks with other punctuation

When quoted speech is broken off and then resumed after words such as _he said_ , a comma is used within the quotation marks to represent any punctuation that would naturally have been found in the original passage. Three quoted extracts—with and without internal punctuation—might be:

Go home to your father.

Go home, and never come back.

Yes, we will. It's a good idea.

When presented as direct speech these would be punctuated as follows:

'Go home', he said, 'to your father.'

'Go home,' he said, 'and never come back.'

'Yes,' he said, 'we will. It's a good idea.'

The last example above may equally be quoted in the following ways:

He said, 'Yes, we will. It's a good idea.'

'Yes, we will,' he said. 'It's a good idea.'

'Yes, we will. It's a good idea,' he said.

In US practice, commas and full points are set inside the closing quotation mark regardless of whether they are part of the quoted material (note in the US example the double quotation marks):

No one should 'follow a multitude to do evil', as the Scripture says.

_US style_ : No one should "follow a multitude to do evil," as the Scripture says.

This style is also followed in much modern British fiction and journalism. In the following extract from a British novel the comma after 'suggest' is enclosed within the quotation marks even though the original spoken sentence would have had no punctuation:

'May I suggest,' she said, 'that you have a bath before supper?'

Traditional British style would have given:

'May I suggest', she said, 'that you have a bath before supper?'

When a grammatically complete sentence is quoted, the full point is placed _within_ the closing quotation mark. The original might read:

It cannot be done. We must give up the task.

It might then be quoted as

He concluded, 'We must give up the task.'

'It cannot be done,' he concluded. 'We must give up the task.'

When the quoted sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, this should be placed within the closing quotation mark, with no other mark outside the quotation mark—only one mark of terminal punctuation is needed:

He sniffed the air and exclaimed, 'I smell a horse!'

When the punctuation mark is not part of the quoted material, as in the case of single words and phrases, place it outside the closing quotation mark:

Why does he use the word 'poison'?

When a quoted sentence is a short one with no introductory punctuation, the full point is generally placed outside the closing quotation mark:

_Cogito, ergo sum_ means 'I think, therefore I am'.

He believed in the proverb 'Dead men tell no tales'.

He asserted that 'Americans don't understand history', and that 'intervention would be a disaster'.

## 9.2.4 Dialogue

Dialogue is usually set within quotation marks, with each new speaker's words on a new line, indented at the beginning:

'What's going on?' he asked.

'I'm prematurely ageing,' I muttered.

In some styles of writing—particularly fiction—opening quotation marks are replaced with em rules and closing quotation marks are omitted:

— We'd better get goin', I suppose, said Bimbo.

— Fair enough, said Jimmy Sr.

In other styles, marks of quotation are dispensed with altogether, the change in syntax being presumed sufficient to indicate the shift between direct speech and interpolations:

Who's that? asked Russell, affecting not to have heard.

Why, Henry, chirped Lytton.

Dialogue in fiction is often not introduced with 'say' or any other speech verb:

I decide it's Spencer's fault, and sit up grumpily.

'Who let you in?'

Thought and imagined dialogue may be placed in quotation marks or not, so long as similar instances are treated consistently within a single work.

## 9.2.5 Sources

The source of a quotation, whether run on or displayed, is normally given in a note if the work uses that form of referencing, or it may be presented in an author-date reference. The source of a displayed prose quotation may be given in the text. It may, for example, follow the end of the quotation in parentheses after an em space, or be ranged right on the measure of the quotation, either on the line on which the quotation ends, if there is room, or on the following line:

Troops who have fought a few battles and won, and followed up their victories, improve on what they were before to an extent that can hardly be counted by percentage. The difference in result is often decisive victory instead of inglorious defeat ( _Personal Memoirs_ , 355).

He brought an almost scholarly detachment to public policy—a respect for the primacy of evidence over prejudice; and in retirement, this made him a valued and respected member of the scholarly community. Those of us privileged to know him will always remember him as an exemplar of standards and qualities in public life.

_The Times_ , 8 Nov. 1999

# 9.3 Styling of quoted text

## 9.3.1 Spelling, capitalization, and punctuation

In quotations from printed sources the spelling, capitalization, and punctuation should normally follow the original. However:

• Such obvious errors as a missing full point or unclosed parentheses or quotation marks may be silently corrected.

• Forms of punctuation that differ from house style may be silently regularized. Thus foreign forms of question mark or quotation mark (for example « » or "") should be replaced, and the use of double and single quotation marks and of em rules, en rules, and hyphens standardized.

• It is acceptable to change a capital on the first word of a quotation to lower case, to integrate it into the surrounding sentence.

• Orthographic signs (including the ampersand) and abbreviations may be retained or expanded, and superscript letters reproduced or brought down, according to editorial preference.

• The original's use of the letters _i_ and _j_ , and of _u_ and _v_ , may be consistently modernized, though it is generally safest to retain the printed forms.

• A double _v_ ( _vv_ ) may be changed to the letter _w_.

• The long _s_ (roman ſ, italic _ſ_ ) is a variant form rather than a distinct letter and is always regularized to _s_.

• Text that is printed in full caps may be rationalized to upper and lower case (or caps and small caps).

Preserve if possible the Old and Middle English letters ash (æ), eth (ð), thorn (Þ), yogh (ȝ), and wyn (ƿ) in quotations from printed sources (see 12.13.1). Ligatured œ and æ in quoted text may be retained or printed as two separate letters according to editorial policy.

## 9.3.2 Interpolation and correction

Place in square brackets any words interpolated into a verbatim quotation that are not part of the original. Use such interpolations sparingly. Editorial interpolations may be helpful in preserving the grammatical structure of a quotation while suppressing irrelevant phrasing, or in explaining the significance of something mentioned that is not evident from the quotation itself. The Latin words _recte_ (meaning 'properly' or 'correctly') and _rectius_ ('more properly') are rare but acceptable in such places:

he must have left [Oxford] and his studies

as though they [the nobility and gentry] didn't waste enough of your soil already on their coverts and game-preserves

the Duke and Duchess of Gloucester [ _recte_ Cumberland] are often going to a famous painters in Pall Mall; and 'tis reported that he [Gainsborough] is now doing both their pictures

The Latin word _sic_ (meaning 'thus') is used to confirm an incorrect or otherwise unexpected form in a quotation; it is printed in italics within square brackets. Do not use _sic_ simply to flag erratic spelling, but only to remove real doubt as to the accuracy of the quoted text. Do not use [!] as a form of editorial comment:

Bulmer established his Shakspeare [ _sic_ ] Press in London at Cleveland Row

In some contexts editorial policy may allow the silent correction of trivial errors in the original, judging it more important to transmit the content of the quoted matter than to reproduce its exact form.

## 9.3.3 Omissions

Mark the omission of text within a quotation by an ellipsis (...). Do not place an ellipsis at the start or end of a quotation, even if this is not the beginning or end of a sentence; the reader must accept that the source may continue before and after the text quoted. See 4.7 for a full discussion of ellipses.

Punctuation immediately before or after an ellipsis can generally be suppressed unless it is helpful to the sense, as might be the case with a question or exclamation mark; style in similar contexts should be consistent within a work. It may, however, be retained in some contexts—for purposes of textual analysis, for example, or where the author has some other particular reason for preserving it. If the preceding sentence ends with a full point it is Oxford practice to retain the point before the ellipsis, closed up to the preceding text:

Writing was a way of understanding... world events.

Where is Godfrey?... They say he is murdered by the papists.

Presently a misty moon came up, and a nightingale began to sing.... It was strange to stand there and listen, for the song seemed to come all the more sweetly and clearly in the quiet intervals between the bursts of firing.

Do not delete an ellipsis that is part of the original text if the words on either side of it are retained in the quotation. In a quotation that contains such an original ellipsis any editorial ellipsis should be distinguished by being placed within square brackets:

The fact is, Lady Bracknell [...] my parents seem to have lost me... I don't actually know who I am [...] I was... well, I was found.

An ellipsis can mark an omission of any length. In a displayed quotation broken into paragraphs mark the omission of intervening paragraphs by inserting an ellipsis at the end of the paragraph before the omission. For omissions in verse extracts see 9.4.3 below.

## 9.3.4 Typography

A quotation is not a facsimile, and in most contexts it is not necessary to reproduce the exact typography of the original. Such features as change of font, bold type, underscoring, ornaments, and the exact layout of the text may generally be ignored. Italicization may be reproduced if helpful, or suppressed if excessive.

# 9.4 Poetry

## 9.4.1 Run-on verse quotations

More than one line of quoted verse is normally displayed line by line, but verse quotations may also be run on in the text. In run-on quotations it is Oxford style to indicate the division between each line by a vertical bar (|) with a space either side, although a solidus (/) is also widely used:

'Gone, the merry morris din, | Gone the song of Gamelyn', wrote Keats in 'Robin Hood'

When set, the vertical or solidus must not start a new line. See also 4.13.

## 9.4.2 Displayed verse

In general, poetry (including blank verse) should be centred on the longest line on each page; if this is disproportionately long the text should be centred optically. Within the verse the lines will generally range on the left, but where a poem's indentation clearly varies the copy should be followed: this is particularly true for some modern poetry, where correct spacing in reproduction forms part of the copyright. In such instances it is useful to provide the typesetter with a PDF or photocopy of the original to work from. It is helpful to indent turnovers 1 em beyond the poem's maximum indentation:

Pond-chestnuts poke through floating chickweed on the green

brocade pool:

A thousand summer orioles sing as they play among the roses.

I watch the fine rain, alone all day,

While side by side the ducks and drakes bathe in their crimson

coats.

Do not automatically impose capitals at the beginnings of lines. Modern verse, for example, sometimes has none, and the conventions commonly applied to Greek and Latin verse allow an initial capital to only a few lines (see 12.8.5, 12.12.3).

## 9.4.3 Omissions

Omissions in verse quotations run into text are indicated like those in prose. Within displayed poetry the omission of one or more whole lines may be marked by a line of points, separated by 2-em spaces; the first and last points should fall approximately 2 ems inside the measure of the longest line:

Laboreres Þat haue no lande, to lyue on but her handes,

Deyned nouȝt to dyne a-day, nyȝt-olde wortes.

. . . . . . . . . . . .

Ac whiles hunger was her maister, Þere wolde none of hem chyde,

Ne stryve aȝeines his statut, so sterneliche he loked.

Use an ellipsis when the end of a line of displayed verse is omitted; indicate the omission of the start of the first line of displayed verse by ranging (usually right with the next line):

a great beau,

that here makes a show,

and thinks all about him are fools

## 9.4.4 Sources

If there is sufficient room a short source—such as a book, canto, or line number, or a short title—can be placed in parentheses on the same line as the last line of verse. Oxford practice is to begin the reference 1 em to the right of the end of the quotation's longest line:

The world was all before them, where to choose

Their place of rest, and providence their guide:

They hand in hand with wandering steps and slow

Through Eden took their solitary way

(xii. 648–9)

If the source is longer place it on the next line down, ranged to the right with the end of the quotation's longest line:

They hand in hand with wandering steps and slow

Through Eden took their solitary way

_Paradise Lost_ , xii. 648–9

# 9.5 Plays

Publishers have their own conventions for the presentation of plays, quotations from which may be treated as run-on quotations, or as prose or poetry extracts, with no strict regard to the original layout, spacing, or styling of characters' names. Any sensible pattern is acceptable if consistently applied. If a speaker's name is included in the quotation it is best printed as a displayed extract.

To follow Oxford's preferred format in extracts from plays, set speakers' names in small capitals, ranged full left. In verse plays run the speaker's name into the first line of dialogue; the verse follows the speaker's name after an em space and is not centred; indent subsequent lines by the same speaker 1 em from the left. Indent turnovers 2 ems in verse plays, 1 em in prose plays:

Her reply prompts Oedipus to bemoan his sons' passivity:

OEDIPUS But those young men your brothers, where are they?

ISMENE Just where they are—in the thick of trouble.

OEDIPUS O what miserable and perfect copies have they grown to be of Egyptian ways!

For there the men sit at home and weave while their wives go out to win the daily bread.

This is apparent in the following exchange between them:

WIPER We've had ballistics research on this. No conceivable injury could from this angle cause even the most temporary failure of the faculties.

BUTTERTHWAITE You can't catch me. I've read me Sexton Blake. I was turned the other way.

WIPER Are you in the habit, Alderman, of entering your garden backwards?

Particularly in verse plays a single line is sometimes made up of the speeches of more than one character and is set as more than one line of type. The parts are progressively indented, with an interword space clear to the right of the previous part's end, repeating as necessary. Ideally this layout should be preserved in the quoted extract, as in the following extreme example:

Do not include stage directions in extracts from plays unless they are relevant to the matter under discussion (in which case their styling in the original may be preserved or adapted). Similarly, line numbers should not normally be included.

# 9.6 Epigraphs

In publishing, an epigraph is a short quotation or saying at the beginning of a book or chapter. Publishers will have their own preferences for the layout of epigraphs. In Oxford's academic books they are set in small type, verse epigraphs being treated much like displayed verse quotations and optically centred. A source may be placed on the line after the epigraph, ranged right on the epigraph's measure:

To understand history the reader must always remember how small is the proportion of what is recorded to what actually took place.

Churchill, _Marlborough_

An epigraph's source does not usually include full bibliographic details, or even a location within the work cited (though such information can be given in a note if it seems helpful). The date or circumstances of the epigraph, or the author's dates, may be given if they are thought to be germane:

You will find it a very good practice always to verify your references, sir!

Martin Joseph Routh (1755–1854)

# 9.7 Non-English quotations

Quotations from languages other than English are commonly given in English translation, but they are sometimes reproduced in their original language, for example when their sense is thought to be evident, in specialist contexts where a knowledge of the language in question is assumed, or where a short quotation is better known in the original language than it is in English:

_L'État c'est moi_ (' _I_ am the State')

_Après nous le déluge_ ('After us the deluge')

_Arbeit macht frei_ ('Work liberates')

Quotations in other languages follow the same rules as those in English. The wording, spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and layout of non-English quotations should be treated like those in English, and omissions, interpolations, and sources presented in the same way:

Asked about the role of the new Spanish government in his release, Raúl Rivero replied:

Tengo un sentimiento de gratitud con el Gobierno de [José María] Aznar por lo que hizo cuando caí preso. Pero, efectivamente, me parece que la nueva politica española ha sido más efectiva. La confrontación nunca en política resuelve nada. Creo que el cambio sí ha favorecido... que en Cuba hubiera más receptividad en las autoridades cubanas.

_El País_ , 1 Dec. 2004, 33e

_Le Monde_ reported that 'Raúl Rivero a exprimé sa "gratitude éternelle" envers le gouvernement espagnol'.

In the second example the original wording, including the French rendering of a Spanish name, has been reproduced exactly, but French quotation marks and italicization of quotations ( _« gratitude éternelle »_ ) have been adapted to British conventions.

Sometimes it seems desirable both to retain the original—perhaps because its exact sense or flavour cannot be captured by a translation— and to provide an English version for readers unfamiliar with the language in question. It is always worth asking in such cases whether the original is genuinely helpful to the reader. The English equivalent may take the form of an explanation or paraphrase, but if it too is presented as a direct quotation, whether loose or literal, it should be enclosed in quotation marks and will normally be placed within parentheses after the original. Alternatively the translation may be given first, followed by the original in quotation marks within parentheses. If sources of quotations are given in parentheses, a source may follow a translation within a single set of parentheses, separated from it by a comma, semicolon, or colon, according to house style:

It provided accommodation for 'candidates às magistraturas superiores das Faculdades', those eligible for senior posts in the university.

The cyclist Jean Bégué was 'de ces Jean qu'on n'ose pas appeler Jeannot' ('one of those men named John one dare not call Johnny').

He poses the question 'Wie ist das Verhältnis des Ausschnitts zur Gesamtheit?' ('What is the relationship of the sample to the whole group?': Bulst, 'Gegenstand und Methode', 9).

Inter needed to develop 'a winning attitude and an attractive style of play' ('un'identità vincente e un bel gioco').

Where a displayed translation is followed by a displayed original—or vice versa—place the second of the two quotations in parentheses. Where the second of the two displayed quotations is the original, some authors prefer to have it set in italics. A displayed verse original may be followed either by a verse translation set in lines or by a displayed prose translation:

Rufus naturaliter et veste dealbatus

Omnibus impatiens et nimis elatus

(Ruddy in looks and white in his vesture,

Impatient with all and too proud in gesture) (Wright, i. 261)

Gochel gwnsel a gwensaeth

a gwin Sais, gwenwyn sy waeth

(Beware the counsel, fawning smile and wine of the Englishman—it is worse than poison)

In most contexts quotations from other languages should be given in translation unless there is a particular reason for retaining the original. On occasion it is helpful to include within a translation, in italics within parentheses, the untranslated form of problematic or specially significant words or phrases:

Huntington, 'obsessed with the idea of purity, does not recognize the cardinal virtue of... Spanish: the virtue of coexistence and intermixing ( _mestizaje_ )'.

Isolated non-English words or phrases generally look best italicized rather than placed in quotation marks (see 7.2.2), especially if they are discussed as set terms rather than quotations from a particular source. For inflected languages this has the advantage of allowing the nominative form of a word to be given even when another case is used in the passage cited. The non-English term may be used untranslated or with an English equivalent (perhaps on its first occurrence only if it is used frequently):

This right of common access ( _Allemansrätten_ ) is in an old tradition

As early as 1979 the status of _denominação de origem controlada_ was accorded to Bairrada

In this document he is styled _magister scolarum_

Montella was _capocannoniere_ (top scorer), with eleven goals

In some works appropriate conventions will be needed for quotations transliterated from non-roman alphabets and for the rendering of German Fraktur type. The German _Eszett_ (ß) can normally be regularized as double _s_ (ss). For advice on transliteration see Chapter 12.

# CHAPTER 10

#  Abbreviations and symbols

# 10.1 General principles

Abbreviations fall into three categories. Strictly speaking, only the first of these is technically an abbreviation, though the term loosely covers them all, and guidelines for their use overlap. There is a further category, that of symbols, which are more abstract representations.

• **Abbreviations** in the strict sense are formed by omitting the end of a word or words ( _Lieut_., _cent_., _assoc_.).

• **Contractions** are formed by omitting the middle of a word or words ( _Dr, Ltd, Mrs, Revd, St_ ). Informal contractions ( _I've, he's, mustn't_ ) are widely used but are not always appropriate (see 10.2.3).

• **Acronyms** are formed from the initial letters of words. Acronyms are sometimes defined specifically as words formed from the initial letters of other words and pronounced as words themselves ( _AWOL, PIN, BOGOF_ ), as opposed to **initialisms** , which are formed from the initial letters of words but not pronounced as words ( _BBC, QED_ ). Some acronyms are now treated as orthodox nouns: examples include _laser_ (from _l_ ight _a_ mplification by _s_ timulated _e_ mission of _r_ adiation) and _scuba_ ( _s_ elf- _c_ ontained _u_ nderwater _b_ reathing _a_ pparatus). Another class can be presented in all caps or can retain just the initial capital: _AIDS/Aids_ is an example. Oxford dictionaries, in particular the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ , give the meanings of a great many abbreviations. (See also 10.2.4.)

• **Symbols** or **signs** may be letters assigned to concepts ( _π, Ω_ ), or special typographical sorts (%, +, #). They are typically used in conjunction with words, numbers, or other symbols (πr2, £100, © Oxford University Press), although they may be used on their own as, for example, note markers.

In work for a general audience do not use abbreviations or symbols in open text (that is, in the main text but not including material in parentheses) unless they are very familiar indeed ( _US, BBC, UN_ ), or would be unfamiliar if spelt out ( _DNA, SIM card_ ), or space is scarce, or terms are repeated so often that abbreviations are easier to absorb. Abbreviations are more appropriate in parentheses and in ancillary matter such as appendices, bibliographies, captions, figures, notes, references, and tables, and rules differ for these.

It is helpful to spell out abbreviations at first mention, adding the abbreviation in parentheses after it:

the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)

It is generally better to avoid an abbreviation in a chapter title or heading but, if unavoidable, spell it out at the first mention in the text proper. Some house styles for specialist works make exception for abbreviations that are so familiar to a technical readership they do not need to be defined, such as _RAM_ (random-access memory) in an academic computer book. It is helpful to authors and editors if the house style lists these exceptions. (See 14.3.1.)

It is not necessary to define an abbreviation at first mention in each chapter unless the book is likely to be read out of sequence, as in a multi-author work or a textbook. If this is the case, or simply if many abbreviations are used, including a list of abbreviations or a glossary is a good way to avoid repeatedly expanding abbreviations (see 1.2.14). Titles of qualifications and honours placed after personal names are an exception to the general rule that initialisms should be spelled out; many forms not familiar to most people are customarily cited:

Alasdair Andrews, Bt, CBE, MVO, MFH

For more on titles see 6.1.4.

It is possible to refer to a recently mentioned full name by a more readable shortened form, rather than—or in addition to—a set of initials: _the Institute_ rather than _IHGS_ for the Institute of Heraldic and Genealogical Studies. (See also 5.3.2.)

As a general rule, avoid mixing abbreviations and full words of similar terms, although specialist or even common usage may militate against this, as in _Newark, JFK, and LaGuardia airports_.

For lists of abbreviations see 1.2.14; for legal abbreviations see 13.2.2; for abbreviations in or with names see 6.1.1. For Latin bibliographic abbreviations such as 'ibid.' see 17.2.5.

# 10.2 Punctuation and typography

## 10.2.1 Full points?

Traditionally, abbreviations end in full points while contractions do not, so that we have _Jun_. and _Jr_ for Junior, and _Rev_. and _Revd_ for Reverend. This rule is handy and in general is borne out, although there are some exceptions: for example _St_. (= Street) is often written with a point to avoid confusion with _St_ for Saint, and _no_. (= _numero_ , Latin for number). Note that everyday titles such as _Mr, Mrs_ , and _Dr_ , being contractions, are written without a point, as is _Ltd_ ; editors need not attempt to establish how a particular company styles _Ltd_ in its name. US style uses more points than British style does, even with contractions, thus giving _Jr_. instead of _Jr_ (no point). (See 6.1.3.)

A problem can arise with plural forms of abbreviations such as _vol_. (volume) or _ch_. (chapter): these would strictly be _vols_ and _chs_ , which are contractions and should not end with a point. However, this can lead to the inconsistent-looking juxtaposition of _vol_. and _vols_ or _ch_. and _chs_ , and so in some styles full points are retained for all such short forms. Similarly, _Bros_ , the plural form of _Bro_. 'brother', is often written with a point.

Technical and scientific writing uses less punctuation than non-technical English. Metric abbreviations such as _m_ (metre), _km_ (kilometre), and _g_ (gram) do not usually have a full point, and never do in scientific or technical writing. Purely scientific abbreviations ( _bps_ = bits per second; _mRNA = messenger ribonucleic acid_ ) are presented without full points.

There are other exceptions to the principle that abbreviations have full points. For example, abbreviations for eras, such as AD and BC (traditionally written in small capitals), have no points. Arabic and Roman ordinal numbers take no points ( _1st, 2nd, 3rd_ ); similarly, monetary amounts ( _£6 m, 50p_ ) and book sizes ( _4to, 8vo, 12mo_ ) do not have points. Note also that there are no points in colloquial abbreviations that have become established words in their own right, such as _demo_ (demonstration) or _trad_ (traditional).

If an abbreviation ends with a full point but does not end the sentence, other punctuation follows naturally: _Gill & Co., Oxford_. If the full point of the abbreviation ends the sentence, however, there is no second full point: _Oxford's Gill & Co_.

## 10.2.2 Ampersands

Avoid ampersands except in established combinations (e.g. _R & B, T & C_) and in names of firms that use them ( _M &S, Mills & Boon_). There should be spaces around the ampersand except in company names such as _M &S_ that are so styled; in journalism ordinary combinations such as _R &B_ are frequently written with no spaces.

## 10.2.3 Apostrophes

Place the apostrophe in the position corresponding to the missing letter or letters ( _fo'c's'le, ha'p'orth, sou'wester, t'other_ ), but note that _shan't_ has only one apostrophe. Informal contractions such as _I'm, can't, it's, mustn't_ , and _he'll_ are perfectly acceptable in less formal writing, especially fiction and reported speech, and are sometimes found even in academic works. However, editors should not impose them except to maintain consistency within a varying text.

There are no apostrophes in colloquial abbreviations that have become standard words in the language, such as _cello, flu, phone_ , or _plane_. Retain the original apostrophe only when archaism is intentional, or when it is necessary to reproduce older copy precisely. Old-fashioned or literary abbreviated forms such as _'tis, 'twas_ , and _'twixt_ do need an opening apostrophe, however: make sure that it is set the right way round, and not as an opening quotation mark.

## 10.2.4 All-capital abbreviations

Abbreviations of a single capital letter normally take full points ( _G_. _Lane, Oxford U_.) except when used as symbols (see 10.3 below); abbreviated single-letter compass directions have no points, however: _N, S, E, W_.

Acronyms or initialisms of more than one capital letter take no full points in British and technical usage, and are closed up:

In some US styles certain initialisms may have full points ( _US/U.S._ ). In some house styles any all-capital proper-name acronym that may be pronounced as a word is written with a single initial capital, giving _Basic, Unesco, Unicef_ , etc.; some styles dictate that an acronym is written thus if it exceeds a certain number of letters (often four). Editors should avoid this rule, useful though it is, where the result runs against the common practice of a discipline or where similar terms would be treated dissimilarly based on length alone.

Where a text is rife with full-capital abbreviations, they can be set all in small capitals to avoid the jarring look of having too many capitals on the printed page. Some abbreviations (e.g. BC, AD) are always set in small capitals (see 7.5.2).

For treatment of personal initials see 6.1.1; for postcodes and zip codes see 6.2.4.

## 10.2.5 Lower-case abbreviations

Lower-case abbreviations are usually written with no points ( _mph, plc_ ), especially in scientific contexts.

In running text lower-case abbreviations cannot begin a sentence in their abbreviated form. In notes, however, a group of exceptions may be allowed: _c_., _e.g_., _i.e_., _l_., _ll_., _p_., _pp_. are lower case even at the beginning of a note.

Write _a.m_. and _p.m_. in lower case, with two points; use them only with figures, and never with _o'clock_. see 11.3 for more on times of day.

Short forms of weights and measures are generally not written with a point, with the exception of forms such as _gal_. (gallon) and _in_. (inch) that are not in technical use:

Note that _min_., and _sec_. have a point in general contexts but are not used in scientific work.

When an abbreviated unit is used with a number there is usually a space between them (see 14.1.4):

a unit of weight equal to 2,240 lb avoirdupois (1016.05 kg)

## 10.2.6 Upper- and lower-case abbreviations

Contracted titles and components of names do not require a full point:

_St_. meaning 'street' is traditionally written with a point to distinguish it from _St_ meaning 'saint'.

Shortened forms of academic degree are usually written without punctuation ( _PhD, MLitt_ ). For plurals, see 10.5.

British counties with abbreviated forms take a full point ( _Berks., Yorks_.), with the traditional exceptions _Hants, Northants_ , and _Oxon_ , whose abbreviations were derived originally from older spellings or Latin forms.

Names of days and months should generally be shown in full, but where necessary, as in notes and to save space, they are abbreviated thus:

## 10.2.7 Work titles

Italic text (e.g. titles of books, plays, and journals) usually produces italic abbreviations:

_DNB_ ( _Dictionary of National Biography_ )

Arist. _Metaph_. (Aristotle's _Metaphysics_ )

Follow the forms familiar in a given discipline; even then permutations can exist, often depending on the space available or on whether the abbreviation is destined for running text or a note.

For legal references see Chapter 13.

# 10.3 Symbols

Symbols or signs are a shorthand notation signifying a word or concept. They may be special typographical sorts, or letters of the alphabet. Symbols are a frequent feature of scientific and technical writing, but many are also used in everyday contexts, for example to denote copyright (©), currencies (£, $, €), degrees (°), feet and inches (′, ″), and percentages (%).

Do not start a sentence with a symbol: spell out the word or recast the sentence to avoid it:

Sixteen dollars was the price  | The price was $16
---|---
Section 11 states...  | As §11 states,...

Symbols formed from words are normally set close up before or after the things they modify ( _GeV, Σ_ +), or set with space either side if standing alone for words or concepts ( _a W chromosome_ ). Symbols consisting of or including letters of the alphabet never take points. Abstract, purely typographical symbols follow similar rules, being either closed up (° # ¿ » %) or spaced. In coordinates, the symbols of measurement (degrees, seconds, etc.) are set close up to the figure, not the compass point (see 14.1.8):

52° N 15° 7′ 5″ W

Authors should use Unicode-compliant fonts (such as Times New Roman) when creating special sorts in their typescripts (see also 2.5). If there are many special sorts present, authors should create a PDF showing the special sorts correctly and provide it to the publisher.

As an alternative to superior numbers the symbols *, †, ‡, §, ¶, || may be used as reference marks or note cues, in that order. This system is based on print-page conventions and does not translate well into ebooks or online publishing.

The signs + (plus), − (minus), = (equal to), > ('larger than', in etymology signifying 'gives' or 'has given'), < ('smaller than', in etymology signifying 'derived from') are often used in biological and philological works, and not only in those that are scientific or arithmetical in nature. In such instances +, –, =, >, < should not be printed close up, but rather separated by the normal space of the line or a thin space (be consistent). (See also 4.12.4 and 14.6.3.)

The use of symbols can differ between disciplines. For example, in philological works an asterisk (*) prefixed to a word signifies a reconstructed form; in grammatical works it signifies an incorrect or non-standard form. A dagger (†) may signify an obsolete word, or 'deceased' when placed before a person's name.

The distinction between abbreviation and symbol may sometimes be blurred in technical contexts: some forms which are derived directly from a word or words are classed as symbols. Examples are chemical elements such as _Ag_ (silver) from _argentum_ and _U_ from _uranium_ , and forms such as _E_ from _energy_ and _m_ from _mass_ which are used in equations rather than running text. For the use of symbols in science, mathematics, and computing see Chapter 14.

# 10.4 The indefinite article with abbreviations

The choice between _a_ and _an_ before an abbreviation depends on pronunciation, not spelling. Use _a_ before abbreviations beginning with a consonant sound, including an aspirated _h_ and a vowel pronounced with the sound of _w_ or _y_ :

a BA degree  | a KLM flight  | a BBC announcer
---|---|---
a YMCA bed  | a U-boat captain  | a UNICEF card

Use _an_ before abbreviations beginning with a vowel sound, including unaspirated _h_ :

an MCC ruling  | an FA cup match  | an HDTV
---|---|---
an IOU  | an MP  | an RAC badge
an SOS signal  | an NHS hospital  |

This distinction assumes the reader will pronounce the sounds of the letters, rather than the words they stand for ( _a Football Association cup match, a high-definition television_ ). _MS_ for manuscript is normally pronounced as the full word, _manuscript_ , and so takes _a_ ; MS for multiple sclerosis is often pronounced _em-ess_ , and so takes _an_. 'R.' for rabbi is pronounced as _rabbi_ ('a R. Shimon wrote').

The difference between sounding and spelling letters is equally important when choosing the article for abbreviations that are acronyms and for those that are not: _a NASA launch_ but _an MC's toast_.

# 10.5 Possessives and plurals

Abbreviations form the possessive in the ordinary way, with an apostrophe and _s_ :

a CEO's salary  | MPs' assistants
---|---

Most abbreviations form the plural by adding _s_ ; an apostrophe is not needed:

In plural forms of a single letter an apostrophe can sometimes be clearer:

A's and S's

the U's

minding your p's and q's

When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, put the _s_ after the final one ( _Ph.D.s, the d.t.s_ ).

For abbreviations with one full point, such as _ed_., _no_., and _Adm_., see 10.2.1.

A few abbreviations have irregular plurals (e.g. _Messrs_ for _Mr_ ). In some cases this stems from the Latin convention of doubling the letter to create plurals:

ff. (folios _or_ following pages)  | pp. (pages)
---|---
ll. (lines)  | MSS (manuscripts)
opp. cit.  |

# 10.6 e.g., i.e., etc., et al.

Do not confuse 'e.g.' (from Latin _exempli gratia_ ), meaning 'for example', with 'i.e.' (Latin _id est_ ), meaning 'that is'.

Compare

hand tools, e.g. hammer and screwdriver

with

hand tools, i.e. those able to be held in the user's hands

Although many people employ 'e.g.' and 'i.e.' quite naturally in speech as well as writing, prefer 'for example', 'such as' (or, more informally, 'like'), and 'that is' in running text. Conversely, adopt 'e.g.' and 'i.e.' within parentheses or notes, since abbreviations are preferred there.

A sentence in text cannot begin with 'e.g.' or 'i.e.'; however, a note can, in which case they remain lower case.

Take care to distinguish 'i.e.' from the rarer 'viz.' (Latin _videlicet_ , 'namely'). Formerly some writers used 'i.e.' to supply a definition or paraphrase, and 'viz.' to introduce a list of items. However, it is Oxford's preference either to replace 'viz.' with 'namely' or to prefer 'i.e.' in every case.

Write 'e.g.' and 'i.e.' in lower-case roman, with two points and no spaces. In Oxford's style they are not followed by commas, to avoid double punctuation; commas are often used in US practice. A comma, colon, or dash should precede 'e.g.' and 'i.e.' A comma is generally used when there is no verb in the following phrase:

different fruits, e.g. apples, oranges, bananas, and cherries

part of a printed document, e.g. a book cover

Use a colon or dash before a clause or a long list:

digital cameras have the advantage of being solid-state devices— i.e. they don't have moving parts

In full 'etc.' is _et cetera_ , a Latin phrase meaning 'and other things'. 'Et al.' is short for Latin _et alii_ , 'and others'. In general contexts both are lower-case roman, with a full point, though 'et al.' is sometimes italicized in bibliographic use. Do not use '&c.' for 'etc.' except when duplicating historical typography. 'Etc.' is preceded by a comma if it follows more than one listed item: _robins, sparrows, etc._ ; it is best to avoid using 'etc.' after only one item ( _robins etc_.), as at least two examples are necessary to establish the relationship between the elements and show how the list might go on. The full point can be followed by a comma or whatever other punctuation would be required after an equivalent phrase such as _and the like—_ but not by a second full point, to avoid double punctuation.

Use 'etc.' in technical or scholarly contexts such as notes and works of reference. Elsewhere, prefer _such as, like, or for example_ before a list, or _and so on, and the like_ after it; none of these can be used in combination with 'etc.' It is considered rude to use 'etc.' when listing individual people; use 'and others' instead; use 'etc.' when listing _types_ of people, however. In a technical context, such as a bibliography, use 'et al.':

Daisy, Katie, Alexander, and others

duke, marquess, earl, etc.

Smith, Jones, Brown, et al.

Do not write 'and etc.': 'etc.' includes the meaning of 'and'. Do not end a list with 'etc.' if it begins with 'e.g.', 'including', 'for example', or 'such as', since these indicate that the list is to be incomplete. Choose one or the other, not both.

# 10.7 Abbreviations with dates

In reference works and other contexts where space is limited the abbreviations 'b.' (born) and 'd.' (died) may be used. Both are usually roman, followed by a point, and printed close up to the following figures:

Amis, Martin (Louis) (b.1949), English novelist...

An en rule may also be used when a terminal date is in the future:

_The Times_ (1785–)  | Jenny Benson (1960–)
---|---

A fixed interword space after the date may give a better appearance in conjunction with the closing parenthesis that generally follows it:

_The Times_ (1785– )  | Jenny Benson (1960– )
---|---

For people the abbreviation b. is often preferred, as the bare en rule may be seen to connote undue anticipation.

The Latin _circa_ , set roman or italic, meaning 'about', is used in English mainly with dates and quantities. Set the abbreviation, _c_. or _ca_ , in roman or italic close up to any figures following ( _c_.1020, _c_.£10,400), but spaced from words and letters ( _c_. AD 44). In discursive prose it is usually preferable to use _about_ or _some_ when describing quantities, although _approximately_ is better in scientific text:

about eleven pints  | some 14 acres  | approximately 50 kg
---|---|---

With a span of dates the abbreviation must be repeated before each date if both are approximate, as a single abbreviation is not understood to modify both dates:

Philo Judaeus ( _c_.15 BC– _c_. AD 50)

Distinguish between _c_. and ?: the former is used where a particular year cannot be fixed upon, but only a period or range of several years; the latter where there are reasonable grounds for believing that a particular year is correct. It follows therefore that _c_. will more often be used with round numbers, such as the start and midpoint of a decade, than with numbers that fall between. See 4.8.2.

A form such as ' _c_.1773' might be used legitimately to mean 'between 1772 and 1774' or 'between 1770 and 1775'. As such, it is best in discursive prose to indicate the earliest and latest dates by some other means. Historians employ a multiplication symbol for this purpose: _1996_ × _1997_ means 'in 1996 or 1997, but we cannot tell which'; similarly, _1996_ × _2004_ means 'no earlier than 1996 and no later than 2004'. Figures are not generally contracted in this context:

the architect Robert Smith (b.1772 × 1774, d.1855)

The Latin _floruit_ , meaning 'flourished', is used in English where only an approximate date of activity for a person can be provided. Set the italicized abbreviation _fl_. or _flor_. before the year, years, or—where no concrete date(s) can be fixed—century, separated by a space:

William of Coventry ( _fl_. 1360)  | Edward Fisher ( _fl_. 1627–56)
---|---
Ralph Acton ( _flor_. 14th c.)  |

# CHAPTER 11

#  Numbers and dates

# 11.1 Numbers: general principles

## 11.1.1 Introduction

This chapter mainly covers general texts and the humanities; more detailed information about dealing with numbers in scientific contexts can be found in Chapter 14, particularly 14.1, and 14.6.1 discusses typography in mathematical notation.

## 11.1.2 Figures or words?

The main stylistic choice to be made when dealing with numbers is whether to express them in figures or in words. It is normal to determine a threshold below which numbers are expressed in words and above which figures are used; depending on the context, the threshold may vary. In non-technical contexts, Oxford style is to use words for numbers below 100; in technical contexts numbers up to and including ten are spelled out. In specialist contexts the threshold may, with good reason, be different: in some books about music, for example, numbers up to and including twelve are spelled out (there being twelve notes in the diatonic scale). The threshold provides only a general rule: there are many exceptions to it, as described below. On websites different rules may apply: figures tend to be used more than words.

Large round numbers may be expressed in a mixture of numerals and words ( _6 million_ ; _1.5 million_ ) or entirely in words ( _six million_ ; _one and a half million_ ). In some contexts it makes better sense to use a rounded number than an exact one, such as _a population of 60,000_ rather than _of 60,011_. This is particularly true if the idea of approximation or estimation is expressed in the sentence by such words as _some, estimated_ , or _about_. Rounded approximations may be better expressed in words if the use of figures will confer a false sense of exactitude:

about a thousand _not_ about 1000

some four hundred _not_ some 400

Particularly where quantities are converted from imperial to metric (or vice versa), beware of qualifying a precise number with _about, approximately_ , etc.: _about three kilometres_ should not be converted to _about 1⅞ miles_.

In expressing approximate figures some styles traditionally preferred _more than_ to _over_. Modern usage tends to treat them as synonyms:

She was born in Oxford and has lived in Ireland for over twenty-five years

She was born in Oxford and has lived in Ireland for more than twenty-five years

although there are certain contexts in which one or the other is syntactically correct:

We spent a lot of time together, well over two months, and so we really got to know each other

There's more than one way of tackling this problem

or sounds more natural, e.g. in reference to age:

Applicants must be over 25 and have had a clean driving licence for more than five years

Use words in informal phrases that do not refer to exact numbers:

talking nineteen to the dozen

I have said so a hundred times

she's a great woman—one in a million

a thousand and one odds and ends

When a sentence contains one or more figures of 100 or above, a more consistent look may be achieved by using Arabic numerals throughout that sentence: for example, _90 to 100_ (not _ninety to 100_ ) and _30, 76, and 105_ (not _thirty, seventy-six, and 105_ ). This convention holds only for the sentence where this combination of numbers occurs: it does not influence usage elsewhere in the text unless a similar situation exists.

In some contexts a different approach is necessary. For example, it is sometimes clearer when two sets of figures are mixed to use words for one and figures for the other, as in _thirty 10-page pamphlets_ or _nine 6-room flats_. This is especially useful when the two sets run throughout a sustained expanse of text (as in comparing quantities): Anything more complicated, or involving more than two sets of quantities, will probably be clearer if presented in a table.

the manuscript comprises thirty-five folios with 22 lines of writing, twenty with 21 lines, and twenty-two with 20 lines

Spell out ordinal numbers— _first, second, third, fourth_ —except when quoting from another source. In the interests of saving space they may also be expressed in numerals in notes and references (see also 11.6.2 below). Use words for ordinal numbers in names, and for numerical street names (apart from avenue names in Manhattan—see 6.2.4):

the Third Reich  | the Fourth Estate  | a fifth columnist
---|---|---
Sixth Avenue  | a Seventh-Day Adventist  |

It is customary to use words for numbers that fall at the beginnings of sentences:

Eighty-four different kinds of birds breed in the Pine Barrens

'How much?' 'Fifty cents'

In such contexts, to avoid spelling out cumbersome numbers, recast the sentence, writing for example _The year 1849..._ instead of _Eighteen forty-nine..._

Use figures for ages expressed in cardinal numbers, and words for ages expressed as ordinal numbers or decades:

a girl of 15  | a 33-year-old man
---|---
between her teens and twenties  | in his thirty-third year
in the twenty-first century  |

In less formal or more discursive contexts (especially in fiction), ages may instead be spelled out, as may physical attributes:

a two-year-old  | a nine-inch nail
---|---

Words can supplement or supersede figures in legal or official documents, where absolute clarity is required:

the sum of nine hundred and forty-three pounds sterling (£943)

a distance of no less than two hundred (200) yards from the plaintiff

Figures are used for:

• parts of books, including chapters, pages, and plates ( _p_. _14_ , _Chapter_ _7_ )

• numbers of periodicals ( _Language_ 61)

• scores of games and sporting events ( _a 3–1 defeat, 37 not out_ )

• distances of races ( _the 400 metres_ )

• house or building numbers ( _47 Marston Street_ )

• road or highway numbers in a national system ( _A40, M25, Route 66_ ).

## 11.1.3 Punctuation

When written in words, compound numbers are hyphenated (see 11.1.6 for fractions):

ninety-nine  | one hundred and forty-three
---|---
in her hundred-and-first year  |

In non-technical contexts commas are generally used in numbers of four figures or more:

1,863  | 12,456  | 1,461,523
---|---|---

In technical and foreign-language work use a thin space (see 14.1.3):

14 785 652  | 1 000 000  | 3.141 592
---|---|---

In tabular matter, numbers of only four figures have no thin space, except where necessary to help alignment with numbers of five or more figures.

There are no commas in years (with the exception of long dates such as 10,000 BC), page numbers, column or line numbers in poetry, mathematical workings, house or hotel-room numbers, or in library call or shelf numbers:

1979  | 1342 Madison Avenue
---|---
Bodl. MS Rawl. D1054  | BL, Add. MS 33746

## 11.1.4 Number ranges

Numbers at either end of a range are linked with an en rule. A span of numbers is often elided to the fewest figures possible:

but retain as many digits as necessary where they change across the range:

In any event, do not elide digits in (or ending with) the group 10 to 19 because of the way they are read or spoken:

However, some editorial styles vary greatly in their treatment: for example some require no elision, some elide to the final two digits, and some don't elide multiples of 10 or 100 ( _30–32; 100–101_ ).

Even in elided styles all digits may be preserved in more formal contexts, such as titles and headings, and in expressing people's vital dates:

Charles Dickens (1812–1870)

_The National Service of British Seamen, 1914–1918_

Turbulent years, 1763–1770

Dates that cross the boundary of a century should not be elided: write _1798–1810, 1992–2001_. Spans in BC always appear in full, because an elided second date could be misread as a complete year: _185–22 BC_ is a century longer than _185–122 BC_, and dates for, say, Horace (65–8 BC) might appear to the unwary to express a period of three rather than fifty-seven years.

When referring to events known to have occurred between two dates, historians often employ a multiplication symbol: _1225 × 1232_ (or in some styles _1225 × 32_ ) means 'no earlier than 1225 and no later than 1232'. The multiplication sign is also useful where one element in a range is itself a range: _1225 × 32–1278_.

In specifying a range use either the formula _from xxxx to xxxx_ or _xxxx–xxxx_ ; take care to avoid the mistake of combining the two. It is _the war from 1939 to 1945_ or _the 1939–45 war_ , never _the war from 1939–45_. The same applies to the construction 'between... and...': _the period between 1998 and 2001_ or _the period 1998–2001_ , but not _the period between 1998–2001_. For ranges that include a negative value, it is best to use words to avoid confusion between a negative number and a dash, or to prevent an en rule clashing with a minus sign: _95% confidence interval_ = _-743.23 to -557.28 not 95% CI = -743.23 – -557.28_.

When describing a range in figures, repeat the quantity as necessary to avoid ambiguity:

1000–2000 litres  | 1 billion to 2 billion light years away
---|---

The elision _1–2000 litres_ means that the amount starts at only 1 litre, and _1 to 2 billion light years away_ means that the distance begins only 1 light year away.

For ranges that include a unit, the unit symbol does not need to be repeated ( _45.6_ – _50.2 kg_ ) unless the symbol is normally closed up ( _14_ °– _18_ ° [of angle])

A solidus replaces the en rule for a period of one year reckoned in a format other than the normal calendar extent: _49_ / _8 BC, the tax year 1934_/ _5_. A span of years in this style is joined by an en rule as normal: _1992_ / _3–2001_ / _2_.

Use a comma to separate successive references to individual page numbers: _6, 7, 8_ ; use an en rule to connect the numbers if the subject is continuous from one page to another: _6–8_.

## 11.1.5 Singular or plural?

Whether they are written as words or figures, numbers are pluralized without an apostrophe (see also 4.2.2):

the 1960s  | the temperature was in the 20s
---|---
they arrived in twos and threes  | she died in her nineties

Plural phrases take plural verbs where the elements enumerated are considered severally:

Ten miles of path are being repaved

Around 5,000 people are expected to attend

Plural numbers considered as single units take singular verbs:

Ten miles of path is a lot to repave

More than 5,000 people is a large attendance

When used as the subject of a quantity, words like _number, percentage_ , and _proportion_ are singular with a definite article and plural with an indefinite:

The percentage of people owning a mobile phone is higher in Europe

A proportion of pupils are inevitably deemed to have done badly

_None_ in the sense _no one person_ takes the singular:

Later, 26 children and one teacher went to hospital, but none was seriously injured

but in the sense of _not any_ takes the plural verb:

He had hoped to receive parking permits for residents but none were forthcoming

The numerals _hundred, thousand, million, billion, trillion_ , etc. are singular unless they refer to indefinite quantities:

two dozen  | about three hundred
---|---
some four thousand  | more than five million

but

dozens of friends  | hundreds of times
---|---
thousands of petals  | millions of stars

Note that a **billion** is a thousand million (1,000,000,000 or 109), and a **trillion** is a million million (1012). In Britain a billion was formerly a million million (1012) and a trillion a million million million (1018); in France, Germany, and elsewhere these values are still used.

## 11.1.6 Fractions and decimals

Fractions in mathematical contexts are discussed in 14.6.6. In other material, spell out simple fractions in running text. When fractions are spelled out they are traditionally hyphenated:

two-thirds of the country  | one and three-quarters
---|---
one and a half  |

although they are increasingly written as open compounds ( _three quarters_ ).

Hyphenate compounded numerals in compound fractions such as _nine thirty-seconds of an inch_ ; the numerator and denominator are hyphenated unless either already contains a hyphen. Do not use a hyphen between a whole number and a fraction: _one and seven-eighths_ rather than _one-and-seven-eighths_. Combinations such as _half a mile_ and _half a dozen_ should not be hyphenated, but write _a half-mile_ and _a half-dozen_.

In statistical matter use specially designed fractions where available (½, ¾, etc.), which have a diagonal bar—the Unicode block 'Number Forms' has a range of single-character fractions. The form of fraction with a horizontal bar (e.g.  ) is satisfactory—even in running text—if presented in TeX, which subtly adjusts interline spacing and character size and spacing, but if not set in TeX, seldom looks elegant. In non-technical running text, set complex fractions in text-size numerals with a solidus between ( _19/100_ ).

Decimal fractions may also be used: _12.66_ rather than _12⅔, 99.9_ rather than _99 and 9/10_. Decimal fractions are always printed in figures. They cannot be plural, or take a plural verb. For values below one the decimal is preceded by a zero: _0.76_ rather than _.76_. Exceptions are quantities (such as probabilities) that never exceed one, although authorities differ on this; if house style does not specify, it is best to follow the author's notation.

Decimals are punctuated with the full point on the line. In the UK decimal currency was formerly treated differently, with the decimal point set in medial position ( _£24·72_ ), but this style has long been out of favour.

Note that European languages, and International Standards Organization (ISO) publications in English, use a comma to denote a decimal sign, so that _2.3_ becomes _2,3_.

For the use of decimals in tables see Chapter 15.

# 11.2 Numbers with units of measure

## 11.2.1 General principles

Generally speaking, figures should be used with units of measurement, percentages, and expressions of quantity, proportion, etc.:

a 70–30 split

6 parts gin to 1 part dry vermouth

the structure is 83 feet long and weighs 63 tons

10 per cent of all cars sold

Note that _per cent_ rather than % is used in running text in non-technical work, and that US English has _percent_ , closed up.

Use figures, followed by a space, with abbreviated forms of units, including units of time, and with symbols:

although % is commonly closed up, contrary to SI guidelines.

## 11.2.2 Singular and plural units with numbers

Note that units of measurement retain their singular form when part of hyphenated compounds before other nouns:

a five-pound note  | a two-mile walk
---|---
a six-foot wall  | a 100-metre race

Elsewhere, units are pluralized as necessary, but not if the quantity or number is less than one:

two kilos _or_ 2 kilos  | three miles _or_ 3 miles
---|---
0.568 litre  | half a pint

For a fuller discussion of scientific units see Chapter 14. Do not add 's' to unit symbols ( _cm, ml_ ) in scientific work; see 14.1.3 and 14.1.4.

## 11.2.3 Currencies

Amounts of money may be spelled out in words with the unit of currency, but are more often printed in numerals with the symbols or abbreviations:

twenty-five pounds  | thirteen dollars  | seventy euros
---|---|---
£25 | $13 | €70

Round numbers lend themselves to words better than do precise amounts, though even these may need to be spelled out where absolute clarity is vital, as in legal documents. For amounts of millions and above, and for thousands in financial contexts, it is permissible to combine symbols, numerals, words, and abbreviations, according to the conventions of the context in which they appear: _£5 million, US$15 billion_.

Where symbols or abbreviations are used, such as _£_ (pounds), _$_ (dollars), € (euros), ₹ (rupees), they precede the figures. As several countries use the dollar, if there is any ambiguity use the accepted prefix ( _A$_ , US$). There is no space after symbols, but some styles use a space after abbreviations; this is acceptable if imposed consistently within a work:

Use _00_ after the decimal point only if a sum appears in context with other fractional amounts:

They bought at £8.00 and sold at £11.50

Amounts in pence, cents, or other smaller units are set with the numeral close up to the abbreviation, which has no full point: _56p_ or _56¢_ rather than _£0.56 or $0.56_. Mixed amounts do not include the pence/cent abbreviation: _£15.30_ rather than _£15.30p_.

Amounts in pre-decimal British currency (before February 1971) are expressed in pounds, shillings, and pence— _£.s.d_. In Oxford style these are italic with a normal space separating the elements:

Income tax stood at 8 _s_. 3 _d_. in the £

The tenth edition cost £1 10 _s_. 6 _d_. in 1956

Other styles render them closed up, in roman with full points:

The statue was sold at auction for £76.10s.9d. in Manchester

The international standard three-letter currency code (ISO 4217:2008) is used in trade, commerce, and banking, and the commonest currencies are well known enough to be used without explanation even in lay texts; the amount is prefixed by the code and a normal space: _GBP 500; EUR 40,000; USD 1 million_. Less familiar currencies will need explanation at first mention: _Macanese pataca (MOP) 1600._

# 11.3 Times of day

The formulation of times of day is a matter of editorial style, and different forms are more or less appropriate to particular contexts. It is customary to use words, and no hyphens, with reference to whole hours and to fractions of an hour:

four (o'clock)  | half past four  | a quarter to four
---|---|---

Use _o'clock_ only with the exact hour, and with time expressed in words: _four o'clock_ , not _half past four o'clock_ or _4 o'clock_. Do not use _o'clock_ with _a.m_. or _p.m_., but rather write, for example, _eight o'clock in the morning_. Use figures with _a.m_. _or p.m_.: _4 p.m_. Correctly, _12 a_. _m_. is midnight and _12 p.m_. is noon; but since this is not always understood, it may be necessary to use the explicit _12 midnight_ and _12 noon_. The twenty-four-hour clock avoids the use of _a.m_. and _p.m_.: _12_. _00_ is noon, _24_. _00_ is midnight. In British English either a colon or a full point as a separator is acceptable if applied consistently.

In the twelve-hour clock, use figures when minutes are to be included: _4.30 p.m_. For a round hour it is not necessary to include a decimal point and two zeros: prefer _4 p.m._ to _4.00 p.m_. In North America, Scandinavia, and elsewhere the full point is replaced by a colon: _4:30 p.m_. This is often seen in British usage too. Some styles omit the punctuation in _a.m._ and _p.m_.

# 11.4 Roman numerals

The base numerals are I (1), V (5), X (10), L (50), C (100), D (500), and M (1,000). The principle behind their formation is that identical numbers are added (II = 2), smaller numbers after a larger one are added (VII = 7), and smaller numbers before a larger one are subtracted (IX = 9). The I, X, and C can be added up to four times:

I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X (10)

XI, XII, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, XIX, XX (20)

MCCCCVIII (1408)

If possible, avoid eliding Roman numerals. To save space in certain circumstances two consecutive numerals may be indicated by _f_. for 'following': _pp_. _lxxxvii–lxxxviii_ becomes _pp_. _lxxxvii f_.

Roman numerals can be difficult to interpret and may cause design problems because of the variable number of characters needed to express them. For example, they may be best avoided in tabulated lists, such as contents pages, because the alignment of the numerals and the following matter can produce excessive white space on the page:

I | ...
---|---
II | ...
III | ...
IV | ...
V | ...
VI | ...
VII | ...
VIII | ...
IX | ...
X | ...

Oxford's use of Roman numerals is described below:

• Capital Roman numerals are used for the chapters and appendices of a book, for acts of plays or sections of long poems, and for volume numbers of multi-volume works:

Act I of _The Tempest_ | Book V
---|---
Chapters III–VIII  | Volume XVI Soot–Styx

• The division label (part, book, chapter, appendix, etc.) is styled in the same height as the numeral, capital with capital, lower case with lower case, and small capital with small capital. Thus _Chapter XI, chapter xi_ , CHAPTER XI.

• Lower-case Roman numerals are used to number the preliminary pages in a book, and for scenes of plays:

pp. iii–x  | _Hamlet_ , Act I, sc. ii
---|---

• When Roman numerals are used in references, they are lower case if there is only one level, small capital and lower case in that order if there are two ( _II_. _i_ ), full capital, small capital, and lower case in that order if there are three ( _III. II. i_).

• Capital Roman numerals are used after the names of monarchs and popes: _Henry VIII_ (no full point). The number should not be written as an ordinal ( _Henry the VIIIth_ ), although the style _Henry the Eighth_ is an acceptable alternative to figures in running text.

• Capital Roman numerals are similarly used in American personal names, where the male of a family bears the same name: _Adlai E. Stevenson III, Daniel P. Daly V_. A male bearing his father's name is styled _Jr_ , whereas a male bearing his grandfather's name—but not his father's—is styled _II_.

• Roman numerals in manuscript sometimes have a final or single _i_ replaced by a _j_ , for example _ij, viij_. This style need be retained only when reproducing copy in facsimile.

• In editions of Latin texts, Roman numerals should generally be set in small capitals. Classical scholars tend to make little use of Roman numerals, both in classical reference ( _Ovid_ , Amores _3.1.15_ not _III.i.15_) and in volume numbers of books.

# 11.5 Date forms

Figures are used for days and years in dates. Use cardinal numbers not ordinal numbers for dates:

12 August 1960  | 2 November 2003
---|---

Do not use the endings _-st, -rd_ , or _-th_ in conjunction with a figure, as in _12th August 1960_ , unless copying another source: dates in letters or other documents quoted verbatim must be as in the original. Where less than the full date is given, write _10 January_ (in notes _10 Jan_.), but _the 10th_. If only the month is given it should be spelled out, even in notes. An incomplete reference may be given in ordinal form:

They set off on 12 August 1960 and arrived on the 18th

In British English style dates should be shown in the order day, month, year, without internal punctuation: _2 November 2003_. In US style the order is month, day, year: _November 2, 2003_.

A named day preceding a date is separated by a comma: _Tuesday, 2 November 1993_ ; note that when this style is adopted a terminal second comma is required if the date is worked into a sentence:

On Tuesday, 2 November 1993, the day dawned frosty

There is no comma between month and year: _in June 1831_. Four-figure dates have no comma—2001—although longer dates do: _10,000 BC._

Abbreviated all-figure forms are not appropriate in running text, although they may be used in notes and references. The British all-figure form is _2_ / _11_ / _03_ or _2.11.03_ (or the year may be given in full). In US style the all-figure form for a date, which is always separated by slashes rather than full points, can create confusion in transatlantic communication, since _11_ / _2_ / _03_ is 2 November to an American reader and 11 February to a British one. Note that the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 are known by the shorthand _September 11_ or _9_ / _11_ not only in the US but also in Britain and around the world.

The dating system promoted by the ISO is year, month, day, with the elements separated by hyphens: _2003-11-02_. This style is preferred in Japan and increasingly popular in technical, computing, and financial contexts. Another alternative, common on the Continent and elsewhere, is to use (normally lower-case) Roman numerals for the months ( _2. xi. 03_ ). This system serves to clarify which number is the day and which the month in all contexts—a useful expedient when translating truncated dates into British or US English.

For precise dates in astronomical work, use days ( _d_ ), hours ( _h_ ), minutes ( _m_ ), and seconds ( _s_ ) ( _2001 January 1d 2h 34m 4.8s_ ) or fractions of days ( _2001 January 1.107_ ). See also 14.7.2.

For abbreviations of days and months see 10.2.6.

# 11.6 Decades, centuries, and eras

## 11.6.1 Decades

References to decades may be made in either words or figures:

Write either _the sixties_ or _the 1960s_ , not _the '60s_. Similarly, when referring to two decades use _the 1970s and 1980s_ , even though _the 1970s and '80s_ transcribes how such dates may be read out loud.

When the name of a decade is used to define a social or cultural period it should be written as a word (some styles use an initial capital). The difference between labelling a decade _the twenties_ and calling it _the 1920s_ is that the word form connotes all the social, cultural, and political conditions unique to or significant in that decade, while the numerical form is simply the label for the time span. So, _the frivolous, fun-loving flappers of the twenties_ , but _the oyster blight of the 1920s_.

## 11.6.2 Centuries

Depending on the editorial style of the work, refer to centuries in words or figures; Oxford style is to use words:

the nineteenth century  | the first century BC
---|---

Centuries may be abbreviated in notes, references, and tabular matter; the abbreviation may be either _c_. or _cent_.: _14th c_., _21st cent_. Both spelled-out and abbreviated forms require a hyphen when used adjectivally:

an eighth-century ( _or_ 8th-c.) poem

the early seventeenth-century ( _or_ 17th-c.) dramatists

In dating medieval manuscripts, the abbreviation _s_. (for _saeculum_ , pl. _ss_.) is often used instead: _s. viii_.

Centuries BC run backwards, so that the fifth century BC spanned 500–401 BC. The year 280 BC was in the third century BC.

Conventions for numbering centuries in other languages vary, though for the most part capital Roman numerals are used, with two common exceptions: French uses small capitals in roman, full capitals in italic. In either case the figures are followed by a superior _e_ or _ème_ to indicate the suffix: _le XVII e siècle, le XVIIème siècle_. German uses Arabic numerals followed by a full point: _das 18. Jahrhundert_. Occasionally capital Roman numerals are used; these too must be followed by a full point.

## 11.6.3 Eras

The two abbreviations most commonly used for eras are BC and AD. Both are written in small capitals. The abbreviation BC (before Christ) is placed after the numerals, as in _72 BC_, not _BC 72_; AD ( _anno domini_ , 'in the year of our Lord') should be placed before the numerals, as in _AD 375_ (not _375 AD_). However, when the date is spelled out it is normal to write _the third century AD_ rather than _AD the third century_.

Some writers prefer to use AD for any date before the first millennium. While this is not strictly necessary, it can be handy as a clarifying label: _This was true from 37_ may not instantly be recognized as referring to a year. Any contentious date, or any year span ranging on either side of the birth of Christ, should be clarified by BC or AD: _this was true from 43 BC to AD 18_. Conversely, a date span wholly in BC or AD technically needs no clarification, since _407–346_ is manifestly different from _346–409_ , though it is customary to identify all BC dates explicitly.

The following eras should be indicated by the appropriate abbreviation before the year:

• _a.Abr_. (the year of Abraham), reckoned from 2016 BC and used in chronicles by Eusebius and Jerome; not written AA.

• AH ( _anno Hegirae_ , 'in the year of the Hegira'), the Muslim era, reckoned from 16 July 622 (the date of Muhammad's departure from Mecca).

• AM ( _anno mundi_ , 'in the year of the world') will normally represent the Jewish era, reckoned from 7 October 3761 BC.

• AS ( _anno Seleuci_ ), the Seleucid era, variously reckoned from autumn 312 BC and spring 311 BC, formerly current in much of the Near East.

• AUC ( _anno Urbis conditae_ , 'in the year of the foundation of the City'), the supposed Roman era from 753 BC. This was actually used only rarely by the Romans (who had several different dates for the foundation of Rome, and designated the year by the names of the consuls).

The following eras should be indicated by the appropriate abbreviation after the year:

• BCE (Before Common Era) and CE (Common Era) are used instead of BC and AD, mainly by writers who wish to avoid specifying dates in Christian terms.

• BP (Before Present) is used by geologists and palaeontologists for dates not accurate within a few thousand years; AD 1950 is fixed as the conventional 'present'. It is customary to use BP when discussing periods before 10,000 years ago. Some authors favour BP as a matter of course, since it does not presuppose any Christian reckoning on the reader's part. This is acceptable, provided BP is not intermingled with BC and other references of this kind within the same text.

For all era abbreviations other than _a.Abr_., use unspaced small capitals, even in italic.

# 11.7 Regnal years

Regnal years are marked by the successive anniversaries of a sovereign's accession to the throne. Consequently they do not coincide with calendar years, which up to 1751 in England and America—though not in Scotland—began legally on 25 March. All Acts of Parliament before 1963 were numbered serially within each parliamentary session, which itself was described by the regnal year or years of the sovereign during which it was held. Regnal years were also used to date other official edicts, such as those of universities.

Regnal years are expressed as an abbreviated form of the monarch's name followed by a numeral. The abbreviations of monarchs' names in regnal-year references are as follows:

Car. _or_ Chas. (Charles)

Hen. (Henry)

Steph. (Stephen)

Edw. (Edward)

Jac. (James)

Will. (William)

Eliz. (Elizabeth)

P. & M. (Philip and Mary)

Wm. & Mar. (William and Mary)

Geo. (George)

Ric. (Richard)

Vic. _or_ Vict. (Victoria)

The names of John, Anne, Jane, and Mary are not abbreviated. See 13.5.1 for details of citing statutes including regnal years.

# 11.8 Calendars

## 11.8.1 Introduction

The following section offers brief guidance for those working with some less familiar calendars; fuller explanation may be found in Bonnie Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens, _The Oxford Companion to the Year_ (Oxford University Press, 1999).

Dates in non-Western calendars should be given in the order day, month, year, with no internal punctuation: _25 Tishri AM 5757, 13 Jumada I AH 1417_. Do not abbreviate months even in notes.

## 11.8.2 Old and New Style

The terms **Old Style** and **New Style** are applied to dates from two different historical periods. In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII decreed that, in order to correct the calendar then used—the **Julian calendar—** the days 5–14 October of that year should be omitted and no future centennial year (e.g. 1700, 1800, 1900) should be a leap year unless it was divisible by 400 (for example 1600, 2000). This reformed **Gregorian calendar** was quickly adopted in Roman Catholic countries, more slowly elsewhere: in Britain not till 1752 (when the days 3–13 September were omitted), in Russia not till 1918 (when the days 16–28 February were omitted). Dates in the Julian calendar are known as Old Style, while those in the Gregorian are New Style.

Until the middle of the eighteenth century not all states reckoned the new year from the same day: whereas France adopted 1 January from 1563, and Scotland from 1600, England counted from 25 March in official usage as late as 1751. Thus the execution of Charles I was officially dated 30 January 1648 in England, but 30 January 1649 in Scotland. Furthermore, although both Shakespeare and Cervantes died on 23 April 1616 according to their respective calendars, 23 April in Spain (and other Roman Catholic countries) was only 13 April in England, and 23 April in England was 3 May in Spain.

Confusion is caused on account of the adoption, in England, Ireland, and the American colonies, of two reforms in quick succession: the adoption of the Gregorian calendar and the change in the way the beginning of the year was dated. The year 1751 began on 1 January in Scotland and on 25 March in England, but ended throughout Great Britain and its colonies on 31 December, so that 1752 began on 1 January. So, whereas 1 January 1752 corresponded to 12 January in most Continental countries, from 14 September onwards there was no discrepancy. Many writers treat the two reforms as one, using _Old Style_ and _New Style_ indiscriminately for the start of the new year and the form of calendar. In the interests of clarity _Old Style_ should be reserved for the Julian calendar and _New Style_ for the Gregorian; the 1 January reckoning should be called 'modern style', that from 25 March 'Annunciation' or 'Lady Day' style.

It is customary to give dates in Old or New Style according to the system in force at the time in the country chiefly discussed. Any dates in the other style should be given in parentheses with an equals sign preceding the date and the abbreviation of the style following it: _23 August 1637 NS_ ( _= 13 August OS_ ) in a history of England, or _13 August 1637 OS_ ( _= 23 August NS_ ) in one of France. In either case, _13_ / _23 August 1637_ may be used for short. On the other hand, it is normal to treat the year as beginning on 1 January: modern histories of England date the execution of Charles I to 30 January 1649. When it is necessary to keep both styles in mind, it is normal to write _30 January 1648/9_ ; otherwise the date should be given as _30 January 1648_ ( _= modern 1649_ ).

## 11.8.3 Greek calendars

In the classical period years were designated by the name of a magistrate or other office-holder, which meant nothing outside the city concerned. In the third century BC a common framework for historians was found in the Olympiad, or cycle of the Olympic Games, held in the summer every four years from 776 BC onwards. Thus 776/5 was designated the first year of the first Olympiad; 775/4 the second year; and 772/1 the first year of the second Olympiad. When modern scholars need to cite these datings, they are written _Ol. 1, 1, Ol. 1, 2_ , and _Ol. 2, 1_ respectively.

## 11.8.4 French Republican calendar

The Republican calendar was introduced on 5 October 1793, and was discontinued with effect from 1 January 1806. On its introduction it was antedated to begin from the foundation of the Republic (22 September 1792). The months of the new calendar were named according to their seasonal significance. Though difficult to translate, approximations are included in parentheses:

The months are not now capitalized in French, though they were at the time and may still be so in English. Years of the Republican calendar are printed in capital Roman numerals: _9 thermidor An II_ ; _13 vendémiaire An IV_ ; in English _Year II, Year IV_.

## 11.8.5 Jewish calendar

The Jewish year consists in principle of twelve months of alternately 30 and 29 days; in seven years out of nineteen an extra month of 30 days is inserted, and in some years either the second month is extended to 30 days or the third month shortened to 29 days. The era is reckoned from a notional time of Creation at 11.11 and 20 seconds p.m. on Sunday, 6 October 3761 BC.

## 11.8.6 Muslim calendar

The Muslim year consists of twelve lunar months, so that thirty-three Muslim years roughly correspond to thirty-two Christian ones. Years are counted from the first day of the year in which the Prophet made his departure, or Hegira, from Mecca to Medina, namely Friday, 16 July AD 622.

# CHAPTER 12

#  Languages

# 12.1 General principles

This chapter provides guidelines on the editing and presentation of material in foreign languages and Old and Middle English. Languages are listed alphabetically, either separately or, for clarity and convenience, with related languages: for instance, there is one section for Slavonic languages rather than separate sections for Belarusian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, etc.

The sections stress common pitfalls and conundrums in spelling, punctuation, accents, syntax, and typography, and are intended to offer guidance to users across a broad spectrum of familiarity with the languages. A full account of each language is not the aim; rather, it seeks to aid authors and editors who are dealing with foreign-language material within English-language contexts. Overall, those languages most often met with in English-language publishing are covered in greatest depth, though not all languages of equal frequency are—or can usefully be—addressed equally: with editorial concerns foremost, distinctions between related languages have been highlighted. Help is given on setting non-Roman alphabets in English-language texts, as well as on transliteration and romanization.

Typescripts containing extensive non-roman characters should be created with a Unicode-compliant font (see 2.5) to facilitate typesetting. Authors should consult their publisher about any font requirements specific to non-roman alphabets.

For information on foreign personal names and place names see Chapter 6.

# 12.2 Arabic

## 12.2.1 Alphabet

Arabic is written from right to left in a cursive script consisting of twenty-eight letters, all representing consonants; their form varies according to position within the word, and several are distinguished only by dots. Some letters cannot be joined to the next even within a word; the space between them should be smaller than that between words, and unbreakable. A horizontal extender on the baseline is often added to a letter that would otherwise seem too close to the next. In verse it is conventional to give all lines the same visual length, so that the rhyming letter is aligned on the left throughout.

The same script, with additional letters, is or has been employed for other languages spoken by Muslims, such as Persian, Pashto, Urdu, Turkish, and Malay; these last two are now written in the Roman alphabet.

There is no standard system of transliterating Arabic.

## 12.2.2 Accents and punctuation

Vowel marks and other guides to pronunciation are used in editions of the Koran, in schoolbooks, and usually in editions of classical poetry; otherwise they are omitted except where a writer thinks they are needed to resolve ambiguity. Strict philological usage requires the underline in _ḏ, ṯ_ ; the under-dot in _ḥ, ṣ, ḍ, ṭ, ẓ_ ; the over-dot in _ġ_ ; the inferior semicircle in ( _ḫ_ ); the háček in _ǧ_ (often written _j_ ) and _š_ , and the macron in _ā, ī, ū_ (do not use the acute or circumflex instead). Less learned systems will dispense with some or all of these diacritics. There are also two independent characters, ʿayn (ʿ) and hamza (ء) (corresponding to Hebrew ʿayin and aleph) which should be used if available; if not, substitute Greek asper (') and lenis (') respectively. These should be distinguished from the apostrophe, mainly found before _l_ -, e.g. in ʿ _Abdu 'l-Malik_ ; insert a hair space (see 2.5.1) between them and quotation marks.

The definite article _al_ or _'l-_ (or regional variants such as _el-_ and _ul-_ ) is joined to the noun with a hyphen: _al-Islām, al-kitāb_. Do not capitalize the _a_ except at the beginning of a sentence; it should not be capitalized at the start of a quoted title.

Table 12.1 **Arabic alphabet**

## 12.2.3 Word division

In Arabic script words should not be divided even at internal spaces; if the spacing of the line would otherwise be too loose, use extenders within words. In transliteration, avoid dividing except at the hyphen following the article; if absolutely necessary, take over no more than one consonant. In loose transcription, note that _dh kh sh th_ may represent either the single consonants strictly transliterated _ḏ, ḫ, š_ , and _ṯ_ respectively, or combinations of _d k s t_ plus _h_. When in doubt, do not divide.

# 12.3 Chinese

## 12.3.1 Introduction

The forms of Chinese spoken in areas occupied by those of Chinese origin differ so widely from one another that many may be deemed to constitute languages in their own right. The principal dialects are Northern Chinese (Mandarin), Cantonese, Hakka, the Wu dialect of Suzhou, and the dialect of Min (Fukien). All of these, however, share a common written language consisting of thousands of separate ideographs or 'characters'. The language traditionally used for the compilation of official documents is totally unlike the spoken language, as is the language in which the classic texts of Chinese literature are expressed. For these, also, the same script is used.

## 12.3.2 Scripts

The structure of individual ideographs can sometimes be very complicated in script, involving the use of as many as twenty-eight separate strokes of the brush or pen. A code of simplified characters is in use on the mainland, but more traditional forms are found in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and areas beyond Chinese jurisdiction.

The language is monosyllabic, one ideograph representing a syllable. Each ideograph is pronounced in a particular inflection of voice, or 'tone'. The National Language (the standard spoken form of modern Chinese) uses four separate tones, Cantonese, nine. The National Language is derived from the pronunciation of northern China (notably that of the Beijing area), which has traditionally been adopted for the transaction of official business—hence the term 'Mandarin', which is sometimes used to categorize it. Alternative names for it are _putonghua_ ('speech in common use') or _Kuo-yü_ (otherwise _Guoyu_ , 'National Language').

The many thousand Chinese characters are traditionally written from top to bottom in vertical columns running right to left across the page, but nowadays, especially in mainland China, are printed in left-to-right lines like the Western alphabet. This has always been the practice when Chinese phrases are set within a Roman text.

## 12.3.3 Transliteration

Although the pronunciation of characters varies markedly from dialect to dialect (the surname pronounced _Wu_ in Mandarin is _Ng_ in Cantonese), romanization is normally based on Beijing ('Mandarin') usage. There are two main systems: **Wade–Giles,** formerly the norm in English-language publications, and **Pinyin,** the official transliteration in the People's Republic. The name, in Wade–Giles, would be spelled _P'in-in_. Wade–Giles gives forms such as T'ien-tsin and _Mao Tse-tung_ , whereas Pinyin gives Tianjin and _Mao Zedong_.

Wade–Giles separates the syllables of compounds with hyphens; Pinyin runs them together, with an apostrophe where the break would not be obvious ( _Xi'an_ = Wade–Giles _Hsi-an_ , since _Xian_ would be read as Wade–Giles _Hsien_ ). Wade–Giles distinguishes aspirated from unaspirated consonants with a Greek asper ('), which is sometimes replaced by an opening quote or an apostrophe, and is often omitted in popular writing; Pinyin uses different letters. Wade–Giles uses _ü_ more often than Pinyin, which requires it only in the syllables _lü_ and _nü_ ; only Wade–Giles uses _ê_ (e.g. _jên_ = Pinyin _ren_ ) and _ŭ_ ( _ssŭ_ = Pinyin _si_ ). Neither consistently indicates the syllabic tone, despite its importance; when they do so, Wade–Giles writes a superior figure after the syllable ( _i_ 1 _i_ 2 _i_ 3 _i_ 4), Pinyin an accent on the vowel ( _yī yí yǐ yì_ ; note the need to combine these with the umlaut).

# 12.4 Dutch and Afrikaans

## 12.4.1 Introduction

Dutch is the language of the Netherlands. The Dutch spoken in northern Belgium, formerly called Flemish, is now officially called Dutch ( _Nederlands_ in Dutch). Afrikaans is one of the official languages of South Africa, and was derived from the Dutch brought to the Cape by settlers in the seventeenth century.

## 12.4.2 Dutch

### Alphabet

The alphabet is the same as English, but _q_ and _x_ are used only in foreign loanwords. In dictionaries _ij_ precedes _ik_ ; in directories and encyclopedias it is sometimes treated as equivalent to _y_. The apostrophe occurs in such plurals as _pagina's_ ('pages'), but not before _s_ in the genitive.

### Accents

The acute is used to distinguish _één_ ('one') from een ('a'), and _vóór_ ('before') from _voor_ ('for'). The only other accent required—except in foreign loanwords—is the diaeresis:

_knieën_ 'knees'  | _provinciën_ 'provinces'  | _zeeën_ 'seas'
---|---|---

### Punctuation and capitalization

Punctuation is less strict than in, for example, German. Capitals are used for the pronouns _U_ 'you' and _Uw_ 'your', for terms indicating nationality ( _Engelsman_ 'Englishman', _Engels_ 'English'), and for adjectives derived from proper nouns, but not for days or months; in institutional names capitalize all words except prepositions and articles.

The abbreviated forms of _des_ and _het_ ( _'s_ and _'t_ respectively) take a space on either side except in the case of towns and cities, where a hyphen follows: ' _s-Gravenhage_. When a word beginning with an apostrophe starts a sentence, it is the following word that takes the capital: _'t Is_.

### Word division

Do not divide the suffixes _-aard, -aardig, -achtig_ , and any beginning with a consonant. This applies to the diminutive suffix _-je_ , but note that a preceding _t_ may itself be part of the suffix: _kaart-je_ ('ticket'), but _paar-tje_ ('couple').

Take over single consonants; the combinations _ch, sj, tj_ (which represent single sounds) and _sch_ ; and consonant + _l_ or _r_ in loanwords. Take over the second of two consonants (including the _g_ of _ng_ and the _t_ of _st_ ); when more than three come together take over those combinations that may begin a word. Do not divide double vowels or _ei, eu, ie, oe, ui, aai, eei, ieu, oei, ooi_.

## 12.4.3 Afrikaans

### Alphabet, accents, and spelling

There is no _ij_ in Afrikaans, _у_ being used as in older Dutch; _s_ is used at the start of words where Dutch has _z_ , and _w_ between vowels often where Dutch has _v_.

The circumflex is quite frequent; the grave is used on paired conjunctions ( _òf_... _òf_ , 'either... or') and a few other words. The acute is found in the demonstrative _dié_ to distinguish it from the article _die_ , and in certain proper nouns and French loan-words. There is no diaeresis with _ae_ ( _dae_ 'days').

### Capitalization

As in Dutch, when a word beginning with an apostrophe starts a sentence in Afrikaans, the following word is capitalized. This rule is important, since the indefinite article is written _'n_ :

' _n Man het gekom_ , 'A man has come'

The pronoun _ek_ 'I' is not capitalized.

# 12.5 French

## 12.5.1 Accents

The acute (΄), the most common accent in French, is used only over _e_ ; when two _e's_ come together the first always has an acute accent, as in _née_. The grave (`) is used mainly over _e_ , but also on final _a_ , as in _voilà_ , and on _u_ in _où_ ('where'), but not _ou_ ('or'). The circumflex (ˆ) may be used over _a, e, i, o,_ and _u_. The cedilla _c_ ( _ç_ ) is used only before _a, o_ , and _u_. The diaeresis (¨) is found on _i, e_ , and _y_.

Although they are recommended by the Académie française, accents on capital letters are often omitted in everyday French, except when they are needed to avoid confusion:

_POLICIER TUÉ_ 'Policeman killed'

_POLICIER TUE_ 'Policeman kills'

## 12.5.2 Orthographic reform

_Les Rectifications de l'orthographie_ , drafted by the Conseil Supérieure de la Langue Française, was published in 1990. It is a controversial document and ignored by many. From an editor's point of view the main changes are those affecting circumflex accents and hyphens. Since the document recommends the removal of the circumflex on _і_ and _u_ , except in verb endings and a few words where it distinguishes meaning, the lack of this accent may indicate the author's support for the reform, and it would be wise to ascertain whether or not this is the case; if this is not possible, assume that the reforms are not being followed.

## 12.5.3 Abbreviations

As in English, place a full point after an abbreviation ( _chap_., _ex_.) but not after a contraction ( _St, Mlle_ ). Retain the hyphen when a hyphenated form is abbreviated:

_J.-J. Rousseau_ (Jean-Jacques Rousseau)

_P.-S_. (post-scriptum)

Some common examples of abbreviations in French:

abrév. | abréviation
---|---
apr. | après
av. | avant
c.-à-d. | c'est-à-dire
chap. | chapitre
Cie, Cie | compagnie
conf. | confer (Lat.)
d° | dito
Dr | docteur
éd. | édition
etc. | et cætera
ex. | exemple
f° | folio
Ier, Ier | premier
IIe, 2e, II ème, 2ème | deuxième
ill. | illustration
in-4° | in-quarto
in-8° | in-octavo
inéd. | inédit
in-f° | in-folio
in pl. | in plano (Lat.)
l.c. | loc. cit. (Lat.)
liv. | livre
M. | monsieur
Me, Me | maître
Mlle, Mlle | mademoiselle
MM. | messieurs
Mme, Mme | madame
ms. | manuscrit
mss. | manuscrits
n° | numéro
Ρ· | page
p., pp. | pages
P.-S. | post-scriptum
qqch | quelque chose
qqn | quelqu'un
s., ss., suiv. | suivant
s.d. | sans date
s.l. | sans lieu
t. | tome
TVA | taxe à la valeur ajoutée
v. | voyez, voir
Vve | veuve

## 12.5.4 Capitalization

Capitalize only the first element (or first element after the article) in compound proper names. If the first element has a following adjective linked by a hyphen, capitalize the adjective also:

_l'Académie française_ | _la Comédie-Française_
---|---
_le Palais-Royal_ | _la Légion d'honneur_
_le Conservatoire de musique_ | _Bibliothèque nationale_

Note that a following adjective is lower case, while an adjective preceding the noun is capitalized:

_Le Nouveau Testament_ | _les Saintes écritures_
---|---
_l'Écriture sainte_ |

Use lower-case letters for: days of the week; names of months; the cardinal points ( _le nord, le sud_ , etc.); languages; adjectives derived from proper nouns ( _la langue française_ ); ranks, titles, regimes, religions, adherents of movements, and their derivative adjectives ( _calvinisme, chrétien(ne), le christianisme, humaniste, les sans-culottes, le socialisme, les socialistes_ ).

Use capitals for nationalities when used as nouns: _le Français_ ('the Frenchman'), _la Française_ ('the Frenchwoman'), as opposed to _le français_ ('French') (the language). Note that when referring to an adherent of Judaism _un juif_ should be lower-case like _un chrétien_ and _un musulman_ , but capitalized as a member of a people: _un Juif_ like _un Turc_ and _un Arabe_. In practice, the capital seems to be used more widely.

In names for geographical features common nouns such as _mer_ ('sea') are lower case, but there are traditional exceptions:

_le Bassin parisien_ | _le Massif central_ | _le Massif armoricain_
---|---|---
_la Montagne Noire_ | _le Quartier latin_ |

## 12.5.5 Punctuation

### Hyphen

Use hyphens to connect cardinal and ordinal numbers in words under 100:

_vingt-quatre_ | _trois cent quatre-vingt-dix_
---|---

but when _et_ joins two numbers no hyphen is used:

_vingt et un_ | _cinquante et un_ | _vingt et unième_
---|---|---

### Quotation marks

Texts set wholly in French should use quotation marks called **guillemets** (« »); these need not be used for French text in English-language books. A space is inserted inside the guillemets, separating the marks from the matter they contain; prefer a thin or no-break space (see 2.5.1) to avoid awkward line breaks but a normal word space is acceptable.

A guillemet is repeated at the head of every subsequent paragraph belonging to the quotation. In conversational matter guillemets are sometimes put at the beginning and end of the remarks, and the individual utterances are denoted by a spaced dash:

_« — Nous allons lui écrire, dis-je, et lui demander pardon._

_— C'est une idée de génie. »_

Many modern authors dispense with guillemets altogether, and denote the speakers by a dash only, although this is officially frowned upon.

English-style inverted commas are often used to mark a quotation within a quotation.

Where guillemets are used, only one » appears at the end of two quotations concluding simultaneously.

## 12.5.6 Work titles

Capitalize the initial letter of the first word of a title and of a following noun, if the first word is a definite article:

_Les Femmes savantes_ | _Au revoir les enfants_
---|---

Where the title occurs within a sentence, a lower-case _l_ for the definite article ( _le, la, les_ ) beginning a title may be used; the article is construed with the surrounding sentence:

_La mise en scène de la Bohème_ 'The production of _La Bohème_ '

If a noun following an initial definite article is itself preceded by an adjective, capitalize this also:

_Le Petit Prince_ | _Les Mille et Une Nuits_ (two adjectives)
---|---

but downcase any following adjective:

_Les Mains sales_

If the title begins with any word other than _le, la, les_ , or if the title forms a complete sentence, downcase the words following, unless they are proper nouns:

_Une vie_

_A la recherche du temps perdu_

_La guerre de Troie n'aura pas lieu_

_Les dieux ont soif_

A parallel title is treated as a title in its own right for the purposes of capitalization:

_Emile, ou, De l'éducation_

As these rules are complex, some English styles merely capitalize the first word and any proper nouns.

## 12.5.7 Word division

Divide words according to spoken syllables, and in only a few cases according to etymology. A single consonant always goes with the following vowel ( _amou-reux, cama-rade_ ); _ch, dh, gn, ph, th_ , and groups consisting of consonant + _r_ or + _l_ count as single consonants for this purpose.

Other groups of consonants are divided irrespective of etymology ( _circons-tance, tran-saction, obs-curité_ ) but divide a prefix from a following _h_ ( _dés-habille_ ). Always divide _ll,_ even if sounded _y_ : _travaillons, mouil-lé_. Do not divide between vowels except in a compound: _anti-aérien, extra-ordinaire_ (but _Moa-bite_ ). In particular, vowels forming a single syllable ( _mons_ ** _ieu_** _r_ ) are indivisible. Do not divide after a single letter ( _émettre_ ) or before or after an intervocalic _x_ or _y_ ( _soi_ ** _x_** _ante, mo_ ** _y_** _en, Ale_ ** _x_** _andre_ ), but divide after _x_ or _y_ if followed by a consonant: _dex-térité, pay-san_. Do not divide abbreviated words ( _Mlle_ ), within initials (la _CRS_ ), or after an abbreviated forename ( _J.-Ph_. Rameau) or personal title (le _Dr_ Suchet).

Do not divide after an apostrophe within compound words ( _presqu'île, aujour-d'hui_ ). Divide interrogative verb forms before - _t_ -: _Viendra-|t-il?_

## 12.5.8 Numerals

Use words for times of day if they are expressed in hours and fractions of hour:

_six heures_ 'six o'clock'  | _trois heures et quart_ 'a quarter past three'
---|---

but use figures for time expressed in minutes: _6 h 15, 10 h 8 min 30 s_.

Set Roman numerals indicating centuries in small capitals:

le XIème siècle  | XIe siècle
---|---

but they should be in full capitals when in italic.

Use upper-case Roman numerals for numbers belonging to proper nouns ( _Louis XIV_ ), but Arabic numerals for the numbers of the arrondissements of Paris: _le 16 e arrondissement_.

In figures use thin spaces to divide thousands ( _20 250_ ), but do not space dates, or numbers in general contexts ( _ľan 1466, page 1250_ ).

Times of day written as figures should be spaced as _10 h 15 min 10 s_ (10 hrs 15 min. 10 sec.); formerly this was also printed _10 h 15m 10s_.

# 12.6 Gaelic

## 12.6.1 Alphabet and accents

Both Irish and Scots Gaelic are written in an eighteen-letter alphabet with no _j, k, q, v, w, x, y, z_ (except in some modern loanwords); in Irish the lower-case _і_ is sometimes left undotted. Until the middle of the twentieth century Irish (but not Scots Gaelic) was often written and printed in **insular** script, a medieval form of Latin handwriting, in which a dot was marked over aspirated consonants. In Roman script aspirated consonants are indicated by the addition of _h_ after the letter, in both Irish and Scots Gaelic (Irish _an chos_ 'the foot', Scots Gaelic a' _chas_ ). Irish marks vowel length with an acute accent ( _á, é, í, ó, ú_ ), Scots Gaelic with the grave ( _à, è, ì, ò, ù_ ). Apostrophes are frequent in Scots Gaelic, less so in Irish.

## 12.6.2 Mutations

In Irish Gaelic, as in Scots Gaelic and Welsh, initial consonants are replaced by others in certain grammatical contexts, in a process called **mutation.** In Irish the mutation known as **eclipsis** is indicated by writing the sound actually pronounced before the consonant modified: _mb, gc, nd, bhf, ng, bp, dt_. If the noun is a proper name, it retains its capital, the prefixed letter(s) being lower case:

_i mBaile Átha Cliath_ 'in Dublin' ( _Baile Átha Cliath = Dublin_ )

_na bhFrancach_ 'of the French'

The same combination of initial lower-case letter followed by a capital occurs when _h_ or _n_ is prefixed to a name beginning with a vowel— _go hÉirinn_ 'to Ireland', _Tír na nÓg_ 'the Land of the Young'—or _t_ is prefixed to a vowel or _S_ : _an tAigéan Atlantach_ 'the Atlantic Ocean', _an tSionnain_ 'Shannon'. Before lower-case vowels, _h_ is prefixed directly ( _na hoíche_ 'of the night'), as is _t_ before _s_ ( _an tsráid_ 'the street'), but _n_ and _t_ take a hyphen before a vowel ( _in-áit_ 'in a place', _an t-uisce_ 'the water'). Except in dialects, eclipsis is not found with consonants in Scots Gaelic.

Prefixed _h-, n_ -, and _t-_ always take a hyphen:

_an t-sràid_ 'the street'  | _Ar n-Athair_ 'Our Father'
---|---
_na h-oidhche_ 'of the night'  | _na h-Eileanan an Iar_ 'the Western Isles'

# 12.7 German

## 12.7.1 Accents and special sorts

German uses the diacritics _Ä, Ö, Ü, ä, ö, ü_ , and the special sort _Eszett_ (ß) (see 12.7.2): _Eszett_ differs from a Greek beta (β), which should not be substituted for it.

## 12.7.2 Orthographic reform

A new orthography agreed by the German-speaking countries came into force on 1 August 1998. The seven-year transitional period, during which both systems were official, ended on 31 July 2005, and the older orthographic forms are now considered incorrect, although they are still widely used. The reform's main tendency is to eliminate irregularities that caused difficulty for the native speaker. At the same time, more variations are permitted than under the old rules, though these options are restricted: it is not acceptable to mix and match old and new spellings at will.

Under the new orthography, certain words were adjusted to resemble related words, so that, for instance, the verbs _numerieren_ and _plazieren_ become _nummerieren_ and _platzieren_ to coincide with the related nouns _Nummer_ ('number') and _Platz_ ('place').

In verbal compounds, nouns and adjectives regarded as retaining their normal functions are written separately:

_irreführen_ ('to mislead') and _wahrsagen_ ('to predict')

but

_radfahren_ → _Rad fahren_ 'to ride a bicycle'

Long-established loanwords have been Germanized ( _Tip_ → _Tipp_ , 'tip'), and _ее_ substituted for _é_ in such words as _Varietee_ for _Varieté_ ('music hall').

The optional use of _f_ for _ph_ is extended: _Delfin_ ('dolphin'), _Orthografie_ ('orthography'), but not to words deemed more learned: _Philosophie_ ('philosophy'), _Physik_ ('physics').

The _Eszett_ was traditionally used in place of a double _s_ at the end of a syllable, before a consonant (whatever the vowel), and after long vowels and diphthongs. The new rules allow the ß only after a long vowel (including _ie_ ) or diphthong:

_Fuß, Füße_ 'foot, feet'

after a short vowel _ss_ is to be used:

_Kuss, Küsse_ 'kiss, kisses'

but:

_ihr esst, ihr aßt_ 'you [pl.] eat, ate'

_wir essen, wir aßen_ 'we eat, ate'

The _Eszett_ is considered an archaism in Swiss German, _ss_ being preferred in all circumstances. No corresponding capital and small capital letters exist for _ß_ , and _SS_ and _ss_ are used instead; in alphabetical order _ß_ counts as _ss_ and not _sz_.

In the absence of specific instructions to the contrary, or of evidence from the nature of the text itself, the new rules should be applied in all matter not by native speakers of German. Quotations from matter published in the old spelling should follow the old style (except in respect of word division), but new editions will normally modernize.

The new orthography's effects in other areas are mentioned under the headings below.

## 12.7.3 Abbreviations

Use a full point:

• after an abbreviation that would be read out in full; a space after any points within it is optional (but usual in formal writing):

_d. h._ ( _das heißt_ , 'that is')

_Dr._ ( _Doktor_ , 'Dr')

_Prof._ ( _Professor_ , 'Prof.')

_usw._ ( _und so weiter_ , 'and so on')

_z. В._ ( _zum Beispiel_ , 'for example')

• after numerals used for days of the month and ordinal numbers:

_Montag, den 12. August_ 'Monday, 12 August'

_der 2. Weltkrieg_ ( _der Zweite Weltkrieg_ , 'the Second World War')

Do not use points in abbreviations that are pronounced as such:

_DM_ ( _die Deutsche Mark_ , 'the German mark')

_KG_ ( _Kommanditgesellschaft_ , 'limited partnership')

Some common examples of abbreviations in German:

a. a. O. | am angeführten Ort
---|---
Abb. | Abbildung
Abt. | Abteilung
Anm. | Anmerkung
Aufl. | Auflage
Ausg. | Ausgabe
Bd., Bde. | Band, Bände
bes. | besonders
bzw. | beziehungsweise
d. h. | das heißt
d. i. | das ist
ebd. | ebenda, ebendaselbst
Erg. Bd. | Ergänzungsband
etw. | etwas
Hft. | Heft
hrsg. | herausgegeben
Hs., Hss. | Handschrift, Handschriften
Lfg. | Lieferung
m. E. | meines Erachtens
m. W. | meines Wissens
Nr. | Nummer
o. | oben
o. Ä. | oder Ähnliche(s)
o. O. | ohne Ort
R. | Reihe
s. | siehe
S. | Seite
s. a. | siehe auch
s. o. | siehe oben
sog. | sogenannt
s. u. | siehe unten
u. a. | unter anderem
u. ä. | und ähnliches
usf., u. s. f. | und so fort
usw., u. s. w. | und so weiter
verb. | verbessert
Verf., Vf. | Verfasser
vgl. | vergleiche
z. B. | zum Beispiel
z. T. | zum Teil

## 12.7.4 Capitalization

All nouns in German are written with initial capital letters, as are other words (adjectives, numerals, and infinitives) that are used as nouns:

_Gutes und Böses_ 'good and evil'

_Die Drei ist eine heilige Zahl_ 'Three is a sacred number'

The basic rule of capitalizing nouns remains untouched by the orthographic reform, but whereas all nouns used as adverbs were previously lower case, some changes have been implemented: for example, _heute abend_ ('tonight') is now _heute Abend, morgen abend_ ('tomorrow evening') becomes _morgen Abend_ , and _gestern morgen_ ('yesterday morning') becomes _gestern Morgen_.

Adjectives used as nouns are capitalized with fewer exceptions than before: _alles übrige_ becomes _alles Übrige_ ('everything else').

In the new rules the familiar forms of the second person pronouns _du, dich, dir, dein, ihr, euch, euer_ are not (as they formerly were) capitalized in letters and the like. The old rule remains that pronouns given a special sense in polite address are capitalized to distinguish them from their normal value: these are (in medieval and Swiss contexts) _Ihr_ addressed to a single person; (in early modern contexts) _Er_ and _Sie_ (feminine singular); and (nowadays) _Sie_ (plural). In all of the above the capital is used also in the oblique cases and in the possessive, but not in the reflexive _sich_.

Capitalize adjectives that form part of a geographical name (or are formed from a place name), the names of historic events or eras, monuments, institutions, titles, special days and feast days. Otherwise do not capitalize adjectives denoting nationality:

_das deutsche Volk_ 'the German nation'

or the names of languages in expressions where their use is considered adverbial:

_italienisch sprechen_ 'to speak Italian'

Traditionally, adjectives derived from personal names were capitalized in certain contexts, but according to the new rules all adjectives derived from personal names are to be lower case, except when the name is marked off with an apostrophe:

_das ohmsche Gesetz_ or _das Ohm'sche Gesetz_ 'Ohm's Law'

In work titles the first word and all nouns are capitalized, with all other words having a lower-case initial.

## 12.7.5 Punctuation

There are very specific rules about the placing of commas in German. Do not interfere in the punctuation of quoted matter without reference to the author or the source.

Sentences containing an imperative normally end in an exclamation mark. The traditional practice of ending the salutation in a letter with an exclamation mark— _Sehr geehrter Herr Schmidt!_ ('Dear Herr Schmidt')—has largely given way to the use of a comma, after which the letter proper does not begin with a capital unless one is otherwise required.

German rarely employs the en rule in compounds in the way that it is used in English, preferring a hyphen between words:

_die Berlin-Bagdad-Eisenbahn_ 'the Berlin–Baghdad railway'

The en rule is used for page and date ranges ( _S.348–349, 1749–1832_ ): do not elide such ranges. It is also used, with a word space on each side, as a dash.

### Quotation marks

German quotation marks ( _Anführungszeichen_ ) take the form of two commas at the beginning of the quotation, and two opening quotation marks (turned commas) at the end (""), or reversed guillemets are used (»...«). Mark quotations within quotations by a single comma at the beginning and a single opening quotation mark at the end (, '). No space separates the quotation marks from the quotation.

Expect a colon to introduce direct speech. Commas following a quotation fall after the closing quotation mark, but full points go inside if they belong to the quotation.

### Apostrophe

The apostrophe is used to mark the elision of _e_ to render colloquial usage:

_Wie geht's?_ 'How are things?'/'How are you?'

When the apostrophe occurs at the beginning of a sentence, the following letter does not become a capital:

_'s brennt!_ 'Fire!' (not _'S brennt_ )

The apostrophe is also used to mark the suppression of the possessive _s_ (for reasons of euphony) after names ending in _s, ß, x, z_ :

_Aristoteles' Werke_ | _Horaz' Oden_
---|---

### Hyphen

Traditionally, a noun after a hyphen begins with an initial capital:

_das Schiller-Museum_ 'the Schiller Museum'

but the new orthography allows words to be run together:

_das Schillermuseum_

The hyphen was used to avoid the double repetition of a vowel ( _Kaffee-Ersatz_ , 'coffee substitute') but not to avoid the similar repetition of a consonant ( _stickstofffrei_ , 'nitrogen-free'). The new rules no longer require a hyphen—groups of three identical consonants are written out even before a vowel and when _sss_ results from the abolition of _β_ after a short vowel:

_Brennnessel_ | _Schifffahrt_
---|---
_Schlußsatz → Schlusssatz_

It is permissible to make such compounds clearer by using a hyphen:

_Brenn-Nessel_ | _Schiff-Fahrt_ | _Schluss-Satz_
---|---|---

## 12.7.6 Word division

For the purpose of division, distinguish between simple and compound words.

### Simple words

Do not divide words of one syllable. Divide other simple words by syllables, either between consonants or after a vowel followed by a single consonant. This applies even to _x_ and mute _h_ : _Bo-xer, verge-hen_.

Do not separate _ch, ph, sch, ß,_ and _th_ (representing single sounds). Correct examples are _spre-chen, wa-schen, So-phie, ka-tholisch, wech-seln, Wechs-ler_. Traditionally _st_ was included in this group, but under the new rules it is no longer, and should be divided: _Las-ten, Meis-ter, Fens-ter_.

At the ends of lines, take over _ß_ : _hei-ßen, genie-ßen_.

Take over as an entity _ss_ if used instead of _ß_ , but divide _ss_ when it is not standing for _ß_ : _las-sen_.

Traditionally, if a word was broken at the combination _ck_ it was represented as though spelled with _kk_ : _Zucker_ but _Zuk-ker, Glocken_ but _Glok-ken_. According to the new orthography, the combination _ck_ is taken over whole, as it was traditionally after a consonant in proper nouns or their derivatives: _Zu-cker, Glo-cken, Fran-cke, bismar-ckisch_.

Treat words with suffixes as simple words and divide in accordance with the rules above: _Bäcke-rei, le-bend, Liefe-rung_.

### Compound words

Divide a compound word by its etymological constituents ( _Bildungs-roman, Kriminal-polizei, strom-auf_ ) or within one of its elements: _Bundes-tag_ or _Bun-destag_. Divide prefixes from the root word: _be-klagen, emp-fehlen, er-obern, aus-trinken_.

## 12.7.7 Numerals

Separate numbers of more than four figures with thin spaces by thousands: _6 580 340_.

A full point after a numeral shows that it represents an ordinal number:

_14. Auflage_ (14th edition)

_Mittwoch, den 19. Juli 1995_ (Wednesday, 19 July 1995)

The full point also marks the separation of hours from minutes: _14.30_ _Uhr_ or _14 30 Uhr_.

Germans use Roman numerals rarely: even when citing Roman page numbers, they often convert them into Arabic and add an asterisk: _S. 78_ * (p. lxxviii). Distinguish this from _1_ *, denoting the first page of an article that is in fact (say) the third or fifth page of a pamphlet.

## 12.7.8 Historical and specialist setting

The traditional black-letter German types such as Fraktur and Schwabacher were replaced by the Roman Antiqua in 1941. They are now found only to a limited extent in German-speaking countries, mostly in decorative or historical contexts, or in approximating earlier typography. Any matter to be set in them should be deemed a quotation. Word division should follow the pre-1998 rules, not the new; in particular the _st_ ligature should be taken over. The long _s_ ( ) in Fraktur type is used at the beginnings of words, and within them except at the ends of syllables. The short final _s_ ( ) is generally put at the ends of syllables and words, except before _p_ ( _Knospe_ ).

Table 12.2 **German Fraktur alphabet**

# 12.8 Greek

## 12.8.1 Introduction

Ancient and modern Greek show a remarkable similarity, and much of what follows covers both. Modern Greek may be divided into two forms, **katharevousa** (literally 'purified'), a heavily archaized form used in technical and Church contexts, written in polytonic script, and **demotic,** the form which is spoken and used in everyday contexts. Demotic, which uses monotonic orthography, has been the official form since 1976, and is employed in official documents.

## 12.8.2 Alphabet

Ancient and modern Greek are written in an alphabet that consists of twenty-four letters: seventeen consonants and seven vowels ( _α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, ω_ ). Modern Greek is written from left to right, as was ancient Greek from the classical period onwards.

In ancient Greek the 'final' sigma (i.e. the form used at the end of words) must be distinguished from _ϛ_ stigma [ _sic_ ], which was used for the numeral 6 and in late manuscripts and early printed books for _στ_. Stigma is also used in scholarly work (especially on Latin authors) to denote 'late manuscripts'. In papyri and inscriptions sigma is normally printed _Ϲ ϲ_ ('lunate sigma'), with no separate final form; this is also sometimes used in other ancient contexts, but never in modern Greek.

Table 12.3 **Greek alphabet**

Texts of early inscriptions may require Latin _h_ (to be italic with a sloping fount), and the letters _Ϝ_ (wau or digamma) and _ϙ_ (koppa).

In ancient Greek an iota forming a 'long diphthong' with a preceding _α, η_ , or _ω_ is traditionally inserted underneath the vowel: _ᾳ ῃ ῳ_ ('iota subscript'). Some modern scholars prefer to write _αι, ηι, ωι_ ('adscript iota'), in which case accents and breathings should be set on the first vowel; in the case of _αι_ this means that the accent may fall on either letter depending on the pronunciation. When a word is set in capitals, iota is always adscript (i.e. written on the line rather than beneath it); when the word has an initial capital but is otherwise lower case, an initial long diphthong will have the main vowel as capital, the iota adscript lower case; hence _ᾧ_ will become _ΩΙ_ in capitals (for the absence of accent and breathing see below), but _ _at the start of a paragraph. In modern Greek the iota is omitted even in phrases taken bodily from the ancient language.

## 12.8.3 Transliteration

Whether or not to transliterate ancient or modern Greek must of course depend on the context. In general contexts any use of Greek script will be very off-putting to the majority of people, but readers who know Greek will find it far harder to understand more than a few words in transliteration than in the Greek alphabet. If the work is intended only for specialists, all Greek should be in the Greek alphabet; in works aimed more at ordinary readers, individual words or short phrases should be transliterated:

_history_ comes from the Greek word _historiē_

although longer extracts should remain in Greek script, with a translation. Table 12.3 shows how Greek letters are usually transliterated.

## 12.8.4 Accents

The accents in ancient and modern Greek are acute ´, used on any of the last three syllables of a word; grave ` used only on final syllables; circumflex ˆ, used on either of the last two syllables of a word. The diaeresis ¨ is also used, to show that two vowels occurring together do not form a diphthong.

All words of three or more syllables, and most others, carry an accent. Most unaccented words cause the majority of preceding words to take an acute on their final syllable; they are known as **enclitics** , the others (all monosyllables) as **proclitics**. An acute accent on a final syllable or a monosyllable will be found before an enclitic, before punctuation, and in the two words _τίϛ_ and _τί_ when they mean 'who?' and 'what?'; otherwise it is replaced by a grave, although in modern Greek it is sometimes retained.

Greek uses marks known as **breathings** to indicate the presence or absence of an aspirate at the beginning of a word: they are ' ( **asper** or **rough breathing** ) and ' ( **lenis** or **smooth breathing** ). Breathings are used on all words beginning with a vowel or diphthong and also with _ρ_ ; in this case, and that of _υ_ and _υι_ , the breathing will nearly always be the asper.

Table 12.4 **Greek accents**

Each of the accents may be combined with either breathing or with the diaeresis; but breathing and diaeresis never stand on the same letter. The accent always stands over the diaeresis; the breathing stands to the left of the acute or grave, but underneath the circumflex. Except in the case of long diphthongs (see above), accents are placed over the second vowel of a diphthong (which is always _ι_ or _υ_ ).

Accents and breathings are regularly used when words are set in capital and lower-case style; they precede capitals and are set over lower-case letters. They are omitted when words are set wholly in capitals.

In modern Greek many printers now dispense with breathings and use only a single accent, either a small downward-pointing filled-in triangle or simply the acute; as before, the accent is omitted in capitals, but otherwise precedes capitals and stands over lower-case letters. Monosyllables, even if stressed, do not have an accent, save that _ὴ_ 'or' is distinguished from _η_ 'the' (nominative singular feminine), in traditional spelling _ἤ_ and _ἡ_ respectively. The diaeresis remains in use; however, it is used to show that _ᾳ ï_ and _οï are_ diphthongs, as opposed to the digraphs _αι_ (pronounced _ε_ ) and _οι_ (pronounced _ι_ ).

In both ancient and modern Greek a final vowel or diphthong may be replaced at the end of a word by an apostrophe when the next word begins with a vowel or diphthong; occasionally it is the latter that is replaced. Traditionally setters have represented the apostrophe by a lenis; but if the font has a dedicated apostrophe that should be used. Do not set an elided word close up with the word following. It may be set at the end of a line even if it contains only one consonant and the apostrophe or lenis.

## 12.8.5 Capitalization and punctuation

In printing ancient Greek, the first word of a sentence or a line of verse is capitalized only at the beginning of a paragraph. In modern Greek, capitals are used for new sentences, though not always for new lines of verse.

For titles of works in ancient Greek, it is best to capitalize only the first word and proper nouns, or else proper nouns only. In modern Greek the first and main words tend to be capitalized; first word and proper nouns only is the rule in bibliographies.

In ancient Greek, it is conventional to capitalize adjectives and adverbs derived from proper nouns, but not verbs:

_Ἕλλην_ 'a Greek'

_Ἑλληνιστί_ 'in Greek'

but

_ἑλληνίfω_ 'I speak Greek/behave like a Greek'

In modern Greek, lower case is the rule:

_ελληνικὸϛ_ 'Greek (adj.)'

_ελληνικὰ_ 'in Greek'

The comma, the full point, and the exclamation mark (in modern Greek) are the same as in English; but the question mark (;) is the English semicolon (italic where necessary to match a sloping Greek font), and the colon is a raised full point (·). Use double quotation marks, or in modern Greek guillemets.

## 12.8.6 Word division

In ancient Greek the overriding precept should be that of breaking after prefixes and before suffixes and between the elements of compound words. This requires knowledge of the language, however, since many prefixes cannot be distinguished at sight: _ἔν-αυε_ 'lit' contains a prefix, _ἔναιε_ 'dwelt' does not.

A vowel may be divided from another ( _λʿ-ων_ ) unless they form a diphthong ( _αι, αυ, ει, ευ, ηυ, οι, ου, υι_ ). Take over any combination of 'mute' ( _β, γ, δ, θ, κ, π, τ, ϕ, χ_ ) followed by 'liquid' ( _λ, μ, ν, ρ_ ), also _β δ, γ δ, κτ, πτ, ϕθ, χθ_ , or any of these followed by _ρ_ ; _μν_ ; and _σ_ followed by a consonant other than _σ_ or by one of the above groups: _ἑλι-κτός, γι-γνά-σκω, μι-μνή-σκω, κα-πνός, βα-πτί-fω_.

Any doubled consonants maybe divided; _λ, μ, ν_ , and _ρ_ maybe divided from a following consonant, except in _μν_. Divide _γ_ from a following _κ_ or _χ_ ; take over _ξ_ and _ψ_ between vowels ( _δεί-ξειν, ἀνε-ψιός_ ).

Modern Greek word division follows ancient principles, but the consonant groups taken over are those that can begin a modern word. Therefore _θμ_ is divided, but _γκ, μπ, ντ, τf, τσ_ are not.

## 12.8.7 Numerals

Two systems of numerals were in use in ancient Greek. In the older system (the 'acrophonic' system, used only for cardinal numbers), certain numbers were indicated by their initial letters. This was eventually replaced by the alphabetic system, shown in Table 12.5, which could be used of either cardinals or ordinals. The Greek numeral sign (ʹ) is used to denotes numbers; the Greek lower numeral sign (͵) signifies thousands. The symbols _ϛ_ and _03E1_ , are known as 'stigma' and 'sampi' respectively.

Table 12.5 **Alphabetic Greek numbers.**

Modern Greek uses Arabic numerals: if a sloping font is being used they should be set in italic, but with upright fonts they should be set in roman, in both cases ranging. Alphabetic numerals are still employed, however, in much the same way as Roman numerals are in Western languages; _vi_ is commonly written στ ́.

# 12.9 Hebrew

## 12.9.1 Alphabet

The Hebrew alphabet consists exclusively of consonantal letters. Vowels may be indicated by dots or small strokes ('points') above, below, or inside them, but Hebrew is generally written and printed without vowels. Hebrew written without vowels is described in English as 'unpointed' or 'unvocalized'.

Each letter has a numerical value. Letters are therefore often used in Hebrew books—especially in liturgical texts and older works—to indicate the numbers of volumes, parts, chapters, and pages. Letters are also used to indicate the day of the week, the date in the month, and the year according to the Jewish calendar.

The consonantal letters are principally found in two different forms: a cursive script, and the block ('square') letters used in printing.

Table 12.6 **Hebrew alphabet**

Vowels
---
Form |  Name
ָ | kamats
ַ | patah
ֶ | segol
ֵ | tseré
ִ | hirik
ְ | sheva
ֻ | kubutz
ֲ | hataf patah
ֱ | hataf segol
וֹ | holam
וּ | shuruk

* Where two forms are given, the second is that used in final position.

† The letters _alef_ and ʿ _ayin_ are not transliterated in the simplified system. Where they occur in intervocalic position an apostrophe is used to indicate that the vowels are to be pronounced separately.

‡ Transliterated 'y' as a consonant, 'i' as a vowel.

## 12.9.2 Transliteration

Different systems of transliterated Hebrew may require the following diacritics: _ś_ (and sometimes the acute is also used on vowels to indicate stress); _ā, ē, ī, ō, ū_ ; _ê, î, ô, û_ ; _ă, ĕ, ŏ_ (in some systems represented by superiors, _a e o_ ); _ḥ, ṣ, ṭ, ẓ_ (in older system also _ḳ_ for _q_ ); _š_ ; _ḇ, ḏ, ʿ, ḵ, ʿ, ṯ_ (less strictly _bh, dh, gh, kh, ph, th_ ). Special characters are _schwa ə, aleph ʾ, ʿayin ʿ_ ; in loose transliteration from modern Hebrew the latter two may be replaced by an apostrophe or omitted altogether.

## 12.9.3 Word division

In Hebrew script, words are short enough not to need dividing; transliterated words should be so divided that the new line begins with a single consonant. In loose transliteration, _ts_ and combinations with _h_ may or may not represent single consonants; when in doubt avoid dividing.

# 12.10 Italian

## 12.10.1 Accents

The use of accents in the Italian language is not entirely consistent; editors should as a general rule follow the author's typescript. There are two accents, acute and grave. The acute accent is used on a 'closed' _e_ and very rarely on a closed _o: perché_ , 'because', _né... né..._ 'neither...nor...'. The grave accent is used on the 'open' _e_ and _o_ : _è_ , 'is', _cioè_ , 'that is', _però_ , but', 'however'. The grave is also used to indicate stress on a final syllable. An alternative convention does exist for _і_ and _u_ , whereby they are marked with an acute accent: _così_ and _cosí_ ('so'), _più_ and _piú_ ('more'). However, in normal, standard Italian it is considered good practice to use the grave accent on all vowels except the closed _e_ and, very rarely, _o_.

The appearance in a single text of Italian extracts with several different systems of accentuation may indicate not ignorance or carelessness in the author, but rather scrupulous fidelity to sources. Any discretional accents should be left alone unless the copy-editor is expert in the language and the author is not. There are other respects in which Italian spelling is even now less regulated than, say, French, and zeal for consistency must be tempered by either knowledge or discretion.

Leave capital letters unaccented as a general rule, unless an accent is needed to avoid confusion. The grave accent on an upper-case _E_ is marked as an apostrophe:

_E' oggi il suo compleanno_ 'It is his birthday today'

## 12.10.2 Abbreviation

Italian abbreviations are usually set with an initial capital only rather than in full capitals, with no full point following: _An_ ( _Alleanza Nazionale_ ), _Rai_ ( _Radiotelevisione Italiana_ ). When the expansion does not begin with a capital, neither does the abbreviation: _tv_ ( _televisione_ ).

## 12.10.3 Capitalization

Italian uses capital letters much less frequently than English. Capitalize names of people, places, and institutions, and some dates and festivals. Use lower-case for _ίο_ ( _Ι_ ), unless it begins a sentence. _Lei, Loro_ , and _Voi_ (polite forms of 'you') and related pronouns and adjectives, _La, Le, Suo, Vi, Vostro_ , are often capitalized, especially in commercial correspondence:

_La ringraziamo per la Sua lettera_ 'Thank you for your letter'

Note that polite _La_ and _Le_ may be capitalized even when suffixed to a verb: _ringraziarLa_ 'thank you'.

When citing titles of works capitalize only the first word and proper nouns:

_Il gattopardo_ | _La vita è bella_
---|---

Roman numerals indicating centuries are generally put in full capitals in both italic and roman:

_l'XI secolo_ 'the eleventh century'

Names of days and months ( _lunedì, gennaio_ ) and languages, peoples, and adjectives of nationality are lower case:

_Parlo inglese e francese_ 'I speak English and French'

_Gli italiani_ 'the Italians'

_un paese africano_ 'an African country'

although the capitalization of the names of peoples ( _gli Italiani_ ) is becoming more common.

## 12.10.4 Punctuation

Italian makes a distinction between points of omission (which are spaced) and points of suspension (which are unspaced). The latter equate with the French _points de suspension_ , three points being used where preceded by other punctuation, four in the absence of other punctuation.

Put the ordinary interword space after an apostrophe following a vowel: _a' miei, ne' righi, po' duro, de' Medici_. Insert no space after an apostrophe following a consonant: _l'onda, s'allontana, senz'altro_. When an apostrophe replaces a vowel at the beginning of a word a space always precedes it: _e 'l, su 'l, te 'l, che 'l._ Note, however, that in older printing these rules may be reversed: _a'miei, l' onda, e'l_.

Single and double quotation marks, and guillemets, are all used in varying combinations. A final full point is placed after the closing quotation marks even if a question mark or exclamation mark closes the matter quoted:

_«Buon giorno, molto reverendo zio!»_. 'Good day, most reverend Uncle!'

## 12.10.5 Word division

Do not divide the following compound consonants:

Divide between vowels only if neither is _і_ or _u_. When a vowel is followed by a doubled consonant, including _cq_ , the first of these goes with the vowel, and the second is joined to the next syllable: _lab-bro, mag-gio, ac-qua_. Apply the same rule if an apostrophe occurs in the middle of the word: _Sen-z'altro, quaran-t'anni_. In general an apostrophe may end a line if necessary, but in this case it may not, although it may be taken over along with the letter preceding it.

In the middle of a word, if the first consonant of a group is a liquid ( _l, m, n_ , or _r_ ) it remains with the preceding vowel, and the other consonant, or combination of consonants, goes with the succeeding vowel: _al-tero, ar-tigiano, tem-pra._

# 12.11 Japanese

Japanese is expressed and printed in ideographs of Chinese origin ( _kanji_ ), interspersed with an alphabet-based script ( _kana_ ), of which there are two versions: the _hiragana_ (the cursive form) is used for inflectional endings and words with grammatical significance, and the _katakana_ (the 'squared' form) is used for foreign loanwords and in Western names. Both vertical columns running right to left and horizontal left-to-right layout are used.

The most frequently used system of romanization uses the macron − to indicate long vowels; syllable-final _n_ is followed by an apostrophe before _e_ or _y_. The inclusion of macrons is optional in non-specialist works, and maybe omitted in well-established forms of place names, such as _Hokkaido, Honshu, Kobe, Kyoto, Kyushu, Osaka, Tokyo_.

# 12.12 Latin

## 12.12.1 Alphabet

The standard Latin alphabet consists of twenty-one letters, _A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X_ , plus two imports from Greek, _Y_ and _Z. A, E, O, Y_ are vowels. _I, V_ may be either vowels or consonants.

Early modern printers invented a distinction between vocalic _i, u_ and consonantal _j, v_ ; many scholars, especially when writing for general readers, still retain it with _u/v_ , distinguishing _solvit_ with two syllables from _coluit_ with three (also _volvit_ 'rolls/rolled' from _voluit_ 'willed'), but others prefer to use _V_ for the capital and _u_ for the lower case irrespective of value. (However, the numeral must be _v_ regardless of case.) By contrast, the use of _j_ is virtually obsolete except in legal and other stock phrases used in an English context, such as _de jure_.

In classical Latin the ligatures _œ, œ_ are found only as space-saving devices in inscriptions. They are found in post-classical manuscripts and in printed books down to the nineteenth century and occasionally beyond. They should not now be used unless a source containing them is to be reproduced exactly.

## 12.12.2 Accents

In modern usage Latin is normally written without accents. In classical Latin the _apex_ , resembling an acute, was sometimes used on long vowels other than _I_ , and until recently _ë_ was used to show that _ae_ and _oe_ did not form a diphthong: _aëris_ 'of air' (as opposed to _aeris_ 'of bronze/money'), _poëta_ 'poet'. Older practice used the circumflex on long vowels to resolve ambiguity: _mensâ_ ablative of _mensa_ 'table'; one may also find the grave accent on the final syllables of adverbs. In grammars and dictionaries vowels may be marked with the macron or the breve: _mēnsă_ nominative, _mēnsā_ ablative.

## 12.12.3 Capitalization

Classical Latin made no distinction between capital and lower case. In modern usage proper names and their derivatives are capitalized ( _Roma_ 'Rome', _Romanus_ , 'Roman', _Graece_ 'in Greek') except in verbs ( _graecissare_ 'speak Greek/live it up'); the first letter in a sentence may or may not be capitalized, that in a line of verse no longer so.

In titles of works, one may find (proper names apart) only the first word capitalized ( _De rerum natura, De imperio Cn. Pompei_ —Oxford's preference), first and main words ( _De Rerum Natura, De Imperio Cn. Pompei_ ), or main words only ( _de Rerum Natura, de Imperio Cn. Pompei_ ), even proper nouns only ( _de rerum natura, de imperio Cn. Pompei_ ). For the treatment of Latin titles within titles see 8.2.7.

## 12.12.4 Word division

A vowel may be divided from another ( _be-atus_ ) unless they form a diphthong, as do most instances of _ae, oe, ei, au_ , and _eu_. When _v_ is not used, the correct divisions with consonantal _u_ are _ama-uit, dele-uit_. Likewise, a consonantal _і_ is taken over ( _in-iustus_ ).

Take over _x_ between vowels ( _pro-ximus_ ). Any doubled consonants may be divided; except in _mn_ , the letters _l, m, n_ , and _r_ may be divided from a following consonant. Traditionally, any group capable of beginning a word in either Latin or Greek was not divided: for example _bl, br, ch, cl, cr, ct, dl, dr, gn, gu, mn, ph, pl, pr, ps, pt, qu, th, tl_ , and _tr_ (many of these are found in such English words as _ctenoid, gnomon, mnemonic, pneumonia, psychology_ , and _ptomaine_ ).

However, as in Greek, these rules should be subject to the overriding precept that prefixes and suffixes are separated and compounds divided into their parts. This requires knowledge of the language, as some common prefixes may have different forms in different contexts.

## 12.12.5 Numerals

Latin, of course, uses Roman numerals, which are described at 11.5. They should generally be set in small capitals. The letter _C_ was sometimes used in reversed form in numerals: 1Ɔ 500 (normally written as D), CIƆ 1,000 (otherwise written M) or ī, which unlike M was already used in antiquity.

# 12.13 Old and Middle English

## 12.13.1 Alphabet

Old English is the name given to the earliest stage of English, in use until around 1150. Middle English is the name given to the English of the period between Old and modern English, roughly 1150 to 1500.

Several special characters are (or have been) employed in the printing of both Old and Middle English texts:

• the **ash** ( _Æ, æ_ ), a character borrowed from the runic alphabet, pronounced approximately as in 'h _a_ t'. This character should be printed as a single sort, not two separate letters.

• the **eth** or **edh** ( _Ð, ð_ ), sometimes called a 'crossed _d_ '. This character is used indiscriminately for the voiced _th_ as in ' _th_ at' and the voiceless _th_ of ' _th_ in'.

• the **thorn** ( _Þ, þ_ ), a character borrowed from the runic alphabet, pronounced the same as eth. Authors and editors should ensure that the printer cannot mistake a thorn for a _p_ or a wyn (see below).

• the **wyn** or **wynn,** formerly called the **wen** ( _Ƿ, ƿ_ ), a character borrowed from the runic alphabet to represent the sound of _w_. It is now usual to substitute _w_ for the wyn of the manuscript, as it is easily confused with a thorn, though it may be distinguished by the absence of an ascender. Note that a printer may also mistake a wyn for a _p_.

• the **yogh** (Ȝ, ȝ), a Middle English letter used mainly where modern English has _gh_ and _y_. In Old English script the letter _g_ was written _ᵹ_ , so-called 'insular _g_ ', and pronounced, according to context, either hard (in the earlier period like Dutch _g_ (the voiced equivalent of the German _ach_ sound); in later Old English (like _g_ in _go_ ) or soft (like _y_ in _year_ ). In later manuscripts the 'Carolingian' _g_ is found; after the Norman Conquest the influence of French, in which the letter was pronounced either as in _go_ or as in _gentle_ , caused this to be used in Middle English for those sounds, but a developed form of the insular shape (Ȝ, ȝ) for specifically English values, including the voiceless spirant in _niȜt_ 'night' (still heard in Scots _nicht_ ); a combination of its two most characteristic sounds gave this character the name 'yogh'. Except in special circumstances, Old English _ᵹ_ is now represented by _g_ ; in Middle English the distinction between _g_ and yogh must be maintained; _Ȝ_ is to be used for yogh in all Middle English work. In some Middle English texts the same shape is also used for _z_. Note that a printer may mistake a yogh for a _g_ in one form or a 3 or _z_ in the other.

In printing Old and Middle English no attempt should be made to regularize the use of eth and thorn even in the same word; scribes used both letters at random. Whereas eth had died out by the end of the thirteenth century, thorn continued in use into the fifteenth century, and even later as the _у_ for _th_ of early Scots printing and in _ye_ or _y e_ used for _the_ and _yt, y t, yat_, for _that_ ; hence _Ye Olde_ was originally read _The Old_.

## 12.13.2 Punctuation

Except in specialized texts, normal modern English punctuation conventions should be applied to Old and Middle English. In manuscripts, editors should not attempt to regularize or correct individual punctuation marks, especially as these marks do not necessarily perform functions equivalent to those of their modern counterparts: in the Old English of the late tenth and eleventh centuries a semicolon was the strongest stop and a full point the weakest.

# 12.14 Portuguese

## 12.14.1 Introduction

Brazilian Portuguese differs considerably in spelling, pronunciation, and syntax from that of Portugal, far more so than US English differs from British English. Attempts to achieve agreement on spelling have not been very successful, and important differences in practice have been indicated below. In contrast to the case in English, differences of spelling and pronunciation generally go hand in hand.

## 12.14.2 Alphabet and spelling

The letters _k, w_ , and _y_ are used only in loanwords. Apart from _rr_ and _ss_ , double consonants are confined to European Portuguese: _acção_ 'action, share', _accionista_ 'shareholder', _comummente_ 'commonly', in Brazilian Portuguese _ação, acionista, comumente_. Several other consonant groups have been simplified in Brazilian Portuguese: _acto, amnistía, excepção, óptico, súbdito_ (= subject of a king), _subtil_ are _ato, anistia, exceção, ótico, súdito, sutil_.

In Brazilian Portuguese the numbers 16, 17, and 19 are spelled _dezesseis, dezessete, dezenove_ in contrast to European Portuguese _deza-_ ; 14 may be _quatorze_ beside _catorze_.

There are also many differences of vocabulary and idiom, such as frequent omission of the definite article after _todo_ 'every' and before possessives.

## 12.14.3 Accents

European Portuguese uses four written accents on vowels: acute, grave, circumflex, and tilde ( _til_ in Portuguese); Brazilian Portuguese also uses the diaeresis. The acute may be used on any vowel; the grave only on _a_ ; the circumflex on _a, e_ , and _o_ ; the tilde on _a_ and _o_. The diaeresis is used on _u_ between _q_ / _g_ and _e_ / _i_ to show that the vowel is pronounced separately.

Normal stress is unaccented; abnormal stress is accented. The rules of accentuation are complex, and cannot be fully described in a work of this type. Normal stress falls on the penultimate syllable in words ending in _-a, -am, -as, -e, -em, -ens, -es, -o, -os_ ; in all other cases (including words in _-ã_ ) the stress falls on the final syllable.

Note the use of the circumflex in words like _circunstância, paciência_ , and _cômputo_ , where _m_ or _n_ with a consonant follows the accented vowel. In Brazilian Portuguese the circumflex is also used when _m_ or _n_ is followed by a vowel: _Nêmesis, helênico, cômodo, sônico_. European Portuguese generally has an acute accent, so _Némesis, helénico, cómodo, sónico_. Thus we have _António_ in European Portuguese but _Antônio_ in Brazilian Portuguese; editors should ensure that any such names are correctly spelled according to their bearers' nationality.

## 12.14.4 Punctuation

The inverted question marks and exclamation marks which are characteristic of Spanish are not normally used in Portuguese.

## 12.14.5 Word division

Take over _ch, lh, nh_ , and _b, c, d, f, g, p, t, v_ followed by _l_ or _r_ ; divide _rr, ss_ , also _sc, sç_. Otherwise divide at obvious prefixes such as _auto-, extra-, supra-_ , etc. When a word is divided at a pre-existing hyphen, repeat the hyphen at the beginning of the next line: _dar-lho_ is divided _dar- -lho_.

# 12.15 Russian

## 12.15.1 Alphabet and transliteration

Russian is one of the six Slavonic languages written in Cyrillic script (see **Slavonic languages** at 12.17 for a list of the others). Table 12.7 includes 'upright' ( _pryamoĭ_ ) and 'cursivǐ' ( _kursiv_ ) forms and also a transliteration in accordance with the 'British System' as given in British Standard 2979 (1958). For a brief discussion of the problems of transliteration see 12.17.1.

## 12.15.2 Abbreviations

One of the distinctive aspects of non-literary texts of the Soviet period was the extensive use of abbreviations, used to a far lesser extent in the post-Soviet language.

In lower-case abbreviations with full points, any spaces in the original should be kept, for example и т. д., и пр., but с.-д. Abbreviations by contraction, such as д-р, have no points. Abbreviations with a solidus are typically used in abbreviations of unhyphenated compound words.

Table 12.7 **Russian alphabet**

Abbreviations consisting of capital initial letters, such as _OOO_ ('Ltd'), are set close without internal or final points. Commonly used lowercase abbreviations that are pronounced syllabically and declined, for example вуз, are not set with points.

Abbreviations for metric and other units are usually set in cursive and are not followed by a full point; abbreviated qualifying adjectives do have the full point, however (5 _кB. кM_ etc.).

## 12.15.3 Capitalization

Capital initial letters are in general rarer in Russian than in English. Capitalize personal names, but use lower-case initial letters for nouns and adjectives formed from them:

тротскист 'Trotskyite'  | марксизм 'Marxism'
---|---

and for nationalities, names of nationals, and inhabitants of towns:

татарин 'Tartar'  | англичанин Englishman'
---|---

Ranks, titles, etc. are also lower case:

святой Николай 'Saint Nicholas'

князь Оболенский 'Prince Obolensky'

Each word in names of countries takes a capital:

Соединённые Штаты Америки 'United States of America'

Adjectives formed from geographical names are lower case except when they form part of a proper noun or the name of an institution:

европейские государства 'European states'

but

Архангельские воздушные линии 'Archangel Airlines'

Geographical terms forming part of the name of an area or place are lower case:

остров Рудольфа 'Rudolph Island'  | Северный полюс 'the North Pole'
---|---

Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns in titles of organizations and institutions, and of literary and musical works, newspapers, and journals.

Days of the week and names of the months are lower case, but note Первое мая and 1-е Мая for the May Day holiday.

The pronoun of the first-person singular, я = I, is lower case (except, of course, when used at the beginning of a sentence).

## 12.15.4 Punctuation

### Hyphen

The hyphen is used in nouns consisting of two elements:

интернет-сайт 'website'

вице-спикер Думы 'The Deputy Speaker of the Duma'

It is also used in compound place names, Russian or foreign, consisting of separable words.

### Dash

En rules are not used in Russian typography; em rules set close up take their place. Spaced em rules are much used in Russian texts; they may indicate that a word needs to be understood, or represent the rarely used present tense of быть 'to be'.

линия Москва — Киев 'the Moscow–Kiev line'

Иван играет на рояле, а Людмила — на скрипке 'Ivan plays the piano, Lyudmila the violin':

Волга — самая большая река в Европе 'the Volga is the longest European river'

Dashes are also used to introduce direct speech.

### Quotation marks

Guillemets, set close, are used to indicate direct speech and special word usage and with titles of literary works, journals, etc.

## 12.15.5 Word division

Russian syllables end in a vowel, and word division is basically syllabic. However, there are many exceptions to this generalization, most of which are connected with Russian word formation. Consonant groups may be taken over entire or divided where convenient (provided at least one consonant is taken over), subject to the following rules.

• Do not separate a consonant from the prefix, root, or suffix of which it forms a part: род | ной, под|бежать, мещан |ство are correct divisions. Divide between double consonants (клас|сами), except where this conflicts with the preceding rule (класс |ный).

• Do not leave at the end of a line—or carry over—a single letter, or two or more consonants without a vowel: к|руглый, ст|рела, жидко|сть are incorrect. The letters ъ, ь, and й should never be separated from the letter preceding them (подъ|езд).

## 12.15.6 Numerals

Arabic numerals are used. Numbers from 10,000 upwards are divided off into thousands by thin spaces, and not by commas ( _26 453_ ); below 10,000 they are set closed up ( _9999_ ). The decimal comma is used in place of the decimal point ( _0,36578_ ). Ordinal numbers are followed by a contracted adjectival termination except when they are used in dates (5-й год but 7 ноября 1917 г.).

# 12.16 Scandinavian languages

## 12.16.1 Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish

### Forms of Norwegian

Norway, which until the middle of the nineteenth century used Danish as its literary language, now has two written languages: **bokmål** (also called **riksmål),** a modified form of Danish, and **nynorsk** (also called **landsmål),** a reconstruction of what Norwegian might have been but for the imposition of Danish. Each of these has several variants, and the only safe rule for the non-expert is to assume that all inconsistencies are correct.

### Alphabets and accents

Modern **Danish** and **Norwegian** have identical alphabets, the twenty-six letters of the English alphabet being followed by _æ, ø, å_ ; in their place **Swedish** has _å, ä, ö_. The letter _å_ , found in Swedish since the sixteenth century, was adopted in Norway in 1907, and in Denmark in 1948; previously these languages used _aa_ (cap. _Aa_ ).

Acute accents are found in loanwords and numerous Swedish surnames, and occasionally for clarity, for example Danish _én_ 'one', neuter _ét_ (also _een, eet_ ) as against indefinite article _en, et_. The grave accent is sometimes used in Norwegian to distinguish emphatic forms.

### Capitalization

Until 1948 Danish nouns were capitalized as in German, a practice also found in nineteenth-century Norwegian. All the languages now tend to favour lower-case forms, for example for days, months, festivals, and historical events. This also applies to book titles; but periodical and series titles are legally deposited names, complete with any capitals they may have.

Institutional names are often given capitals for only the first word and the last; but in Danish and Norwegian some names begin with the independent definite article, which then must always be included and capitalized, _Den, Det, De_ (= _Dei_ in Nynorsk).

Capitalize the polite form of the second person in Danish and Norwegian: _De, Dem, Deres_ (Nynorsk: _De, Dykk, Dykkar_ ). In Danish capitalize also the familiar second person plural, _I_ , to distinguish it from _і_ ('in').

### Word division

Compounds are divided into their constituent parts, including prefixes and suffixes. In Danish take over _sk, sp, st_ , and combinations of three or more consonants that may begin a word (including _skj, spj_ ). In Norwegian or Swedish take over only the last letter; _ng_ representing a single sound is kept back, and in Swedish _x_ ; other groups that represent a single sound are taken over (Norwegian _gj, kj, sj, skj_ , Swedish _sk_ before _e, i, y, ä, ö_ ). In Swedish compounds three identical consonants are reduced to two, but the third is restored when the word is broken: _rättrogen_ ('orthodox'), divided _rätt|trogen_.

## 12.16.2 Icelandic and Faeroese

### Alphabets and accents

In both languages the letter _d_ is followed by _ð_. Icelandic alphabetization has _þ, æ, ö_ after _z_ ; Faeroese has _œ, ø_. The vowels _a, e, i, o, u, y_ may all take an acute accent. Icelandic uses _x_ , Faeroese _ks_ ; the Icelandic _þ_ corresponds to the Faeroese _t_.

### Capitalization

Icelandic capitalization is minimal, for proper nouns only. In institutional names only the initial article (masculine _Hinn_ , feminine _Hin_ , neuter _Hið_ ) should be capitalized. Faeroese follows Danish practice, though polite pronouns are not capitalized.

# 12.17 Slavonic languages

## 12.17.1 Scripts and transliteration

Of the Slavonic languages Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, Bulgarian, and Macedonian are written in the Cyrillic alphabet, Polish, Czech, Slovak, Sorbían, Croatian, Bosnian, and Slovene in the Latin. At the time of writing Serbian is written in either.

See 12.15.1 and Table 12.7 for details of the Cyrillic alphabet. The extra sorts called for by the languages other than Russian that use Cyrillic are Belarusian _і_ (= _і_ ) and _y̆_ ( _= w_ ); Macedonian ѓ (= _ǵ_ ), s (= _dz_ ), _j_ ( _= j_ ), Љ (= _lj_ ), Њ, (= _nj_ ), Ќ (= _ḱ_ ), and џ (= _dž_ ); Serbian Ђ, ђ (= đ), j ( _=j_ ), Љ (= _lj_ ), Њ, (= _nj_ ), Ћ, ћ (= _ć_ ), and џ (= _dž_ ); and Ukrainian ґ (= _g_ ), є (= _ye_ ), _i_ (= _i_ ), and _ï_ ( _= yi_ ). In some Macedonian and Serbian fonts cursive _г, n_ , and _m_ are in the form of superior-barred cursive _ī, ū_ , and _ɯ̄_ respectively.

Transliteration systems are largely similar for those languages written in Cyrillic, but at the time of writing there is still no internationally agreed, unitary system. Of the three currently most favoured systems, the ALA-Library of Congress, International Scholarly, and British, the ALA-LC system seems to be gaining ground because of its increasing use in national and academic libraries, spurred on by developments in information technology and standardized, machine-readable cataloguing systems.

Wherever possible, adhere to a single transliteration system throughout a single work. In texts using transliterated Russian, as well as Belarusian, Bulgarian, and Ukrainian, authors and editors should avoid mixing, for example, the usual British _ya, yo, yu_ , the Library of Congress _ia, io, iu_ , and the philological _ja, jo, ju_. (Note that the transliteration of Serbian and Macedonian operates according to different rules.)

## 12.17.2 Belarusian

In standard transliteration of Belarusian (also called Belorussian), the diacritics _ǐ, й, è_ (or _ė, é_ ), and ʹ (soft sign) are used. In specialist texts, the philological system requires _č, ë, š, ž_. The Library of Congress system requires ligatured _i͡a, i͡o, i͡u, z͡h_ In practice the ligature is often omitted, as many non-specialist typesetters have difficulty reproducing it; this is the case for all languages that employ this system.

## 12.17.3 Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian

Linguistic nomenclature in the former Yugoslavia is still very contentious. Serbo-Croat was the main official language of Yugoslavia: although the term Serbo-Croat is still used by some linguists in Serbia and Bosnia–Herzegovina, the ISO has assigned codes to Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. Oversimplifying, Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) in Bosnia–Herzegovina use Bosnian, Croats in Croatia and Bosnia–Herzegovina use Croat, while Serbs in Serbia and Montenegro and in Bosnia–Herzegovina use Serbian.

The Roman alphabet used for Bosnian and Croatian is the standard _latinica_ that is to be used for transliterating Serbian even for lay readers: thus четници will be _četnici_ not _chetnitsi_.

The Cyrillic alphabet is ordered а б в г д ђ е ж з и ј к л љ м н њ о п р с т ħ у ф х ц ч џ ш; both in transliterated Serbian and in Croatian, the _latinica_ order is a b c č ć d dž đ e f g h i j k l lj m n nj o p r s š t u v z ž.

Diacritics for transliterated Serbian are _ć, č, š, ž_ ; special characters are _Đ đ_.

## 12.17.4 Bulgarian

The ALA-LC system of transliteration uses the diacritics _ǐ, й_ , and the letter combinations _zh, kh, eh, sh, sht_. It also requires the ligatures _i͡a, i͡u, t͡s_ The philological system requires _č, š, ž_.

## 12.17.5 Czech and Slovak

Czech and Slovak are written using the Roman alphabet, which in Czech is a á b c č d ď e é ě f g h ch i í j k l m n ň o ó p r ř s š t ť u ú ů v y ý z ž; in alphabetizing, ignore accents on vowels and on _d, n_ , and _t_. The Slovak alphabet is a á ä b c č d ď e é f g h ch i í j k l ĺ ľ m n ň o ó ôp r ŕ s š t ť u ú v y ý z ž; in alphabetizing, ignore acute, circumflex, and accents on _d, l, n, r_ , and _t_.

The diacritics used in Czech are _á, é, í, ó, ú, ý, ů, č, ď, ě, ň, ř, š, ť, ž_. The palatalization of _d, t_ is always indicated by a háček in upper case ( _Ď, Ť_ ) and in lower case either by a háček ( _ď, ť_ ) or—preferably—a high comma right ( _d', t'_ ). Slovak uses the diacritics _ä, á, é, í, ĺ, ó, ŕ, ú, ý, ô, č, d', l', ň_ , _š, t', ž_. The palatalization of _d_ and _t_ is the same as for Czech; that for the Slovak _l_ can be either a háček or high comma right in upper case ( _Ľ, L'_ ) and a high comma right in lower case ( _l_ ').

## 12.17.6 Macedonian

Macedonian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, with a transliteration system similar to that used for Serbian. The diacritics used are _ǵ, ḱ, č, š, ž_ , and the apostrophe; the letter combinations _lj, nj, dž_ should not be broken in word division.

## 12.17.7 Old Church Slavonic

Also called Old Bulgarian, Old Church Slavonic was written in the Cyrillic alphabet as well as the older Glagolitic alphabet. The regional variants that developed from it are known collectively as Church Slavonic.

The diacritics and ligatures used in the Library of Congress's transliteration of Church Slavonic are _ǵ, ḟ, v, ẏ, ż, ě_ ,   (with ogonek or right-facing hook on _e, o_ ), _o͡t, ē, ī, ō, ū, ȳ, ǐ, ę, ǫ_ (ogonek). In Russian Church Slavonic, _ja_ / _ya_ / _ia_ may correspond to _ę_ and _i͡ę, u_ to _ǫ_ , and _ju_ / _yu_ / _iu_ to _i͡ǫ_. The philological system uses _č, š, ž_. Special characters are ′ (soft sign), ″ (hard sign).

## 12.17.8 Polish

Polish is written in the Roman alphabet, as in English without _q, v_ , and _x_. It employs the diacritics _ć, ń, ó, ś, ź, ż_ , and _Ą, ą, Ę, ę_ (ogonek, hook right); in addition there is one special character, the crossed (or Polish) _l_ ( _Ł ł_ ).

Alphabetical order is: a ą b c ć d e ę f g h i j k l ł m n ń o ó p r s ś t u w y z ź ż. The digraphs _ch, cz, dz, dź, dż, rz_ , and _sz_ are not considered single letters of the alphabet for ordering purposes; however, these letter combinations should not be separated in dividing words.

## 12.17.9 Slovene

Slovene (also called Slovenian) is written in the Roman alphabet and uses the háček on _č, š, ž_ ; the digraph _dž_ is not considered a single letter.

## 12.17.10 Ukrainian

The philological system requires _č, š, ž, ĭ, ï, ′_ (soft sign), and the letter combinations _je, šč, ju, ja_. The Library of Congress system requires ligatured _i͡a, i͡e, i͡u, z͡h_ as with Belarusian, the ligature is often omitted. The Ukrainian и is transliterated as _y_ , not _і_ (which represents Ukrainian _і_ ).

# 12.18 Spanish

## 12.18.1 Introduction

The Spanish used in Spain and the Spanish spoken in Latin America are mutually intelligible in much the same way that American and British English are. However, there are important differences in vocabulary and usage both between Spain and Latin America and among the Latin American countries—it is a mistake to think that Latin American Spanish is a uniform variant of the language.

## 12.18.2 Alphabet and spelling

In older works _ch_ and _ll_ were treated as separate letters for alphabetical purposes, but this is now very dated. The letter _Ñ, ñ_ is treated as a separate letter. The letters _k_ and _w_ are used only in loanwords from other languages and their derivatives.

The only doubled consonants in Spanish are _cc_ before _e_ or _i, rr, ll_ , and _nn_ in compounds. They can be remembered as the consonants appearing in CaRoLiNe. Where an English speaker might expect a double consonant, Spanish normally simply has one, as in _posible_ 'possible'.

## 12.18.3 Accents

Normal stress in Spanish falls on either the penultimate or the last syllable, according to complex rules. Normal stress is not indicated by an accent; an acute accent is used when the rules for normal stress are broken. The only other diacritical marks used are the tilde on the _ñ_ , and the diaeresis on _ü_ , following _g_ before _e_ or _i_ , where _u_ forms a diphthong with _e_ or _i_. Accents are normally used on capitals.

The accent is used to show interrogative and exclamatory use in the following words:

_cuál_ 'what', 'which'  | _cómo_ 'how'  | _cuándo_ 'when'
---|---|---
_cuánto_ 'how many/much'  | _dónde_ 'when'  | _qué_ 'what'
_quién_ 'who'  |  |

The accented forms are used in indirect questions. In 1959 the Real Academia decreed that, except in ambiguous cases, the accent is not needed on demonstrative pronouns _este_ ('this one'), _ese_ ('that one'), _aquel_ ('that one, further away') with their feminine equivalents, _esta, esa, aquella,_ and plurals _estos_ / _estas, esos_ / _esas, aquellos, laquellas_. This ruling is not universally accepted, however, and both conventions will be found. The neuter forms _esto, eso, aquello_ are never accented.

## 12.18.4 Capitalization

Capitals are used in much the same way as in English in proper names. Practice differs in titles of books, poems, plays, and articles, where normally the first word and proper nouns are capitalized:

_Cien años de soledad_

_La deshumanización del arte_

_Doña Rosita la soltera, o El lenguaje de las flores_

_El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha_.

Capitalize names of high political or religious authorities—when not followed by their first name—and references to God:

butRoman numerals indicating centuries are generally given in full capitals: _el sigh XI_.

_el rey Carlos III_ | _el papa Juan XXIII_
---|---

Lower case is usually used for names of posts and titles:

This may include non-Spanish titles such as _sir_ or _lord_ : _el embajador británico sir Derek Plumbly_.

Also written in lower case are:

• nouns and adjectives denoting nationalities, religions, and peoples and ethnic groups: _francés/francesa, católico/-a, dominicano/-a, asiático/-a, amerindio/-a_

• names of artistic and literary movements: _romanticismo, gótico, surrealismo_

• names of streets and roads: _calle de Hortaleza, avenida de Navarra, puente de Santiago_ ; but _la Gran Via_

• names of administrative divisions and geographical features, and cardinal points when they are not part of a name: _provincia de Toledo, estado de Nueva York, condado de Lancashire, cordillera de los Andes, lago Titicaca, el sur de Francia_.

Traditionally names of the days of the week, months, and seasons take a lower-case initial letter, but the use of capitals for these words is now very common and cannot be assumed to be a mistake.

## 12.18.5 Punctuation

The most obvious differences from other European languages are the inverted exclamation mark and question mark inserted at the place where the exclamation or question begins:

_¡Mire!_ 'Look!'  | _¿Dónde vas?_ | 'Where are you going?'
---|---|---

This need not be the start of the sentence:

_Si ganases el Gordo, ¿qué harías?_ 'If you won the jackpot what would you do?'

Quotation marks take the form of guillemets (called _comillas_ ), set closed up (e.g. _«¡Hola!»_ ). However, it is more common—especially in fiction—to dispense with _comillas_ altogether and indicate speakers by a dash.

Colons are used before quotations ( _Dijo el alcalde: «Que comience la fiesta.»_ ), in letters ( _Querido Pablo:_ ), and before an enumeration ( _Trajeron de todo: cuchillos, cucharas, sartenes, etc_.). Points of suspension are set closed up with space following but not preceding them.

## 12.18.6 Word division

The general rule is that a consonant between two vowels and the second of two consonants must be taken over to the next line. The combinations _ch, ll_ , and _rr_ are indivisible and must be taken over: _mu-chacho, arti-llería, pe-rro_.

The consonants _b, c, f, g, p_ followed by _l_ or _r_ must be taken over as a pair: _ha-blar_ 'to speak', _ju-glar_ 'minstrel'; so must _dr_ and _tr_ , as in _ma-drugada_ 'dawn', _pa-tria_ 'fatherland'.

The letter _s_ must be divided from any following consonant: _Is-lam, hués-ped_ 'guest, host', _Is-rael, cris-tiano_ ; similarly _Es-teban_ 'Stephen', _es-trella_ 'star', even in a compound ( _ins-tar_ 'to urge', _ins-piractión_ ).

Divide compounds into their component parts, except where they contain _s_ \+ consonant or _rr_ ( _des-hacer_ 'to undo', _sub-lunar_ , but _circuns-tancia, co-rregir_ 'to correct', _inte-rrumpir_ 'to interrupt'). Never divide diphthongs and triphthongs; if possible, avoid dividing between vowels at all.

# 12.19 Welsh

## 12.19.1 Alphabet and accents

The Welsh alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, alphabetized as _a b c ch d dd e f ff g ng h i j l ll m n o p ph r rh s t th u w y_. The letters _k_ and _v_ are very frequent in medieval texts but are now obsolete.

_Rh_ counts as a separate letter at the start of a word or syllable only, i.e. after a consonant but not a vowel: _route_ comes before _rhad_ 'cheap', _cynrychioli_ 'to represent' before _cynrhon_ 'maggots', but _arholi_ 'to examine' before _arian_ 'money'; _w_ is usually, _у_ always, a vowel.

All vowels (including _w_ and _y_ ) may take a circumflex. Acute, grave, and diaeresis are also found: most frequent are _á_ in final syllables ( _casáu_ 'to hate') and _ï_ before a vowel ( _copïo_ 'to copy'). The letter with the diaeresis always precedes or follows another vowel.

A word consisting of an apostrophe followed by a single letter must be set close up to the preceding word:

_cerddai'r bachgen a'i fam i'ch pentref_ , 'the boy and his mother used to walk to your village'

## 12.19.2 Word division

Do not divide the digraphs _ch, dd, ff, ll, ph, rh, th_. Note that _ng_ is indivisible when a single letter, but not when it represents _n + g_ : this happens most frequently in the verb _dangos_ 'to show' and its derivatives, compounds ending in _-garwch_ or _-garwr_ (e.g. _ariangarwr_ 'money-lover'), place names beginning with _Llan-_ ( _Llangefni, Llangollen_ ), and in _Bangor_. Thus _cyng-aneddol_ but _dan-gosol_.

Do not divide _ae, ai, au, aw, ayw, ei, eu, ew, ey, iw, oe, oi, ou, ow, oyw, wy, yw_ , and other combinations beginning with _і_ and with _w_ when this letter is a consonant. The presence of a circumflex or an acute does not affect word division, but it is legitimate to divide after a vowel bearing the diaeresis, as also after a diphthong or triphthong before another vowel. Thus _barddoï-aidd_ 'bardic', _gloyw-ach_ 'brighter', _ieu-anc_ 'young'.

Generally, take back a single consonant other than _h_ , except after a prefix (especially _di-, go-, tra-_ ): _g-l_ but _s-gl_ (and so similar groups). A suffix beginning with _і_ plus a vowel must be broken off: _casgl-iad_ 'collection'.

It is always safe to divide _l-rh, ng-h, m-h, п-h_ (but _n-nh_ ), _n-п, n-rh, r-r_ , and after a vowel _r-h_. Initial _gwl-, gwn-, gwr-_ , and their mutated forms must not be divided, since the _w_ is consonantal: _gwlad_ 'country', ( _hen_ ) _wlad_ '(old) country', _gwneud_ 'to do', ( _ei_ ) _wneud_ 'to do (it)'. _Gwraig_ 'woman', ( _y_ ) _wraig_ '(the) woman', cannot be divided.

## 12.19.3 Mutations and other changes

As in Irish Gaelic, initial consonants are replaced in certain grammatical contexts by others in a process called **mutation:** _cath_ ('cat') but _fy nghath_ ('my cat'), _ei gath_ ('his cat', _ei chath_ ('her cat'). _Caerdydd_ (Cardiff), _Dinbych_ (Denbigh), _Gwent_ give _i Gaerdydd_ ('to Cardiff'), _yng Nghaerdydd_ ('in Cardiff'), _і Ddinbych_ ('to Denbigh'), _yn Ninbych_ (' _in Denbigh_ '); _i Went_ ('to Gwent'), _yng Ngwent_ ('in Gwent'). 'Oxford' is _Rhydychen_ , but 'from Oxford' is _o Rydychen_. The full range of mutations is _b_ to _f_ or _m_ ; _c_ to _ch, g_ , or _ngh_ ; _d_ to _dd_ or _n_ ; _g_ to zero or _ng_ ; _ll_ to _l; m_ to _f_ ; _p_ to _b, mh_ , or _ph_ ; _rh_ to _r_ ; _t_ to _d, nh_ , or _th_.

Initial vowels may acquire a preliminary _h_ ( _offer_ 'tools', _ein hoffer_ 'our tools') and changes of stress within a word may cause _h_ to appear or disappear and double _n_ or _r_ to be simplified:

_brenin_ 'king'  | _brenhinoedd_ 'kings'
---|---
_brenhines_ 'queen'  | _breninesau_ 'queens'
_corrach_ 'dwarf'  | _corachod_ 'dwarfs'
_cynneddf_ 'faculty'  | _cyneddfau_ 'faculties'
_cynnin_ 'shred'  | _cynhinion_ 'shreds'
_dihareb_ 'proverb'  | _diarhebion_ 'proverbs'

# 12.20 Yiddish

Yiddish originated in German as spoken by Jews; since the later eighteenth century it has been based on dialects spoken to the east of Germany proper. It is written in an adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet, with extra characters for use in writing the basic German-derived vocabulary, and loanwords taken from surrounding (mostly Slavonic) languages; several other letters are used only in words taken from Hebrew and Aramaic, which are spelled as in their languages of origin.

# CHAPTER 13

#  Law and legal references

# 13.1 Introduction

Often the standards adopted in the legal discipline are at variance with those of other subjects. Additionally, practices common in one aspect of the law may be unfamiliar in another. However, there is no reason why the following general guidelines cannot be applied across a broad range of legal studies. Given the variety of legal citations in use, this section cannot purport to be wholly definitive, nor to resolve every stylistic point that may occur. Options are given for those aspects of citation on which there is no widespread consensus.

# 13.2 Typography

## 13.2.1 Italics

Law uses more foreign—particularly Latin—words than many other subjects. For that reason law publishers may deviate from the usage of general reference works when determining which words and phrases to italicize. Only a handful of foreign-language law terms have become so common in English that they are set as roman in general use. Some publishers use this as a basis for determining styles: the well-known 'inter alia' and 'prima facie' are in roman, for example, but _de jure_ and _stare decisis_ are in italic. Others prefer to set all Latin words and phrases in italic, rather than appear inconsistent to readers immersed in the subject, for whom all the terms are familiar. Regardless of which policy is followed, words to be printed in roman rather than italic include the accepted abbreviations of _ratio decidendi_ and _obiter dictum_ / _dicta_ : 'ratio', 'obiter', 'dictum', and 'dicta'.

Traditionally, the names of the parties in case names are cited in italics, separated by an italic or roman 'v.' (for 'versus'): _Smith_ v. _Jones_. The 'v.' may have a full point: any style is acceptable if consistently applied.

## 13.2.2 Abbreviations

There are four possibilities regarding the use of full points in abbreviations:

• there should be no points at all, or no points only in legal abbreviations

• all points should be put in ('Q.B.D.')

• points should be in abbreviations of fewer than three letters ('A.C.')

• points should not appear between or after capitals, but should appear after abbreviations that consist of a mixture of upper- and lower-case letters ('Ont. LJ', 'Ch. D' but 'QBD', 'AC').

References, especially familiar ones, and common legal terms (paragraph, section), may be abbreviated in the text as well as in notes, but all other matter should be set out in full. Where a term is repeated frequently and is unwieldy when spelled out, such as 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', then refer to it at first mention in full, with '(ICCPR)' following it, and thereafter simply as 'ICCPR'. Be careful that the abbreviations chosen do not confuse institutions with conventions (for example, use 'ECHR' for 'European Convention on Human Rights' and 'ECtHR' for 'European Court of Human Rights'). Both the Court of Justice of the European Union and the European Court of Human Rights are frequently referred to as 'the European Court': the European Court of Human Rights should always be referred to in full, unless the text in question is specifically about human rights and there is no possibility of confusion.

In cases, use 'Re' rather than 'In re', 'In the matter of', etc. Abbreviate _ex parte_ to _ex p_ , with the letter _e_ capitalized when it appears at the beginning of a case name but in lower case elsewhere:

_R_ v. _Acton Magistrates, ex p. McMullen_

When citing a law report, generally do not include expressions such as 'and another' or 'and others' that may appear in the title, but use 'and anor', or 'and ors' in cases such as ' _Re P and ors_ ( _minors_ )' to avoid the appearance of error. To avoid unnecessary repetition, shorten citations in the text following an initial use of the full name: 'in _Glebe Motors plc v Dixon-Greene_ ' could subsequently be shortened to 'in the _Glebe Motors_ case'. In criminal cases it is acceptable to abbreviate 'in _R v Caldwell_ ' to 'in _Caldwell_ '. Where a principle is known by the case from which it emerged, the name may no longer be italicized: for example, 'the Wednesbury principle'.

Law notes tend to be fairly lengthy, so anything that can be abbreviated should be. Thus 'HL', 'CA', etc. are perfectly permissible, as are 's', 'Art', 'Reg', 'Dir', %, all figures, 'High Ct', 'Sup Ct', 'PC', 'Fam Div', etc., even in narrative notes.

## 13.2.3 Capitalization

Capitalize 'Act', even in a non-specific reference; 'bill' is lower case except in the name of a specific bill. Unless it is beginning a sentence, 'section' always has a lower-case initial. 'Article' should be capitalized when it refers to supranational legislation (conventions, treaties, etc.) and lower case when it refers to national legislation.

'Court' with a capital should be used only when referring to international courts such as the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the International Court of Justice, or for relating information specific to a single court. For instance, in a book about the Court of Appeal, Criminal Division, that court may be referred to as 'the Court' throughout. It is a common shorthand convention in US law to refer to the Supreme Court as 'the Court' and to a lesser court as 'the court'.

A capital may also be used in transcripts where a court is talking about itself, but not necessarily where it refers to itself in a different composition. Thus members of a Court of Appeal would refer to 'a judgment of the Court' when citing a previous judgment by themselves, but to 'that court' when referring to a Court of Appeal composed of others. Where, however, the reference is to a court in general, the _c_ should always be lower case. For spelling of 'judgment' in legal contexts, see 13.8.

The word 'judge' should always begin with a lower-case letter, unless it is referring to a specific person's title or the author has contrasted the Single Judge with the Full Court (as in criminal appeals and judicial review proceedings), where they both have specific parts to play and almost constitute separate courts in themselves.

# 13.3 References

The names of books and non-law journals and reports should be in italic, following the standard format (see Chapter 8). Abbreviated references to reports and reviews should be in roman—in text, references, and lists of abbreviations. Full names of law journals and reports are in roman in Oxford style (e.g. Solicitors Journal), the reference following the date. Some publishers style the full name in italics but even here the abbreviated form is always roman: _All England Reports_ but All ER.

References to journals, reports, or reviews should be cited with the date and volume number first, followed by the abbreviation of the report or review name, and then—without a comma in between—the page number. Where a specific page within an article is referred to, the initial page number should be followed by a comma plus the specific page number, or no comma and 'at' followed by the specific page number (choose one style or the other and use it consistently).

P Birks, 'The English Recognition of Unjust Enrichment' [1991] LMCLQ 473, 490–2

SC Manon, 'Rights of Water Abstraction in the Common Law' (1965) 83 LQR 47 at 49–51

Some legal writers cite others' works without a place of publication, or without first names or initials, for example 'Smith & Hogan _Criminal Law_ (13th edn, 2011)'. This is an established convention in at least parts of the discipline, the expectation being that the work will be read by those who are already immersed in the relevant texts. However, editors should not impose it, and if the expected readership is more general or more elementary (as in an undergraduate or introductory text), full references must be given.

Certain textbooks have been accorded such eminence that in references the name of the original author appears in italics as part of the title, for example _Chitty on Contracts_ and _Dicey and Morris on Conflict of Laws_. In full references it is not necessary to give the name of the current editor, although the edition number and the date of that edition must be stated.

Abbreviate only titles of well-known books, journals, or reports (for example Smith & Hogan, the NLJ); all others should appear in full. Variations exist in the way that many periodicals are abbreviated or punctuated. Providing authors are consistent, such variations are acceptable; in works for non-specialists, readers may benefit from expanded versions of very terse abbreviations.

Setting all abbreviated titles in roman does leave some pitfalls, of which one must be wary: 'CMLR', for instance, refers to Common Market Law Reports (which publishes only reports and never articles), while 'CMLRev' refers to Common Market Law Review. Unfortunately, where authors cite the latter as the former the only indication of the error is that the reference is to an article.

If a book, journal, report, or series is referred to very frequently in a particular work, certain common abbreviations (such as 'Crim', 'Eur', 'Intl', 'J', 'L', 'Q', 'R', 'Rev', 'U', 'Ybk') may be used; give them in full at their first occurrence but abbreviated thereafter, and include in the List of Abbreviations.

# 13.4 Citing cases

## 13.4.1 General principles

Where a specific page within a report is referred to, the initial page number should be followed by a comma plus the specific page number, or no comma and 'at' followed by the specific page number: the decision is a matter of personal choice but should be applied consistently throughout a particular work:

_Ridge v Baldwin_ [1964] AC 40, 78–9

or

... [1964] AC 40 at 78–9

In reports a date is in square brackets if it is essential for finding the report, and in parentheses where there are cumulative volume numbers, the date merely illustrating when a case was included in the reports:

_R v Lambert_ [2001] 2 WLR 211 (QBD)

_Badische v Soda-Fabrics_ (1897) 14 RPC 919 (HL)

No brackets are used in cases from the Scottish Series of Session Cases from 1907 onwards, and Justiciary Cases from 1917 onwards, but instead the case name is followed by a comma:

_Hughes v Stewart_ , 1907 SC 791

_Corcoran v HM Advocate_ , 1932 JC 42

It is usual to refer to Justiciary Cases (criminal cases before the High Court of Justiciary) simply by the name of the panel (or accused).

In US, South African, and some Canadian cases the date falls at the end of the reference:

_Michael v Johnson_ , 426 US 346 (1976)

Quote extracts from cases exactly. Do not amend to improve the sense, and clearly indicate if you correct obvious errors. Omitted text should be indicated by ellipses.

### Neutral citations

Since 2001 most UK cases have been given a neutral citation, which is the official number attributed to the judgment by the court. Give the neutral citation first, followed by a citation of the best report (see 13.4.3):

_R v G_ [2003] UKHL 50, [2004] 1 AC 1034

To cite a specific paragraph of a judgment, enclose the paragraph number in square brackets:

_R v G_ [2003] UKHL 50 at [13]

## 13.4.2 Unreported

Cite a newspaper report if there is no other published report. The reference should not be abbreviated or italicized:

_Powick v Malvern Wells Water Co_., The Times, 28 September 1993

When a case has not (yet) been reported and there is no neutral citation, cite just the name of the court and the date of the judgment. The word 'unreported' should not be used:

_R v Marianishi, ex p London Borough of Camden_ (CA, 13 April 1965)

Unreported EU cases are handled differently (see 13.4.4 below).

## 13.4.3 Courts of decision

Unless the case has a neutral citation, was heard in the High Court or was reported in a series that covers the decisions of only one court, the court of decision should be indicated by initials at the end of the reference:

_Blay v Pollard_ [1930] 1 AC 628, HL

_Bowman v Fussy_ [1978] RPC 545, HL

_Re Bourne_ [1978] 2 Ch 43

References to unreported cases, however, should be made in parentheses to the court of decision first (even if it is an inferior court), followed by the date. Reference is not normally made to the deciding judge (for example ' _per_ Ferris J'), except when wishing to specify him or her when quoting from a Court of Appeal or House of Lords decision.

Where a case has been included in a report long after it was heard, both the report and hearing dates may be included in the citation so the reader knows there has been no error:

_Smith v Jones_ [2001] (1948) 2 All ER 431

A single 'best' reference should be given for each case cited. For UK cases, the reference should be to the official Law Reports; if the case has not been reported there, the Weekly Law Reports (WLR) are preferred, and failing that the All England Reports (All ER). In certain specialist areas it will be necessary to refer to the relevant specialist series, for example Family Law Reports and Industrial Cases Reports.

## 13.4.4 European Union

Where it is available, cite a reference to the official reports of the EU, the European Court Reports (ECR), in preference to other reports. If an ECR reference is not available, the second-best reference will usually be to the Common Market Law Reports (CMLR). However, where a case is reported by the (UK) official Law Reports, the WLR, or the All ER, that may be cited in preference to CMLR, particularly if readers may not have ready access to CMLR. If the case is not yet reported it should be cited with a reference to the relevant notice in the _Official Journal_.

The case number should always be given before the name of a case in the Court of Justice of the European Union (which consists of the Court of Justice, the General Court (formerly the Court of First Instance), and the Civil Service Tribunal):

Case C-118/07 _Commission of the European Communities v Finland_ [2009] ECR I-10889

Treat Commission Decisions—but not Council Decisions—as cases.

Judgments of the courts are uniformly translated into English from French, sometimes inexactly. If the meanings of such judgments are not clear, refer to the original French for clarification.

## 13.4.5 European Human Rights

For decisions of the European Court of Human Rights cite official reports or the European Human Rights Reports (EHRR), providing one in preference to the other throughout. Until 1 November 1998 the official reports were known as Series A and numbered consecutively. The official reports were then renamed as Reports of Judgments and Decisions and they are cited as ECHR. The EHRR series is consecutively numbered, but from 2001 case numbers replaced page numbers:

_Young, James and Webster v UK_ (App no 7601/76) (1982) 4 EHRR 38

_Plattform 'Artze für das Leben' v Austria_ (App no 10126/82) (1988) Series A no 139

_Osman v UK_ (App no 23452/94) ECHR 1998-VIII 3124

Decisions and reports of the European Commission of Human Rights (now defunct) should cite the relevant application number, a reference to the Decisions and Reports of the Commission series (or earlier to the Yearbook of the ECHR), and—if available—a reference to the EHRR:

_Zamir v UK_ (App no 9174/80), (1985) 40 DR 42

## 13.4.6 Other cases

The citation of laws in other jurisdictions is too big a subject to cover in any great detail here. Authors and editors unsure of the relevant conventions should consult _The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation_ (19th edn, 2010). This is a useful guide to citing legal sources from a wide range of jurisdictions.

# 13.5 Legislation

## 13.5.1 UK legislation

A statute's title should always be in roman, even where a foreign statute is in italics in the original. Older statutes, without a short title, will require the appropriate regnal year (see 11.7) and chapter number. Use Arabic numerals for chapter numbers in Public (General) and Private Acts:

3 & 4 Geo V, c 12, ss 18, 19

Use lower-case Roman numerals in Public (Local) Acts:

3 & 4 Geo V, c xii, ss 18, 19

Scots Acts before the Union of 1707 are cited by year and chapter: 1532, c 40. All Acts passed after 1962 are cited by the calendar year and chapter number of the Act; commas before the date were abolished retroactively in 1963. There is no need for the word 'of'—except perhaps when discussing a number of Acts with the same title (for example, to distinguish the Criminal Appeals Act of 1907 from that of 1904). Provided the meaning is clear, it is permissible even in text to refer to 'the 1904 Act'.

Some UK statutes are almost invariably abbreviated, for example PACE (Police and Criminal Evidence Act) and MCAs (Matrimonial Causes Acts). Where such abbreviations will be familiar to readers they may be used, even in text, although it is best to spell a statute out at first mention with the abbreviation in parentheses before relying thereafter simply on the abbreviation. Use an abbreviation where one particular statute is referred to many times throughout the text.

Except at the start of a sentence or when the reference is non-specific, use the following abbreviations: 's', 'ss', 'Pt', 'Sch'. For example, paragraph (k) of subsection (4) of section 14 of the Lunacy Act 1934 would be expressed as 'Lunacy Act 1934, s 14(4)(k)'. There is no space between the bracketed items. In general, prefer 'section 14(4)' to 'subsection (4)' or 'paragraph (k)'; if the latter are used, however, they can be abbreviated to 'subs (3)' or 'para (k)' in notes.

Statutory instruments should be referred to by their name, date, and serial number:

Local Authority Precepts Order 1897, SR & O 1897/208

Community Charge Support Grant (Abolition) Order 1987, SI 1987/466

No reference should be made to any subsidiary numbering system in the case of Scots instruments, those of a local nature, or those making commencement provisions.

Quote extracts from statutes exactly. Do not amend to improve the sense, and clearly indicate if you correct obvious errors. Omitted text should be indicated by ellipses.

## 13.5.2 European Union legislation

For primary legislation, include both the formal and informal names in the first reference to a particular treaty:

EC Treaty (Treaty of Rome, as amended), Art 3b

Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty), Art G5c

Cite articles of the treaties without reference to the titles, chapters, or subsections. As part of a reference, abbreviate 'Article' to 'Art', in roman. Cite protocols to the treaties by their names, preceded by the names of the treaties to which they are appended:

Act of Accession 1985 (Spain and Portugal), Protocol 34

EC Treaty, Protocol on the Statute of the Court of Justice

References to secondary legislation (decisions, directives, opinions, recommendations, and regulations) should be to the texts in the _Official Journal_ of the European Union. The title of the legislation precedes the reference to the source:

Council Directive (EC) 97/1 on banking practice [1997] OJ L234/3

Council Regulation (EEC) 1017/68 applying rules of competition to transport [1968] OJ Spec Ed 302

While it is always important to state the subject matter of EU secondary legislation, the long official title may be abbreviated provided that the meaning is clear. For example, the full title may be abbreviated to

Commission Notice on agreements of minor importance which do not fall under Article 85(1) of the Treaty establishing the EEC [1986] OJ C231/2, as amended [1994] OJ C368/20

Commission Notice on agreements of minor importance [1986] OJ C231/2, as amended [1994] OJ C368/20

# 13.6 International treaties, conventions, etc.

Apart from EU treaties, where the short name usually suffices (see above), set out the full name of the treaty or convention with the following information in parentheses:

• the date of signature or adoption and, if available, the date it entered into force

• the Treaty Series number (or if not yet published, the International Legal Materials (ILM) citation) or, if earlier, other relevant number

• the familiar name

• any relevant protocols.

For example, a reference to the Refugee Convention should be expressed as follows:

Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (adopted 28 July 1951, entered into force 22 April 1954) 189 UNTS 137 (Refugee Convention)

A short title will suffice for subsequent references in the same chapter.

References to the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) and US Restatements should be set in roman, for example 'UCC ss 2–203'.

# 13.7 Other materials

## 13.7.1 Reports of Parliamentary select committees

Refer to such papers by name and number:

Defence Select Committee, 'Iraq: An Initial Assessment of Post-Conflict Operations' HC (2004–05) 65-I

## 13.7.2 Law Commission

Cite Law Commission reports by name and Commission number, with the year of publication and any Command Paper number:

Law Commission, _Intoxication and Criminal Liability_ (Law Com No 314, Cm 7526, 2009) para 1.15

## 13.7.3 Hansard

Hansard (not italic) is the daily and weekly verbatim record of debates in the British Parliament (its formal name being _The Official Report of Parliamentary Debates_ ). There have been five series of Hansard: first, 1803–20 (41 vols); second, 1820–30 (25 vols); third, 1830–91 (356 vols); fourth, 1892–1908 (199 vols); fifth, 1909– . It was only from 1909 that Hansard became a strictly verbatim report; prior to that time the reports' precision and fullness varied considerably, particularly before the third series.

Since 1909 reports from the House of Lords and the House of Commons have been bound separately, rather than within the same volume. References up to and including 1908 are 'Parl. Deb.' Hansard is numbered by column rather than page. Full references are made up of HC or HL, volume number, column number, and date (in parentheses):

Hansard, HC vol 357, cols 234–45 (13 April 1965)

For pre-1909 citations, use the following form:

Parl. Deb. (series 4) vol. 24, col. 234 (24 March 1895)

## 13.7.4 Command Papers

In references, the abbreviations given before the numbers of Command Papers vary according to the time period into which the paper falls. Consequently they should _not_ be made uniform or changed unless they are clearly incorrect. The series, abbreviations, years, and number extents are as follows, with an example for each:

The references themselves are set in parentheses:

Secretary of State for Health, 'Government Response to the House of Commons Health Committee Report on the Provision of Allergy Services' (Cm 6433, 2005)

# 13.8 Judges' designations and judgments

In text it is correct either to spell out the judge's title (Mr Justice Kennedy) or to abbreviate it (Kennedy J). It is best to follow the author's preference, providing it is consistently applied in similar contexts. It is a matter of house style whether or not the abbreviation takes a full point. The following table shows various titles and their abbreviated forms, where they exist:

Mr Justice | J
---|---
Lord Justice | LJ
Lords Justice | LJJ
Lord Chief Justice Parker | Parker LCJ, Lord Parker CJ
The Master of the Rolls, Sir F. R. Evershed | Evershed MR
His Honour Judge (County Court) | HH Judge
Attorney General | Att. Gen.
Solicitor General | Sol. Gen.
Lord... , Lord Chancellor... | LC
Baron ( _historical, but still quoted_ ) | B
Chief Baron Blackwood | Blackwood CB
The President (Family Division) | Sir Stephen Brown, P
Advocate General (of the CJEU) | Slynn AG
Judge (of the CJEU) | _no abbreviation_

Law Lords are the Justices of the Supreme Court; their names are not abbreviated. Do not confuse them with Lords Justice. 'Their Lordships' can be a reference to either rank. There is in legal terms no such rank as 'member of the Privy Council': the Judicial Committee of Privy Council is staffed by members of the Supreme Court.

'Judgment' spelled with only one _e_ is correct in the legal sense of a judge's or court's formal ruling, as distinct from a moral or practical deduction. A judge's judgment is always spelled thus, as judges cannot (in their official capacity) express a personal judgement separate from their role. In US style 'judgment' is the spelling used in all contexts.

# CHAPTER 14

#  Science, mathematics, and computing

# 14.1 General principles

## 14.1.1 Official guidelines

Authors and editors involved in publishing scientific material must be aware of the intended readership and its level of expertise when considering what specialist terminology and stylistic conventions to adopt. Authors of texts involving the 'harder' sciences, such as astronomy, biology, chemistry, computing, mathematics, and technology, commonly employ practices different from those in the humanities and social sciences, particularly in those texts aimed at a specialist readership. Authors should follow the standards common in their discipline, as well as any set out for specific contexts, such as series or journal articles. In general, authors and editors should follow the recommendations of the Royal Society and the Système International d'Unités (SI), particularly those for styling symbols and units, which can vary between disciplines. Internal consistency is vital where more than one standard is acceptable, or where recommendations conflict.

If an author has good reason for using a convention different from the norm, they should mention this to the editor early on. As common usage changes more frequently in the sciences than in other disciplines, it is particularly important to clarify variations before editing begins. Many scientific journals have developed their own house style: this will vary according to the subject's conventions and the readership's requirements. Authors should be aware that, for reasons of efficiency and speed, this style may be imposed—often automatically by computer software—without the author being consulted.

Authors should avoid introducing a novel notation or non-standard symbols. If non-standard terms are essential to the notation system, authors should consider including a list of symbols in the preliminary matter and supplying the editor with printed examples or a PDF, so that there is no danger of misunderstanding what is intended.

As a requirement of submission, journal authors in particular may need to write in a template downloaded from a publisher's website. This framework ensures that the document is structured in such a way that encoding for output as print or digital product can be achieved without manual intervention.

## 14.1.2 Clarity

Clarity in the presentation and explanation of difficult scientific concepts is to be valued. The principle of maximum clarity underpins most scientific style guidance and should be used to discriminate between alternative solutions to presentational problems.

Authors and editors should take care that hard copy, if used, is clear and unambiguous, and any handwritten notation is kept to a minimum. Whether hard copy or on-screen, ensure the correct character is used for special sorts (accented characters, Greek letters, mathematical symbols). For example, distinguish between:

• numbers 0 and 1 and the letters O and 1

• single (′) and double (") primes and single (') and double (") closing quotation marks

• multiplication signs (×) and roman x.

• narrow angle brackets and inequality signs < and > (see 14.6.7 and Table 14.4).

Do not underline the inequality signs < and > to create less-than/greater-than or equal to symbols ≤ and ≥, and degree symbols should not be typed as lower-case superscript 'o's. See Table 14.4 for the corresponding Unicode code points.

Likewise, in electronic documents do not underline text to be set in italic. On hard copy, ensure that any hand-drawn rules above or below letters or whole expressions are not mistaken for underlining for italic.

There are particular issues of clarity involved in typesetting mathematics which affect the choice of typeface (see 14.6.1).

Scientific illustrations should adhere to the principle of maximum clarity: all unnecessary graphic effects should be eschewed. As far as possible, illustrations and their captions should be self-contained and require no reference to text material to make interpretation of them possible. See Chapter 16.

## 14.1.3 Numerals

Numbers in general are dealt with in Chapter 11. In science and mathematics figures are set close up, without a comma, in numbers up to 9999. In larger numbers thin spaces (see 14.1.5) are introduced after each group of three digits to the right or left of a decimal point ( _1 234 567.891 011 12_ ); to permit alignment, spaces can also be introduced into four-figure numbers in columnar and tabular work. Decimal points are set on the baseline, not medially. Numbers less than one must be preceded by a zero (0.75), except where specific style guidance allows quantities that never exceed unity (such as probabilities) to be typeset without.

The SI guidelines state that it is preferable to use only numbers between 0.1 and 1000. It is better, therefore, to write _22 km_ rather than _22 000 metres_ , or _3 mm3_ rather than _0.003 cubic centimetres_. Powers of units can be represented exponentially, for example _m2_ for square metre and _cm3_ for cubic centimetre.

## 14.1.4 Units

There are internationally agreed abbreviations for many units (unit symbols), including all those in the SI. When used in full, a unit takes lower case ( _kilogram, nanometre_ ), even eponymous ones ( _newton, tesla_ ); when assigned a value, the unit symbol is used, standardly followed by a space ( _10 kg, 1.435 m_ ), preferably a non-breaking or thin space (see 14.1.5). Unit symbols must not be pluralized (not _cms_ ). Table 14.1 shows SI units, prefixes, and their symbols.

Table 14.1 **SI units**

Some units not defined by SI are still compatible with SI units, such as _hours, minutes, days, litres_. The unit symbol for hour is _h_ not _hr_ and either _L_ or _l_ is acceptable for _litre_ ; if L is preferred it should also be used with prefixes such as mL for millilitres.

The unit symbol does not need to be repeated when en rules (dashes) are used to indicate a range ( _45.6–50.2 kg_ ) unless the unit symbol is closed up ( _14°–18°_ [of angle]; see also 14.1.8).

Units are derived from other units by multiplication or division ( _m 2, m/s_). A product of two or more different units may be separated with a fixed thin or hair space (narrower than a thin space; see 2.5.1), for example _N m_ , or with a medial dot ( _N⋅m_ , set closed up; U+22C5 DOT OPERATOR) but not _Nm_. Use a solidus or negative index ( _m/s_ or _ms −1_) for division but no more than one solidus in the same expression, to avoid ambiguity (instead of _J/K/mol_ use _J K −1 mol−1_ or spell out the final expression, _J/K per mole_ ).

## 14.1.5 Punctuation and spaces

Oxford style is to omit full points at the end of a displayed formula or equation, and internal punctuation is limited to that in or following any interpolated text. Other styles treat formulas and equations as an integral part of the sentence and punctuate accordingly. Text set on the same line as a displayed equation that qualifies some aspect of the equation should be spaced off from the equation by at least one em.

The presence or absence of spaces can alter the meaning of scientific text so care must be taken that they are used appropriately: _+5_ is a positive integer; _\+ 5_ indicates an addition. Spaces come in various widths, either breaking or non-breaking; Unicode fonts have a variety of spaces between 2000 to 200A (hexadecimal) but the two that are used most frequently in technical texts, other than the word space, are the non-breaking space (U+00A0) and the thin space (U+2009) (see also 2.5.1).

## 14.1.6 Notes

It is good practice in scientific writing for all important information to be worked into the text, leaving only matter of secondary interest in notes, such as references, interpretations, and corrections. Since authors in many technical subjects choose to use an author–date (Harvard) style of references (see Chapter 17), notes occur infrequently. If a note is needed, however, make every effort to avoid adding the cue to a formula or equation, where it may be mistaken for part of the notation. For this reason superscript numerical note cues are not used except in contexts where equations are sparse. Where non-numerical note cues are required, the cue should be one of the marks of reference († ‡ § ¶ ||) in that order, repeated as necessary (††, ‡‡, etc.) throughout the chapter. The asterisk (*) reference mark used in other disciplines is not found in scientific or mathematical contexts, where that symbol may be assigned special uses. For more on notes and references see Chapter 17.

## 14.1.7 Eponymic designations

Names identified with specific individuals may be treated in several ways. Traditionally a disease, equation, formula, hypothesis, law, principle, rule, syndrome, theorem, or theory named after a person is preceded by the person's name followed by an apostrophe and _s_ :

Alzheimer's disease  | Bragg's law  | Caro's acid
---|---|---
Gödel's proof  | Newton's rings  |

Any variation follows the normal rules governing possessives (see 4.2.1):

Charles's law  | Descartes's rule of signs
---|---
Archimedes' principle  | Chagas's disease

An apparatus, coefficient angle, constant, cycle, effect, function, number, phenomenon, process, reagent, synthesis, or field of study named after a person is usually preceded by the name alone or its adjectival form:

Leclanché cell  | Salk vaccine
---|---
Cartesian coordinates  | Newtonian telescope

Eponymic anatomical or botanical parts may incorporate the name either as a possessive ( _Cowper's glands, Bartholin's gland, Wernicke's area_ ) or adjectivally ( _Casparian strip, Eustachian tube, fallopian tube_ ). Something named after two or more people is known by the bare surnames, joined by an en rule:

Cheyne–Stokes respiration  | Epstein–Barr virus
---|---
Stefan–Boltzmann law  | Haber–Bosch process
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease  |

although the en rule is often erroneously replaced by a hyphen, especially in digital text—internet usage is an unreliable indicator in this regard.

Particularly in medical use, British technical practice increasingly is to use bare surnames, so as to avoid the possessive's proprietary effect:

Angelman syndrome  | Kawasaki disease
---|---
Rous sarcoma  |

This is the typical form for toponymic designations:For guidance on capitalization of words derived from proper nouns, see 5.14.

Borna disease  | Coxsackie virus  | East Coast fever
---|---|---
Ebola fever  | Lyme disease  |

## 14.1.8 Degrees

Degrees are of three types: degrees of inclination or angle, abbr. _d_. or _deg_.; degrees of temperature, symbol ° (U+00B0 DEGREE SIGN); and degrees of latitude and longitude, abbr. _lat_. and _long_. (no points in scientific work). For degrees of temperature see 14.1.9.

• A degree of inclination or angle is reckoned as 1/360th of a circle. The degree symbol (°) is set close up to the numeral. Decimal subdivisions of degree are preferred to minute ( _1_ / _60 degree_ ) or second ( _1_ / _3600 degree_ ), as in _60.75°_.

• In geography, degrees of latitude and longitude are the angular distances on a meridian north or south of the equator ( **latitude** ), or east and west of the prime or Greenwich meridian ( **longitude** ). They maybe expressed in degrees (°), minutes (ʹ), and seconds (ʺ). The degree symbol is set closed up to the figure, for example _40° 42ʹ 30ʺ N74° 1ʹ 15ʺ W_. In discursive and non-technical contexts there are generally spaces between each item. In display work and technical contexts the figures may be closed up, and the seconds given as decimal fractions, for example _40_ ° _42.5_ ʹ _N 74_ ° _1.25_ ʹ _W_. The _N, S, E_ , and _W_ (no points) make the addition of _lat_. or _long_. superfluous in most instances, though especially in precise coordinates the reverse holds, with, for example, _Lat. 40.980818, Long. −74.093665_.

• In non-technical writing it is usually best to spell out the word _degree_. Where degrees of inclination and temperature occur in the same writing it may be advantageous to use the degree symbol for one and the word for the other.

## 14.1.9 Temperature and calories

The various common scales of temperature are **Celsius** (or **centigrade** ), **kelvin** , and **Fahrenheit** ; in scientific work only the Celsius and kelvin scales are used. Generally, use Arabic numerals for degrees of temperature, but words for degrees of inclination and in ordinary contexts for temperature. SI guidelines stipulate a space between the value and the degree symbol used with the scale abbreviation ( _10 °C_ ) but it is commonly closed up ( _10°C_ ). The degree symbol itself is printed close up to its scale abbreviation (° _C_ not ° _C_ ); alternatively use Unicode code point U+2103 for the glyph degree Celsius (°C). For a range of temperatures repeat the unit if closed up but not if a space is normally used ( _15°C–17°C_ or _15–17 °C_ ). Do not use the degree symbol with the kelvin scale.

• Degree **Celsius** (abbreviation °C) is identical in magnitude to the kelvin. To convert Celsius into kelvin add 273.15. It is the equivalent of degree centigrade, which it officially replaced in 1948. It is used as the common measure of temperature in most of the world outside the US.

• The **kelvin** (abbreviation K) is used in expressing kelvin temperatures or temperature differences: 0 K = absolute zero, or −273.15 °C. It officially replaced degree Kelvin (abbreviation °K) in 1968 as the SI unit of thermodynamic temperature (formerly called 'absolute temperature'). It is used in certain scientific writing.

• Degree **Fahrenheit** (abbreviation °F) is the commonly used temperature unit in the US. The Fahrenheit scale was originally calibrated at the ice (32 °F) and steam points (212 °F).

• The term **calorie** stood for any of several units of heat and internal energy, originally relating to the gram of water and the degree Celsius. The calorie used in food science is actually a **kilocalorie**. Sometimes called a **large calorie** , it is often written with a capital _C_ to distinguish it from the **small calorie**. Because of these uncertainties and potential confusions the SI unit of energy, the **joule** , is preferred in all scientific contexts.

# 14.2 Biological nomenclature

## 14.2.1 Capitalization of English names

In general contexts the English names of animal or plant species should not be capitalized, unless one of the words is a proper name:

red deer  | greater spotted woodpecker  | lemon balm
---|---|---
mock orange  | Pallas's cat  | Camberwell beauty

In specialized contexts such as field guides and handbooks capitalization is more usual, especially in ornithology. A third style is to capitalize only the first word of the compound. In most contexts, however, the use of lower case is still preferable. This could give rise to ambiguities—a little gull could be a particular species or just 'a small gull'—but these are avoidable by careful wording.

## 14.2.2 Structure of taxonomic groups

In descending order, the hierarchy of taxonomic groups is:

kingdom

phylum (in botany, division)

class

order

family

genus

species

All organisms are placed in categories of these ranks: the domesticated cat, for example, is described in full as Carnivora (order), Felidae (family), _Felis_ (genus), _Felis catus_ (species). In addition, intermediate ranks may be added using the prefixes _super, sub_ , and _infra_ , and sub-families may be further divided into tribes. All taxonomic names are Latin in form, though often Greek in origin, except for the individual names of cultivated varieties of plant.

Rules for naming taxonomic groups are published in the following guides: for animals, the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN); for wild plants and fungi, the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN); for cultivated plants, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP); for bacteria, the International Codes of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB); for viruses, the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV).

## 14.2.3 Groups above generic level

Names of groups from kingdom to family are plural and printed in roman with initial capitals (Bacillariophyceae, Carnivora, Curculionidae). The level of the taxon is usually indicated by the ending: the names of botanical or bacteriological families and orders, for example, end in _-aceae_ and _-ales_ , while zoological families and sub-families end in _-idae_ and _-inae_ respectively. (Ligatures such as æ and œ are not now used in printing biological nomenclature.)

## 14.2.4 The binomial system

Living organisms are classified by genus and species according to the system originally devised by Linnaeus. This two-part name—called the **binomial** or **binomen** —is printed in italic, and usually consists of the capitalized name of a genus followed by the lower-case specific name. Thus the forget-me-not is _Myosotis alpestris_ , with _Myosotis_ as its generic name and _alpestris_ as its specific epithet; similarly the bottlenose dolphin is _Tursiops_ (generic name) _truncatus_ (specific name). Specific names are not capitalized even when derived from a person's name: _Clossiana freija nabokovi_ (Nabokov's fritillary), _Gazella thomsoni_ (Thomson's gazelle).

A genus name is printed in italic with an initial capital when used alone to refer to the genus. If, however, it also has become a common term in English for the organism concerned it is printed in roman and lower case (rhododendron, dahlia, tradescantia, stegosaurus); thus ' _Rhododendron_ is a widespread genus' but 'the rhododendron is a common plant'. Specific epithets are never used in isolation except in the rare cases where they have become popular names ( japonica), when they are printed in roman.

Latin binomials or generic names alone may be followed by the surname of the person who first classified the organism. These surnames and their standardized abbreviations are called 'authorities' and are printed in roman with an initial capital: ' _Primula vulgaris_ Huds.' shows that this name for the primrose was first used by William Hudson; ' _Homo sapiens_ L.' shows that Linnaeus was the first to use this specific name for human beings. If a species is transferred to a different genus, the authority will be printed in parentheses. For example, the greenfinch, _Carduelis chloris_ (L.), was described by Linnaeus but placed by him in the genus _Loxia_.

## 14.2.5 Abbreviation

After the first full mention of a species, later references may be shortened by abbreviating the generic name to its initial capital, followed by a full point: _P. vulgaris, E. caballus_. If two organisms with the same single-letter abbreviation occur in the same sentence or paragraph, a multiple-letter abbreviation is sometimes used ( _Staphylococcus_ and _Streptococcus_ may become _Staph_. and _Strep_. for example) but is best avoided as there are very few 'official' multiple-letter abbreviations so inconsistencies between publications can occur. The species names are usually sufficient to avoid confusion, or use the full version.

## 14.2.6 Subspecies and hybrids

Names of animal subspecies have a third term added in italic to the binomial, for example _Motacilla alba alba_ (white wagtail), _M. alba yarrelli_ (pied wagtail). Plant categories below the species level may also have a third term added to their names, but only after an abbreviated form of a word indicating their rank, which is printed in roman:

subspecies (Latin _subspecies_ , abbreviation subsp.)

variety (Latin _varietas_ , abbreviation var.)

subvariety (Latin _subvarietas_ , abbreviation subvar.)

form (Latin _forma_ , abbreviation f.)

subform (Latin _subforma_ , abbreviation subf.)

So ' _Salix repens_ var. _fusca_ ' indicates a variety of the creeping willow, and ' _Myrtus communis_ subsp. _tarentina_ ' a subspecies of the common myrtle.

Other abbreviations are occasionally printed in roman after Latin names, such as 'agg.' for an aggregate species, 'sp.' (plural 'spp.') after a genus name for an unidentified species, 'gen. nov.' or 'sp. nov.' indicating a newly described genus or species, and 'auctt.' indicating a name used by many authors but without authority.

The names attached to cultivated varieties of plants follow the binomial, printed in roman within single quotation marks ( _Rosa wichuraiana_ 'Dorothy Perkins'). The cultivar name may be preceded by the abbreviation 'cv.', in which case the quotation marks are not used ( _Rosa wichuraiana_ cv. Dorothy Perkins). The names of cultivated varieties may also appear after variety or subspecies names, or after a genus name alone: for example, the ornamental maple _Acer palmatum_ var. _heptalobum_ 'Rubrum', and the rose _Rosa_ 'Queen Elizabeth'. Names of hybrid plants are indicated by a roman multiplication sign (×): _Cytisus_ × _kewensis_ is a hybrid species, × _Odontonia_ is a hybrid genus. Horticultural graft hybrids are indicated by a plus sign (+ _Laburnocytisus adami_ ).

## 14.2.7 Bacteria and viruses

### Bacteria

Genera used adjectivally are lower case roman (salmonella poisoning, streptococcal infection); plural noun forms can add -s or take the Latin form (rickettsias, salmonellae, staphylococci). Bacterial strains are usually designated by capitals and numbers in roman ( _Escherichia coli_ K12) but consult the relevant authority as nomenclature changes.

### Viruses

The International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) has developed a system of classifying and naming viruses. The ranks employed for animal, fungal, and bacterial viruses are order, _family, subfamily, genus_ , and _species_. Wherever possible, Latinized names are used for the taxa; hence names of genera end in the suffix _-virus_ , subfamilies end in _-virinae_ , families end in _-viridae_ , and orders end in _-virales_. Latinized specific epithets are not used, so binomial nomenclature does not obtain. The ICTV recommends italicizing and capitalizing the first word of all Latinized names when used in a taxonomic sense, but not in vernacular usage.

taxonomic: a newly acquired virulence of several bee viruses belonging to the family _Dicistroviridae_ has been observed worldwide

vernacular: measuring the impact of herpes zoster and post-herpetic neuralgia on quality of life

However, not all publishers (including OUP) follow this guidance, italicizing only genera and species, so check which style is used. Those genera or higher groups that do not yet have approved Latinized names are referred to by their English vernacular names. Capitalization is used only for proper nouns:

We have focused our interest on acute bee paralysis virus, which shares some antigenic and sequence similarities with Kashmir bee virus and Israeli acute paralysis virus.

The ranks of genus and species are not used in the taxonomy of plant viruses, which are classified in groups—not families—with the approved group name ending in _-virus_. Existing names employ various combinations of Roman or Greek letters, Arabic or Roman numerals, and superscript and subscript characters. Many names are prefixed with a capital P or lower-case phi (PM2, ɸ6, ɸX, Pf1). It is important therefore to follow carefully the conventions employed in the original name.

## 14.2.8 Enzymes

Enzyme nomenclature has several forms, depending on context. Most enzyme trivial names are based on the name of the type of reaction they catalyse and the name of the substrate or product they are associated with. Most end in _-ase_ , though some do not.

A systematic nomenclature has been devised by the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Each enzyme has a systematic name incorporating its type designation (i.e. group name), the name of its substrate(s), and a unique four-digit numerical designation called the EC (Enzyme Commission) number. For example, the systematic name of glutamate dehydrogenase is L-glutamate:NAD+ oxidoreductase (deaminating), EC 1.4.1.2.

Because systematic names are so unwieldy, they tend to supplement or clarify trivial names rather than replace them. In most contexts trivial names alone suffice, though the EC number and full systematic name should follow at first occurrence in formal usage.

Although restriction endonucleases also have EC classifications, they have additional nomenclature that is based on the genus, species, and strain from which they are derived (such as _Bam_ HI from _Bacillus amyloliquefaciens_ strain HI).

## 14.2.9 Genes and chromosomes

Conventions for naming genes and gene products (the proteins they code for) vary widely among species or type of organism, and also change rapidly. Authors and editors are advised to check the website of the relevant nomenclature committee or other authority for current guidelines—many organisms now have dedicated online databases containing a searchable catalogue of genes with annotated gene sequence data, plus descriptions of gene functions. The _New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors_ has a helpful summary of the basic rules of gene nomenclature for selected groups of organisms or species.

The following is some general guidance but there are many exceptions so editors with limited knowledge of the subject should not be tempted to standardize capitalization, hyphenation, and italicization for example, without checking the relevant authority. As an example, acute myeloid leukaemia genes in humans and mice are _AML1_ and _Aml1_ , respectively, and their protein products are AML1 and Aml1.

• Gene names and their more commonly used symbols are usually italicized; most symbols are given three letters (such as _CDH1_ for cadherin 1), although older symbols may differ ( _w_ for the _white_ gene in white-eyed fruit flies _Drosophila_ for example).

• For dominant traits, the name and symbol generally begin with a capital letter, whereas for recessive traits the initial letter is lower case (in baker's yeast _Saccharomyces cerevisiae,_ for example, _CUPI, arg2_ ).

• Plus and minus signs are used in some organisms to indicate normal (wild type) or mutant forms, such as the _cyc + Cyclops_ wild-type gene in zebrafish; others use all capitals ( _AGAMOUS-LIKE_ , symbol _AGL_ ) for wild types and lower case for mutants ( _accelerated cell death, acd_ ) in wall cress _Arabidopsis thaliana_.

• Protein products usually follow the corresponding gene symbol but are set roman (for example, the protein product of the _trpA_ gene required for tryptophan synthesis in _E. coli_ is TrpA).

• Human gene names are roman but the symbols are italic capitals and Arabic letters (G-protein coupled receptor, _GPR1_ ). The Gene Nomenclature Committee Human Genome Organization (HUGO) is responsible for assigning gene symbols; their website genenames.org is a database of approved nomenclature and associated resources. For the major histocompatibility complex see 14.3.5.

Each community also has its own convention for designation of genetic markers and transgenic strains.

Chromosomes are designated by a roman letter or number (in humans 1 to 22, X, Y); different regions and bands on the short (p) or long (q) chromosome arms are specified with Arabic numbers and letters, in roman, for example 14q32.2. Duplicated, deleted, or translocated regions are designated dup, del, or t respectively; for example t(9;22)(q34;q11.2) refers to a reciprocal translocation between bands 34 and 11.2 of the long arms of chromosomes 9 and 22. Gain or loss of a chromosome is indicated by a plus or minus sign, so +21 indicates an extra chromosome 21. The length of DNA sequences is cited in base pairs (bp), kilobases (kb), or megabases (Mb); the centiMorgan (cM) is a measure of genetic distance and relates to recombination frequency.

# 14.3 Medical terminology

## 14.3.1 Abbreviations

Abbreviations should be defined when first used. Avoid using clinical-style shorthand in formal writing (US for ultrasound; Hb for haemoglobin unless referring to specific types; see 14.3.3).

Abbreviations of Latin terms are now discouraged, particularly in pharmacology, where clarity of meaning is paramount. In addition, British and US usage differs in some cases (see Table 14.2).

The same abbreviations may be used for different terms: CSF may be _cerebrospinal fluid_ or _colony-stimulating factor_. Which of these abbreviations should be employed in a text depends on the type of work and its expected readership.

Some abbreviations will be so familiar to the readership that they do not need to be defined ( _DNA, HIV_ ) but be aware that some well-known English abbreviations may be known by a different abbreviation in other languages ( _AIDS, SIDA_ in French). It is useful to have a house style list of those that do not need to be defined for a particular specialty but, if in doubt, it is best to define it at some point.

Table 14.2 **Dosage abbreviations**

**British** | **US** |
---|---|---
a.c |  | ante cibum (before food)
b.d | b.i.d. | bis die (twice daily)
o.d | q.d | omni die (every day)
o.m |  | omni mane (every morning)
o.n | q.h.s | omni nocte (every night)
p.c |  | post cibum (after food)
p.r.n. |  | pro re nata (when required)
q.d.s. | q.i.d. | quater die sumendum (to be taken four times daily)
q.q.h. |  | quarta quaque hora (every four hours)
stat |  | statim (immediately)
t.d.s. | t.i.d. | ter die sumendum (to be taken three times daily)
t.i.d. |  | ter in die (three times daily)

## 14.3.2 Blood groups

Blood-group antigens are designated by capital letters, sometimes combined with a lower-case letter or letters, such as A, B, AB, O, Rh. Note that while A, for example, is defined as a blood group, _not_ blood type, blood is described as being type A, _not_ group A.

## 14.3.3 Haemoglobin

The types of normal human haemoglobin are designated Hb A, Hb A2, and Hb F. Their component globin chains are designated by a Greek letter ( _α, β, γ_ , or _δ_ ); subscript numerals indicate the number of chains. Abnormal haemoglobins are designated either by letters (C–Q, S) or by the name of the place where they were first identified (e.g. Hb Bart's, Hb Chad).

## 14.3.4 Vitamins

The group of organic compounds that form vitamins may be known by their chemical names or by a single capital letter; those forming part of a group are identified further by subscript Arabic figures (e.g. vitamin B1). (Dietary minerals are known only by their chemical names.)

## 14.3.5 Immunology

Symbols for human histocompatibility leukocyte antigens are HLA followed by a letter to designate the class (e.g. HLA-A). Classification is complex and ongoing; consult the website of the World Health Organization Nomenclature Committee for Factors of the HLA System, which changed the way HLA alleles are designated and named in 2010. Symbols for human immunoglobulins are Ig also followed by a class letter (e.g. IgA); do not use Ig as an abbreviation for immunoglobulin. T cell is not hyphenated unless used adjectivally (T-cell receptor). The gene symbols for immunoglobulins and T-cell receptors are assigned by the ImMunoGeneTics (IMGT) Nomenclature Committee; lists of human and murine gene names can be found on their website. Symbols for many other molecules such as interferons consist of capital letters to designate the molecule, prefixed by the source, and followed by other designations (rhIFN-α1, recombinant human interferon-α1).

## 14.3.6 Diseases

Disease names may be descriptive or eponymic (e.g. _Parkinson's disease_ ). Derived words do not take a capital letter (e.g. _parkinsonism_ ). See also 14.1.7 on eponymic designations. Note that descriptive names are now preferred ( _reactive arthritis_ over _Reiter's disease_ ). Avoid using nouns derived from disease names to describe patients ( _diabetics, epileptics_ ); use _people with diabetes_ or _epileptic patients_ for example.

## 14.3.7 Drug nomenclature

In professional or technical contexts, prefer a drug's generic name (in lower case) to its proprietary name (with an initial capital), which may differ over time and between countries. Even generic names can vary, however, and there are several conventions worldwide, chiefly British Approved Names (BANs), Recommended International Non-Proprietary Name (rINNs), US Adopted Names (USANs), and Japanese Approved Names (JANs). European legislation requires the use of rINNs for medicinal product labelling and in 2003 all British Approved Names (BANs) were harmonized with rINNs with the exception of adrenaline (in rINN epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine). Publishers should therefore impose rINNs/new BANs as a matter of policy. In a historical context, and for lidocaine (lignocaine) where changeover has been slower, it may be useful to add the original BAN as a gloss. The _British National Formulary_ retains original BANs as synonyms and the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) website has a complete list of the BANs changed. A dictionary that includes all the international systems is published annually by the US Pharmacopeial Convention.

# 14.4 Chemistry

## 14.4.1 Introduction

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) generates comprehensive advice on chemical nomenclature, terminology, standardized methods for measurement, and atomic weights. By their recommendations, symbols for the elements are set in roman with an initial capital, no point at the end; spelled-out names of chemical compounds are in lower-case roman; and symbols for the elements in formulas are printed in roman without spaces:

H2SO4 Cu(CrO2)2

Table 14.3 lists the IUPAC-accepted names and abbreviations of chemical elements.

## 14.4.2 Roman and italic

In certain kinds of name, symbols are printed in italic ( _O_ -methylhydroxylamine, _fac_ -triamine-trinitrosylcobalt(III)). Italic is also used for certain prefixes, of which the commonest are _o-, m-, p-, cis-_ , and _trans-_ ( _o_ -tolidine, _p_ -diethylbenzene, _cis_ -but-2-ene). Retain the italic, but not

the _cis_ isomer | position _a_ is _ortho_ to the methyl group
---|---

the hyphen, when the prefix is used as a separate word:

The prefixes _d-, l-_ , and _dl-_ are no longer used for labelling stereoisomers, which are expressed either by small capitals or by symbols: D-(+), L-(−), and DL-(±) respectively; for example 'DL-lactic acid', '(+)-tartaric acid'. In each case the hyphens must be retained, although not when expressing their absolute configuration.

## 14.4.3 Formulas and structural drawings

A chemical formula shows the elements present in a compound and their relative proportions (H2O, C2H6O); a chemical equation represents the changes that occur in a chemical reaction, in words or symbols:

glucose + oxygen→carbon dioxide + water

C6H12O6(aq) + O2(g)→CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Formulas and reaction schemes may be numbered separately from figures, often with a sequence of bold numbers or letters in square brackets or parentheses, ranged right.

Table 14.3 **Chemical elements**

When expressing formulas, the order of brackets normally follows that in mathematics: {[( )]}. Parentheses are used to define the extent of a chemical group, as in (C2H5)3N; square brackets are used to denote, for example, chemical concentration in complex formulas: [H2SO4]. This sequence will vary in certain circumstances, for example in the use of square brackets in denoting coordination compounds:

K3[Fe(CN)6]  | [Ni(CO)4]
---|---

In organic chemical nomenclature, it is usual to write a formula as a series of groups (known as a structural formula):

CH3COC2H5 | RCH2COOCH3
---|---

Medial dots can be used to divide off the groups, if clarification of a formula is needed (usually in textbooks). Unicode code point U+00B7 MIDDLE DOT is acceptable.

(CH3CO·C2H5;  | R·CH2·COOCH3)
---|---

In most other contexts they can be dispensed with, although dots are required in formulas of addition compounds (Na2CO3·10H2O). Indicate a single bond with a closed-up en rule or a minus sign (C–H), a double bond by an equals sign (CH3CH=CH2), and a triple bond by an equivalence sign (U+2261 IDENTICAL TO) (CH3C≡CH).

In chemical equations, different types of arrows are used to represent reactions or electron movement; arrows may be single or double barbed—each has significance. For example, a long double-barbed arrow is used to indicate the direction of a reaction

CO2 \+ 2H2O →CH4 \+ 2O2

and two single-barbed arrows pointing in opposite directions indicate a reversible reaction, which may be in balanced equilibrium (same length arrows)

N2 \+ 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3

or favour either the reactants or products (different length arrows).

Equations and displayed or skeletal formulas can be created in dedicated chemistry drawing packages; anything other than simple, single-line formulas that can be word processed will be treated as artwork (for details see Chapter 16). There are also TeX macro packages that can be used for creating chemistry graphics or typesetting chemistry according to a publisher's style (see 14.6.1).

## 14.4.4 Superscripts and subscripts

Superscripts and subscripts need not occur only singly, and need not follow what they modify. In specifying a particular nuclide, the atomic (proton) number is printed as a left subscript (12Mg). Similarly, the mass (nucleon) number of an element is shown with its symbol and printed as a left superscript (235U, 14C)—not to the right, as formerly. If it is given with the name of the element no hyphen is necessary (uranium 235, carbon 14).

In inorganic chemical nomenclature the relationship between the superscripts and subscripts surrounding a chemical symbol is important: superscript expresses the electrical charge and subscript the number of atoms for each molecule. These should be staggered so as to indicate the ions present (Na+2CO32– (sodium carbonate) but Hg22+Cl2– (dimercury(I) chloride)). A medial dot is used to indicate coordinated species (CuSO4.5H2O). Ionic charge is shown by a right superscript (SO42–). Indicate complex ions by square brackets: K+3[FeCl6]3–.

Indicate oxidation states by a small-capital Roman numeral, set in parentheses close up to the spelled-out name, for example 'manganese(IV)'; or by a superscript Roman numeral set in capitals to the right of the abbreviated name, for example 'MnIV'.

Atomic orbitals, designated s, p, d, f, g, are roman, and can have subscript letters with superscript numbers attached (dz2, dx2–dy2).

# 14.5 Computing

## 14.5.1 Terminology

The influence of the US on the computing field has resulted in US spelling being adopted for much of the standard vocabulary, such as _analog, disk_ , and _program_ rather than _analogue, disc, programme_ (but note _compact disc, digital versatile disc_ ). Phrases such as _object-oriented_ should not be changed to British usage ( _orientated_ ). Other spellings not forming part of computing terminology should be normalized to British spelling for texts intended wholly or mostly for the UK market.

In the main, the names of programming languages, including acronyms, are styled in upper and lower case (Unix (trademark UNIX), Java, Python, Lisp); capitals are used for abbreviations (PHP, SQL). The plus signs in C++ are styled on the line, not superscripted, and C# (pronounced C sharp) uses a hash on the line, not a sharp sign. While it is acceptable to style different language names differently, ensure that the same style is adopted for the same language throughout a work. Styling of programming language names and many of the other computing abbreviations and terms can be found in the _New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors_ or the _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_.

Data storage is measured in _bytes_ (symbol B), which is usually defined as 8 _bits_ (b); multiples may appear to use the same prefixes as the SI, including K (not k) for kilo-, M for mega-, G for giga-, T for tera-, but they are in fact binary so a kilobyte (1 KB) is 1024 bytes, a megabyte (1 MB) is 1024 × 1024 bytes, and so on. Note that this usage is confined to data storage—other measurements such as data transmission rates take the standard SI prefixes. Linux and open-source communities often use the International Electrotechnical Commission standard, which uses the prefixes

## 14.5.2 Representation

The text of a computer program or textual data file such as an XML file may be presented in a work in several ways: in whole or in part, displayed or run into text. Not being a prose extract in the traditional sense, any such material is treated rather like an equation, with no minimum size and no small type needed for display.

Where the features of the program or mark-up language require character-literal syntax and precise line breaks, display, indentation, spacing, or special sorts, these must be reproduced exactly. It is wise to insert any lengthy code directly from the source rather than retype it, which can introduce error. It is useful to set any selected material in a distinctive typeface—a sans-serif font, or a monospace typeface such as Courier—one advantage of the latter being that fixed-width fonts preserve alignment of code elements, such as end-of-line comments, as they would appear on-screen in a text editor.

<body bgcolor = "#000033" text = "#000033"link = "#FF0000" vlink = "#66CC33" alink = "#FFFF00" onLoad = "MM_displayStatusMsg('welcome'); return document:MM_returnValue">

If the font chosen to indicate programming or mark-up language text is sufficiently different from the font used for normal text, it is unnecessary to delimit it further by quotation marks, even when run into text. If, however, quotation marks are needed, note that computing practice matches standard British usage in the relative placement of punctuation and quotation marks. The punctuation falls outside the closing quotation mark, so that in citing parts of

x=0;

for (i-0;i++;i < n)

x+=V[i];

in text, the punctuation does not interfere with the syntax: 'x = 0;', and 'x += V[i]'. This style, which would be imposed naturally in British publishing, should also be imposed in US computing texts, though not extended to normal quotations. US computing books can also reserve British-style single quotation marks for programming and mark-up language text, using double quotes for normal quotations.

In-text or displayed formulas and equations are best described and set so far as possible according to the rules governing mathematics. Any visual representations of structures or hierarchical classifications (use-case and activity diagrams, screen shots, tree grammars, Venn diagrams) will be treated as artwork (see Chapter 16).

## 14.5.3 Computing symbols

Mathematical material in computing contexts is usually treated in the same way as in other texts, although the sense of, for example, some logic symbols may differ from standard practice. In programming, the different types of bracket have various specific uses and order, depending on the language. In computing, the **slash** (/) is used as a separator, as with URLs for example. When a **backslash** (\\) separator is used, the slash can be called a **forward slash** to differentiate it further.

Code tags in SGML-based languages are enclosed by angle brackets < >: note that the narrow angle brackets 〈 〉 generally employed in technical contexts should not be used here (see 14.6.5 for mathematical brackets).

Other symbols have various context-specific functions: the asterisk, for example, is a Kleene star in BNF, a multiplication operator in C, and a wildcard character in various command-line shells. In some computing languages multi-symbol operators are used—for example, a combined colon and equals sign := is used as the assignment symbol ('gets' or 'becomes'); in others ::= means 'is defined as' and :- means 'if'. These symbols constitute a single unit and are set close up, with space either side:

{A[ _x_ ] := _y_ , B[ _u, v_ ] := _w_ }.

〈decimal fraction〉 ∷= 〈unsigned integer〉

but not all languages require space around operators. It is important to be aware of the specific rules regarding spaces, indentation, commenting, spelling and capitalization, and the meanings of symbols used alone or in combinations in programming and mark-up languages—if working in an unfamiliar language, find out the rules online or raise a query with the originator.

# 14.6 Mathematics

## 14.6.1 Introduction

The _de facto_ standard for mathematical typesetting is TEX (usually reproduced as TeX), a mark-up language available for many computing platforms, which consists of a coded, plain-text file that can be output to a device-independent file for printing or to PDF to produce high-quality results in terms of the complex layout, formatting, and special characters often demanded in mathematical work. LaTeX is the most popular TeX-based system. Some mathematical societies and publishers have their own plain TeX or LaTeX style files to help authors prepare their submissions according to the required specifications. Mathematical mark-up languages such as MathML and TeXML can be used to embed formulas in webpages, ebooks, and apps.

As a result, former constraints in setting 'difficult' material such as embellishments, fractions, fences, and overbars have been overcome, and digital product has removed the necessity to minimize displayed matter to reduce page extents and production costs.

When mathematical notation is required in text that is not created in a TeX-based system, authors should prepare their files using a word-processor equation editor or a stand-alone WYSIWYG (graphical) application for creating mathematical notation based on MathML.

In a mathematical equation each letter represents a quantity or operation, but the style (bold, italic, script, sans serif) and the relative positioning and sizes of the symbols (subscript, superscript) also convey important information.

Some typefaces are not suited to setting mathematics and should be avoided: sans-serif faces often suffer from indistinguishable characters (l, I, 1 are common examples). Subscripts and sub-subscripts must be legible and the distinction between roman, italic, bold, and sans serif clear even in one isolated character. Plain serifed faces such as Times, Computer Modern, and Lucida Math are generally to be favoured for mathematical work. The choice of typeface should be carried through to headings and labelling of figures where maths may occur. The typography of equations should not be altered to conform with design specifications for headings and labels.

## 14.6.2 Notation

The established style is to use roman type for operators and certain numerical constants, and to label points in a diagram. Italic is used for letters expressing a variable, and bold is used for vectors and matrices. Each description should be represented by a single symbol: avoid using abbreviated words. Here are some specific points:

• It is common to set the headword of definitions, theorems, propositions, corollaries, or lemmas in capitals and small capitals, with the remaining text of the heading in italic. The full text of the proof itself is set in roman.

• Avoid starting a sentence with a letter denoting an expression, so that there is no ambiguity about whether a capital or lower-case letter is intended.

• Most standard abbreviations, for example 'log(arithm)', 'max(imum)', 'exp(onential function)', 'tan(gent)', 'cos(ine)', lim(it)', and 'cov(ariance)', are set in roman, with no full points.

• Distinguish between a roman 'd' used in a differential equation (d _x_ /d _y_ ), the symbol ∂ for a partial differential, and the Greek lower-case delta (δ). Authors should preclude further potential for confusion by avoiding an italic _d_ for a variable. US authors may use italic for differential _d_

• The exponential 'e' remains in roman (but may be italic in US texts); sometimes it may be preferable to use the abbreviation 'exp' to avoid confusion. The letters i and j are roman when symbolizing imaginary numbers, and italic when symbolizing variables.

• In displayed equations, the integral, summation, and product symbols (∫ ∑ ∏) may have limits set directly above them (upper limit) or below them (lower limit). In running text, the convention is to place these after the symbol wherever possible (as in the first example)

• Missing terms can be represented by three dots which are horizontal (⋯), vertical (⋮), or diagonal (⋱), as appropriate. Include a comma after the three ellipsis dots when the final term follows, for example _x_ 1, _x_ 2,..., _x_ n.

## 14.6.3 Symbols

Operational signs are of two types: those representing a verb (e.g. = ≈ ≢ ≥) and those representing a conjunction (e.g. + − ⊃ ×). All operational signs take a space on either side, consistently either a thin space or a word space. (If setting in TeX, such spaces are built in, so there is no need to add any.) They are not closed up unless they are being used to modify a value, for example, a difference of ±2; magnification ×200.

Set a multiplication point as a medial point (⋅) (U+22C5 DOT OPERATOR) but it should be used only to avoid ambiguity and is not needed between letters, unless a vector product is intended (e.g. a∙b), in which case U+2219 BULLET OPERATOR should be used; there are no spaces either side of a medial point.

In print product where space-saving is desirable, any symbol that involves setting a separate line of type should be avoided when an alternative form is available. So, for angle _ABC_ , prefer ∠ _ABC_ to

and for vector r, prefer **r** (in bold) to   to prevent uneven line spacing, unless using TeX, which can handle this.

The space around a colon used as a ratio sign (mixed in the proportion 1: 2) is narrower than that used around an operational sign, so when using either word or thin spaces around operators, use a thin or hair space respectively on either side of the colon; some styles set the colon closed up. A colon in a set or function such as { _x_ : _x_ > 0} is closed up to the preceding letter with a non-breaking space after.

A solidus is set closed up to the characters either side (12/28, _a/b_ ) and there is no space before a factorial (12!). In TeX-based systems there is no constraint in using the vinculum or overbar—the horizontal rule above the square-root sign (  ), although it is still best avoided in tightly leaded text, in which case √2 is sufficient or the extent covered by the rule may be shown by parentheses:

is sufficient for

## 14.6.4 Superscripts and subscripts

Reserve superscript letters for variable quantities (set in italic); reserve subscript letters for descriptive notation (set in roman). Asterisks and primes are not strictly superscripts and so should always follow immediately after the term to which they are attached, in the normal way.

When first a subscript and then a superscript are attached to the same symbol or number, mark the subscript to align with the superscript in a 'stack'.

If it is necessary to have multiple levels of superscripts or subscripts, the relationships must be made clear for the typesetter if rekeying is necessary.

Wherever possible, it is customary—and a kindness to the reader's eyesight—to represent each superscript or subscript description by a symbol rather than an abbreviated word. Those subscript descriptions that are standardly made up of one or more initial letters of the word they represent are set in roman type.

## 14.6.5 Brackets

The preferred order for brackets is {[( )]}. When a single pair of brackets has a specific meaning, such as [ _n_ ] to denote the integral part of _n_ , they can, of course, be used out of sequence. The vertical bars used to signify a modulus— │ _x_ │ —should not be used as brackets.

Two further sorts of mathematical brackets may be used: double square brackets 〚 〛 and 'narrow' angle brackets 〈 〉. Angle brackets are used singly in Dirac bra and ket notation and in pairs they may be used to indicate the value of a quantity over a period of time, but they can also be used generally. Note that in mathematical work, the inequality signs < and > are not used as brackets. Double square brackets can be placed outside, and narrow angle brackets inside, the bracket sequence, and are handy for avoiding the re-arrangement of brackets throughout a formula or, especially, a series of formulas. Thus for comparison's sake the formula

is perhaps better put

## 14.6.6 Fractions, formulas, and equations

### Definitions

The terms _equation, formula,_ and _expression_ are sometimes confused by non-mathematicians; the following explanations may help to clarify usage.

An _equation_ is a statement in which two mathematical expressions are linked by an equals sign:

_y_ = 12 _a_ + _b_ or 10 ÷ 5 = 2

A mathematical _expression_ does not have an equals sign—

_v_ 2 \+ _f_ or 3 − 7 _i_

—or can be a single term such as exponential e.

A _formula_ is a mathematical rule expressed in words or symbols:

_(in words)_ the circumference of a circle is equal to twice the radius multiplied by pi

(in symbols) c = 2πr

### Layout

As discussed in 14.6.1, digital product has fewer constraints on space than the printed page, so displaying equations where it helps clarity of meaning is desirable; even inline expressions can be satisfactorily presented in TeX, which subtly adjusts interline spacing and character size and spacing. If not set in TeX, simplification remains desirable for equations embedded in text material that would otherwise require extra leading to be introduced. For example,

and simple fractions such as   can be written as ½ _π_ , ⅓ _x_ , ¼(a+b).

But just because the equations can have complex formatting, it does not necessarily mean that they should: work can be reduced and appearance improved by writing such a formula as

In printed product, displayed formulas three or four lines deep can thus be reduced to a space-saving, neater, and more manageable two-line form in almost all instances.

Displayed formulas are usually centred on the page. If there are many long ones, or a wide discrepancy in their length, it may be better to range them all left with a 1- or 2-em indent.

If it is necessary to break a formula—whether displayed or run-in—at the end of a line, it should be done at an operational sign, with the sign carried over to the next line. If an equation takes up two or more lines it should be displayed, with turnover lines aligned on the operational sign (preferably =):

  (2.1)

Any equation referred to at another point in the text should be numbered; any numbered equation should be displayed. It is usually better to include the chapter number in front of the sequence number, such as 2.1 for the first equation in Chapter 2. If, however, the total number of equations is very small, it is possible to use a single sequence of numbers throughout the text. As illustrated above, these numbers are enclosed in parentheses and set full right, aligned on the same line as the final line of the equation.

## 14.6.7 Mathematical symbols

Table 14.4 **Some mathematical symbols and corresponding Unicode code points**

# 14.7 Astronomy

## 14.7.1 Conventions

Most current astronomy texts follow those recommendations for style set out by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), though other styles may be found, especially in older works. Ensure consistency within a given work, preferring modern to older styles except when reproducing earlier texts.

Capitalize _Earth, Moon_ , and _Sun_ in astronomical contexts but not in general text; the definite article is omitted before _Earth_ in technical texts:

On Earth, valleys occur both on dry land and beneath the sea; there are also valleys on the Moon, Mars, and Venus.

The members organise turtle walks everyday and during full moon and new moon days, intensify the patrols.

Common sense seems to be disappearing off the face of the earth.

Use lower case for _suns_ and _moons_. Capitalize _Galaxy_ and _Solar System_ when it refers to the Milky Way and our planetary system, but _galactic_ and _solar_ is lower case in all other contexts. While _minor planet_ is preferable to _asteroid_ in technical usage, _asteroid belt_ is an accepted astronomical term.

## 14.7.2 Units

One-letter abbreviations for time units ( _second, minute, hour, day, year_ ) are acceptable ( _s, m, h, d, y_ ) if the context makes them clear. Time units can be written on the line with spaces ( _5h 35m 45s_ ) or superscripted and closed up ( _5 h35m45s_); aim for consistency. Dates are commonly written in the form _1954 March 31_. A year stated in the form _2000.0_ represents an epoch; the '.0' is significant and should not be deleted. Angles are often written with the angle symbol immediately before the decimal point ( _0″.001_ ). Conventional notation is also acceptable but be consistent.

Note _light year_ is a unit of distance, not time, is abbreviated with points, _l.y_., and is used in non-specialist texts. The distance unit _parsec_ , symbol _pc_ , is preferred in academic texts. SI prefixes (see 14.1.4) can be used with parsec (e.g. _5 Mpc_ ), unlike the light year. Within the Solar System, distances are measured in astronomical units, symbol AU.

## 14.7.3 Stellar nomenclature

Galaxies, nebulae, and bright star clusters can be designated by names ( _Crab Nebula, Beehive Cluster, Sombrero Galaxy_ ) or by numbers in a catalogue such as that of Messier ( _M1, M104_ ) or the New General Catalogue ( _NGC 1952, NGC 4594_ ). Note the prefix M is closed up, whereas a space is inserted after NGC.

The eighty-eight constellations have been assigned official names by the IAU. Many bright stars within these constellations have traditional names ( _Sirius, Canopus, Castor_ , and _Pollux_ ), though astronomers tend to favour the Bayer letter system, in which Greek letters are allotted in alphabetical order by brightness as seen from Earth. The letter can be written in full or using the Greek character, and is used in combination with a three-letter roman abbreviation (no point) assigned by the IAU, so in the constellation Centaurus, for example, the brightest star is written as _Alpha Centauri, Centauri_ , or _Cen_. The genitive form of the constellation name is used ( _Orionis_ not _Orion_ ), both capitalized when in full form ( _Beta Crucis_ ). An alternative designation is the Flamsteed system, which uses a number and the constellation abbreviation ( _61 Cyg, 58 Ori_ ).

# CHAPTER 15

#  Lists and tables

# 15.1 Lists

## 15.1.1 General principles

Lists arrange related elements of text in a linear, structured form. Lists may be displayed or run into text; their characteristics are explicit when they are displayed (see 15.1.4), but should be no less rigorously applied when they are embedded in the text (see 15.1.3). Lists may be broken across pages, whereas most tables should not be broken unless their size makes a break unavoidable.

## 15.1.2 Arrangement of items

Regardless of presentation, the text should make it clear what the elements of a list have in common. An open-ended list should specify at least three items, which are sufficiently similar to show how the list might continue: _French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc_. A list comprising examples introduced by _includes, for example_ , or _such as_ should not end tautologically in _etc_.

Lists should be grammatically consistent and balanced—for example, _the zookeeper fed the elephant, a lion, and llamas_ unsettles the reader because it is inconsistent in its use (or lack) of articles. Depending on context and emphasis, the first item alone may have an article ( _what colours are the legs, eyes, and bill?_ ), all the items may have no article ( _deciduous trees include oak, ash, sycamore, and maple_ ), or the article for each item may be repeated to emphasize its separateness:

The government does not yet appear to have given much consideration to balancing the needs of the research community, the taxpayer, and the commercial sectors, for which it is responsible.

A list that is very complex, or just very long, may need to be broken off and displayed (see 15.1.4).

## 15.1.3 Lists in running text

A list occurring as part of a sentence or sentences (a **run-on** or **in-text** list) follows the same rules governing any other sentence. If a colon is used to warn the reader that a list comes next, the introduction should be a main clause:

The product range expanded to include the following: soluble junior aspirin, gripe mixture, specially formulated children's shampoo and formulations for adults to relieve the symptoms of feverish cold, influenza, irritating coughs and stomach upsets.

Rearranged as _The product range expanded to include soluble junior aspirin, gripe mixture_ etc.), a colon should not be used as _The product range expanded to include_ is an incomplete sentence.

A straightforward list within a single sentence needs no numbers or letters to aid the reader:

Rabbits are divided into four kinds, known as warreners, parkers, hedgehogs, and sweethearts

House style will dictate whether the serial, or Oxford, comma (see 4.3.5) is used before the final list item; in the examples below, the first has it, the second does not:

Markets are held every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday

A bridge provides passage over obstacles such as rivers, valleys, roads and railways

It is usually acceptable to arrange into lists information where each element has only a few simple components, so long as these are treated unambiguously; notice in the following example that each element has the same structure:

Animals with specific medical problems that may be helped by special diets, for example renal disease (restricted protein and phosphorus), inflammatory bowel disease (select protein, limited antigen), or diabetes mellitus (high fibre), should be fed the most appropriate diet for their condition.

For a discussion of the use of commas and semicolons in run-on lists see 4.4 and 4.5.

Information in many run-on lists may equally be displayed (see below).

## 15.1.4 Displayed lists

There are three kinds of displayed list: lists marked by numbers or letters, lists with bulleted points, and simple lists with no markers. The purpose of a display is to draw the reader's attention and to make the material easy to find, consult, and digest; displaying also has the effect of breaking up the text. It is important to establish an underlying logic that determines whether lists are run on or displayed.

The introduction is usually a partial sentence finishing with a colon:

An advertisement from this period promotes Fennings' Ointment for:

• abrasions, abscesses, aching feet

• blotches, bruises, burns, boils

• chapped hands, chilblains, cuts

Opinions differ as to whether it is permissible to split an infinitive around a colon; Oxford style allows it, as here:

The committee's overarching recommendations were to:

• improve daily conditions

• tackle the inequitable distribution of money, power, and resources

• measure and understand the causes

the alternative being to repeat 'to' for each item ( _to improve, to tackle, to measure_ ).

End punctuation may vary: full points if list items are sentences; commas or semicolons at the discretion of author or editor (usually none); full point or no full point at the end of the last item. It is worth bearing in mind that if there is no full point at the end of a list, screen-reading software will continue to read the next paragraph as though it were part of the final list point. Omit 'and' and 'or' at the end of the penultimate point in a displayed list.

The preceding sentence can end with a full point or a colon (but no dash). Items that are complete sentences generally start with capitals and end in full points:

• Fino is a pale and delicate dry sherry of medium alcohol that is best drunk well chilled as an aperitif.

• Manzanilla is a very dry fino, considered to be the best, and is only produced in Sanlúcar de Barrameda on the coast.

• Amontillado is nuttier and fuller-bodied than the fino, between 17 and 18 degrees of alcohol.

• Oloroso is darker and more fragrant, containing between 18 and 20 degrees of alcohol.

• Cream sherries are sweeter and range from the lighter-tasting pale creams to the darker and velvety varieties that make a great after-dinner drink.

• Palo Cortado is a cross between an oloroso and an amontillado, and is very rare as it occurs spontaneously in only a small percentage of fino barrels when the yeast does not form properly.

Sentence fragments are usually lower case, with no end punctuation; the final item may or may not consistently take a full point. In this example, it does:

Legislation will be effective only if it is:

• closely monitored

• comprehensive

• strictly enforced.

Where possible, choose a system and stick to it; if necessary, reword the stem or list items to conform to your choice. However, in a publication with many diverse lists it may be better to allow both types (complete and fragmentary sentences) rather than to impose an artificial uniformity—but avoid mixing both types in one list.

## 15.1.5 Numbers, letters, and bullets

When elements of a list are cited in text, or when it is desirable to show the order or hierarchy of the points being made, numbering the items clarifies the sense. Letters or numbers in italic or roman may be used in run-on or displayed lists. In run-on lists lower-case letters or Roman numerals are often used; they should be in parentheses:

Problem-solving helps to: ( _a_ ) define the problem; ( _b_ ) divide it into manageable parts; ( _c_ ) provide alternative solutions; ( _d_ ) select the best solution; and ( _e_ ) carry it out and examine the result.

In displayed lists numbers are often used; they may be in roman or bold, with or without a following point, depending on the design decisions made:

1. Activities and action happen extremely quickly when in a product-recall situation. It is suggested that a number of blank copies of the product-recall coordinator's log be held, allowing data to be recorded directly on to this document.

2. The log is a key document and it is extremely important that it is maintained at all stages during the product-recall process.

3. Information in the log must be accurate, clear, and concise.

4. In the product-recall coordinator's absence the log's continued maintenance must be given priority by the Incident Management Team.

There are no hard-and-fast rules about the sequence of number styles in lists of more than one level. In Oxford style Arabic numbers at the first level are followed by italic lower-case letters in parentheses, followed by lower-case Roman numerals in parentheses—1 ( _a_ ) (i) (ii) (iii) ( _b_ ) (i) (ii) (iii) 2 ( _a_ ) (i) (ii) (iii) ( _b_ ) (i) (ii) (iii), etc. But a hierarchy that ran 1 (i) ( _a_ ) ( _b_ ) ( _c_ ) (ii) ( _a_ ) ( _b_ ) ( _c_ ), etc., would be no less acceptable. More complex lists might require, in addition, upper-case letters and Roman numerals above the Arabic numerals in the hierarchy. Numbered sections and subsections are discussed in 1.3.5 and 1.3.6.

If there is no reason for items to be hierarchical, a typographical symbol such as a bullet is used:

The moons closest to Jupiter are:

• Metis

• Adrastea

• Amalthea

• Thebe

• Io

• Europa

Bullets may be ranged left or indented, with an en space separating them from the item. Each typeface has a standard bullet size, so there is normally no need to specify this.

## 15.1.6 Simple lists

Material may also be displayed in simple lists with neither numbers nor bullets:

9.00 | arrive at meeting point
---|---
9.15 | coach leaves
10.30 | motorway stop (20 minutes)
11.30 | arrival at destination
1.00 | lunch in the picnic area
3.45 | return to coach
4.00 | coach departs for home
5.15 | motorway stop (20 minutes)
6.30 | arrive home.

# 15.2 Tables

## 15.2.1 General principles

A table is a set of data systematically displayed in rows and columns. Tables are best used for information that is too complex to be presented clearly in a list or in running text, and particularly for information intended for comparison, either within a single table or between similar tables.

Tables should be numbered by chapter or section in the order in which each is mentioned ( _Table 1.1_ , _Table 1.2_ , etc.) If there are only a few tables they may be numbered in a single sequence throughout the text. Frequent or large tables may be better placed at the end of the chapter or as an appendix to text; tables in an appendix are numbered separately. Unlike lists, tables should not be broken across pages unless their size makes a break unavoidable.

Consider whether tabular presentation is the clearest means of setting out the material. It might be more digestibly presented in a few sentences, or as a figure or graph. Two or more tables might be better merged, or a large one split up. For example, large tables viewed on a small screen can be problematic as they can be unreadable if zoomed out to show the whole structure or hard to interpret if column and row headings are not visible at larger font settings; careful consideration should be given as to whether to split the table into smaller components, for example, or to display the data in a different way.

The information must be relevant to the textual argument and correspond to what the text describes. It should not merely repeat the text. The order of elements in the table should be transparent; if no other order can be imposed on the table as a whole, alphabetical or numerical order may be best.

Omit vertical rules in tables—presentation is clearer and less cluttered without them. Horizontal rules should be kept to a minimum, although head and tail rules are included in most cases.

Most word-processing programs have a tool to create and edit tables; most page layout software can import the result but success depends partly on how well the table has been prepared. In the table body remove unnecessary spaces and tabs, and avoid adding a new line with a hard return—introduce an extra row instead. (A swift way of cleaning up a badly prepared table is to copy it into a blank spreadsheet then back into the document.) Alternatively, present data as columns separated by single tabs, rather than in table cells; include a tab for every column including empty cells. Do not use multiple tabs or spaces between columns. For either method preferably apply word-processor styles to the different table elements: title, column headings, body other than final row, final row, and notes.

Tables can also be prepared efficiently as spreadsheets but authors and editors should be aware that cell formulas will not import into other types of software, only the result of the formula; this is not a problem provided the table is not pasted back into the spreadsheet, e.g. for amendment. Most spreadsheet file formats can be imported into page layout software; however, spreadsheets should not be embedded in word-processed documents but presented separately.

Be prepared for the fact that badly prepared tables may be rekeyed if quicker than tidying up after an unsuccessful import. It is helpful if hard copy or a PDF that shows intended layout accompanies the files, in case vertical alignment is lost. Drawn elements within a table, such as chemical structures, may need to be treated as artwork. When in doubt, flag problematic tables or seek advice from the publisher.

Page layout software treats tables as separate elements, which are positioned once the text has flowed into the page template; consequently it may be more convenient if tables are presented separately rather than in situ in the document—it is worth checking whether your designer or publisher has a preference. If no guidance is given, gather the tables together in one place, or group them by chapter for example, or present them in sequence at the end of the document if only a few. The approximate position of tables should be clearly flagged—by a placement indication in the margin of hard copy or on a separate line in an electronic text, for example:

<<TABLE 1 NEAR HERE>>

All tables should also be cited by number in the text. Citations can be of the style _Table 2.1 summarizes the planning processes_ , or in the passive form _The planning processes are summarized_ ( _Table 2.1_ )... Avoid positional references such as 'the table above' or 'the following table', as the final paginated layout is likely to be different from that in the script.

Running heads can be set normally over full-page **portrait** (upright) or **landscape** (turned or broadside) tables, or they can be omitted; consistency is important.

If the author-number reference system is used in the text (see 17.4), any references cited in the table should be numbered in sequence according to where the table appears on the page; if the final position is unknown, number according to where the table is first cited or where it is likely to appear—some adjustment may be needed on page proofs.

## 15.2.2 Table headings

Tables must have headings, which are usually positioned above the table, consisting of the table number and a title that describes what the table contains. The title may use minimal or maximal capitalization according to the style of the work as a whole; no full point is needed after the table number or at the end of the heading.

When units are the same throughout the table they may be defined in the heading, for example:

Table 15.1 Price of apples, by region, 1954–1976 ($/ton)

The heading may also be used to expose the logic behind the order in which the material is presented in the table, for example:

Table 8.1 Tree and shrub species used in hedging (ordered by frequency of use)

## 15.2.3 Column and row headings

The length of column and row headings should be reduced to a minimum, so any repeated information should be removed to the table heading. Similar tables should be treated similarly. Capitalize only the first word and proper names in each heading; do not include end punctuation. Do not number headings unless the numbers are referred to in the text. Spans in headings must not overlap: _1920–9, 1930–9, 1940–9_ rather than _1920–30, 1930–40, 1940–50_.

Units, where needed, are usually in parentheses, and should not be repeated in the body.

Column headings with common elements can be combined over a 'straddle' or 'spanner' rule (see Table 15.1).

Table 15.1 **Per cent of deaths from cancer attributable to smoking, 1975 and 1995**

Totals may be set off by a space or a rule (see Table 15.2). The word 'Total' may be formatted differently from the body.

Table 15.2 **New Zealand casualties 1939–1945**

Row headings (also called stub or side headings) may or may not have a heading like other columns. If they do have a heading, ensure that it is appropriate and relevant to all of the stubs. Where row headings turn over to another line, data should be aligned consistently with either the last or the first line of the side heading.

## 15.2.4 Body of table

The body of a table is simply the tabular data introduced and ordered by the columns and stub. Where data drawn from a variety of sources has to be recast to allow comparison, ensure that this does not introduce inaccuracy or anachronism, or distort the material's integrity, especially if the source is in copyright.

The unit(s) used in the table should suit the information: for example, national agricultural production figures may be easier to compare if rounded to 1,000 tons. Rounding also saves space, but editors should not make wholesale changes without querying them with the author. Tables intended for comparison should ideally present their data consistently in similar units. Ensure that abbreviations are consistently applied from one table to another, and that all units and percentages are defined. Exclude end punctuation. Mathematical operators (+, –, >, etc.) may be close up to surrounding digits to save space if necessary. Ensure that the correct symbols are used for minus signs, hyphens, and en and em rules; on hard copy mark their first occurrence in each table. Add zeros in front of decimal points if omitted; the exception may be probability values, for example p < .05, as house styles vary.

Familiar abbreviations are acceptable, such as %, &, country abbreviations, and those well known in the reader's discipline. Ambiguous abbreviations such as _n_ / _a_ ('not applicable' or 'not available') and unfamiliar abbreviations must be explained in the notes (see 15.2.5): the reader should be able to understand the table independently of the text, particularly in digital product as the table may open in a separate window or screen. Repeat information rather than use ditto marks. Em rules or en rules are often used in empty fields, but can indicate either 'no data' or 'not available', so it may be better to specify which is the case.

Turn-lines in simple items in columns are indented 1 em, with no extra vertical space between items (see for example column 2 in Table 15.3). Turn-lines in discursive or run-on items (for example data in a chronology) can be set full left in a column as panels or blocks of text, not indented, with a space between each item (see for example column 4 in Table 15.3).

Related figures in a single column should have the same number of decimal places. Unrelated figures may have a different number of decimal places, but only if reflecting different levels of accuracy. Editors should check with the author before rounding them to a common level. Percentage totals may vary slightly above or below 100 per cent as a result of rounding.

When statistical matter within each column is unrelated, align it on the left with the column heading (see Table 15.4). Optionally, the longest line can be designed so that it is centred under the heading, if the result suits the material better.

Table 15.3 **Beaufort wind scale**

When statistical matter within the columns is related, align it so that the longest item aligns with the column heading and other items align with the decimal point or with the final digit on the right (see Table 15.5).

Table 15.4 **Comparison of four forests with infection present**

Table 15.5 **Working days lost through strikes per 1,000 workers, six countries, 1960–1999 (annual averages)**

## 15.2.5 Notes to tables

Notes fall directly beneath the table to which they refer; they are not incorporated with the text's footnote system. Set notes to table width, normally one size down from table size. General notes, notes on specific parts of the table, and probability values should appear in this order; source notes may go first or last provided they are treated consistently. Ensure that notes to a table cannot be mistaken for text recommencing after the table. General and source notes are uncued and often preceded by _Note_ : and _Source_ : respectively. The reference structure of source notes matches that used elsewhere in the work. Each note should generally begin on a new line and end with a full point (see Table 15.6), although notes of a kind can run on, separated by semicolons, to save space:

CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; SD = standard deviation

Mark specific notes with a system of indices different from that used in the text (for example * † §), as in Table 15.6, or superscript letters or numbers (italic or roman). Cues in a table read across; for example, a cue in the last column of the first row precedes a cue in the first column of the second row.

Probability values may be indicated by a system of asterisks, in which case the convention should be explained in a note: '*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001'. Editors should not impose other symbols in this case.

Table 15.6 **Issues of the de luxe edition of _Ulysses_ , copies 1–1,000**

## 15.2.6 Presentation on the page

Tables may be placed on the page in portrait or landscape format. Authors are not responsible for determining the format in which tables will be set. A wide table may fit a page's measure if the arrangement of column and stub heads is reversed, but editors should consult the author first. Do not rearrange similar or related tables into differing structures.

Large portrait and landscape tables may be presented over two or more pages of text. Hard-copy editors should indicate preferred places where a large table may be split; on-screen editors can do the same on a PDF or in a note to the designer. Headings do not need to be repeated where continued tables can be read across or down a facing page. If the table continues on a verso page, however, indicate which headings need to be repeated. On-screen editors should not repeat headings in files that will be imported into page-layout software as that will be done automatically.

In page proofs insert a 'continued' line, such as 'Table 2 _cont_.', only if the table turns over to a verso page, not if it extends over facing pages. When several continued tables are given in succession, a short form of each table's title can be helpful.

# CHAPTER 16

#  Illustrations and artwork

# 16.1 General principles

## 16.1.1 Introduction

Illustrations are non-textual graphic elements, commonly referred to as **artwork** , used to enhance publications of all kinds, and are an essential part of many works, from children's stories to technical manuals, in both conventional print and online/digital media. They may be, for example, photographic images, graphs, charts, maps, or drawings/cartoons, essential to the delivery of the ideas in the publication or purely cosmetic/decorative. They may be embedded in the main text or appear separately; they may be an integral part of the design. Multimedia publication also allows the integrated use of audio and video elements, although this aspect is beyond the scope of the present chapter.

Historically, original artwork was typically supplied to publishers as black and white drawings, tone photographs, or colour transparencies (hard copy; see 16.4). It is now standard publishing practice for illustrations to be handled as **digital artwork** (see 16.3), created by the author using digital photography or suitable graphics software packages, or produced by scanning existing hard copies.

There are different criteria for preparing/publishing illustrations in print and digital media—an illustration created for online use (e.g. an infographic; see 16.2.4) will generally not be suitable for high-quality printing. It is important that authors prepare and supply artwork in the correct format for the final output.

Illustrations not created by the author(s) for a specific publication (including illustrations previously published elsewhere or images taken from the web) may be subject to copyright, and permission to reproduce them must be obtained from the copyright holder (see 16.5).

The effective use of illustrations can significantly improve the clarity of the messages conveyed. Consult with your editor/publisher and prepare them at the same time as writing the text. Consider their layout in relation to the overall material, whether printed or digital. Do not let them be an afterthought!

## 16.1.2 Numbering and citations

**Figures** (illustrations together with their **captions** ) may be numbered by chapter or section in the order in which they appear (e.g. the second figure in _Chapter_  is _Figure 1.2_ and the third figure in _Section III_ is _Figure III.3_ ); if there are only a few, they can be numbered in a single sequence throughout the text. Figures in an appendix are numbered separately (e.g. the fourth figure in _Appendix A1_ is _Figure A1.4_ ). Numbered **plates** also use a separate sequence (see 16.2.3).

Depending on the nature of the publication, figures may be subdivided into other graphic elements, such as schemes, flowcharts, structures, maps, etc. These can be included in the same sequence with other illustrations or numbered separately for the sake of clarity.

References to figures may be variously styled—consistency is most important, whichever style is adopted. They can be cited actively:

Fig. 1.3 shows a flowchart of mass input/output.

or passively:

A flowchart using boxes for the process units and arrows for the mass inputs/outputs provides an overview of the process (Fig. 1.3).

All the illustrations in the text should be cited (this will enable hyperlinks to be included in digital media).

Avoid positional references ( _the figure above or the following illustration_ ) in the original text, as the configuration may change during make-up and on different viewing platforms (see 16.2.3).

## 16.1.3 Page make-up

The typesetter/designer is usually responsible for overseeing the placement of illustrations, ideally following as close as possible to their first citation in the text. The exceptions are plate sections (groups of high-quality images that benefit from the use of glossy art paper) in printed works—these will be inserted in the most convenient place for subsequent collation.

Page make-up/web design software is used by the typesetter/designer to assemble pages digitally to generate output suitable for printing or on-screen viewing. Various elements such as text and digital artwork are combined in a single file; the elements can be 'cut & pasted' on-screen.

Indicate the approximate position of figures with a **cue** (or **tag** ) in square brackets in the original text, for example:

[FIGURE 1.3]

The aesthetics of page design often dictate the layout of illustrations for print output. Pictures generally appear at the bottom or top of a printed page, or may bleed over the cut edge. Illustrations to be set landscape should always be placed with the head of the illustration turned to the left. In double-column formats, multiple illustrations should follow the flow of the text on the page: down the left column and then down the right. Running heads and page numbers are generally omitted from full-page illustrations in books.

Space should be allowed for the caption, and between the illustration and the text or adjacent illustrations. Ensure that nothing important is lost in the gutter between two pages when illustrations span a two-page spread.

Different criteria may be applied to digital publications, such as web pages and ebooks, to take advantage of the opportunities offered by such media. For example, figures in academic journals may only appear as thumbnails in online versions—these are hyperlinked to full-size versions that open in a new page of a web browser. Be aware that illustrations may be resized and reformatted automatically to provide optimum viewing on different digital platforms (e.g. a large computer monitor or a smaller mobile device).

## 16.1.4 Scaling (sizing)

The final dimensions of the illustrations will depend on the type of publication (printed or digital) and the layout specifications (e.g. one or two columns) developed by the editor and designer.

Hard-copy original artwork may need to be enlarged/reduced to match the final dimensions (see 16.4.1). Digital artwork should be supplied at the final dimensions and resolution (see 16.3).

Similar illustrations need to be in proportion, especially when being compared. Cropping of hard copy may mean that an **original** does not have to be reduced as much. Be aware of possible cropping restrictions on copyright images (see 16.5 and Chapter 20).

## 16.1.5 Labelling (lettering) and shading

Traditionally, authors provided hard-copy roughs that were copy-edited and sent to an illustrator for redrawing, at which stage any essential changes could be made. However, most illustrations are now handled as author-prepared digital artwork (see 16.3) and the publisher may not want to have them redrawn, in which case the changes that can be made will be restricted (e.g. it may not be practical to match editorial style in the text with that of labels/lettering). It is therefore helpful for editors to know whether changes are possible.

Ensure final-size characters are large enough to remain sharply defined in the published version. **Labels** should be no smaller than 8 points (Helvetica, Arial, or a similar sans-serif font is commonly used). Line widths should be no less than ½ point.

If **lettering** would obscure an item, use leader lines pointing out the relevant features (Figure 16.1).

Spelling, hyphenation, symbols, and abbreviations for units should match those in the captions (see 16.1.7) and text.

Tints/shading may be used to differentiate areas of an illustration (Figure 16.2), but colour or similar effects should not be the only method used to convey meaning. Ensure that vital information is not lost if the image is displayed without colour. Avoid using solid black for large areas, as this may cause problems in conventional printed works.

## 16.1.6 Key

The key explains the symbols or conventions used in the illustration. It is usually part of the artwork, although if it is simple it may be included as part of the caption (see 16.1.7). Check that the key corresponds with the caption and text; it may be necessary to relabel artwork taken from other sources accordingly.

Figure 16.1 The human alimentary canal.

## 16.1.7 Captions

Most illustrations (apart from purely decorative illustrations) require a caption (a complete sentence) or legend (an incomplete sentence, such as in Figure 16.3, although the terms are often used interchangeably), which should indicate the essential content of the illustration. These generally appear beneath (sometimes beside) the illustration, depending on the page design. Captions or legends should begin with the number of the figure or illustration. Source lines or other wording required by the copyright holder should also appear as part of the caption.

Figure 16.2 Accretionary wedge.

Figure 16.3 Upper Palaeolithic blade tools in flint. (A) Solutrean piercer, Dordogne. (B) Magdalenian concave end-scraper, Dordogne. (C) Gravettian knife point, Dordogne. (D) Magdalenian burin, Dordogne. (E) End-scraper, Vale of Clwyd.

Figures (i.e. the illustration and caption) should be able to stand alone from the text. Captions should explain the illustration in full. They should be concise and extraneous information should be removed. Remove or reduce labelling on the illustration by including explanations in the caption, as in Figure 16.3. Use of descriptive terms such as _above, below, top, bottom, left, right_ , and _clockwise_ can also help identify elements in an illustration or components of a group of illustrations.

Ensure the format of the caption text is consistent.

Supply captions as a list at the end of a chapter or in a separate file. Do not integrate them with the text or incorporate them in the artwork (see 16.1.6). Captions for unnumbered illustrations should be clearly identifiable.

Check that spellings, hyphenation, and symbols correspond to those used in the artwork and text.

# 16.2 Specific types of illustrations

## 16.2.1 Maps

Maps are difficult to execute and often require special attention. Information must be relevant, and presented in a clear and uncluttered fashion. The level of detail should relate to the reasons why the reader will consult the map. When a map is to be (re)drawn by the publisher (coordinated to match the design of a publication), supply a rough sketch or copy:

• _Geographical and political features_ must be easily distinguishable by line weights, tints/shading, and typographic conventions: for example, countries in capitals (FRANCE), towns in capitals and lower case (Paris), major physical features such as mountain ranges and oceans in italic capitals ( _PYRENEES, ATLANTIC OCEAN_ ), and individual mountains and smaller bodies of water (rivers and lakes) in italic capital and lowercase ( _Seine, Aneto_ ). Spellings must agree with the text. Supply text for any key or note to appear on the map.

• Incorporate a _scale bar_.

• _North_ is assumed to be at the top (usually the top of the page unless set landscape). If this is not the case, include an arrow to indicate north.

• Indicate any _cropping_ , either to allow for enlargement of an area or to minimize peripheral features.

• If appropriate, give the _projection_.

## 16.2.2 Graphs

Graphs show the relationship between variable quantities. The horizontal ( _x_ ) and vertical ( _y_ ) axes should be labelled with a quantity (include any units in parentheses—ensure these match the caption and text). The labels should be parallel to the axis, reading from bottom to top for the _y_ axis (Figure 16.4).

The intervals in the axis divisions should be consistent (unless it is a logarithmic scale). The numbers differentiating divisions should be horizontal for both axes. The numbers do not have to start at zero. A zero symbol should precede any decimal point for values less than one (e.g. _0.86_ not . _86_ )

Extra rules other than the _x_ and _y_ axes, such as gridlines, should be deleted unless there is a need to read off a specific value on a curve, but this is unusual. Arrowheads can be drawn at the ends of axes to indicate a trend but are superfluous if the axis has a scale.

_Bar charts_ are used to represent categories of discrete data. They have vertical or horizontal columns where the column length is proportional to the quantity in that category; only the _y_ axis has a scale. All the columns should be the same width and usually have a gap between. A _histogram_ represents continuous data so the column widths may vary as their area is proportional to the frequency; the columns therefore have no gaps between. Both _x_ and _y_ axes have a scale.

Figure 16.4 Simple graph.

Figure 16.5 Example of a bar chart. From _Experience of sport and physical activity in Northern Ireland 2011/12_ (Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure, 2013).

The format should be consistent throughout a series of graphs, and be consistent with the text and caption.

Graphs created using generic word-processing, spreadsheet, or presentation software are not suitable for professional printing. Graphs produced using custom software for specific applications may be suitable provided the output settings match those required for digital artwork files (see 16.3).

## 16.2.3 Medical images

Radiographs (X-rays), scans, and other diagnostic images, as well as pictures of pathology specimens or micrographs, should be supplied as high-resolution digital files. Micrographs should contain internal scale markers.

Remove any patient identification details from such images (and accompanying text and captions). Use of a photograph of a patient will require a Patient Consent Form even if any identifying features have been removed/obscured.

## 16.2.4 Infographics

**Infographics** are a popular visual shorthand for conveying complex concepts (data visualization). They provide clear visual representations of data, integrating words and graphics to reveal patterns or trends (e.g. weather maps), or to provide information (e.g. maps of public transportation) that would be unwieldy in text form.

Static infographics may be produced using standard graphics packages. Online interactive infographics that allow the viewer to interact with data can be created using a range of software available on the Internet.

# 16.3 Digital artwork and graphics files

## 16.3.1 Overview

The preferred method of handling illustrations for publication in all types of media is via digital artwork. This route has many benefits to the author and the publisher, and has clear advantages over using hard copy. By originating and manipulating artwork, the author has complete control over the final illustration and the production times/costs are minimized for the publisher.

It is very important that digital artwork is prepared in the correct format. Many publishers have their own specific guidelines for authors and general guides/resources are available on the web.

Digital artwork can be created using graphics/image-editing software (see 16.3.2), by a digital camera (see 16.3.5), or by scanning original hard copy to produce digital files (see 16.3.6).

## 16.3.2 Files and file types

Graphics files can be bitmap (also known as raster) or vector based.

• _Bitmap graphics_ consist of many small elements called pixels. **Bitmap images** are _continuous tone_ images (see 16.4) produced when using a digital camera or scanning an existing illustration, or can be created and edited in raster graphics software.

• _Vector graphics_ consist of separate mathematically described shapes called objects. **Vector images** are usually used for _line artwork_ (see 16.4) and can be created using vector graphics software.

A final illustration may use a combination of vector and bitmap elements.

Graphics files are supported by many file formats. Standard image formats include:

JPEGA | common bitmap file format produced by most digital cameras; best used for continuous tone illustrations. JPEG is a lossy format, meaning that it discards colour information to produce a compressed file. This is not normally an issue for online publication, but may be noticeable in print.
---|---
TIFF | The preferred bitmap format for continuous tone illustrations. TIFF files are significantly larger than JPEG files and can be either uncompressed or compressed using lossless compression. Unlike JPEG, TIFF files can support multiple layered images, where elements of the image exist in separate layers that can be manipulated without affecting the others.
EPSA | standard format for vector (line artwork) graphics. Bitmaps can also be embedded in EPS files, making this a recommended format for combined vector/bitmapped illustrations. EPS files are high-quality, very large memory files because of their lossless format.

These exchange formats can be viewed using most software packages.

Application-specific formats such as **PSD** (bitmap) and **AI** (vector) are designed to be understood only by the software in which they were created (Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator, respectively); however, they can be easily converted to exchange formats.

**PDF** files are used for creating and digitally transferring documents, including text and graphics, in the final intended layout. These may be suitable for print, depending on the quality of any embedded images and the output options selected.

Word-processor, spreadsheet, and presentation files are not suitable for high-quality print output. **GIF** files, which can also support _animated graphics_ , and **PNG** files are useful for simple web images, but not for print. **BMP** files offer no advantage over other formats and should be avoided. **RAW** files are produced by high-end digital cameras, and require processing and conversion to a standard format such as **JPEG** or **TIFF**.

## 16.3.3 Size and resolution

Supply digital artwork at the same size as the final published illustration. Dimensions may be given in units of length for print output (e.g. 10 × 15 cm) or pixels for on-screen viewing (e.g. 800 × 600 pixels).

Resolution is the number of dots or pixels in a given area: dots per inch (dpi) or pixels per inch (ppi) (for most practical purposes the units are interchangeable). It is very important that digital artwork be supplied at the correct resolution to ensure high-quality output—low-resolution artwork is not suitable for print, and may result in requests for resubmission and delays in publication.

Minimum resolutions (at final image size) for print:

• line artwork: 600 dpi (simple) to 1200 dpi (detailed)

• tone artwork: 300 dpi

• combined line/tone: 600–900 dpi.

Be aware that the requirements for printed and on-screen images are very different. The resolution of a computer monitor is 72–96 dpi, meaning that although an image may look acceptable on a monitor and be suitable for online use, it may be of insufficient resolution for print purposes.

Resolution is not a set value—it is variable and is inversely proportional to visual size. If the visual size is doubled, the resolution halves, reducing the quality (Figure 16.5). The size and resolution of digital artwork can be determined and revised in most graphics software.

Images copied from the web are usually too low resolution for print. It may be possible to obtain high-resolution versions (and appropriate copyright clearance; see 16.5) from the website administrator.

## 16.3.4 Handling colour

Ensuring accurate reproduction of colour illustrations is an important consideration and is critical for certain types of fine art/photography publications.

Computer monitors/desk-top printers and conventional printers use different models (colour spaces) to handle colour. Computer monitors use RGB (Red, Green and Blue) mode to display colours, whereas conventional printing uses CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key (Black) mode. As a result, an image viewed on a computer monitor may not match the final colour rendition of the printed version.

Figure 16.6 The same photograph at different resolutions.

Ideally, monitors should be calibrated to assess colour accuracy, and files should be created in the appropriate colour mode: RGB for online publication and CMYK for print publication.

## 16.3.5 Digital cameras

Image files of hard copy originals can be created with a good digital camera (at least 10 megapixels and a high-quality lens).

When taking digital photographs, ensure that the lighting is bright and even (without shadows), ISO is set to the lowest value, the image is sharply in focus, extraneous elements are cropped out and the camera is set to produce the largest file size possible. RAW files should be converted to a standard file format (see 16.3.2).

## 16.3.6 Scanning

Hard copy may be scanned to produce digital files. Scans should be at the final size and orientation, and at the correct resolution (see 16.3.3). The originals should be free from dust and other debris, and the scanned colours should match the original.

It is better to scan originals rather than scan a printed copy, to reduce interference patterns (moiré) caused by previous screening. A high-resolution scan of a poor original will not improve the quality, although it is possible to touch-up and relabel scanned originals using image-editing software.

## 16.3.7 Submitting files

Check that artwork files conform to any specified requirements. Individual illustrations (and parts) should be supplied as separate files. Do not embed the illustrations in text or other files. Ensure all layered files are flattened (the layers that make up the image are compressed into a single plane).

Name the files in a logical style following the conventions used in the text (e.g. in a simple format _Figure_1.1.tif_ or with a project identifier _Smith_Fig_3.tif_ ). If figures are not numbered, use a brief unambiguous descriptive name to match the corresponding citations and captions (e.g. _Ozone_distribution_2014.tif_ ).

Compile a separate artwork log listing all of figures (and parts) and corresponding file names, together with any notes (e.g. unusual file formats).

Final artwork files may be submitted on portable media (CD/DVD, flash drives, etc.) or over the Internet via file-sharing sites/FTP. Group large numbers of individual files in a logical directory/folder structure (e.g. by section/chapter). Keep a backup copy of all files.

# 16.4 Line and tone artwork: hard copy

Traditionally, publishers recognize two main types of illustration: line artwork and tone artwork, both of which may be black and white or colour. Final illustrations may be combinations of line and tone artwork.

• _Line illustrations_ can be graphs, charts, plans, maps, pen-and-ink drawings, woodcuts/etchings or musical scores—typically, any illustration that has no continuous tone and cannot be typeset.

• _Continuous tone illustrations_ are usually photographs, but may also be drawn and painted artwork. To simulate the subtle transitions of tone in print, the picture is broken up into a series of dots (half-tone). This was formerly done by screening; however, developments in digital reproduction technology enabling the production of print-ready material mean that this process has been largely superseded.

The distinction between line and tone illustrations has important consequences when creating digital artwork files (see 16.3).

## 16.4.1 Submitting original hard copies

Hard copy may be submitted only if it is not possible for an author to create digital artwork from existing material (through scanning or digital photography; see 16.3.5 and 16.3.6) or if originals need to be redrawn (check with your editor/publisher).

• Line artwork should be clear and crisply defined, mounted on card.

• Glossy photographic prints with good contrast produce the best results.

• Present slides as 35 mm (mounted) or larger-format colour transparencies.

• Previously screened illustrations and photocopies reproduce poorly.

Reductions/enlargements should be indicated as a percentage (e.g. '67 per cent' indicates a reduction of the artwork _to_ 67 per cent of its original size—not reduced _by_ 67 per cent).

Any relabelling and cropping should be marked on a photocopy—the original may be scanned to capture the image without redrawing from scratch. Supply an accompanying text file for each label. Avoid making any marks on the original.

Present a composite illustration with more than one part as individual pieces of artwork, clearly identified and accompanied by a photocopy showing the desired layout.

Identify all artwork with the title of the work and identification number, and include name/address details to enable the publisher to return the (often valuable) artwork. Originals should be securely packaged.

# 16.5 Permissions and acknowledgements

Most illustrations are protected by copyright law and permission (clearance) must be obtained in good time from the copyright holder to reproduce any illustrations not originated by the author specifically for a particular publication. These include illustrations from other publications, including your own material if it has been previously published elsewhere, pictures taken by professional photographers, and material taken from the Internet. Where there is any doubt (e.g. when a modified version of an illustration is to be used) it is prudent to ask for permission. Keep a record of all correspondence relating to obtaining permissions. For more information, see Chapter 20.

The moral rights (see 20.2.4) of any photographer/artist should be asserted because even if copyright has been assigned to a third party, the originator retains the moral rights to their work. When using your own photographs for commercial purposes you may need to use Release Forms to obtain permission from any individuals (or their guardian) in them or anyone who owns property in them. Patient Consent Forms should be obtained for any photographs of patients used in medical publications (see 16.2.3).

Illustrations may also be sourced through picture libraries. These are agencies that represent the creators or the assigned copyright holders of images and sell licences for the images they hold. Some picture libraries also provide images that are in the public domain.

The wording of the copyright information may be stipulated by the copyright holder. This should be included at the end of the caption itself, unless the copyright holder instructs otherwise.

# CHAPTER 17

#  Notes and references

# 17.1 General principles

Publications of many kinds employ pointers within the main body of the text to refer the reader to explanatory or additional material either on the same page or elsewhere in the work. Academic publications in particular need an apparatus to provide references to support, and sometimes to clarify and amplify, what is said in the text. It is of course the responsibility of the author to ensure that the text is properly supported by appropriate sources, that the sources are correctly quoted or interpreted, and that the citations are accurate, complete, and follow an appropriate style. It is, however, the duty of the editor to ensure that the references in a work are presented in a clear and consistent manner. The reader may well see sloppy references as symptoms of generally careless scholarship.

The systems commonly adopted vary greatly between disciplines, and there may be considerable variation even within a single discipline, according to the preferences of particular publishers, editors, and authors. Furthermore, as in other aspects of editing, practice changes over time, and new styles may be taken up very unevenly. The most traditional system employs numbers, letters, or symbols as cues to direct the reader to notes which are printed either at the foot of the page to which they relate ( **footnotes** ) or in a group at the end of the text ( **endnotes** ). Alternatively, in what is known as the **author–date** or **Harvard** system, the cues may take the form of an author's name and date of publication (or in the **author–number** or **Vancouver** system simply a reference number) within parentheses that enable the reader to identify the work in a list of full references at the end of the text. Various permutations are possible. In some ways life is made easier for both author and editor if a commonly recognized system is adopted, but agreed adaptation to the needs of a particular work can prove beneficial. What matters most is that the necessary information should be conveyed to the reader (of both print and electronic materials) clearly and economically.

The primary function of scholarly annotation is to identify for the reader the sources of what is said in text. This may be the location of a verbatim quotation or—just as important in an academic work—the basis for a statement by the author. Simple references of this kind can be accommodated by systems that use brief parenthetical references in the text to take the reader to a consolidated bibliography (see 17.3 and 17.4). Such references are particularly well suited to scientific publications, but they are also used in the social sciences and increasingly in the humanities. In the humanities it is normally notes that are the essential feature of the supporting apparatus. Notes are a convenient vehicle not only for complex bibliographical citations but also, for example, for acknowledgements, further discussion, supporting original text, and bibliographical surveys (see 17.2.1). Notes may be used in conjunction with a bibliography or more selective suggestions for further reading, or with a list of abbreviations of frequently cited sources (see 17.2.6).

# 17.2 Footnotes and endnotes

## 17.2.1 The use of notes in the humanities

An apparatus based on notes is normal in the humanities, where more is often needed than a simple link to a consolidated list of published sources. For example, manuscript sources are more easily cited in notes than in the systems of parenthetical reference used in scientific publications (see also 18.6). Different sources, or versions of a source, may be compared and evaluated in a note. If a quotation is given in translation in the text the original may perhaps be given in a note, or conversely (this may be scrupulous scholarly practice where doubt is possible about the correctness of a translation, but it should not be adopted routinely without good reason). It is sometimes helpful to include in a note a brief survey of the literature on a particular topic, or a summary of a debate, though authors should be discouraged from needlessly transforming notes into bibliographies. Author's acknowledgements also fit neatly into notes. Also, notes can perform special functions in scholarly editions of original texts, where they may, for instance, supply variant readings from different manuscripts.

The flexibility that makes notes such a useful tool can be abused. Authors sometimes include in notes further discussion of a question raised in the text, or of some related issue. While this cannot be outlawed altogether, it should be avoided wherever possible. For the most part, if a point is important and relevant enough to be discussed at all it should be dealt with in the text. Notes should be kept as short as possible, and inessential material excluded. The best place for extensive but essential ancillary matter that cannot be accommodated in the text may be an appendix. The main function of notes (other than those in editions of texts) remains the clear and concise presentation of necessary references.

## 17.2.2 Footnotes or endnotes?

In printed material, notes may be either **footnotes** , placed at the foot of the page to which they relate, or **endnotes** , placed in a single sequence at the end of the text. In multi-author volumes and journals that employ endnotes they should be printed at the end of an individual chapter or article; otherwise they are normally placed at the end of the book, in a separately numbered sequence for each chapter.

Some categories of note, such as those that explain the meaning of words in the text or provide variant readings, have an especially strong claim to be placed at the foot of the page. Footnotes are in general much more convenient for the reader, who can keep track of them without the annoying disruption of flipping back and forth between text and notes in the course of reading. The setting of notes at the foot of the page can make page layout more complex than placing them together at the end of the text, depending on the length and number of footnotes.

In material presented in formats that do not rely on a fixed page, such as ebooks and some websites, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes becomes less meaningful. Notes in electronic formats will generally be connected to the text via a hyperlink. Authors should discuss with their publishers every format in which their text is likely to be published and plan for a notes system that will work across them all.

## 17.2.3 Numbering and placement

The reader is referred to a footnote or endnote by a cue in the text. This normally takes the form of a superior Arabic number. The cue is placed after any punctuation (normally after the closing point of a sentence). If, however, it relates only to text within parentheses it is placed before the closing parenthesis. The cue is repeated at the start of the note. Notes cued in the middle of a sentence are a distraction to the reader, and cues are best located at the end of sentences:

He was a genuine Shropshire lad, as John H. Johnston reminds us.51

Bergonzi quite correctly notes, 'Owen's attitude to the "boys" or "lads" destined for sacrifice has some affinity with Housman's.'55

(Hopkins wrote defensively to Bridges: 'When you read it let me know if there is anything like it in Walt Whitman; as perhaps there may be, and I should be sorry for that.'29)

Characters other than Arabic numerals may be used for note cues when there are relatively few notes in a sequence, but this should only be done when necessary. In mathematical or scientific contexts, for example, superior lower-case letters may be used to avoid confusion with superscript numbers in technical notation. Lower-case Roman numerals may also serve as note cues (though this quickly becomes unwieldy), as can reference marks (the traditional order is *, †, ‡, §, ¶, ||, repeated in duplicate as **, ††, and so on as necessary—but this too is a cumbersome method if there are more than a handful of notes). Occasionally different types of cue are employed on the same page for parallel sequences of notes serving different purposes: this should be avoided if possible but is sometimes required in complex editions.

Notes should be numbered continuously through each chapter or article. This allows the numbers in the author's copy to remain unchanged at typesetting; internal cross-references to notes thus do not require correction on page proof, and passages of text may even be located by reference to numbered notes ( _Ch_. _6_ _at n. 17_ ). Continuous numbering of notes through an entire book is to be avoided, as it can generate too many three-digit cues and will cause problems if a note is deleted or added at proof stage. Whether numbered page by page or chapter by chapter note cues must appear in strict numerical sequence; the same number must not be used twice within a sequence, even if the content of the note is the same.

An initial note consisting entirely of acknowledgements may be placed before the numbered notes and cued with an asterisk; the asterisk is placed at the end of the first sentence of text. Avoid asterisks, note numbers, or other cues within or at the end of titles, subtitles, and chapter subheadings. An initial uncued note may be used to provide the original location of a reprinted chapter or article.

A note giving the source for a displayed quotation is best placed at the end of the quotation itself rather than at the end of the preceding text. Where there are multiple quotations from or references to a particular source the locations should be given in a single note after the last quotation or reference, provided no other citation intervenes. The page numbers should be in the same order as the quotations or statements to which they relate, not rearranged into numerical sequence. If there are repeated citations of a single source (but no other) over several paragraphs it may be best to provide a separate note for each paragraph. The notes in three such successive paragraphs might, for example, be:

6. Smith, _Windham's Green Book_ , 25, 17, 31.

7. Smith, _Windham's Green Book_ , 87, 95, 103–5.

8. Smith, _Windham's Green Book_ , 150, 75, 279.

Furthermore, where it can be done without ambiguity, it is good practice to group references to different sources in a single note after several sentences or at the end of a paragraph. The nature of the source will generally indicate to which statement in the text it relates, and any doubt may be removed by a parenthetical word or phrase after the references or by an introductory phrase before several related references. The editorial effort required is justified by the reduction in the number of notes and the improved readability of the text.

Not even the best endowed colleges had incomes approaching those of such great Benedictine houses as... Westminster or Glastonbury... New College's estates probably yielded revenues of a similar magnitude to the Augustinian abbey of Oseney.... The estate income of All Souls... was probably slightly lower for example than that of Bolton Priory in Yorkshire, which supported merely fifteen canons... The college by contrast remained close to its statutory complement of a warden and forty fellows.30

30. D. Knowles and R. N. Hadcock, _Medieval Religious Houses: England and Wales_ (1953), 80 (Westminster), 66 (Glastonbury), 149 (Oseney), 128 (Bolton); I. Kershaw, _Bolton Priory_ (1973), 186; Cobban, 'Colleges and halls', 609.

## 17.2.4 Layout of notes

The layout and typography of notes is subject to considerable variation. Footnotes in particular are usually set in smaller type than text. A note should begin with a capital initial and end with a full point. It may or may not contain grammatically complete sentences. Abbreviated forms (for example for the months of the year) and symbols that would not be acceptable in open text may be appropriate within citations in notes. Various forms of punctuation and wording may be used to group citations and to indicate how they relate to material in the text or to related questions; what is most efficient in any context is a matter for editorial judgement. The common abbreviation 'cf.' (Latin _confer_ ) means 'compare', and thus is not quite the same as 'see'.

The number preceding the note may be superscript or on the line:

40 Mokyr, _Why Ireland Starved_ , 26.

40. Mokyr, _Why Ireland Starved_ , 26.

Whether or not a point is needed after a number on the line is a design issue.

## 17.2.5 Forms of citation

Full guidance on the form of bibliographic citations is to be found in Chapter 18. For the most part the same considerations govern entries in a bibliography and citations in notes, with the important exception that in notes an author's initials or forename precede rather than follow the surname. Consistent systems for the formulation of notes are essential, but abstract rules should not be followed too slavishly: much can depend on editorial judgement in presenting particular references as clearly and economically as possible.

### Author and short title

In addition to general bibliographic rules there are conventions, relating especially to multiple citations of the same work, that are intended to promote brevity and clarity within notes. Unless it is included in a list of abbreviations or a bibliography (see 17.2.6), full bibliographic details of a published work or the location of an unpublished source should be given when it is first cited in an article or book, and repeated at its first citation in any subsequent chapter in the same book. Subsequent citations should take a very abbreviated form, typically the author's surname and a shortened title of the work. The short title should be accurately extracted from the full title (not a paraphrase) and should be as brief as is compatible with the unambiguous identification of the work. Rather longer forms may be advisable if works of similar title are cited. Short titles alone may be used for works cited with no namedauthor. It is a matter of judgement whether an editor's name should be repeated with the title of an edited text. Short forms may also be devised for the multiple citation of unpublished sources whose full forms are unduly lengthy.

Once a short form has been established, the author's initials or the full title should not be reintroduced in later citations in the same chapter.

5. R. J. Faith, _The English Peasantry and the Growth of Lordship_ (1997).

73. Faith, _English Peasantry_ , 49–50.

### Location within a work

Locations within a work should generally be given in the shortest unambiguous form. Publishers will have their own conventions for the various fields in which they produce books or journals. Lower-case Roman numerals were traditionally used for volume numbers, but Arabic numerals are now common; either system should be applied consistently. Roman page numbers must be retained and not converted to Arabic. Volume and page numbers may be linked by a point, consistently either closed up or spaced off. Abbreviations for pages or volumes ( _p_., _pp_., _vol_., _vols_.) are not strictly necessary in most cases, but they should be included before Arabic or Roman numerals if there is a risk of confusion as to what element is being cited. If a work has numbered columns rather than pages there is no need to use the abbreviation _col_. in citations, as there will be no ambiguity when the reader consults the source. Likewise compound locations consisting of several numbers (whether Arabic, lower-case Roman, or small capitals, depending on house style or general convention) may reasonably be used with no explanation of the elements they represent (book, chapter, paragraph, question, etc.) if there will be no ambiguity in the source itself.

_Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie_ , 2.110

Brett-Smith, 1.xxviii–xxix

_English Historical Documents_ , i, 2nd edn, ed. D. Whitelock (London, 1979), no. 191

_Liber de caesaribus_ , v.39.20

Authors sometimes feel obliged to give the overall pagination of articles or chapters they cite in addition to the particular passage to which they are referring. This is no more logical or helpful than citing the total pagination of a book, and is an unnecessary complication of a citation.

For the treatment of abbreviations and contractions of terms such as 'page', 'chapter', and 'volume' see Chapter 10. The use of 'f.' after a page number to indicate 'and the following page' should be replaced with an explicit two-page span ( _15–16_ , not _15 f_.). A page number followed by 'ff.' to indicate 'and the following pages' should also be converted to a precise span if possible, but this form is acceptable when it is difficult for the author (or editor) to identify a final relevant page. The spacing, if any, before the abbreviation ( _23ff_. or _23 ff_.) is a matter of house style; Oxford traditionally uses a thin space between a number and a following 'f.' or 'ff.', and between a number and a following 'n.' or 'nn.' in the absence of a subsequent note number (when a note number is included, normal space of the line is used: _23 n. 5_ ). When specific notes are cited, 'note' may be abbreviated to 'n.' and 'notes' to 'nn.' It is best to avoid punctuation between page number and note number. In the third of the following examples the notes cited contain information additional to that given in the text:

Marx, _Manifesto_ , 37 n. 4.

Kleinhans, 'Marxism and Film', 106 ff.

K. McRoberts, _Misconceiving Canada_ (Toronto: OUP, 1997), 12 and nn. 37–8.

Recto and verso are sometimes abbreviated r and v, set roman, and may be used to indicate right- and left-hand pages respectively— _31r, 70r, 78v, 89r_.

A reference to another place within the work itself may be included in a note if it will be genuinely helpful to the reader, but such internal cross-references should be added judiciously. Where possible, cross-refer by chapter and chapter subheading in addition to using the page number: this will be more effective than the page number alone in an ebook or other unpaged format.

### Abbreviations

Many abbreviations are used in note references, to aid or direct the reader as succinctly as possible. For the most part, a lower-case abbreviation that begins a note is capitalized, whether or not the note is a complete sentence. A handful of common abbreviations are, however, exceptions to this rule: _c_., e.g., i.e., l., ll., p., pp. generally remain lower case:

20. _c_.1344, according to Froissart.

21. e.g. service outside the jurisdiction.

22. i.e. Copyright, Designs & Patents Act 1988, §4.

23. p. 7.

24. ll. 34–44 (Miller edn).

Certain Latin words or their abbreviations have been traditionally used to make citations in notes more concise. These abbreviations serve admirably in print but are far less useful in electronic formats, where the notes may appear (for example) in a pop-up rather than in a consecutive list. The reader hovering on a note link and receiving the abbreviation 'Ibid.' in a standalone pop-up gains no useful information. For this reason Oxford prefers the author and short-title system wherever possible. Exceptions are allowed for some specialist material (such as legal publications) where these abbreviations are rigidly followed throughout a discipline.

• The word _ibidem_ , meaning 'in the same place', is normally abbreviated to 'ibid.', occasionally to 'ib.' Bibliographically, 'ibid.' means 'in the same work', or 'in the same place within that work', as in the immediately preceding citation (either in the same or the preceding note). 'Ibid.' is best avoided in favour of an author and short-title system.

• The abbreviations 'op. cit.' ( _opere citato_ , 'in the cited work') and 'art. cit.' ( _articulo citato_ , 'in the cited article') were once commonly used in place of a work title, normally after an author's name. In fact they are of little use. The author's surname and a short title create a more helpful citation. Avoid these forms.

• The abbreviation 'loc. cit.' ( _loco citato_ , 'in the cited place') is often misunderstood and misused. It can represent only a specific location within a work and is therefore of extremely restricted usefulness. It may occasionally save the repetition of a long and complex location involving multiple elements that cannot easily be compressed, but most often the repeated location (for example volume and page) will be no longer than 'loc. cit.' itself.

• _Idem_ (commonly but not always abbreviated to 'id.') means 'the same person', and was formerly used in place of an author's name when works by the same author are cited one after the other. This is perhaps an excessive saving of space. Furthermore there are grammatical complications, as the form of the Latin pronoun varies with gender and number. While a male author is _idem_ (id.) a female must be _eadem_ (ead.); multiple female authors are _eaedem_ (eaed.) and multiple authors of whom at least one is male are _eidem_ (eid.). An author's gender is not always known, and editors cannot always be relied upon to apply the correct forms. Apart from the language problem, XML tagging of the author element will not work properly if the author's name is not repeated, so links to citation indexes are not formed correctly. Avoid this form and repeat an author's name in a new citation.

• The word _passim_ may be placed after a span of pages, or a less specific location, to indicate that relevant passages are scattered throughout the overall location. This usage is of limited use to the reader and should be applied sparingly.

## 17.2.6 Bibliographical abbreviations

A list of bibliographical abbreviations is often printed in a book's preliminary matter, or at the start of a bibliography. An abbreviated citation assigned in this way will be used every time the work is cited in a note, even at its first citation in a chapter. Whether or not it is worth including such a list in a volume will depend not only on how often particular works are cited in the volume as a whole but also on how many works are cited frequently in more than one chapter. If a work is cited very many times in one chapter it will routinely be reduced to author and title after its first citation; a more irregular abbreviation of a complex source may be explicitly introduced at its first mention in a chapter:

Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum_ (hereafter _HE_ )

St John's College, Cambridge, archives (hereafter SJC)

If a source abbreviated in this way is cited in no other chapter in the volume an entry in an overall list of abbreviations may be superfluous.

# 17.3 Author–date system

An apparatus for references known as the **author–date** (or **Harvard** ) system is normal in the scientific, technical, and medical fields, and is also used extensively in the social sciences. It is not based on notes but relies on brief parenthetical references in the text to take the reader to the appropriate point in a consolidated list of full citations, generally known as the reference section. A reference section includes only those works that are cited in the text; a more general list of works of related interest should be called _Bibliography_ or _Further Reading_. This is an economical method of citing straightforward published sources.

It is possible to combine this arrangement with a separate sequence of numbered notes for explanatory or discursive matter:

_text_

a stoutly republican coalition that retained none the less a great deal of the administrative style of the old regime (see Stookey 1974). It was replaced by a government with a different style,2 a style... not forgotten or revoked.

_endnote 2_

The usual explanation of the timing of the coup is that it forestalled a Ba'athist plot. That this was no simple question... we shall see when we quote the speeches given at a tribal meeting soon afterwards.

_reference section_

Stookey, R. W., 1974. 'Social Structure and Politics in the Yemen Arab Republic', _Middle East Journal_ , 28/3: 248–60; 28/4: 409–19

In extreme cases where multiple references (and multiple authors) render a sentence unreadable, and the problem cannot be resolved by rewriting, a group of references may be relegated to a footnote. Bracketed author–date references to a bibliographic list are sometimes included within footnotes.

## 17.3.1 Reference section

In the author–date system the full references are listed alphabetically in a section at the end of the text (either chapter by chapter or in a consolidated list at the end of the book). As in bibliographies, authors' initials generally follow their surnames. To facilitate linking with the short references given in the text the date of publication immediately follows the authors' names. The styling of these references can vary considerably; scientific and medical publishers, for example, may use very different conventions from those adopted in the humanities. For example, end references may be fully or minimally punctuated and formatted:

Grinspoon, L., Bakalar, J. B. (1993), _Marijuana: The Forbidden_ Medicine. London: Yale University Press.

Kalavala M, Mills CM, Long CC, et al. (2007). The fingertip unit: A practical guide to topical therapy in children. J Dermatol Treat 18:319–320.

There is a general preference for minimal punctuation in scientific work, to save space and keying time, while humanities publications usually prefer fuller punctuation. For further guidance see Chapter 18.

## 17.3.2 References in text

A typical reference in the text consists of an author's name and date of publication enclosed within parentheses (or occasionally square brackets), with or without a comma separating name and date, according to the style adopted. The reference is placed immediately after the statement to which it relates. If this happens to be at the end of a sentence the closing parenthesis precedes the closing point (but a reference at the end of a displayed quotation follows the closing punctuation). If the author's name is given in open text it need not be repeated in the parentheses, where the date alone suffices. Several references may be included within the same parentheses, separated by semicolons:

_text_

While there was an extraordinary sense of optimism among people establishing their own farms in the early years of independence (Unwin 1994), this is rapidly withering away.

_reference section_

Unwin, T. (1994), 'Structural Change in Estonian Agriculture: From Command Economy to Privatisation', _Geography_ , 79, 3: 246–61.

_text_

For years, most textbooks referred to the five stages of economic integration as defined by Balassa (1961).

_reference section_

Balassa, Bela (1961), _The Theory of Economic Integration_. London: Allen and Unwin.

_text_

They are also used to detect segmental hypermobility (Magarey 1988, Maitland 2001).

_reference section_

Magarey ME (1988). Examination of the Cervical and Thoracic Spine. In: R Grant (ed.) _Physical Therapy of the Cervical and Thoracic Spine_ , pp. 81–109. Churchill Livingstone: New York.

Maitland G (2001) _Maitland's Vertebral Manipulation_ , 6th edn. Butterworth–Heinemann: Oxford.

Multiple authorship is very common in scientific publication. Each work should have a consistent convention as to how many authors' names are given in full and what number, if any, should be reduced to 'et al.' (sometimes italicized) after the name of the first author (see Chapter 18). Some publishers use 'et al.' to shorten references in text even when the names are given in full in the corresponding entry in the reference section. Either an ampersand or 'and' should be used consistently to link dual authors or the last two of multiple authors, even though in the reference section they may be separated by a comma:

_text_

One of the biggest successes of the 1960s was transformed into an albatross hanging from the neck of an embattled Community (Rosenblatt et al., 1988).

_reference section_

Rosenblatt, Julius et al. (1988). _The Common Agricultural Policy of the European Community_ , International Monetary Fund, occasional paper 62, November.

_text_

Prototypical birds, for instance, seem to be birds of average size and average predacity (Rips et al., 1973).

_reference section_

Rips LJ, Shoben EJ, Smith EE (1973). Semantic Distance and the Verification of Semantic Relations. _Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour_ 12: 1–20.

_text_

It has been estimated that the human eye can discriminate no fewer than 7.5 million just noticeable colour differences (Brown and Lenneberg 1954).

_reference section_

Brown, R., and Lenneberg, E. H. (1954). 'A Study in Language and Cognition'. _Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology_ 49: 454–62.

If the reference section contains works by authors of the same surname their initials may be retained in the in-text reference to distinguish between them. If there is more than one work by an author in a single year they are distinguished by lower-case letters (either roman or italic depending on house style) appended to the year in the parenthetical reference and in the list. The dates of several works by a single author are separated by commas. Occasionally a parenthetical reference may be introduced by terms like 'see', 'see also', or 'cf.':

_text_

a diverse body of work has emerged which focuses on the 'governance' of socio-economic systems (see Jessop 1995a, 1997)

_reference section_

Jessop, B. (1995a) 'The Regulation Approach, Governance and Post-Fordism', _Economy and Society_ , 24, 3: 307–33.

Jessop, B. (1995b) 'Regional Economic Blocs', _American Behavioral Scientist_ , 38, 5: 674–715.

Jessop, B. (1997) 'The Governance of Complexity and Complexity of Governance', in A. Amin and J. Hausner (eds) _Beyond Markets and Hierarchy_ , Aldershot: Edward Elgar.

How to style references to works that do not fit into the normal pattern of author and title is a matter for editorial judgement. A reference to an anonymous work, for instance, may place either 'anon.' or a short title before the date of publication; reference to a work produced by a corporate body may similarly use either the work title or the name of the body, abbreviated if the name is very long:

_text_

at the hands of the state, paramilitary and guerilla forces (CNRR/GMH, 2008a)

_reference section_

CNNR/GMH (Comisión Nacional de Reparación y Reconciliación y Grupo de Memoría Historica) (2008a) _Trujilla: Una Tragedia que no Cesa [Trujilla: A Tragedy Without End]_ , Bogotá, Colombia: CNRR.

A reference to an unsigned item in a periodical may use its title and date. The crucial point is that all in-text references should be styled consistently with the reference section and should enable the reader easily to identify the source there.

A personal communication or an interview with the author may be so described in a parenthetical reference, but need not be included in the reference section:

_text_

By this time, industry had come to play a leading role (World Bank 1993).

_reference section_

World Bank (1993) _Vietnam: Transition to the Market_. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

_text_

in Uppsala 'the main aim is to create sustainable development, although there is no true consensus as to what this means' (Peterson, pers. comm.).

_appendix: Informants_

Agneta Peterson, environmental planning officer, Uppsala municipality.

The same is also true of academic papers submitted but not yet accepted for publication; see also 18.3.1

Broadly speaking, articles in scientific disciplines are shorter than those in the humanities, and often it is not necessary to specify a location within in-text references; locations are more commonly cited in references in the social sciences. When a location is given it is usually separated from the date by a colon.

# 17.4 Numbered references

Some scientific publications use the **author–number** (or **Vancouver** ) system, which numbers the citations in a single sequence and dispenses with authors' names in the references in text; these consist simply of superscript numbers or numbers in parentheses or square brackets, multiple references being separated by commas, set close, with number ranges used as appropriate ( _as found in similar studies. 3, 5, 6, 14–18_). This arrangement has a superficial resemblance to endnotes, but the reference numbers do not necessarily occur in numerical sequence in the text, where any one may be repeated several times:

_text_

Issues of risk, choice, and chance are central to the controversy over the MMR vaccine that erupted in the UK in 1998 and has continued into the new millennium.1

_reference section_

1. Fitzpatrick M. _MMR and Autism: What Parents Need to Know_. London: Routledge, 2004.

_text_

The inter-individual variability in VO2 measured at a given speed and rate can be as high as 15% [18].

_reference section_

18. Nieman, D. C. _Exercise Testing and Prescription_ , 5th edn. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2003; 90.

The late addition or removal of a reference from a numbered list may require more or less extensive correction of the numbers in the reference section and the in-text citations.

# 17.5 Citation linking

## 17.5.1 Reference management software

The many software programs that can help with reference formatting can adapt citations to whichever system is required by the publisher with comparative ease. References can be downloaded from citation databases such as Copac in a form that can be imported into the reference management software, which then embeds the reference in the word-processor document. Editors should be aware that automatically formed references should always be checked for consistency, completeness, and accuracy, as some manual intervention may be necessary, particularly for sources that do not follow the usual pattern.

## 17.5.2 References as an active resource

Hyperlinks in digital texts can and have transformed the workhorse reference list into a dynamic resource providing access to multimedia material that enriches the user's experience to a far greater extent than a printed book. Authors and editors should be aware, however, that this will be successful only if the referencing is done accurately to enable linking to material that should be current and accessible.

# CHAPTER 18

#  Bibliography

# 18.1 General principles

## 18.1.1 Introduction

Bibliography, specifically **enumerative bibliography** , is the discipline of citing reference matter in a consistent and accurate manner, so as to provide enough key material for readers to be able to identify the work and locate it in a library or a citation index (bibliographic database). Bibliographies occur in all types of publication, and are found in most non-fiction works (though depending on the type of publishing they may not be headed _Bibliography_ —see 1.4.4).

The structure of bibliographic citations is determined by the referencing system in use in the publication concerned. In general publishing and academic publishing in the humanities, bibliographic citations are ordered (very broadly speaking):

author, title, place of publication, date of publication

This form supports the use of footnotes or endnotes for referencing (see 17.2). In these types of publishing the bibliographic list is likely to include works that are not referred to in the text.

Academic publishing in the sciences and social sciences uses **author–date** references in the text to source quotations and references to other authorities (see 17.3); this form requires bibliographic citations ordered:

author, date, title, place of publication

In these types of publishing the bibliographic list often includes only those works that are referred to in the text; the correct heading for such a list is not _Bibliography_ but _References_.

A variation on the author–date system is the **author–number** system (see 17.4).

## 18.1.2 Placement within a publication

Citations are conventionally found in two different parts of an academic work:

• **Note citations** appear in footnotes and endnotes (see 17.2).

• **Bibliography citations** form a list of works that is usually placed at the end of a publication before an index, or at the end of a chapter in multi-contributor titles.

In the interests of simplicity it is best to keep stylistic differences between note citations and bibliography citations to a minimum. The following distinctions are useful, however:

• Note citations will frequently require a specific volume and/or page number. Apart from page ranges to identify the start and end of chapters in books or articles in journals, bibliography citations will usually cite a work in its entirety.

• In bibliography citations, if an author or editor is cited before the title the surname should appear first, aiding the reader in navigating through a list. In note citations this is an irritant that reduces readability, and should be avoided:

_note citation_

Joe Bailey, _Pessimism_ (London, 1988), 35.

_bibliography citation_

Bailey, Joe, _Pessimism_ (London, 1988).

Except when it is necessary to clarify a difference between the two types of citations, examples in this chapter follow bibliography style.

## 18.1.3 Arrangement and ordering of a bibliography

A bibliography is normally ordered alphabetically by the surname of the main author or editor of the cited work. It is sometimes advantageous to subdivide longer lists, for example by subject or type of work. A typical division is that of primary and secondary sources; also, a separate list of manuscripts and documents may be made. A bibliography of primary sources is sometimes more historically interesting if ordered chronologically, or more practical if arranged by repository. For ordering in the author–date system see 18.5.

Alphabetization follows the same principles as in indexing (see Chapter 19); ignore all accents (index _Müller_ as _Muller_ , not _Mueller_ ) and treat _Mc_ as _Mac_ and _St_ as _Saint_. See 6.1.8 for the indexing of names with prefixes.

### Single author

Entries by the same author may be ordered alphabetically by title, ignoring definite and indefinite articles, or chronologically by year, the earliest first, and alphabetically within a single year. Alphabetical order is advisable when many works by one author are cited, but chronological order may be preferred if it is important to show the sequence of works. In second and subsequent works by the same author do not replace the name with an em rule or rules: although this has been traditional print practice, it is not suitable for many types of electronic publication, so it is preferable to spell out the name in full for each entry.

Rogers, C. D., _The Family Tree Detective_ (Manchester, 1983).

Rogers, C. D., _Tracing Missing Persons_ (Manchester, 1986).

Works edited by an author are listed in a separate sequence following all works written by him or her, singly or with co-authors; works edited in collaboration are arranged according to the same rules as for multiple authors. Alternatively, it is possible to list all publications associated with a single person in a single sequence, ignoring the distinction between author and editor.

### More than one author

It is usual to alphabetize works by more than one author under the first author's name.

When there is more than one citation of the same author, group references within these two categories (see 18.5 for a more detailed discussion of bibliographic order):

• works written by a single author

• works written by the same author with any co-authors, in alphabetical order by surname of the co-author:

Hornsby-Smith, Michael P., _Roman Catholics in England: Studies in Social Structure since the Second World War_ (Cambridge, 1987).

Hornsby-Smith, Michael P., _Roman Catholic Beliefs in England_ (Cambridge, 1991).

Hornsby-Smith, Michael P., and Dale, A., 'Assimilation of Irish Immigrants', _British Journal of Sociology_ , xxxix/4 (1988), 519–44.

Hornsby-Smith, Michael P., and Lee, R. M., _Roman Catholic Opinion_ (Guildford, 1979).

Hornsby-Smith, Michael P., Lee, R. M., and Turcan, K. A., 'A Typology of English Catholics', _Sociological Review_ , xxx/3 (1982), 433–59.

## 18.1.4 Bibliographic elements

As a general rule, it is important for citations in a bibliography to be consistent in the level of detail provided. Inconsistency is a form of error and will not only reduce the overall integrity of an academic publication but may also prevent successful linking with citation indexes. Moreover, readers should be able to infer reliably that an absence of information from one citation but not another reflects the bibliographic detail available from the texts being cited.

For published matter, the key elements required for a 'complete' citation are:

• person or persons responsible for the work

• title of the work or serial

• the edition being used, if not the first edition

• place and date of publication.

Some citations require further details: these are covered in the various sections in this chapter. A decision to include other information (for example number of volumes, series title, publisher, or access dates) should be applied consistently to all citations where relevant.

All bibliographic information must be taken from the cited work itself, and not from a secondary source such as a library catalogue or other bibliography. Additional information not supplied by the work should generally appear within square brackets.

The means by which a reader distinguishes one element from the other is by its order within the citation, its typography, and its surrounding punctuation. It is therefore important to ensure that each part of the citation is presented correctly, and in the appropriate place.

For non-published material (so-called 'grey' literature), such as manuscripts, company reports, and some electronic sources, there are fewer established conventions, but efforts should be made to follow the style consistently using the general pattern applied to published matter (see also 18.6).

This is particularly important for automated XML tagging (see 2.1.1) because the process relies on the recognition of patterns in formatting and order of the elements. This can break down if the 'rules' for a particular citation system are not followed.

# 18.2 Books

## 18.2.1 Introduction

A complete book citation must include author or editor details, title, edition information (if an edition other than the first edition is cited), and date and place of publication:

Demaus, Robert, _William Tyndale: A Contribution to the Early History of the English Bible_ , new edn, rev. Richard Lovett (London, 1886).

Watt, R. W., _Three Steps to Victory_ (London, 1957).

Bagnold, Enid, _A Diary Without Dates_ (2nd edn, London, 1978).

See 18.8 for ebook citations.

## 18.2.2 Author's name

Some publishers, especially in the humanities, prefer to cite the author's name as it appears on the title page (the same applies to all personal names, whether of authors or others); this is because some authors insist on being known by their initials while others object to their forenames being cut down. Applying this practice requires the author to exercise the discipline of noting the form as it appears in the book, and not relying on secondary sources, such as library catalogues and other bibliographies. A more pragmatic approach (often adopted in scientific publication ) is to systematically reduce forenames to initials, especially for multi-author works where different contributors may have adopted different practices.

The author's name should appear at the start of the citation. In bibliography citations the surname is given first, followed by a comma and the given names or initials:

Bailey, Joe  | Eliot, T. S.
---|---

In scientific works, initials and minimal punctuation are more usual in the reference list:

Feynman R  | Nurse PM
---|---

See 17.3 for more details of punctuation of authors' names.

Names that are best left unabbreviated and in natural order in bibliography citations include:

• medieval compound names that conjoin a personal name with a toponym, occupation, patronymic, or epithet:

Hereward the Wake  | Aelred of Rievaulx
---|---

• pseudonyms that lose their sense if altered:

Dotted Crotchet  | Afferbeck Lauder
---|---

• names given as initials only, even if the full name is known:

BBC

EA Games

IBM

In a list, such examples would all be ordered by their first element.

If works of one author are cited under different names, use the correct form for each work, and in humanities texts, supply a former name after a later one in parentheses, adding a cross-reference if necessary:

Joukovsky, F., _Orphée et ses disciples dans la poésie française et néolatine du XVI e siècle_ (Geneva, 1970).

Joukovsky, F. (= Joukovsky-Micha, F.), 'La Guerre des dieux et des géants chezles poètes français du XVIe siècle (1500–1585)', _Bibliothèque d'Humanisme et Renaissance_ , xxix (1967), 55–92.

Unless the author's preference is known to be otherwise, when citing naturalized names that include particles keep the particle with the surname only if it is capitalized. For foreign names follow the correct usage for the language or person in question:

De Long, George Washington  | Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
---|---
Musset, Alfred de  |

Titular prefixes ( _Sir, Revd, Dr, Captain_ , etc.) are not needed unless their removal would mislead:

Wood, Mrs Henry, _East Lynne_ , 3 vols (London, 1861).

### Two or more authors

With two or three authors (or editors), cite in the order that appears on the title page. Either the first cited name only, or all names before the title, may be inverted so that the surname appears first. Whichever style is chosen must be applied consistently:

King, Roy D., and Morgan, Rodney, _A Taste of Prison_ (London, 1976).

King, Roy D., and Rodney Morgan, _A Taste of Prison_ (London, 1976).

When there are four or more authors, works in the humanities usually cite the first name followed by 'and others' or 'et al.' (from Latin _et alii_ 'and others'; note that, depending on style, 'et al.' can appear in roman or italic type—consistency is important):

Stewart, Rosemary, and others, eds, _Managing in Britain_ (London, 1994).

In some scientific journals, where it is not unusual for several names to be identified with an article or paper, the policy can be to cite up to six authors before reducing the list to a single name and 'et al.', either in roman or italic and sometimes dropping the full point.

### Pseudonyms

Cite works published under a pseudonym that is an author's literary name under that pseudonym:

Eliot, George, _Middlemarch_ (New York, 1977).

Twain, Mark, _A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court_ (Harmondsworth, 1971).

In some contexts it may be useful to add a writer's pseudonym for clarification when a writer publishes under his or her real name:

Dodgson, C. L. [Lewis Carroll], _Symbolic Logic_ (Oxford, 1896).

Conversely, an author known by his or her real name may need to be identified when he or she occasionally publishes under a pseudonym:

Afferbeck Lauder [Alistair Morrison], _Let Stalk Strine_ (Sydney, 1965).

If the bibliography contains works under the author's true name as well as a pseudonym, the alternative names may be included in both cases to expose the identification:

Coulange, P. [J. Turmel], _The Life of the Devil_ , tr. S. H. Guest (London, 1929).

Turmel, J. [P. Coulange], 'Histoire de l'angélologie du temps apostolique à la fin du Ve siècle', _Revue d'Histoire et de Littérature Religieuse_ , iii (1898), 299–308, 407–34, 533–52.

### Anonymous

For texts where the author is not known, in bibliography citations _Anon_. or _Anonymous_ may be used, with like works alphabetized accordingly:

Anon., _Stories after Nature_ (London, 1822).

Do not use _Anon_. for note citations; simply start the citation with the title:

_Stories after Nature_ (London, 1822).

If the author's name is not supplied by the book but is known from other sources, the name may be cited in square brackets:

[Balfour, James], _Philosophical Essays_ (Edinburgh, 1768).

[Gibbon, John], _Day-Fatality, or, Some Observations on Days Lucky and Unlucky_ (London, 1678; rev. edn 1686).

## 18.2.3 Editors, translators, and revisers

Special XML tagging elements are created for editors, translators, and compilers so it is important that they are identified as such.

In books comprising the edited works of a number of authors, or a collection of documents, essays, congress reports, etc., the editor's name appears first followed by _ed_. (standing for 'editor'; plural _eds_ or _eds_.) before the book title:

Dibdin, Michael, ed., _The Picador Book of Crime Writing_ (London, 1993).

Ashworth, A., 'Belief, Intent, and Criminal Liability', in J. Eekelaar and J. Bell, eds., _Oxford Essays in Jurisprudence_ , 3rd ser. (1987), 6–25.

Bucknell, Katherine, and Nicholas Jenkins, eds, _W. H. Auden, 'The Map of All My Youth': Early Works, Friends, and Influences_ (Oxford, 1990).

Some styles, including Oxford, insert 'ed.' and 'eds' within parentheses:

SAMPSON, RODNEY (ed.), _Early Romance Texts: An Anthology_ (Cambridge, 1980).

Editors of literary texts (or of another author's papers) are cited after the title; in this case _ed_. (standing for 'edited by') remains unchanged even if there is more than one editor:

Hume, David, _A Treatise of Human Nature_ , ed. David Fate Norton and Mary J. Norton (Oxford, 2000).

For note citations, when an author is responsible for the content of the work but not the title (for example letters collected together posthumously), and the author's name appears as part of that title, there is no need to repeat the author's name at the start of the citation:

_The Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley_ , ed. F. L. Jones (Oxford, 1964).

rather than

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, _The Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley_ , ed. F. L. Jones (Oxford, 1964).

As with editors, translators and revisers are named after the title and are introduced respectively by _tr_. or _trans_. ('translated by'), _rev_. ('revised by'):

Albert Schweitzer, _The Quest of the Historical Jesus_ , tr. William Montgomery (n.p., 1910).

Translators or revisers whose contribution is sufficiently substantial for them to count as joint authors are named after the original author.

## 18.2.4 Organization as author

In the absence of an author or editor, an organization acting in the role of author can be treated as such. Do not use _ed_. or _tr_. in these instances:

Amnesty International, _Prisoners Without a Voice: Asylum Seekers in the United Kingdom_ (London, 1995).

## 18.2.5 Titles and subtitles

In general the treatment of titles in bibliography matches that of work titles mentioned in text (see Chapter 8). Always take the title from the title page of the work being cited, not the dust jacket or the cover of a paperback edition, and never alter spelling in order to conform to house style. Punctuation in long titles may be lightly edited for the sake of clarity.

Consider truncating long and superfluous subtitles, but not if that would significantly narrow the implied scope of a work. Subtitles are often identified as such on the title page by a line break or a change in font or font size; in a bibliography a subtitle is always divided from the title by a colon.

### Capitalization

In most bibliographic styles traditional capitalization rules are applied to titles (see 8.2.3). In practice the choice between upper and lower case is usually instinctive, but will at least downcase the following:

Unless the exact form is of bibliographic or semantic relevance your primary guide should be to style a title sensibly and consistently throughout a work.

_The Importance of Being Earnest: A Trivial Comedy for Serious People_

_Twenty Years After_

_Moby-Dick, or, The Whale_

Capitalization of foreign titles follows the rules of the language (see Chapter 12); however, the treatment of the first word of a title, subtitle, or parallel title conforms to the style used for English-language titles.

### Titles within titles

Titles within titles may be identified by quotation marks. Always capitalize the first word of the nested title; this capitalized word is regarded in some styles as sufficient to identify the subsidiary work:

Grigg, John, _The History of 'The Times'_ , vi (1993).

O'Conor, Roderick, _A Sentimental Journey through 'Finnegans Wake', with a Map of the Liffey_ (Dublin, 1977).

Grigg, John, _The History of The Times_ , vi (1993).

The convention of using roman instead of italic to identify nested titles is established but not recommended; see 7.6. For a further discussion of titles within titles see 8.2.8.

### Foreign-language titles

Works should be cited in the form in which they were consulted by the author of the publication that cites them. If the work was consulted in the original foreign-language form, that should be cited as the primary reference; a published English translation may be added to the citation if that is deemed likely to be helpful to the reader:

J. Tschichold: _Typographische Gestaltung_ (Basle, 1955); Eng. trans. as _Asymmetric Typography_ (London, 1967).

Conversely, if a work was consulted in translation, that form should be cited; the original publication may also be included in the citation if that would be helpful (as it will be if the two forms of the title differ significantly):

R. Metz, _A Hundred Years of British Philosophy_ , ed. J. H. Muirhead, trans. J. W. Harvey (1938) [Ger. orig., _Die philosophischen Strömungen der Gegenwart in Grossbritannien_ (1935)]

When it is helpful to include a translation of a foreign-language title for information, the translation follows immediately after the title in roman, within square brackets; quotation marks are not necessary:

Nissan Motor Corporation, _Nissan Jidosha 30nen shi_ [A 30-year history of Nissan Motors] (1965).

Care should be taken with consistency in capitalization in translations of this kind—some styles use essential capitals, others do not.

## 18.2.6 Chapters and essays in books

The chapter or essay title, which is generally enclosed in quotation marks and conforms to the surrounding capitalization style, is followed by a comma, the word _in_ , and the details of the book. When citing a chapter from a single-author work there is no need to repeat the author's details:

Ashton, John, 'Dualism', in _Understanding the Fourth Gospel_ (Oxford, 1991), 205–37.

The placement of the editor's name remains unaffected:

Shearman, John, 'The Vatican Stanze: Functions and Decoration', in George Holmes, ed., _Art and Politics in Renaissance Italy: British Academy Lectures_ (Oxford, 1993), 185–240.

Quotation marks within chapter titles and essay titles become double quotation marks:

Malcolm, Noel, 'The Austrian Invasion and the "Great Migration" of the Serbs, 1689–1690', in _Kosovo: A Short History_ (London, 1990), 139–62.

See 9.2 for more on quotation marks.

If an introduction or foreword has a specific title it can be styled as a chapter in a book; otherwise use _introduction_ or _foreword_ as a descriptor, without quotation marks:

Gill, Roma, introduction in _The Complete Works of Christopher Marlow_ , 1 (Oxford, 1987; repr. 2001).

## 18.2.7 Volumes

A multi-volume book is a single work with a set structure. Informing readers of the number of volumes being cited is a useful convention that, if followed, must be applied consistently. The number of volumes is provided before the publication information, using an Arabic numeral. In references to a specific volume in a set, however, the number is usually styled in lower-case Roman numerals, although this style may vary: capital or small capital Roman numerals, or Arabic figures, may also be used.

There are two ways of citing a particular location in a multi-volume work: the entire work may be cited and the volume and page location given after the date(s) of publication; or the single relevant volume may be cited with its own date of publication, followed by the relevant page reference. Note in the examples below the use of Arabic and Roman numerals for different purposes:

Vander Straeten, Edmond, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX e siècle_, 8 vols (Brussels, 1867–88), ii, 367–8.

Vander Straeten, Edmond, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas avant le XIX e sièclè_, ii (Brussels, 1872), 367–8.

When the volumes of a multi-volume work have different titles, the form is:

Glorieux, P., _Aux origines de la Sorbonne_ , i: _Robert de Sorbon_ (Paris, 1966).

Ward, A. W. and A. E. Waller, eds, _The Cambridge History of English Literature_ , xii: _The Nineteenth Century_ (Cambridge, 1932), 43–56.

If only the volume title appears on the title page the overall title should still be included, either as directed above or within square brackets after the volume title:

David Hackett Fischer, _Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America_ [vol. i of _America: A Cultural History_ ] (New York, 1989).

## 18.2.8 Series title

A series is a (possibly open-ended) collection of individual works. In book citations, a series title is optional but useful information. It always appears in roman type, fully capitalized, and before or within the parentheses that hold publication information. Most, but not all, series are numbered; the volume numbers in the series should follow the series title:

Stones, E. L. G., ed. and tr., _Anglo-Scottish Relations, 1174–1328: Some Selected Documents_ , Oxford Medieval Texts (Oxford, 1970).

Dodgdon, J. McN., _The Place-Names of Gloucestershire_ , 4 vols, English Place-Name Society, 38–41 (1964–5).

## 18.2.9 Place of publication

Publication details, including the place of publication, are usually inserted within parentheses. The place of publication should normally be given in its modern form, using the English form where one exists:

The Hague ( _not_ Den Haag)  | Munich ( _not_ München)
---|---
Turin ( _not_ Torino)  |

Where no place of publication is given _n.p_. ('no place') may be used instead:

Marchetto of Padua, _Pomerium_ , ed. Giuseppe Vecchi (n.p., 1961).

It is sufficient to cite only the first city named by the publisher on the title page. While other cities from which that imprint can originate may also be listed there, it is the custom for publishers to put in first place the branch responsible for originating the book. It is not necessary to include the name of the country, but US state abbreviations can be included, particularly if locations are globally less well known ( _Boca Raton, FL_ ). Be consistent about the abbreviation system used ( _FL_ or _Fla_. etc.). For punctuation in association with publishers' names, see 18.2.10.

## 18.2.10 Publisher

The publisher's name is not generally regarded as essential information, but it may be included if desired; in the interests of consistency give names of all publishers or none at all. The preferred order is place of publication, publisher, and date, presented in parentheses thus:

(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005)

Publishers' names may be reduced to the shortest intelligible unit without shortening words (for example, _Teubner_ instead of _Druck und Verlag von B. G. Teubner_ ), and terms such as _Ltd, & Co_., and _plc_ can be omitted. University presses whose names derive from their location can be abbreviated ( _Oxford: OUP_ ; _Cambridge: CUP_ ; etc.), providing this is done consistently. See 18.2.9 for guidance on place of publication.

## 18.2.11 Date

The use of parentheses around a date in a bibliographic citation implies publication. See 18.4 and 18.6 for dates of unpublished works. Always cite the date of the edition that has been consulted. This date is usually found on the title page or the copyright page; for older books it may appear only in the colophon, a publishing device added to the last page of the book. Dates given in Roman numerals should be rendered into Arabic numerals.

When no date of publication is listed, use the latest copyright date. When multiple dates are given ignore the dates of later printings and impressions, but when using a new or revised edition use that date. If no date can be found at all, use _n.d_. ('no date') instead. Alternatively, if the date is known from other sources, it can be supplied in square brackets:

C. F. Schreiber, _A Note on Faust Translations_ (n.d. [ _c_.1930])

Works published over a period of time require a date range:

Asloan, John, _The Asloan Manuscript_ , ed. William A. Craigie, 2 vols (Edinburgh, 1923–5).

When the book or edition is still in progress, an open-ended date is indicated by an en rule:

W. Schneemelcher, _Bibliographia Patristica_ (Berlin, 1959–).

Cite a book that is to be published in the future as 'forthcoming' or 'in press'. Do not guess, or supply a projected publication date as these often prove inaccurate.

## 18.2.12 Editions

When citing an edition later than the first it is necessary to include some extra publication information, which is usually found either on the title page or in the colophon. This may be an edition number, such as _2nd edn_ , or something more descriptive ( _rev. edn, rev. and enl. edn_ ).

### Placement

It is not necessary to identify first editions as such but subsequent editions should be numbered in ordinal form: _2nd, 23rd_. As a general rule, edition details should appear within parentheses, in front of any other publication information:

Baker, J. H., _An Introduction to English Legal History_ (3rd edn, 1990).

Denniston, J. D., _The Greek Particles_ (2nd edn, Oxford, 1954).

When the edition being cited is singularly identified with a named editor, translator, or reviser the editor's name appears at the head of the citation; the edition number directly follows the title and is not placed inside the parentheses that contain the publication details. This establishes that earlier editions are not associated with that editor:

Knowles, Elizabeth, ed., _The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations_ , 5th edn (Oxford, 1999).

### Citing more than one edition

Sometimes it is useful to include details of more than one edition. When this information is limited to publication details (edition, date and place of publication, and publisher) the information can remain within a single set of parentheses. When more information is needed (e.g. when a later edition has a different title and editor) it is clearer to close off the parentheses, insert a semi-colon, and continue:

Denniston, J. D., _The Greek Particles_ (1934; 2nd edn, Oxford, 1954).

Denniston, J. D., _The Greek Particles_ (Oxford, 1934; citations from 2nd edn, 1954).

Berkenhout, John, _Outlines of the Natural History of Great Britain_ , 3 vols (London, 1769–72); rev. edn, as _A Synopsis of the Natural History of Great Britain_ , 2 vols (London, 1789).

## 18.2.13 Reprints, reprint editions, and facsimiles

Reprint and facsimile editions are generally unchanged reproductions of the original book, perhaps with an added preface or index. It is always good practice to include the publication details of the original, especially the publication date if a significant period of time has elapsed between the edition and its reprint.

If the reprint has the same place of publication and publisher details as the original, these need not (though they may) be repeated. Best practice is to arrange the citation so that a reading from left to right follows the chronology of the work:

Gibbon, Edward, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ , with introduction by Christopher Dawson, 6 vols (London, 1910; repr. 1974).

Allen, E., _A Knack to Know a Knave_ (London, 1594; facs. edn, Oxford: Malone Society Reprints, 1963).

Joachim of Fiore, _Psalterium decem cordarum_ (Venice, 1527; facs. edn, Frankfurt am Main, 1965).

Smith, Eliza, _The Compleat Housewife, or, Accomplished Gentlewoman's Companion_ (16th edn, London, 1758; facs. edn, London, 1994).

Reprints that include revisions can be described as such:

Southern, R. W., _Saint Anselm: A Portrait in a Landscape_ (rev. repr., Cambridge, 1991).

### Title change

A changed title should be included: the parentheses that hold details of the original publication are closed off and the reprint is described after a semicolon in the same fashion as for a later edition with an altered title (see above):

Hare, Cyril, _When the Wind Blows_ (London, 1949); repr. as _The Wind Blows Death_ (London, 1987).

Lower, Richard, _Diatribæ Thomæ Willisii Doct. Med. & Profess. Oxon. De febribus Vindicatio adversus Edmundum De Meara Ormoniensem Hibernum M.D._ (London, 1665); facs. edn with introduction, ed. and tr. Kenneth Dewhurst, as _Richard Lower's 'Vindicatio': A Defence of the Experimental Method_ (Oxford, 1983).

## 18.2.14 Translations

In a citation of a work in translation, the original author's name comes first and the translator's name after the title, prefixed by 'tr.' or 'trans.':

Bischoff, Bernhard, _Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages_ , tr. Dáibhí Ó Cróinín and David Ganz (Cambridge, 1990).

Martorell, Joanat, _Tirant lo Blanc_ , tr. with foreword by David H. Rosenthal (London, 1984).

Details of the original edition may also be cited:

José Sarrau, _Tapas y aperitivos_ (Madrid, 1975); tr. Francesca Piemonte Slesinger as _Tapas and Appetizers_ (New York, 1987).

# 18.3 Articles in periodicals

## 18.3.1 Introduction

A complete periodical citation requires author or editor details that relate to the article being cited, the article title, the journal title, volume information, date, and page range:

Schutte, Anne Jacobson, 'Irene di Spilimbergo: The Image of a Creative Woman in Late Renaissance Italy', _Renaissance Quarterly_ , 44 (1991), 42–61.

Authors' and editors' names in periodical citations are treated the same as those for books.

If a paper has been submitted for publication but has not yet been accepted, it should not be listed in the bibliography, as it may be rejected. Refer to the paper in the running text as _unpublished, in submission_ , or _submitted for publication_. Personal communications should be referred to as such in the running text, and omitted from the bibliography. If a paper has been accepted for publication it can be cited in the end list as _in press_ ; do not guess the publication date. It is worth checking an online citation index to find out if works cited as _in press_ have been published in the interim (particularly if not one of the author's own sources); if so, complete the publication details.

## 18.3.2 Article titles

Titles of articles—whether English or foreign—may be given in roman within single quotation marks; in some academic works quotation marks are omitted altogether. Quotation marks within quoted matter become double quotation marks:

Halil Inalcik, 'Comments on "Sultanism": Max Weber's Typification of the Ottoman Polity', _Princeton Papers in Near Eastern Studies_ , 1 (1992), 49–72.

Pollard, A. F. 'The Authenticity of the "Lords' Journals" in the Sixteenth Century', _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_ , 3rd ser., 8 (1914), 17–39.

Titles of journals, magazines, and newspapers appear in italic with maximal capitalization, regardless of language. If the title starts with a definite article this can be omitted, except when the title consists of the word _The_ and only one other word:

Downing, Taylor and Andrew Johnston, 'The Spitfire Legend', _History Today_ , 50/9 (2000), 19–25.

Drucker, Peter, 'Really Reinventing Government', _Atlantic Monthly_ , 275/2 (1995), 49–61.

Greeley, A. W., 'Will They Reach the Pole?', _McClure's Magazine_ , 3/1 (1894), 39–44.

Henry James, 'Miss Braddon', _The Nation_ (9 Nov. 1865).

See also 8.2.7.

## 18.3.3 Periodical volume numbers

Volume numbers are usually styled as Arabic numerals, but whatever you choose must be applied consistently: do not follow what is used by the journal itself.

Volumes usually span one academic or calendar year, but may occasionally cover a longer period of time. When a volume is published in issues or parts, some journals will separately paginate each issue, so that each new issue starts at page 1. Other publications paginate continuously through each volume, so that the first page number of a new issue continues from where the preceding issue left off. It is important to include issue numbers when citing separately paginated journals, because volume number and page number alone will not adequately guide a researcher to the appropriate location within the journal run. Although issue numbers are superfluous with continuously paginated journals, best practice is to include issue numbers nevertheless: the information is not in error, the citation remains consistent with neighbouring journal citations, and in formulating the citation there is no need for you to determine which pagination system the journal follows at any given time (some journals switch from one system to another over the history of their publication).

Part or issue numbers follow the volume number after a solidus:

Neale, Steve, 'Masculinity as Spectacle', _Screen_ , 24/6 (1983), 2–12.

Garvin, David A., 'Japanese Quality Management', _Columbia Journal of World Business_ , 19/3 (1984), 3–12.

Magazines and newspapers are often identified (and catalogued) by their date, rather than a volume number:

Lee, Alan, 'England Haunted by Familiar Failings', _The Times_ (23 June 1995).

Putterman, Seth J., 'Sonoluminescence: Sound into Light', _Scientific American_ (Feb. 1995), 32–7.

Some publishing houses prefer to distinguish magazine and newspaper publications from academic journals by not inserting the date between parentheses:

Blackburn, Roderic H., 'Historic Towns: Restorations in the Dutch Settlement of Kinderhook', _Antiques_ , Dec. 1972, 1068–72.

Always follow the form used on the periodical itself: if the issue is designated _Fall_ , do not change this to _Autumn_ , nor attempt to adjust the season for the benefit of readers in another hemisphere, as the season forms part of the work's description and is not an ad hoc designation.

### Series

Where there are several series of a journal the series information should appear before the volume number:

Moody, T. W., 'Michael Davitt and the British Labour Movement, 1882–1906', _Transactions of the Royal Historical Society_ , 5th ser., 3 (1953), 53–76.

_New series_ can be abbreviated either to 'new ser.' or NS in small capitals. Avoid OS, which can mean either 'original' or 'old' series:

Barnes, J., 'Homonymy in Aristotle and Speusippus', _Classical Quarterly_ , new ser., 21 (1971), 65–80.

Barnes, J., 'Homonymy in Aristotle and Speusippus', _Classical_

_Quarterly_ , NS 21 (1971), 65–80.

## 18.3.4 Page numbers

As with chapters and essays in books, it is customary to end the citation with a page range showing the extent of a periodical article. This is particularly important when a through-paginated journal is cited without issue numbers, as it aids the reader in finding the article in a volume that has no single contents page. The page extent is also useful as an indicator of the scale and importance of the article. Whether or not to elide page ranges is a matter of house style; see 11.1.4 for guidance.

## 18.3.5 Reviews

Reviews are listed under the name of the reviewer; the place of publication and date of the book reviewed are helpful but not mandatory:

Ames-Lewis, F., review of Ronald Lightbown, _Mantegna_ (Oxford, 1986), in _Renaissance Studies_ , 1 (1987), 273–9.

If the review has a different title, cite that, followed by the name of the author and title of the book reviewed:

Porter, Roy, 'Lion of the Laboratory', review of Gerald L. Geison, _The Private Science of Louis Pasteur_ (Princeton, 1995), in _TLS_ (16 June 1995), 3–4.

# 18.4 Theses and dissertations

Citations of theses and dissertations should include the degree for which they were submitted, and the full name of the institution as indicated on the title page. Titles should be printed in roman within single quotation marks. The terms _dissertation_ and _thesis_ , as well as _DPhil_ and _PhD_ , are not interchangeable; use whichever appears on the title page of the work itself. The date should be that of submission; it should preferably not be placed within parentheses:

Hill, Daniel, 'Divinity and Maximal Greatness', PhD thesis, King's College, London, 2001.

Universities and institutions must always be cited using their full, official form, so as to avoid potential confusion between similar-sounding names (for example _Washington University_ and _University of Washington_ ).

# 18.5 Citations to support author–date referencing

As explained in 18.1.1 and in Chapter 17, where the author–date referencing method is in use, bibliographic citations are reconfigured so that the publication date appears at the head after the author's name (this is the formula that the reader, trying to trace a work referenced in the text, will seek):

Lakoff, R. (1975). _Language and Women's Place_. New York: Harper and Row.

A reference list in this system is ordered:

• alphabetically by author (for complications where multiple authors are named see 18.1.3)

• multiple works by a single author (or by the same combination of authors) are ordered chronologically by year of publication

• multiple works by the same author(s) published in the same year are ordered alphabetically by title, ignoring definite and indefinite articles.

Author–date references in the text must be able to identify each work uniquely by means of the author's surname and date of publication alone. Where more than one work by a particular author or authors is published in a single year, it follows that some further identifier is needed to distinguish them. In this case the dates of publication are supplemented by lower-case letters, which are used in the in-text references:

Lyons, J. (1981a), _Language and Linguistics: An Introduction_ (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

Lyons, J. (1981b), _Language, Meaning and Context_ (London: Fontana Paperbacks).

The letters are allocated according to the order in the reference list.

# 18.6 Manuscript and other documentary sources

## 18.6.1 Introduction

For non-published documentary sources that have been digitized, see 18.6.6 and 18.8.

Conventions for citing physical manuscripts and archival material are less well established than those for published works, partly because it is often necessary to formulate citations in a way that addresses the qualities and subject matter of the particular material at hand. When establishing how best to order and describe manuscript sources ensure that each citation:

• is consistent with others of the same kind

• conforms with the basic bibliographical principles that control the ordering of elements for citing published matter (authors are cited before titles, and titles before dates)

• includes the repository where the manuscript is stored, and, if possible, a shelf mark, piece number, or other unique identifier that allows the manuscript to be located within that repository.

The different elements that constitute a manuscript citation will normally fall into one of two categories:

• details that _describe_ the item (author, title and/or descriptor, and date)

• details that _locate_ the item (name and location of repository, collection name and/or shelf mark, page or folio number(s)).

Treat author details as for book details (see 18.2.2).

## 18.6.2 Titles and descriptors

When a manuscript has a distinct title it should be cited in roman, in single quotes. General descriptors appear in roman only, and usually take a lower-case initial:

Chaundler, Thomas, 'Collocutiones', Balliol College, Oxford, MS 288.

exchequer accounts, Dec. 1798, Cheshire Record Office, E311.

Depending on the readership and function of the bibliography, descriptors are not always necessary; sometimes a shelf mark is enough for an informed reader to comprehend the general nature of what is being cited. For example, in a specialist historical text it may be sufficient to provide piece numbers for documents in the National Archives without naming the collection to which they belong:

PRO, FO 363  | PRO, SP 16/173, fo. 48
---|---

## 18.6.3 Dates

Dates follow description details and are not enclosed in parentheses:

Smith, Francis, travel diaries, 1912–17, British Library, Add. MS 23116.

Bearsden Ladies' Club minutes, 12 June 1949, Bearsden and Milngavie District Libraries, box 19/d.

## 18.6.4 Repository information

The level of information required to identify the place accurately will depend upon the stylistic conventions of the work in which the citation occurs, the anticipated readership of the publication, and the size and general accessibility of the repository being cited. Repositories of national collections and archives may not require a country or city as part of the address. Some repositories include enough information within their name to render further address details otiose. If one particular repository is to be cited many times, consider creating an abbreviation that can be used in its place, with a key at the top of the bibliography, or group like citations together as a subdivision within the list.

In English-language publications names of repositories are always roman with upper-case initials, regardless of the conventions applied in the language of the country of origin:

Bibliothèque Municipale, Valenciennes, MS 393

Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence, cod. II.II.289

## 18.6.5 Location details

Any peculiarities of foliation or cataloguing must be faithfully rendered: a unique source is permitted a unique reference, if that is how the archive stores and retrieves it. For archives in non-English-speaking countries, retain in the original language everything—however unfamiliar—except the name of the city. Multiple shelf-mark numbers or other numerical identifiers should not be elided:

Bodleian Library, Oxford, MS Rawlinson D. 520, fol. 7

Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS fonds français 146

Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague, handschriften 34C18, 72D32/4

## 18.6.6 Grey literature

Grey literature is defined as 'manifold document types produced on all levels of government, academics, business and industry in print and electronic formats that are protected by intellectual property rights, of sufficient quality to be collected and preserved by library holdings or institutional repositories, but not controlled by commercial publishers i.e., where publishing is not the primary activity of the producing body'.

Such non-published material includes reports by companies, ministries, or research teams, theses (see 18.4), newsletters, technical notes, product catalogues, presentations, personal communications, working papers, academic courseware, and much more. Although there are fewer established conventions, efforts should be made to follow the style consistently using the general pattern applied to published matter, so that valid XML tagging can ensure that citation indexes will successfully acquire, analyse, and disseminate the information correctly.

# 18.7 Audio and audiovisual materials

## 18.7.1 Introduction

For broadcasts and recordings the ordering of elements within a citation may differ according to the content of the recording or the purpose for which it is cited: sound recordings, for example, might be best listed under the name of the conductor, the name of the composer, or even the name of the ensemble. As with all citations, sufficient information should be given to enable the reader to understand what type of work it is, and how to find it.

## 18.7.2 Audio recordings

Essential elements to include are title (see 8.5 for typographical treatment of titles), recording company and catalogue number, and, if available, date of issue or copyright. Other useful information includes details of performers and composers, specific track information, recording date (especially if significantly different from date of issue), authorship and title of any sleeve notes that accompany the recording, and the exact type of recording (e.g. wax cylinder, 78 rpm, compact disc, audio file format), and a Uniform Resource Indicator (URI) if accessed online. The following examples show an appropriate style for presenting such information:

Carter, Elliott, _The Four String Quartets_ , Juilliard String Quartet (Sony S2K 47229, 1991).

Davis, Miles, and others, 'So What', in _Kind of Blue_ , rec. 1959 (Columbia CK 64935, 1997) [CD].

Vitry, Philippe de, _Philippe de Vitry and the Ars Nova_ , Orlando Consort (Amon Ra CD-SAR 49, 1991) [incl. sleeve notes by Daniel Leech-Wilkinson, 'Philippe de Vitry and the 14th-Century Motet'].

Audio recordings that combine different works without a clear single title may require more than one title:

Dutilleux, Henri, _L'Arbre des songes_ , and Peter Maxwell Davies, _Concerto for Violin and Orchestra_ , André Previn, cond., Isaac Stern, violin, and Royal Philharmonic Orchestra (CBS MK 42449, 1987).

In recording numbers a hyphen rather than an en rule is the norm. Where a range of such numbers is given they should never be elided:

Lightnin' Hopkins, _The Complete Aladdin Recordings_ (EMI Blues Series CDP-7-96843-2, n.d.) [2-vol. CD set].

## 18.7.3 Films, videos, and broadcasts

See also 18.3. When citing audiovisual, video, and broadcast media, the three key elements that need to be included are:

• title of the piece (italic or single quotation marks), or a description of what the item is (roman):

_The Empire Strikes Back_ | 'How to Play Women's Lacrosse'
---|---
interview with Albert Einstein  |

• broadcasting or production details, including a date

• short description of the medium, unless this is already made clear by the context or a heading within the bibliography.

If the citation is of a digital version of a pre-digital film or broadcast, include details of the original work, the source type (video etc.), date of post, and URI.

'Tony Hancock Face to Face interview 01' with John Freeman [video], YouTube (televised by the BBC 7 February 1960, uploaded 17 March 2009), <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnkovGeASzE>

Podcasts can be treated similarly:

Fay Weldon, interview with Kirsty Young, _Desert Island Discs Archive_ [podcast], BBC Radio 4 (9 May 2010), <http://www.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/series/dida05/all>.

# 18.8 Websites and other digital media

## 18.8.1 General principles

The basic template for citing digital references might include some, or all, of the following classes of information (not always necessarily in this order):

• author's or editor's name (if no author, list under the title or website name)

• title of the article or other subsection used (roman in quotes) or description of the content if there is no title (roman, in square brackets)

• general title or title of the complete work (italic)

• volume or page numbers (when citing online journals that have no volumes the date may be cited here)

• general information, including type of medium (in square brackets)

• date on which the material was created or on which it was published or posted (day month year, in parentheses); use _n.d_. if the date is unknown, or _c.XXXX_ if approximate date is known

• institution or organization responsible for maintaining or publishing the information (roman, with maximal capitalization)

• address of online source or digital object identifier (doi)

• pagination or online equivalent

• date accessed.

Examples of specific digital citations are presented in 18.8.5.

Electronic books, journals, magazines, newspapers, and reviews should be treated as much as possible like their print counterparts, with the same style adopted for capitalization, italics, and quotation marks. It is sometimes less straightforward to fit the pertinent information into the categories normally associated with print publications, such as author, title, place and date of publication, and publisher. Aspects such as pagination and publication date may differ between hard-copy and digital versions, so the reference must make clear which is meant.

Where print versions exist they can—but need not—be cited; similarly, citing digital versions of printed media is not mandatory. To provide the reader with both does, however, offer all possible options for following up a reference. When making citations for references with more than one online source, choose the one that is most likely to be stable and durable.

## 18.8.2 Media

Where the context or content of a citation does not make obvious the format or platform in which the data are held, give additional clarification (typically in square brackets):

[DVD]  | [blog]  | [abstract]
---|---|---

There is no need to add _online_ or _available from_ to the citation, since this will be apparent from the inclusion of an address.

## 18.8.3 Resource locators

URLs are unreliable as a medium- to long-term source locator for various reasons and some house styles preclude them from references. However, even if a web page no longer exists, the URL still constitutes a historical source if it is provided with a date of access (presumably, it existed at a point in the past, when the author accessed it), and there may not be an alternative source for the information.

If citing the whole of a document that consists of a series of linked pages, give the highest-level URL; this is most often the contents or home page. Give enough information to allow the reader to navigate to the exact reference. Many sites provide a search facility and regularly archive material; the search function will provide the surest method of reaching the destination if the document is relocated.

The protocol _http_ is commonly omitted for websites that include _www_ in the domain name as the browser will automatically insert it, and it is becoming more common to omit _www_ as well; however, other protocols exist, such as _ftp_ and the encrypted variant _https_ , so if there is any risk of confusion, include the protocols for all.

It is also good practice to include the trailing forward slash (which points to a resource on the website) after the domain name (<http://www.royal.gov.uk/>).

It is not advisable to enclose a URL in angle brackets because it can interfere with XML tagging. Do not add underline formatting to URLs in word processor files. Normal punctuation can be used after a URL:

The British Armorial Bindings database, begun by John Morris and continued by Philip Oldfield, is now available on the Web at <http://armorial.library.utoronto.ca/>.

If citing a long URL is unavoidable, never hyphenate the address at a line break, or at hyphens. Divide URLs only after a solidus or a %; where this is impossible, break the URL before a punctuation mark, carrying it over to the following line. Where space allows, setting a URL on a separate line can prevent those of moderate length from being broken.

## 18.8.4 Access information

Up to four dates can be significant in providing a complete citation for an electronic source:

• the date the information was originally **created** , released, or printed; this is of special interest when citing online reprints of previously published material

• the date the information was originally **posted** or made available online: mainly of relevance when citing large online reference works

• the date the information was last **updated** or revised: rarely required

• the date the information was last **accessed** by the author: always record this and include it in the citation; editors should not change the author's access date as the web page may have changed.

It is rarely necessary to include more than two of the above dates, and usually the access date, and maybe the last updated date, will suffice.

## 18.8.5 Types of digital citation

Depending on their importance, some Internet material (e.g. a passing reference to a tweet, a Facebook update, or an image) may simply be referred to in passing in the text or in notes, rather than included as a reference in the bibliography. Full details should be provided in a footnote or endnote. The principles remain the same as for a reference, except that the first name of the author/originator is not reversed as it is in a bibliographical reference.

### Print publication available online

UNESCO, _The United Nations World Water Development Report 4_ , vol. 1: _Managing Water under Uncertainty and Risk_ (Paris: UNESCO, 2012), <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002156/215644e.pdf>, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Online journal article

Druin, A., 'The Role of Children in the Design of New Technology', _Behaviour & Information Technology_, 21/1 (2002), 1–25. doi: 10.1080/01449290110108659

Liu, Ya-Ming, Yea-Huei Kao Yang, and Chee-Ruey Hsieh, 'Regulation and Competition in the Taiwanese Pharmaceutical Market under National Health Insurance', _Journal of Health Economics_ , 31 (2012), 471–83. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2012.03.003

### Article in a database

Li, Shu, Chungkun Shih, Chen Wang, Hong Pang, and Dong Ren, 'Forever Love: The Hitherto Earliest Record of Copulating Insects from the Middle Jurassic of China', _PLoS ONE_ , 8/11 (2013), e78188. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078188

### News report

BBC News, 'Colchester General Hospital: Police Probe Cancer Treatment' (5 Nov. 2013), <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-essex-24819973>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

BBC News, 'Inside India's Mars Mission HQ' [video] (5 Nov. 2013), <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-24826253>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

Hooper, Richard, 'Lebanon's Forgotten Space Programme', BBC News Magazine (14 Nov. 2013), <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-24735423>, accessed 14 Nov. 2013.

### Interview

McEwen, Stephen, 'Tan Twan Eng Interview: "I Have No Alternative but to Write in English"', _The Spectator_ (20 May 2013), <http://blogs.spectator.co.uk/books/2013/05/tan-twan-eng-interview-i-have-no-alternative-but-to-write-in-english/>, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Online book

Beckford, William, _Vathek_ , 4th edn (London, 1823) [online facsimile], <http://beckford.c18.net/wbvathek1823.html>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

### Online article

Allaby, Michael, 'Feathers and Lava Lamps', Oxford Reference (2013), <http://www.oxfordreference.com/page/featherslavalamps>, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Online reference

'Gunpowder Plot', _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ , <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249505/Gunpowder-Plot>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

### Wikipedia article

'Oxford University Press', Wikipedia (last modified 5 Nov. 2013), <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

### Blog

Tan, Siu-Lan, 'Why does this Baby Cry when her Mother Sings?' [including video], OUPblog (5 Nov. 2013), <http://blog.oup.com/2013/11/why-does-this-baby-cry-when-her-mother-sings-viral-video/>, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Television programme

Berger, John, Episode 1, _Ways of Seeing_ , BBC (1972), <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0pDE4VX_9Kk>, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Online video

Nicholson, Christie, 'A Quirk of Speech May Become a New Vocal Style' [video], _Scientific American_ , 17 Dec. 2011, <http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=a-quirk-of-speech-may-become-a-new-11-12-17>, accessed 4 Nov. 2013.

### Webcast

Yousafzai, Malala, 'Making a Wish for Action on Global Education: Malala Yousafzai addresses Youth Assembly at UN on her 16th Birthday, 12 July 2013' [webcast], UN Web TV, 12 Jul 2013, <http://webtv.un.org/search/malala-yousafzai-un-youth-assembly/2542094251001?term=malala>, accessed 15 Feb. 2015.

### YouTube video

Arthur Rubinstein, 'Rachmaninoff Piano Concerto No. 2, Op. 18, I Moderato. Allegro (Fritz Reiner)' video], YouTube (recorded 9 Jan. 1956, uploaded 8 Nov. 2011), [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Vv0Sy9FJrc&list=PLDB11C4F39E09047F, accessed 9 Nov. 2013.

### Online image

M. Clarke, 'Exports of Coal to the IFS' poster], Manchester Art Gallery, [http://www.manchestergalleries.org/the-collections/search-the-collection/display.php?EMUSESSID=70bd7f1a388d79a82f52ea9aae713ef2&irn=4128, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

'Christ the God Shepherd', stained glass window, Church of St Erfyl, Llanerfyl, Powys, Imaging the Bible in Wales Database, <http://imagingthebible.llgc.org.uk//object/1884>, accessed 10 Nov. 2013.

### Podcast

Grayson Perry, 'I Found Myself in the Art World' [podcast], Reith Lecture (5 Nov. 2013), BBC Radio 4, <http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/radio4/reith/reith_20131105-0940b.mp3>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

The speaker's name may be replaced with that of a writer or producer, depending on the podcast.

### Facebook post/update

Barack Obama, 'Tomorrow is Veterans Day' Facebook post] (10 Nov. 2013), [https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=10151936988101749&set=a.53081056748.66806.6815841748&type=1&theatre, accessed 13 Nov. 2013.

John Harvey, ' "These are a Few of My Favourite Things", No. 28' Facebook post] (13 Nov. 2013), [https://www.facebook.com/photo.php?fbid=229786530530896&set=a.108896335953250.15125.100004986510149&type=1&theatre, accessed 13 Nov. 2013.

If there is no obvious 'heading' that can be used in place of a title for the post, it can simply be described as a '[Facebook post]'.

### Twitter post/tweet

Shakespeare's Globe, 'On this day in 1611 first production of The Tempest was performed by King's Men at Whitehall Palace before James I' [Twitter post], 5.48 a.m., 1 Nov. 2013, <https://twitter.com/The_Globe/status/396257422928400385>, accessed 5 Nov. 2013.

The date and time of messages are always those of the reader's time zone, as it may not be possible to determine the exact date and time a tweet was posted. The tweet itself may be omitted and replaced with the description 'Twitter feed', 'Twitter post', or 'tweet'. If the tweeter is a named or known individual, the tweet can also be listed under his/her real name followed by the username in parentheses, or vice versa.

### Ebook

Rankin, Ian, _Saints of the Shadow Bible_ [Kindle edn] (London: Orion, 2013).

_or_

Rankin, Ian, _Saints of the Shadow Bible_ (Kindle edn, London: Orion, 2013).

Austen, Jane, _Persuasion_ , ed. Gillian Beer (London: Penguin, 2003; Kindle edn, 2006).

The pagination of an ebook is not always fixed; hence reference is best made to a chapter or section rather than a page number. Some ebook editions provide print page numbers to facilitate referencing. Avoid device-specific indicators such as Kindle location numbers. As with any resource that is relatively new, citation styles vary and will probably change fairly quickly, as the technology continues to evolve. The last example above includes the publication details of the print as well as the ebook version. Some styles (not Oxford) suggest including the device on which it is read, the database from which it has been downloaded, and the date of the download.

### Mobile app

Simogo, _Device 6_ (version 1.1) [mobile application for iPhone and iPad], downloaded 9 Nov. 2013.

Eliot, T. S., _The Waste Land_ (version 1.1.1) [mobile application for iPad] (London: Touch Press, 2013), downloaded 9 Nov. 2013.

Some styles also include the web address of the download site.

### CD-ROM/DVD

United Nations, _World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision_ [CD-ROM] (New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2011).

# CHAPTER 19

#  Indexing

# 19.1 Introduction

A good index enables the user to navigate sensibly through the work's main topics and facts. How long it needs to be to accomplish this depends on the size and complexity of the work and the requirements and expectations of the readership. In general, a short index for a general book can account for as little as 1 per cent of the text it catalogues, while an exhaustive index for a specialist book can take up as much as 15 per cent. The editor should be consulted before preparing the index to a printed book, as length constraints may apply, such as those needed to make an even working (see 1.8). In digital products, there are no such constraints, and a professional indexer will achieve a better result if allowed to determine the index length.

The index is a vital component of the work, directly affecting the text's usefulness for the reader. This chapter provides some general guidance on producing and checking an index for those not trained in indexing. However, if you are an author who needs an index, especially for a large or important work, it is strongly recommended that you consider using a professional indexer. Not only are they skilled at choosing, compiling, and ordering an index's content using specialized software but they also bring a fresh pair of eyes to the text, which is invaluable in assessing the content from the reader's viewpoint. Indexing software also reduces the problems associated with changes in pagination and ensures typographical consistency. Indexes are best submitted electronically, as rekeying errors are hard to spot.

## 19.1.1 Indexing in the digital age

Although at first glance free-text searching in digital products might seem to make indexes redundant, the chief disadvantages are that users must know precisely what they are looking for, and how to spell it; that multiple hits may be generated with no indication of which are of greatest relevance; and that underlying concepts which do not have obvious key terms are not retrieved. A well-formed index is therefore just as important in digital as in print publications.

Indexes are often created from first or second proofs, i.e. late in the production process, using page numbers as locators. With the exception of ebooks where fixed layout is desirable (such as highly illustrated titles), the possibilities offered by reflowing the same text into a great variety of digital formats means that the page is irrelevant as a concept other than for the print edition. This brings a major advantage to the indexing process as it can now start at a much earlier stage, as soon as a stabilized text becomes available. Two methods of indexing unpaged content are described here: embedded indexing and indexing to location markers.

### Embedded indexing

Embedded indexing (EI) involves inserting actual index terms as hidden text marked with a functional identifier at appropriate locations in the electronic version of the indexed document. After pagination, EI software builds the index automatically by associating the final page locations with each embedded index entry and performing the sorting, suppression of duplication, and formatting necessary to produce a usable index. Most of the common word-processing packages, including LaTex, include an EI system. The default is usually to produce an index with page locations, but an embedded index can be presented with hyperlinks for use in digital product. Because of its availability in word-processing software, embedded indexing is preferred by some publishers and by many authors producing their own indexes. It may be more time consuming for a professional indexer than production of a conventional index using specialized software. Authors making their own embedded indexes should also be aware that, unlike specialized indexing software, the default alphabetization routines of the word-processing packages may not fully implement the principles outlined below under 19.3 (though some systems include mechanisms that can 'force' the correct order). Authors planning to submit an embedded index should consult their publisher early on in the production process.

### Tagging with code markers

An alternative approach is to mark the point in the text to which an index term is to be linked using a location marker rather than a page number. The location marker (known also as an ID, unique number, or tag) must be unique to each point to be marked. Apart from the use of location codes rather than page numbers, the construction of the index follows exactly the same course as a traditional index. It differs from embedded indexing in that only the location codes, not index terms, are inserted in the electronic text and the indexer compiles a separate, stand-alone index file.

# 19.2 What to index

## 19.2.1 General principles

The indexer's job is to identify and analyse concepts treated in the text so as to produce a series of headings based on its terminology; to indicate relationships between concepts; to group together information that is scattered in the text; and to synthesize main headings and subheadings into entries. All items of significance (names, places, concepts) should be entered, with correct page numbers and spelling. The needs of the user of the index should always be kept in mind, particularly in terms of what and where things will be sought: for example, in all but the most technical books an entry for _humankind_ or _mankind_ will be more helpful than one for _homo sapiens_. Looking at indexes of related works in the field can provide useful guidance.

Usually a single index will suffice: multiple indexes can be unhelpful and should not be provided without being agreed with the editor beforehand.

Indexes comprise a list of single headings or multiword headings followed by one or more locators (a page or page range, section, numbered paragraph, or some other division) to indicate where the topic is discussed in the text, or by a cross-reference to another heading. Entries complicated enough to require further division may have **subentries** within the **main entry**. In all but the most complex indexes, subentries within subentries (sub-subentries) should be avoided.

In some works it is desirable to highlight those references that include the principal discussion of a heading, and this is usually indicated by the use of bold type:

miners **245–7** , 257, 346

Editors of multi-author works must ensure as far as possible that contributors' terminology and sources have been standardized to a single form throughout a work: the index may otherwise require frequent cross-references to guide the reader between variants.

## 19.2.2 Main entries

Main entries are those most likely to be first sought by the reader, and should be in a form that anticipates where the reader will look for them. They should be concise and consist of nouns modified if necessary by adjectives, verbs, or other nouns; unless house style dictates otherwise, they should start with a capital letter only if the word is capitalized in the text. Normally choose the plural form unless the noun is uncountable, e.g. _lightning_. If use of the singular is unavoidable, both can be accommodated through parentheses: _cake_ ( _s_ ). If singular and plural forms have different meanings, both forms may be used in the index.

Ignore passing or minor references that give no information about the topic. Do not include entries from the preface, contents, introduction, and other preliminary matter unless they contain information not found elsewhere that is relevant to the subject of the work. There is no need to index bibliographies or reference lists. There is usually no need to augment a heading with supplementary information from the text, though in some cases a gloss or other clarification in parentheses may prove necessary, such as in _vom_ (proper name prefix).

Use cross-references or subentries where a single reference spans ten or more pages, or where lengthy strings of locators threaten to clutter the layout. An array of unqualified or undifferentiated locators several lines deep is tiresome and unhelpful to users, who will have to spend too much time trying to locate the information they seek. Any string should ideally be reduced to six or fewer numbers. For example,

habitat loss 83–5, 100–7, 114–16, 117–18, 121–2, 125–9

can be broken down into:

habitat loss:

from development 83–5, 100–7

from erosion 125–9

from logging 114–16

in Asia 117–18

in England 121–2

It is advisable to avoid main headings that echo the title or subtitle of the book. If such entries are essential, they must be succinct. In biographies or collections of letters, keep subentries relating to the subject to a reasonable minimum, confining them to factors of relevance.

## 19.2.3 Subentries

Subentries are used chiefly to analyse a complex subject heading made up of two or more discrete categories:

life:

beginnings of 2, 98

DNA's role in 5–7, 10, 12–13

and inorganic matter 7, 10, 28–9, 48

as process, not substance 10, 11

understanding 240–1

Run together a simple heading with no general page references and only one category:

life, beginnings of 2, 98

Sub-subentries can most effectively be bypassed by denesting the subentry containing the sub-subentry into a separate main heading of its own, cross-referring to it as necessary. For example, in the following the subheading _industries_ under _moorlands_ can be changed to a cross-reference ' _see also_ industries', leading to a main entry with subentries of its own.

moorlands:

enclosure 198, 200, 201

industries 201, 205

charcoal-burning 197

coalmining 201

tin-mining 197

roads 201

It may not always be possible, or practical, to use subentries and sub-subentries to avoid long strings of locators in an exhaustive index—such as one containing numerous references to authors of cited publications, a separate index of authors, or an index of musical works.

An index is not intended to be an outline of the entire text: there should not be a subheading for every locator, and a list of subheadings all with the same locator should be condensed.

## 19.2.4 Notes

Notes should be indexed only if they give information not found elsewhere in the text. When there is a reference to a topic and a footnote to that topic on the same page, it is usually sufficient to index the text reference only. See 19.6.

## 19.2.5 Cross-references

Cross-references are used to deal with such things as synonyms, near-synonyms, pseudonyms, abbreviations, variant or historical spellings, and closely related topics; they fall into two classes. The first, introduced by _see_ , directs attention from one possible entry to a synonymous or analogous one, under which the references will be found:

Canton, _see_ Guangzhou

farming, _see_ agriculture

Dodgson, C. L., _see_ Carroll, Lewis

Severus, Sextus Julius, _see_ Julius Severus

The second, introduced by _see also_ , extends the search by directing attention to one or more closely related entries or subentries. Two or more cross-references are given in alphabetical order, separated by semicolons:

birds 21, 88–9; _see also_ chickens

clothing 27, 44–6, 105–6; _see also_ costume; millinery

housing 134–9, 152; _see also_ shelter, varieties of

tread depth 109; _see also_ routine maintenance; tyre

condition, indicators

Except in the case of reference from a non-preferred to a preferred term, or cross-references between acronyms and their full forms (see later in this section), do not use a 'see' cross-reference to a heading that takes up the same space as that occupied by the cross-reference itself. In

authors, _see_ writers

writers 25, 36–8

the reader would find it easier if the locators were repeated after both headings (a 'double entry'). Equally, do not cross-refer simply to the same references listed under a different heading, nor bewilder the reader by circular or redundant cross-referring:

authors 25, 36–8, 50; _see also_ writers

writers 25, 36–8, 50; _see also_ authors

There must be no 'blind' cross-references: in other words, ensure that every cross-reference is to an existing entry. Cross-references to general areas rather than specific headings are often in italic:

authors, _see under the individual authors_

In addition to inversion of proper names (see 19.3.2), wherever a heading (or subheading) consists of more than one word a decision must be made as to whether another heading in inverse form is also needed. As long as the first word is one that users will look for, the direct form of entry is better:

right of expression

secondary education

trial by jury

If the second and later words in the heading are also words that may be looked for, then additional inverse headings (and cross-references) can be made:

education, secondary

expression, right of

jury trials

Inverse headings need not be made automatically for every multiword heading, as applied consistently they can have a significant effect on the index length. The selection will depend on the context: for example, the heading _education, secondary_ above is not needed if _education_ is the subject of the whole text.

Terms such as names of organizations are often referred to in the text in an abbreviated form. The indexer must decide whether to make a heading under the shortened form or at the spelled-out version of the term. It is generally agreed that widely known terms such as UNICEF and NATO can be indexed in their shortened forms without cross references from the spelled-out forms. However, the indexer will need to decide how much cross-referencing is appropriate for the likely users of the index. It may be helpful to include the full form in parentheses after the shortened version:

OUP (Oxford University Press)

Oxford University Press, _see_ OUP

A double entry may also be used:

OUP (Oxford University Press)

Oxford University Press (OUP)

although if space is an issue a cross-reference may be more economical. For reasons of neatness and apparent consistency, it will often be advisable to adopt a single practice (all entries cross-referred from shortened form to full title or vice versa; or all double entered) for all organization names in a given index.

# 19.3 Alphabetical order

## 19.3.1 Systems of alphabetization

The two systems of alphabetizing headings are **word by word** and **letter by letter** , with minor variations in each. The International and British Standard (BS ISO 999: 1996) advocates word-by-word indexing, which is the system usually employed in general indexes in Britain. Letter-by-letter indexing is preferred in British encyclopedias, atlases, gazetteers, and some dictionaries, and is more common in the US.

The word-by-word system alphabetizes compound terms (those that consist of more than one word or element) up to the first word space and then begins again, so separated words precede closed compounds (e.g. _high water_ comes before _highball_ ). Hyphens are treated as spaces, and the two parts of a hyphenated compound are treated as separate words, except where the first element is not a word in its own right (e.g. _de-emphasis, iso-osmotic, proto-language_ ).

In the letter-by-letter system alphabetization proceeds across spaces, with separated (and also hyphenated) words being treated as one word.

In both systems the alphabetization ignores apostrophes, accents and diacritics. Parenthetical descriptions are also ignored: _high_ (light headed) is treated as a simple heading (i.e. as _high_ alone would be). Alphabetization continues until a comma indicates inverted order: for instance, _High, J_. is treated as _High_ for alphabetization, although if there were several instances of _High_ , the form _High, J_. would come after _High_ alone and also after _High, B. Bath, order of the_ would come before _Bath bun_ and _Bath chair_.

Where headings are identical, indexing software will order terms in strict alphabetical order. This is preferred to some systems that order entries according to what they are, such as people first, then subjects, concepts, objects, places, and titles of works.

Thus in the example below _High, J_. comes first, as the name of a person.

These are time consuming because they require manual intervention on the indexer's part and it can be argued that many index users will not be aware of these conventions.

The example below demonstrates alphabetization in the word-by-word and letter-by-letter systems:

**Word by word** | **Letter by letter**
---|---
High, J. | High, J.
high (light-headed) | high (light-headed)
high chair | highball
high-fliers | highbrow
high heels | high chair
High-Smith, P. | Highclere Castle
high water | high-fliers
_High Water_ (play) | high heels
highball | highlights
highbrow | Highsmith, A.
Highclere Castle | High-Smith, P.
highlights | high water
Highsmith, A. | _High Water_ (play)
highways | highways

In both systems, letter groups are treated as one word if—such as _NATO_ and _NASA_ — they are pronounced as such. Otherwise, the word-by-word system lists all sets of letters before any full word, ignoring any full points:

Word by word | **Letter by letter**
---|---
I/O | I/O
IOU | iodine
IPA | IOU
i.p.i. | Iowa
IPM | IPA
i.p.s | IP address
IP address | Ipanema
Ipanema | i.p.i.
iodine | IPM
Iowa | i.p.s.

Definite and indefinite articles at the beginning of entries are transposed in both systems:

_Midsummer Night's Dream, A_

_Vicar of Wakefield, The_

In works written in English, foreign words are conventionally alphabetized by ignoring accents and diacritics, so for example _ö_ and _ø_ are treated as _o_. Some information on alphabetization in languages other than English is given in Chapter 12.

## 19.3.2 Names

Personal names are generally given in inverted form to bring the significant element (the surname) forward: so _Meynell, Alice_ rather than _Alice Meynell_.

Where people bear the same surname, initials are conventionally listed before full names; a name with a title that is otherwise identical with one without should follow it:

Meynell, A.

Meynell, Dr A.

Meynell, Alice

Meynell, F.

Meynell, Sir F.

Meynell, W.

Meynell, W. G.

List names prefixed with _Mc, Mac_ , or _M_ _c_ as if they were spelled _Mac_ :

McCullers

MacFarlane

McFingal

McNamee

Personal names given only by surname in the text require a fuller form in the index, even if mentioned only in passing: _Shepard's illustrations_ is therefore expanded to the heading _Shepard, E. H_. Bare surnames should be avoided wherever possible: particularly for specialist subjects an author should anticipate inserting missing names in an index generated by an indexer, or checking for accuracy those the indexer supplies.

Personal names in a single numbered (usually chronological) sequence should be recorded in that sequence in spite of any surnames or other additions. Beware the omission of a number, especially of _I_ ; if others in the sequence appear duly numbered, restore the number when listing. Hence _Frederick Barbarossa_ should become _Frederick I Barbarossa_ and precede _Frederick II_. Where appropriate—especially for the period before _c_.1300—index people by their given names, with their titles, offices, etc. provided with suitable cross-references. Note again that descriptions in parentheses are disregarded for the purposes of alphabetization:

Henry

Henry (of France), archbishop of Reims

Henry, chaplain

Henry I, count of Champagne

Henry (the Lion), duke of Saxony

Henry, earl of Warwick

Henry II, emperor and king of Germany

Henry IV, emperor and king of Germany

Henry I, king of England

Henry II, king of England

Henry, king of England, the young king

Henry, scribe of Bury St Edmunds

Henry, son of John

Henry de Beaumont, bishop of Bayeux

Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester

Henry Blund

Henry of Essex

Henry the Little

Henry de Mowbray

Henry Fitz Robert

Treat _St_ as if it were spelled _Saint_ , for both personal and place names. In alphabetical arrangement, saints considered in their own right as historical figures are indexed under their names, the abbreviation _St_ being postponed:

Augustine, St, bishop of Hippo

Margaret, St, queen of Scotland

Rumwald, St, of Kings Sutton

When a place or a church is named after a saint, or the saint's name complete with prefix is used as a surname, alphabetize it under the word _Saint_ as if spelled out, not under _St_. Thus for example _St Andrews, Fife, St Peter's, Rome_ , and _St John, Olivier_ are all treated as if they were written _Saint_ —:

Saint, J. B.

St Andrews, Fife

St Benet's Hall

St James Infirmary

St John-Smythe, Q,

Saint-Julien

St Just-in-Roseland

When the saint's name is in a foreign language, alphabetize its abbreviation under the full form in that language: thus _Ste-Foy_ is alphabetized as _Sainte-Foy_.

Foreign names are treated in the form familiar to the reader, so there is a comma in _Bartók, Béla_ even though in Hungarian the surname comes first. Some information on alphabetizing non-English names is given at 6.1.8 and 6.1.9.

Alphabetize natural geographical features according to whether the descriptive component forms part of the name: Always retain the component if it is part of the official name:

Graian Alps

Grampians, the

Granby, Lake

Granby River

Gran Canaria

Grand, North Fork

Grand, South Fork

Grand Bérard, Mont

Grand Canyon

Grand Rapids

Grand Ruine, La

Grand Teton

Cape Canaveral

Cape Cod

Cape of Good Hope

Cape Horn

Where confusion may result—in atlases, for example—cross references or multiple entries are common.

## 19.3.3 Scientific terms

If the first character or characters in a chemical compound is a prefix or numeral, such as O-, _s-, cis-_ , it is ignored for alphabetizing but taken into account in ordering a group of similar entries. For example, '2,3-dihydroxybenzene', '2,4-dihydroxybenzene', and ' _cis_ -1,2-dimethyl cyclohexane' would all be found under _D_ , and the abbreviation '( _Z,Z_ )-7,11-HDDA', expanded as ' _cis_ -7, _cis_ -11-hexadecadien-1-yl acetate', would be alphabetized under _H_. In chemical notation disregard subscript numerals except when the formulas are otherwise the same:

vitamin B1

vitamin B2

vitamin B6

vitamin B12

Greek letters prefixing chemical terms, star names, etc. are customarily spelled out (and any hyphen dropped): for example, α Centauri, α chain, and α-iron are alphabetized as _Alpha Centauri, alpha_ (α) _chain_ , and _alpha iron_. However, Greek letters beginning the name of a chemical compound are ignored in alphabetization: for example, 'α-oxo carbenes' is spelled thus but alphabetized under _O_ for _oxo_.

## 19.3.4 Symbols and numerals

There are two systems for alphabetizing symbols and numerals: the International and British Standard advises listing them before the alphabetical sequence, but they are also commonly arranged as if spelled out, alphabetizing '=' as _equals_ , '£' as _pounds_ , '→' as _implies_ , '&' as _ampersand_ , '1st' as _first_ , and '7' as _seven_. An ampersand _within_ an entry is best treated either as if spelled out as _and_ or ignored.

**Before the alphabetical sequence** | **As if spelled out**
---|---
1st Cavalry | 1st Cavalry
2/4 time | _42nd Street_
3i plc | 3i plc
_42nd Street_ | 2/4 time

Where the names of symbols may be problematic, it may be helpful to give an umbrella heading for symbols (for example _rules of inference, linguistic symbols, coding notation_ ) in addition to alphabetical listings. Whichever system is followed, maintain consistency throughout.

## 19.3.5 Subentries

Arrangement of subentries should normally be alphabetical by key words (but see 19.4), ignoring leading prepositions, conjunctions, and articles in alphabetical ordering. Ensure that subentries are worded so that they are unambiguous and 'read' from or to the heading in a consistent pattern. Arrange subentries beneath related or similar headings in parallel. Cross-references from a main heading with subentries may either follow the locators for the main entry:

monasticism 20–3, 69, 131, 158, 202; _see also_ ascetism; religious orders

cathedrals 112

churches 206

and mission 89, 90, 94, 134

reform 112–14

in Spain 287

or be given as the final subentry:

monasticism 20–3, 69, 131, 158, 202

cathedrals 112

churches 206

and mission 89, 90, 94,134

reform 112–14

in Spain 287

_see also_ ascetism; religious orders

# 19.4 Non-alphabetical order

Some matter will call for ordering on some basis other than alphabetical, such as numerical, chronological, or hierarchical. Where this matter forms part only of an occasional group of subentries within an otherwise alphabetical index it may be ordered as necessary without comment; however, where a significant amount needs to be included in the form of headings it should be placed in a separate index where similar elements can be found and compared easily. Never arrange entries or subentries themselves by order of locator, as this is of least help to the reader.

Chronological ordering may be useful in arranging entries or subentries, for example according to the life and times of the subject in a biography:

dynasties, early:

Legendary Period (prehistoric) 1–33, 66, 178

Xia ( _c_.2100–1600 BC) 35–60, 120

Shang ( _c_.1600– _c_. 1027 BC) 61–84

Zhou ( _c_.1027–256 BC) 12, 85–100, 178

Quin (221–207 BC) 109–35

Han (206 BC–AD 220) 132,136–7, 141

Hart, Horace:

birth 188

apprenticeship 192, 195

in London 195–9

in Oxford 200, 201–60

retirement 261

illness and death 208, 277–9

Subjects may sometimes be ordered according to some recognized hierarchical system of classification (e.g. _BA, MA, MPhil, DPhil_ or _duke, marquess, earl, viscount, baron_ ). Indexes of scriptural references are arranged in their traditional order rather than alphabetically.

# 19.5 Presentation of indexes

## 19.5.1 Style

Index matter is set in small type, one or two sizes down from text size, usually set justified left (ragged right) in two or more columns. Typically, the running heads are _Index_ on both recto and verso, though two or more indexes can be differentiated according to their title, such as _Author index, General index, Index of first lines_.

Begin each entry with a lower-case letter unless it is for a word that is capitalized in the text. Carefully check hyphenation, italics, spelling, and punctuation for consistency with the text. Instructions for cross-referring ( _see, see also_ ) should be italicized. However, 'see' and 'see also' commonly appear in roman when they are followed by italicized text:

Plutarch's _Lives_ , see _Parallel Lives_ ; _see also_ biographies; Dryden

Poema Morale, see _Selections from Early Middle English_

_Poetics, see_ Aristotle

In Oxford style there is an en space between the entry and the first locator; interposing a comma is less usual nowadays. If a heading ends with a numeral ( _B-17, Channel 13, M25, uranium 235_ ), a colon or comma can be added to separate it from the locator but a space is acceptable if that is the chosen style for other entries. Oxford style separates an entry from a following cross-reference with a comma but others omit the punctuation in accordance with other entries.

Separate multiple cross-references from each other with commas or semicolons:

earnings _see_ income; taxation; wages

There is no punctuation at the end of entries. Oxford style inserts a colon after a main heading when there are no locators but instead a list of subentries

earnings:

income 12, 14–22, 45

taxation 9, 11, 44–9

wages 12–21, 48–50

but other styles only use the colon in this way in run-on entries but not in set-out style (see 15.5.2).

## 19.5.2 Layout

The first or only index in a work typically begins on a new recto, though subsequent indexes can begin on a new page.

The samples below show the two basic styles of typographic design for indexes, the subentries being either **set out** (or **indented** ) or **run on** (or **run in** ). The set-out style uses a new (indented) line for each sub entry; it is therefore clearer than the run-on style, though it takes up more room. In the set-out style, avoid further subdivision of subentries if possible, as this can result in complicated and space wasting structures. In the run-on style, subentries do as the name suggests: they run on and are separated from the main entry—and each other—by a semicolon. They are indented appropriately to distinguish them from the heading. Sub-subentries should be avoided entirely in run-on style. Take particular care that the arrangement is logical and consistent, since the style's density makes it more difficult to read.

**Set out** | **Run on**

---|---
shields 4, 78, 137, 140
heraldic designs 82
kite-shaped 199
round 195
Viking 43, 44, 53  |

shields 4, 78, 137, 140; heraldic designs 82; kite-shaped 199; round 195; Viking 43, 44, 53

ships/shipping 22, 68, 85, 230–52
design and navigation 6
pirate 23
spending on 59
_see also_ galleys; longships; piracy  |

ships/shipping 22, 68, 85, 230–52; design and navigation 6; pirate 23; spending on 59; see also galleys; longships; piracy

shipyards 234 |  shipyards 234

Which style a publisher chooses depends on the length and number of subentries in the final index copy, and the conventions of related works. In any case, index copy must be submitted for setting with all entries and subentries in the set-out form for markup: it is easier for the typesetter to run these on afterwards, if necessary, than it is to set out an index from copy that was presented in the run-on format.

Turn-lines or turnovers (where text runs to more than one line of typescript) should be indented consistently throughout, and in set out style should be indented more deeply than the deepest subheading indentation. To save space, sub-subentries—where unavoidable—may be run on even in otherwise set-out indexes.

When an entry breaks across a page—most especially from the bottom of a recto to the top of a verso—the heading or subheading is repeated and a continuation note added during typesetting:

shields ( _cont_.)

Viking 43, 44, 53

# 19.6 Number references

In references to pagination and dates, use the smallest number of figures consistent with clarity: see 11.1.4.

Be as specific as possible in your references. For this reason, do not use section or clause numbers instead of page numbers unless they are frequent and the entire index is to be organized that way. Avoid using 'f.' and 'ff.'; give instead the first and last pages of the material: _123–5_ , for example, denotes one continuous discussion spanning three pages, whereas _123, 124, 125_ denotes three separate short references. Avoid using _passim_ ('throughout'). Cite the page extent of a chapter and not, for example, _Ch_. _11_.

References to footnotes and endnotes may simply give the page number. If more detail is desired, give references to footnotes and endnotes in the form ' _word_ 90 n. 17' for one note and ' _word_ 90 nn. 17, 19' for two or more; each has a full point and a space after the abbreviation. There is no need to give the note number where there is only one note on the page cited; in such cases it is Oxford style to insert a thin space between page number and 'n.'

To provide the most effective help to the reader, a general index serving more than one volume must include the volume number as part of each locator, regardless of whether the pagination runs through volumes in a single sequence or begins anew with each volume. Volume numbers may be styled in Roman numerals, often in small capitals, separated by a full point: ' _word_ III. 90'. Indexes to a group of periodicals may have both the series and volume number as part of the locator.

Though simple page references are often sufficient, it may be appropriate to mark figures denoting references to illustrations in italic or bold, or with some typographic symbol (such as an asterisk or dagger), and provide an introductory note at the start of the index in the form _Italic_ / _bold numbers denote reference to illustrations_. Some authors use a similar treatment to flag passages that are particularly significant or include definitions; again, explain this practice at the start of the index (but bear in mind that readers often ignore these explanatory notes).

# CHAPTER 20

#  Copyright and other publishing responsibilities

# 20.1 Introduction

This chapter is not intended to provide legal advice, but as a general guide to copyright and other related areas, with emphasis on the position in the UK. It should alert readers to matters on which help may need to be sought from their publisher or legal adviser.

# 20.2 UK copyright

## 20.2.1 General principles

Copyright is a property right that attaches to an 'original' literary, dramatic, musical, or artistic work: examples of these are books, letters, drawings, book layouts, and computer programs. It arises when a work is created in permanent form such as in writing, or by visual, audio, or electronic means. Copyright initially belongs to the creator of the work unless the work is made in the course of employment, when it will generally belong to the employer. In the UK the test of 'originality' has been characterized as low: for example, a train timetable can attract copyright protection. In many other countries, such as France and Germany, a higher degree of originality has generally been required for copyright protection, as a copyright work is expected to demonstrate some aspect of the author's 'personality'. However, following developments in European case law, a certain convergence has come about, with 'originality' in all EU Member States requiring the work to be the 'author's own intellectual creation'. Broadly, copyright protects the expression of ideas, not ideas themselves, although the two do converge: for instance, incidents in a story have been protected.

In the UK the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 ('Copyright Act 1988') established the copyright period for most of types of work to be the life of the author plus fifty years from the end of the year in which the author died. From 1 July 1995 this was increased to the life of the author plus seventy years. Reference books, multi-author works, and other works with no named author are also covered by the Copyright Act 1988, and it can be very difficult to establish whether they are still in copyright.

A separate copyright, belonging to the publisher and lasting for twenty-five years from the end of the year of first publication, also exists. This right attaches to the typographical arrangement of a literary, musical, or dramatic work, irrespective of whether the underlying content of the work is still in copyright. This provides the publisher with protection from unauthorized reproduction of the printed page.

As from 1995, a new right akin to copyright was introduced. This right, called 'publication right', arises where a previously unpublished work is first published after the expiry of copyright. It lasts for twenty-five years from the end of the year of first publication.

Copyright confers on its owner the exclusive right to authorize certain acts in relation to their work, including copying, publishing, and adapting. Copyright owners can give third parties the right to use their works by licensing or assigning the work. Licensing means allowing a third party to use the work in a specified way, for example in a certain territory, for a certain length of time, in a specified language, or on a specific medium, or a combination of these. Generally, assigning a work means that the work is permanently given away. Copyright owners will usually only deal with their works in this way in return for financial compensation. This may be a one-off fee or royalties (which are payments linked to sales of the work). Authors' agreements with their publishers often provide that copyright transferred to the publishers revert to the author in certain circumstances, such as if the publisher allows the work to go out of print.

Copyright is infringed if the whole or a substantial part of the work is reproduced without the copyright owner's permission. (There are exceptions to this, described in 20.2.3.). Although the amount used will be relevant, the test is qualitative rather than quantitative. If the essential element of a work is copied, even if this constitutes only a small part of the work quantitatively, copyright will be infringed.

If authors or editors adapt or add to a copyright work, and in so doing exercise sufficient skill and care, demonstrating the efforts of their own intellectual creation, then a new copyright can arise in the revised work. Nevertheless, if the revised work incorporates a substantial part of the original work without the consent of the copyright owner, copyright in the original work will be infringed.

A joint copyright work is one in which the contributions of two or more authors are commingled. A collective work is one in which the contribution of each author, and initially the copyright for it, is separate from that of the other author(s). One party to a joint copyright cannot alone give consent binding on their co-authors to use a joint work.

Copyright is subject to national frontiers. Different copyright periods apply, and acts of infringement that take place outside the UK are not generally actionable in the UK. As a general rule, proceedings have to be brought in the jurisdiction in which the infringement took place.

## 20.2.2 Illustrations

Illustrations an author wishes to include, but that are not their own work, are governed by laws similar to those for writing. For example, in the main, the copyright in a painting belongs to the artist, and continues with their heirs or anyone to whom they have transferred their copyright until seventy years after their death. Although the owners of the painting may sell it, they may not generally reproduce it without the copyright owner's permission. The same law applies to commissioned works, including photographs, with copyright belonging to the creator and not the commissioner, unless otherwise agreed. Copyright in images is quite complex, especially in multimedia works and websites, and a specialist picture researcher may be needed to determine what may and may not be done with them. For example, although works of art are on show in a public place and are themselves often out of copyright, permission to reproduce must sometimes be sought from the gallery that owns or displays them. Also, the photographer of a painting can hold their own copyright in the photograph they have taken.

## 20.2.3 Fair dealing

The Copyright Act 1988 contains a list of various activities which permit substantial parts of a copyright work to be reproduced without the copyright owner's permission, in certain circumstances. Of most relevance to authors and publishers are the various 'fair dealing' exceptions which operate as a defence to an act that would otherwise be an infringement of copyright. In general, when reproducing a substantial part of a work using one of these defences sufficient acknowledgement to the copyright owner needs to be given. The forms of fair dealing are as follows: use for purposes of non-commercial research or private study, for the purposes of criticism or review (provided the work has already been made available to the public), or for the purposes of reporting current events. Photographs are excluded from the fair dealing provisions relating to the reporting of current events.

The amount of a work that can be copied within the fair dealing limits varies according to the particular circumstances of the works in question, although there is no fixed portion or percentage that may be copied from a work. Issues to take into account include whether the work could be considered by potential purchasers to constitute a substitute for the other work, and the number and extent of the proposed quotations or extracts in the context of the work in which they are to be incorporated. Trade practice may also be relevant. Various guidelines have been issued, for example by the Society of Authors, but these are not legally binding and are by way of general guidance only. As a general rule, copyists must reproduce the minimum necessary to achieve their purposes.

Separate provisions exist for dealing by librarians and for copying for the purposes of educational instruction or examination.

In summary, therefore, there are two steps to determining whether the use of a work infringes the copyright in it. It must be established whether a substantial part of the work has been used. If so, one must consider whether such use constitutes fair dealing.

## 20.2.4 Moral rights

Under the Copyright Act 1988, authors have four basic 'moral rights'; many other countries extend similar 'moral rights' to their authors. The rights apply to works entitled to copyright protection, and ownership of copyright is a separate issue: authors can sell their copyright without affecting their moral rights, which cannot be assigned but can be waived. (The Act itself gives specific information about when and to whom the rights do and do not apply, and how the right of paternity is asserted in the case of non-literary works.) The rights are:

• **the right of paternity** : the right to be identified as the work's author. This needs to be asserted, as it does not exist automatically; many publishers affirm the author's moral right to be identified as the author of the work as a matter of course, usually on the title verso. The right lasts for the same period as the copyright period.

• **the right of integrity** : the right to protest against treatment that 'amounts to distortion or mutilation of the work or is otherwise prejudicial to the honour or reputation of the author'. (Thus something done that is prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation will not generally be actionable unless there is _also_ some modification to the work itself, although the context in which a work is placed can constitute a 'treatment'.) The right does not need to be asserted, as it exists automatically; it lasts for the same period as the copyright period. It is common practice for publishers to ask authors to waive by contract their right to protest against such treatment, where modification of the work is required for editorial or sub-licensing purposes.

The rights of paternity and integrity do not extend to works reporting current events, or to works where an author contributes to a periodical or other collective work of reference. In such cases the work may be trimmed, altered, and edited without the author's consent, subject to the general laws of copyright and any contractual obligations which may be owed to the authors.

• **the right of false attribution** : the right not to have a literary, dramatic, musical, or artistic work falsely attributed to one as author. This right lasts for twenty years after the person's death.

• **the right of privacy of photographs and films commissioned for private and domestic purposes** : the right not have such photographs or films shown in public or issued to the public.

## 20.2.5 Database rights

In the EU a separate right that protects databases, akin to copyright, has existed since 1998. This right, which arises automatically, can exist alongside copyright in a database. Database right arises where a collection of data or other material is created which: ( _a_ ) is arranged in such a way that the items are individually accessible; and ( _b_ ) is the result of a substantial investment in either the obtaining, verification or presentation of the data. Database right is infringed by the extraction and/or re-utilization of the whole or a substantial part of the contents of the database.

Database right lasts for fifteen years from making, but if publication takes place during this time, the term is fifteen years from publication.

# 20.3 Copyright conventions

Most countries give copyright protection to foreign works under international copyright treaties, such as the Berne and Universal Copyright Conventions (see 20.3.1 and 20.3.2). Anomalies exist in the treatment afforded in different countries, however, for example because the qualification requirements and rules on ownership and duration differ.

## 20.3.1 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works

Most industrialized countries are signatories to the Berne Convention, including the UK, the US, and Russia. The Berne Convention does not require registration of copyright and there is no obligation to include a copyright statement or to use the © symbol (although doing so is good practice in any event).

## 20.3.2 Universal Copyright Convention

To claim copyright protection in signatories to the Universal Copyright Convention, the following formality must be complied with: the symbol ©, the name of the copyright owner, and date of first publication must appear in a prominent place in every copy of the work published with the authority of the copyright owner. There is no requirement to register the copyright. Very few countries are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention and not to the Berne Convention, and so in most of the world, to obtain copyright protection this © wording is not required, although, as said above, its use is good practice in any event.

Having said that there is no requirement to register copyright, in some countries, such as the US and China, it can be advisable to do so to avoid potential enforcement problems.

# 20.4 Permissions

## 20.4.1 What needs permission

As explained above, unless the fair dealing provisions apply the copyright owner's permission needs to be obtained when a substantial part of a copyright work is to be copied. Such permission may sometimes only be given on payment of a fee or some other form of consideration. Most publishers expect authors to secure permissions to reproduce any copyrighted work in their text.

There can be no hard-and-fast rules to allow authors to gauge when they have taken a 'substantial part' of a work. As stated in 20.2.1, substantiality is a qualitative measure and calculating the arithmetic proportion copied does not assist. An extract may be deemed to be a substantial part of a work, and therefore infringing, even where only a small part of the work has been taken. Careful consideration must always be given to the amount copied from a qualitative viewpoint. For example, one author was found to have infringed the copyright of another when he copied one page from a long book, and a thirty-two-line poem was deemed to have been infringed by the unauthorized use of four lines. If in doubt authors should seek guidance from their editor/publisher.

## 20.4.2 Requesting permission

In requesting permission, authors should describe the work in which the material is to be included, specifying the author, the title, the publisher, and the type of work, so the copyright owner understands where, and in what circumstances, their material will appear. Authors should give the copyright owner specific information about the work in which the material originally appeared, to aid identification.

Authors should make clear if they are translating, redrawing, or modifying copyright material. Care should be taken to request all the rights needed. Note that the rights for different territories may be separately owned. Also, care needs to be taken when issuing a new edition of a work to check whether the original permissions cover the new edition as well.

Crown copyright publications include bills and Acts of Parliament, command papers, reports of select committees, Hansard, non-parliamentary publications by government departments, naval charts published by the Ministry of Defence, and Ordnance Survey publications. The rules relating to Crown copyright are different from the general rules on copyright. Guidance can be obtained from the National Archives.

## 20.4.3 Acknowledgements

This section sets out general industry practice relating to acknowledgements. It applies where the copyright owner does not impose specific provisions relating to the acknowledgement. For details on setting out acknowledgements see 1.2.11.

The acknowledgement should identify: ( _a_ ) the author of the work (remembering that under the fair dealing provisions, it is the author who has to be acknowledged, not the copyright owner—who could be different); and ( _b_ ) the work by its title or other description.

The acknowledgement should be placed where practicable or logical, given the quantity and variety of material to be acknowledged. When an entire chapter or section is being reproduced, practice is for it to appear as an uncued note at the foot of its first page. When a smaller extract or series of extracts is being reproduced, details are generally listed in an acknowledgements section, either in the preliminary matter or—especially with anthologies or collections—at the end of the work.

For illustrations, acknowledgements should be set as part of the caption; for figures and tables they are often set in a separate note below the caption under the heading _Source_.

General practice is to credit the source, providing the elements in an acknowledgements format along these lines:

[author], from [title of copyrighted text] [edition, if other than the first], [year of publication], © [copyright proprietor—this can be the author or another party]. Reprinted [ _or_ Reproduced] by permission of [usually a publisher or agent].

The publisher's name alone is generally given, without the address, city, or country. When it is in a foreign language it should not generally be translated, although romanization from a non-Roman alphabet is usually acceptable. When copyright illustrations are acknowledged, use _reproduced_ instead of _reprinted_.

Wording, capitalization, and punctuation can generally be standardized, although not where the copyright holder specifies a particular form of words for the acknowledgement, or its position. An acknowledgement list may be prefaced by _We are grateful for permission to reproduce the following material in this volume_ , to save space and avoid repetition.

As a general rule, permission should be obtained for _all_ copyright material in an anthology, regardless of length. The result is usually a separate acknowledgements section, placed either in the preliminary pages or at the end of the book, before the index. Normally an acknowledgement must be in the exact form specified by the copyright holder and not standardized; reprint and copyright years must be given in full where indicated.

In some situations copyright owners cannot be located, despite real efforts having been made to trace and contact them. When this happens the author needs to decide whether to omit the extract or to include it and risk being the subject of a copyright infringement action. If the author chooses to include the extract, a 'disclaimer' at the end of the acknowledgements section should be included, for example:

There are instances where we have been unable to trace or contact the copyright holder. If notified the publisher will be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest opportunity.

It is important to understand that such a disclaimer is not a defence to copyright infringement; if an author chooses to include such material, however, the disclaimer together with the evidence of efforts made to trace and contact the copyright owners may mitigate the adverse consequences if a copyright owner should subsequently object.

# 20.5 Defamation

A defamatory statement is one that injures the reputation of another person by exposing that person to hatred, contempt, or ridicule, or is disparaging or injurious to that person in their business, or lowers a person in the estimation of right-thinking members of society generally. **Libel** is making a defamatory statement in permanent form (e.g. in writing); **slander** is making a defamatory statement in temporary form (e.g. in speech).

In essence an allegation is defamatory if it is untrue and a person's reputation is damaged by it. The claimant need not be named but must be identifiable. The defamatory statement need not be direct; it may be implied or by way of innuendo. A company has a reputation but can only sue if it can demonstrate that an allegation has resulted in financial loss. However, directors of a company—if named or identifiable—might be able to sue for untrue allegations made against the company, even if no financial loss has been suffered.

The dead cannot be libelled, but care must be taken to ensure that in statements about the dead the living are not defamed by association.

The author's intention is irrelevant in determining whether a statement is defamatory. A defamed person is entitled to plead any meaning for the words used that a 'reasonable' person might infer.

The clearest defence against a defamation action is that the statements can be proved to be true by direct first-hand evidence. It is no defence to a libel action that the defamatory statements have been published previously, although this might affect the level of damages payable.

Criticism or other expressions of opinion can be defended as fair comment provided the subject matter of the comment is one of public interest, the facts underlying the expression of opinion are true, the comment is one which an honest person could hold, and the statement is 'comment' rather than 'fact'.

# 20.6 Negligent misstatement

If an author makes a statement negligently (without due care) in circumstances where it is likely and reasonable that the reader will place reliance on it, in some, limited, circumstances, the reader could sue the author/publisher. It is not possible to exclude liability for death or personal injury caused by such negligence. It is for this reason that care needs to be taken when, for example, giving information about DIY or other potentially dangerous activities. A publisher will generally require the author to provide warranties in the author contract that any instructions contained in the book are accurate.

# 20.7 Passing off

'Passing off' occurs where a misrepresentation is made which causes or will likely cause damaging confusion. Passing off in publishing can arise in various different ways. Most disputes involve similar titles—especially series titles where customers may buy individual books on the strength of the series name—or similar jacket design, where books from different publishers have a similar appearance, logo, or brand. More specific examples include giving the impression that a biography has been authorized by its subject, or that a sequel was authorized or written by the author of the original book.

# 20.8 Trade marks

It is sometimes necessary to refer to a registered trade mark in a work. When referring to a trade mark care should be taken not to give the impression that it is being used with the approval of its owner, particularly when using in a trade mark in a title or on a cover. A registered trade mark is indicated by the symbol ®; ™ indicates rights that are claimed but not registered.

# 20.9 The Internet

It is a common misconception that copyright does not apply to material which appears on the Internet. This is untrue: copyright and other laws apply to works put on the Internet as much as printed publications. Hence, copying material from a website can constitute copyright infringement as much as copying material from a book, and the considerations set out earlier in this chapter apply. An added complication of posting to and using material from a website is the issue of jurisdiction: if a work is written in France, posted on to the Internet from a cybercafe in Germany with an ISP based in Ireland, and read by someone in Australia, ascertaining which country's laws apply can be problematic. A detailed analysis of this issue is beyond the scope of this book.

# 20.10 Blasphemy, obscenity, racial hatred, and official secrets

Publishing a work which contains contemptuous, scandalous, or insulting material relating to the Christian religion is a criminal offence, punishable by a fine or imprisonment. Note that only the Christian religion is covered by this law and that merely attacking Christianity is not blasphemy: the attack would be blasphemous only if it were contemptuous or insulting.

It is also an offence to publish an obscene work. A work is deemed to be obscene if its overall effect is to deprave or corrupt its readers. Lewd or repulsive material is not necessarily obscene: to be obscene the material must constitute a menace to public morals.

By publishing works which could stir up racial hatred publishers could commit another offence. Racial hatred means hatred against groups of people who are defined by their colour, race, nationality, or ethnic or national origins. A work could stir up racial hatred if it contained threatening, abusive, or insulting material, and if there was either an intention to stir up racial hatred or it was likely that the work would do so.

It is also an offence to publish certain types of material if publication could damage national security or interests: cases on this point have related to memoirs by former workers for the Foreign Office or members of the intelligence agencies.

# CHAPTER 21

# US and British English

# 21.1 Overview

While English continues to develop as the world's most important language and most common lingua franca, long-standing preferences and differences remain among its several varieties (see 21.7), and in particular between the two most widespread varieties considered here: British English and US English.

# 21.2 Punctuation

Note that there are some differences in the terminology of marks of punctuation between dialects. The British terms are used in the discussion below, but it is important to be aware of the following differences: the _full point_ is called a _period_ in US English; the _exclamation mark_ may be called an _exclamation point_ ; the _em rule_ and _en rule_ are called an _em dash_ and _en dash_ ; _curly brackets_ (braces) are sometimes called _wavy brackets_ ; the _solidus_ is called a _slash_. The term _inverted commas_ is not used in US English for _quotation marks_ , and _round brackets_ is not used of _parentheses_.

## 21.2.1 Comma

See 4.3 for guidance that is pertinent to both dialects. US style is to insert a comma after the phrases _for example_ and _that is_ , whenever they occur and are not followed by stronger punctuation, such as a colon. US style also prefers commas after the common abbreviations of these phrases, _e.g._ and _i.e._ , even though this results in double punctuation. See 10.6.

US style places commas inside closing quotation marks. See 9.2.3.

## 21.2.2 Colon

As noted at 11.3, US style is to separate the hours and minutes in numerical representations of time with a colon, e.g. 5:23 am. British style often uses a full point: 5.23 am. In US style the first word of a sentence after a colon is often capitalized, but is lower case in British.

## 21.2.3 Full point

US style places full points inside closing quotation marks. See 9.2.3.

There is some variation within and between the dialects in the use of full points with abbreviations. This subject is covered in 21.4.4.

## 21.2.4 Dashes

See 4.11 for the main discussion of UK usage. En rules (dashes) in US usage are used to join open elements into compounds (for example, the post–Civil War armistice), and a hyphen rather than an en rule is used to create a compound derived from two names (Marxist-Leninist theory).

## 21.2.5 Quotation marks

See 4.14 for the main discussion. Changing the style and placement of quotation marks and their accompanying punctuation for correct localization of text can be a tedious exercise because of the stylistic variations between British and US English.

# 21.3 Quantities, units, and numerical information

## 21.3.1 US units of measure

For readers of non-technical documents (including journalism) in US English, the following units are the norm:

Linear measurement: imperial system (inches, feet, yards, miles)

Area measurement: imperial system (square inches, square feet, acres, square miles)

Cubic measurement: cubic inches and feet

Liquid and dry volume: pints, quarts, gallons, bushels

Units of mass: ounces, pounds, tons

Temperature: Fahrenheit scale

In US style, recipes use the imperial units of volume noted above and also the _cup_ : equal to half a US pint, or eight ounces. There are numerous resources online for conversion to these from metric units by typing, for example

convert 450 ml to cups

in a search engine. This service works for any sort of conversion in commonly used units and is readily available in the absence of extensive tables that list the conversions.

## 21.3.2 British units of measure

For British readers use the metric system for linear, area, and volumetric measurements and the Celsius scale for temperature. Note that the phrase _below zero_ in British text normally means below freezing. In US English, it normally means below zero in the Fahrenheit scale, or about –18º C.

In some non-technical contexts British readers may still prefer imperial units: distances in _miles_ , for example, rather than in _kilometres_. The _stone_ (plural _stone_ , and equal to 14 pounds), with any fractional part reported in _pounds_ , is often expected for reporting a person's weight, rather than _kilograms_.

The British and US imperial units of volume larger than the ounce are not precise equivalents; the British pint contains 20 ounces, the US pint only 16. There are few contexts in which these differences are pertinent because the larger imperial units (quart and gallon) are not commonly used in the UK today. Most readers of English in any dialect are familiar with the British use of _pint_ in relation to beverages and no further explication is necessary. However, any measurements involving cookery in which pints are used should be carefully converted to an appropriate equivalent.

## 21.3.3 Other numerical data

See the note at the end of 11.1.5 concerning some variation in the use of _trillion_ and _billion_ between British and US English. This difference is now mainly historical.

The word _nought_ is not used in US English to stand for _zero_. For technical contexts, _zero_ is used; for scores in sports, _nothing_ is used.

### Telephone numbers

In all of the US and Canada, numbers for landline telephones or mobile phones contain 10 digits. The first three are called the area code. The two most popular styles for showing telephone numbers are:

(nnn) nnn-nnnn

nnn-nnn-nnnn

Occasionally a 1 appears at the beginning of a full number; this is required on most landline telephones when they are calling a number outside the local area code:

1-nnn-nnn-nnnn

UK telephone numbers vary in length and typically consist of two parts. The first part, most usually designating a geographical area or a particular grouping of mobile telephone numbers, may be set off in brackets:

(0nnnn) nnnnnn

Other styles may eliminate the brackets, or show a division in the non-geographical part of the number:

0nnnn nnnnnn

0nnn nnn nnnn

It is common in Britain and elsewhere, and increasingly so in the US, to prefix a country code with a + sign at the beginning of a foreign telephone number. In this case the leading zero is dropped:

+31 20 347 1111.

A US alternative is to show the country code in parenthesis at the beginning of a number:

(31) 20 347 1111.

### Dates

These are discussed at some length in Chapter 11. It is important to ensure that dates in British format— _day/month/year—_ are not misunderstood when Americanizing to _month/day/year_ , and vice versa. Documents that may have readers in both or in multiple dialects should spell out the name of the month or use its standard abbreviation (see 10.2.6) to prevent confusion.

### Buildings

The level of a building whose floor is at the same level as the ground may be called the _ground floor_ in British or US English; it is also called the _first floor_ in US English. The floor above this is the _second floor_ in US English, the _first floor_ in British English; and so forth.

# 21.4 Orthographic variation (spelling and hyphenation)

Orthographic variation constitutes the difference between the major dialects of English that is most obvious to readers. There are hundreds of orthographic variants (that is, differently spelled versions of the same word) between British and US English, and between any other two dialects of English. Fortunately, most of them fall into easily identifiable patterns. There are, however, many individual cases. These cases mostly involve variants in which one dialect uses a single spelling for different meanings while the other dialect uses different spellings to distinguish different meanings of a word.

## 21.4.1 Spelling patterns

The main spelling differences between British and US English are detailed in 3.1 and 3.2. Table 21.1 lists some words that do not conform to a single pattern of spelling differences and that may easily slip past editorial notice (though many will be detected with spellchecking software).

Table 21.1

**US** |  **British**
---|---
adz |  adze
ax |  axe
behoove |  behove
caliper |  calliper
carburetor |  carburettor
checkered |  chequered
checkers (game) |  chequers
chili |  chilli
gelatin |  gelatine
glycerin |  glycerine
granddad |  grandad
jewelry |  jewellery
karat |  carat
licorice |  liquorice
maneuver |  manoeuvre
mustache |  moustache
novitiate |  noviciate
pajamas |  pyjamas
peddler |  pedlar
phony |  phoney
pita bread |  pitta bread
plow |  plough
pudgy |  podgy
raccoon |  racoon
tartar sauce |  tartare sauce

Note that the spellings _aesthetic, archaeology, caesura, caulk, glamour, ochre, onomatopoeia, paean_ , and _theatre_ are acceptable in both dialects; these are exceptions to the rules laid out in 3.1.2.

_Whisky_ is the British spelling for all varieties except Irish _whiskey_ ; US spelling has _whiskey_ as standard and _whisky_ as a common variant, and does not maintain this geographical distinction.

The US spelling for _sulfur_ ( _sulfide, sulfate_ ) is also the one recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and is used in most British English scientific texts but not all. Check with the publisher; in non-technical material, use _sulphur_ in British English.

## 21.4.2 Spelling ambiguities

A few words deserve close scrutiny because different spellings are assigned to different meanings in one dialect while the other dialect uses a single spelling for all meanings. Some examples appear in Table 21.2.

Table 21.2

**Meaning for which one dialect uses a particular spelling** | **British spelling** | **US spelling**
---|---|---
an order for a bank to pay a sum | cheque | check
current of air; amount swallowed; depth of water; denoting beverages served from a barrel | draught | draft
division between walking area and driving area | kerb | curb
unit of length in the metric system | metre | meter
all meanings except those connected with computing | programme | program
level of a building | storey | story
metal tool with movable jaws | vice | vise

It must be kept in mind that a number of spelling variants are in fact acceptable in both British and US English; most of these are discussed in Chapter 3. When this is the case, it should be ascertained whether house style dictates one spelling or another. If this is not the case, internal consistency is the rule, following the preferred spellings in a suitable dictionary.

## 21.4.3 Compound words

See 3.3 for general discussion. US English is much readier to use and to accept new compounds spelled solid (that is, with no space and no hyphen) than British English. A number of compound words are spelled open or with a hyphen in British English but solid in the US. These include

• the intermediate directions of the compass ( _northeast, southwest_ , etc.)

• compounds beginning with _anti-, non-,_ and _semi-_ ( _antinuclear, noninvasive, semitrailer_ )

• nonce compounds ending in _-like_ ( _adobelike_ )

• _percent_ (always solid in the US but _per cent_ in British English)

An exception is _no one_ , always two words in the US but sometimes spelled _no-one_ in British English. In general, US English is ready to eliminate a hyphen in a word formed by addition of a prefix or suffix except when the hyphen serves to prevent the doubling of a vowel or the tripling of a consonant.

## 21.4.4 Forms of abbreviations and initialisms

Many frequently used abbreviations and contractions differ in punctuation between the two dialects. An important point to check, discussed in 10.2.1, is full points (or elimination of them) at the end of contractions such as _Mr, Ms, Dr, St,_ and the like. Full points are expected in US English, absent in British English.

There is widespread conformity in the presentation of acronyms and abbreviations in US and British English, though see the note about punctuation of these at 10.2.4. British English often uses _Aids_ in a non-technical context, and US English has _AIDS_ for acquired immune deficiency syndrome.

# 21.5 Lexical variation (word choices)

## 21.5.1 '-isms'

Words and expressions that originated, or that are used exclusively, in one variety of English are often referred to as '-isms' of one kind or another: Canadianisms, Americanisms, Australianisms, and the like. Examples of the hundreds of such word pairs in British and US English, in which the dialects have a different word to designate the same thing, include _aubergine/eggplant, braces/suspenders, flat/apartment, lift/elevator, nappy/diaper, torch/flashlight_.

## 21.5.2 Words used in similar contexts

A few words have similar, contrasting, or quite different meanings in British and US English but are used in very similar contexts that may make it easy to overlook the fact that the writer intended something different from what the reader in another dialect would interpret. Common examples are set out in Table 21.3.

Table 21.3

**Word** | **Usual British meaning** | **Usual US meaning**
---|---|---
Asian _noun_ | someone from India or the countries that border it | someone from China, Japan, Korea, or a neighbouring country
bailiff _noun_ | executor of court orders such as eviction and repossession | court officer who maintains order and performs other duties in a courtroom
biscuit _noun_ | a flat, somewhat dry, sweet cake (= US _cookie_ ) | a savoury quick bread, similar to a roll (like British _scone_ )
carnival _noun_ | seasonal celebration that typically precedes Lent | travelling, temporary amusement park (= British _funfair_ )
chancellor _noun_ | honorary patron of a university | senior administrative official of a university
chips _noun_ | strips of potato fried in fat (= US _fries_ ) | dry, crisp snack food made from potato, cornmeal, or other vegetables (= British _crisps_ when made from potatoes)
cider _noun_ | fermented apple juice (= US _hard cider_ ) | unfiltered apple juice
corn _noun_ | any cereal crop | _Zea maize_ , as a human food, food crop, or industrial crop
crèche _noun_ | day nursery; child care centre | representation of the Nativity
CV _noun_ | summary of education, qualifications, employment (= US _résumé_ ) | similar to UK meaning, but typically used only in academia, medicine, and law
entrée _noun_ | dish before the main course | the main course
football _noun_ | association football (= US _soccer_ ) | American football
government _noun_ | the government currently in power; roughly equivalent to US _administration_ | the institution and its components at the state or national level that persists through changes of leadership
homely _adjective_ | simply furnished and comfortable (= US _homey_ ) | plain and unattractive (of a person)
judicial review _noun_ | a procedure by which a court can review an administrative action by a public body and secure a declaration, order, or award. | review by a higher court or by the Supreme Court of the constitutional validity of a legislative act
lemonade _noun_ | clear fizzy drink with lemon flavour | still drink made from lemon juice, water, sugar
lime (tree) _noun_ | a tree of the genus _Tilia_ (= US _linden_ ) | a tree that produces limes, _Citrus aurantifolia_
mad _adjective_ | insane | angry
mean _adjective_ | selfish | cruel
momentarily _adverb_ | for a moment | in a moment
moot _adjective_ | subject to debate | having no significance
osteopath _noun_ | health practitioner who does spine and joint adjustments (like US _chiropractor_ ) | medical doctor with additional qualification in spine manipulation
ouster _noun_ | eviction from a property | removal from public office
pants _noun_ | underpants | trousers
paraffin _noun_ | liquid combustible fuel (= US _kerosene_ ) | inert waxlike substance obtained from petroleum
pavement _noun_ | walkway beside a road (= US _sidewalk_ ) | roadway made of asphalt or concrete
pound sign _noun_ | the symbol £ | the symbol #
quite _adverb_ | to some extent | very, really (see also 21.6)
smart _adjective_ | fashionable | intelligent
solicitor _noun_ | a lawyer who handles routine legal matters (= US _lawyer_ or _attorney_ ) | a government lawyer, or in some contexts, a salesperson (e.g. on a sign that says 'No solicitors')
subway _noun_ | walkway under a road | underground train or rail system
sycamore _noun_ | _Acer pseudoplatanus_ , the sycamore maple | Any tree of the genus _Platanus_ (= British _plane tree_ )
table _verb_ | bring forward for discussion | remove from consideration
through _predicate adjective_ | having successfully passed to the next stage of a competition | finished
trunk _noun_ | luggage or storage container with hinged lid | storage compartment in the rear of a vehicle (= British _boot_ )

## 21.5.3 Preferred inflections

A number of verbs show different behaviour between British and US English. Those that are merely spelling variants are discussed above in 21.4.1. Some other verbs have forms that are used exclusively or preferentially in only one dialect. A few verbs (some mentioned in 3.2.1) have a participle form ending in _-t_ that is not used in US English when the verb appears as part of a finite verb phrase. These forms— _burnt, leant, learnt, smelt, spelt, spilt_ , and _spoilt—_ are not used in US English and should be replaced by their _-ed_ equivalents when Americanizing text. _Burnt_ is occasionally used in US English as an adjective.

Special attention should be given to the participles _got_ and _gotten_ , since British English does not use the latter as a past participle of _get_. When Briticizing text, all instances of _gotten_ can simply be changed to _got_. When Americanizing, it is necessary to distinguish the various senses of _get_. US English uses _got_ in verb phrases where the verb means 'possess' ( _I've got a beach house in Florida_ ) and 'have as an obligation' ( _I've got to go to Chicago next week_ ). _Gotten_ is the preferred form when the verb means 'obtain' ( _Have you gotten your results yet?_ ) and 'become' ( _She hasn't gotten any prettier over the years_ ). _Gotten_ is also more usual in US English in a number of idioms and phrasal verbs containing _get_ , such as _get used to something, get over something, get through something, get rid of something, get nowhere/anywhere._

## 21.5.4 Variants with common etymology

Several word pairs in British and US English derive wholly or partly from a common ancestor but have settled on distinct preferred forms in the two dialects. These are laid out in Table 21.4.

Table 21.4

**US English** |  **British English**
---|---
airplane |  aeroplane
aluminum |  aluminium
candidacy |  candidature
centennial |  centenary
costumer |  costumier
deviltry |  devilry
doodad |  doodah
edgewise |  edgeways
elasticized |  elasticated
expiration |  expiry
furor |  furore
hauler |  haulier
hodge-podge |  hotch-potch
hydroplane |  aquaplane
math |  maths
normalcy |  normality
orient (verb) |  orientate
polyethylene |  polythene
raise (in pay) |  rise
sailboat |  sailing boat
sequester |  sequestrate
snicker |  snigger
specialty |  specialism
tidbit |  titbit

## 21.5.5 Variability in function words

Although it rarely gives rise to a misunderstanding, there are several minor differences between British and US English in the choice of function words such as prepositions, conjunctions, and articles. The main points to be aware of are:

• _around/round_ US English does not use _round_ as a preposition or an adverb; _around_ is used in all cases.

• _around/about_ Many phrasal verbs in the two dialects differ only by British English preferring _about_ , and US English preferring _around_ , for the particle. Examples include _mess around/about, hang around/about, lie around/about_.

• _inside_ , when used as a preposition, may be followed by _of_ in US English, but not usually in British English.

• _amidst/amongst/whilst_ These are generally not used in US English, which prefers _amid/among/while._

• Both dialects use _different from_ when contrasting two things. _Different than_ is mainly used in US English; _different to_ is used exclusively in British English.

• A number of idioms and set phrases use a different preposition in the two dialects: British _at the weekend_ , US _on the weekend_ ; British _at school_ , US _in school_ ; a vehicle _on tow_ (British), or _in tow_ (US).

• variable use of the definite article (British _in/to hospital_ , US _in/to the hospital_ ; British _at table_ , US _at the table_ ).

• _towards_ occurs in both dialects but _toward_ , preferred in US English, is rare in British.

## 21.5.6 Offensive language

Language that may be offensive to some readers, or regarded as insensitive to its intended audience, is largely the same among varieties of English and careful writers avoid it. Words in Table 21.5 are differently perceived and used by Britons and Americans and so should be scrutinized carefully when editing text from the opposite dialect.

Humorous puns in informal writing that play on the ambiguity of slang and informal terms with variable meanings in different dialects—such as _dick, fag, faggot, knock-up, randy, rear-ender, rubber, shag, willie—_ should probably be left alone in localizing text unless it is suspected that an offensive misunderstanding may result.

Table 21.5

**Word** | **Use in British English** | **Use in US English**
---|---|---
fit _noun_ | a sudden attack of convulsions | (regarded as offensive when used with reference to epilepsy; use _seizure_ instead)
fanny _noun_ | vulgar term for female genitalia | informal or humorous term for the buttocks
spunk _noun_ | vulgar term for semen | pluck; spirit; mettle

# 21.6 Grammatical and syntactic variation

The subtlest area of variation between US and British English involves text that contains no spellings or words that would be unfamiliar or unclear to readers who are fluent in a different English variation, but that nonetheless contains a usage common in one dialect but not the other. Putting these right depends mainly on the 'ear' of the editor to recognize usages that don't quite sound right. Examples of these include:

• differences in the number and countability of nouns (British _accommodation_ , US _accommodations_ ). Other classes of words showing variability in this respect include some common ailments (US uses an article _a toothache/cramp_ ), certain foods when cooked (British _scrambled egg, mashed potato_ ; US uses plural forms), and a few other words that do not belong to a class: _main/mains_ (as a conduit for water, electricity, etc.), _overhead/overheads, scale/scales_ (weighing device), _math/maths_ (mathematics).

• variability in predication of group nouns (a plural verb is used in British where individuality or corporateness are being emphasized, e.g. _Barclays are still recruiting in Poole_ ; US English would use _Barclays is ..._ )

• variability in the preferential use of modal verbs (especially _must, would_ , and _should_ ). The modal contractions _daren't_ and _shan't_ are uncommon in US English and are commonly regarded as Briticisms.

• different status with regard to the transitivity of some verbs (the most frequent verbs requiring attention here are _agree, appeal, approximate, bath/bathe, catchup, give, impact, loan/lend, notify, protest, provide_ ).

• variable usage and preferences for submodifiers (especially _rather_ and _quite_ ). Many perfunctory uses of _quite_ as a submodifier in British English are considered superfluous in US English and may be simply deleted. British English also shows greater frequency of _very_ before adjectives when there is no clear reason for it to American ears, and it can often be deleted. Americans tend to use _fairly_ and _somewhat_ in many cases where British writers use _rather_.

• minor differences in the wording of some idioms (British _home from home_ , US _home away from home_ ; British _write to me_ , US _write me_ ). There are dozens of these and their rectification depends on the ear of the editor.

• variation in use of the subjunctive mood. US English more readily uses the subjunctive after nouns, verbs, and adjectives of requiring and demanding ( _She insisted Jane sit here_ ). These uses are acceptable but not always idiomatic in British English, which uses modal verbs or the declarative form to say the same thing ( _She insisted Jane should sit here_ ).

• variation in the uses of tenses. Informal US English often uses the simple past with adverbs such as _already, ever, just_ , and _yet_ ; British English is more likely to use the present perfect. In conversational US English it is acceptable to say _We already ate_ or _She just got here_. British English and more formal US English uses perfect tenses in these constructions ( _I've already eaten_ or _She has just got here_ ).

• variable preferences for introducing subordinate clauses. See 4.3.1.

# 21.7 Other varieties of English

Although there is considerable variation in specific vocabulary among varieties of English other than US and British, nearly all varieties of English tend to follow one or the other closely with regard to orthography, grammar, and syntax. Countries that are former British colonies and members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is also the case for English used within the European Union. Former US colonies (notably the Philippines), Latin America, and other countries with strong cultural or trade relations with the US tend to follow US English. Two main varieties—Canadian and Australian—deserve mention because they both follow British English in some respects and US English in others. When localizing to either of these dialects, it is essential to have specific guidance in the form of a dictionary and a style document to ensure consistency.

# Appendices

Proofreading marks

Glossary of printing and publishing terms

Index

# Proofreading marks

Below is a list of the most commonly used proofreading marks. See also the British Standard Institution's BS 5261-2: Copy Preparation and Proof Correction—Part 2 (2005), which may be obtained from the BSI.

# Glossary of printing and publishing terms

**accent** a mark on a letter that indicates pitch, stress, or vowel quality.

**acknowledgements** (US **acknowledgments** ) a statement at the beginning of a book expressing the author's or publisher's gratitude to others for ideas or assistance or for permission to use copyright material.

**afterword** a short concluding section in a book, typically written by someone other than the author.

**appendix** (also **annex** ) a section of subsidiary matter at the end of a book or document.

**Arabic numeral** any of the numerals 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; cf. **Roman numeral**.

**artwork** illustrations, figures, photographs, or other non-textual material.

**ascender** a part of a letter that extends above the level of the top of an _x_ (as in _b_ and _d_ ).

**ASCII** American Standard Code for Information Interchange, used as a standard format in the transfer of text between computers.

**back matter** another term for **end matter**.

**bibliography** a list of books or other texts that are referred to in a work or that contain material of related interest, typically printed as an appendix.

**bitmap image** graphics file made up of **pixels**.

**blad** a promotional booklet of pages from a forthcoming book.

**bleed** (of an illustration or design) be printed so that it runs off the page.

**block capitals** plain capital letters.

**block quotation** another term for **displayed quotation**.

**bold** (also **boldface** ) a style of type with thick strokes, as **here**.

**caption** a title or brief explanation accompanying an illustration, in particular one shown beneath or beside the image.

**cancel** a new page or section inserted in a book to replace the original text.

**caret** a mark ∧, ⁁ used to indicate a proposed insertion in a text.

**case-bound** (also **cased** ) (of a book) hardback.

**cast-off** an estimate of the number of pages a given amount of copy will make given the specified design.

**catchline** an eye-catching line of type, such as a slogan or headline.

**CMYK** (cyan, magenta, yellow, and key (black)) the four process (primary) colours used in colour printing.

**code 1** in editing, any means of identifying the elements of text such as headings, lists, and displayed matter. **2** in **markup languages** , see **tag**.

**collate 1** assemble folded sections of a book in the correct sequence ready for binding. **2** verify the number and order of the sheets of a book. **3** bring together editorial changes from different sources and combine the amendments on a single master copy.

**colophon** a publisher's emblem, usually appearing on the title page of a book.

**computer-to-plate** process whereby the image of the **PDF** file is transferred direct to the printing plate for offset printing.

**content management system** a software repository for digital assets (text, images, numerical data, audio, video, and animation) coded in a neutral format with XML tags to facilitate output in multiple media.

**copy** matter to be published, in particular the text before or after it is copy-edited.

**copy-edit** prepare the text for publication by checking its consistency and accuracy and identifying elements requiring special attention during the production process.

**copy-fitting** adjusting text to fit the available space on a page proof.

**copyright** the exclusive legal right to print, publish, perform, film, or record literary, artistic, or musical material.

**copyright page** another term for **title page verso**.

**corrigenda** (singular **corrigendum** ) a list of errors in a printed book that is fixed to or printed in the book.

**credits** acknowledgements expressing gratitude for permission to use images.

**cue** a number, letter, or symbol placed in the text to direct the reader to a footnote or endnote.

**dele** mark (a part of a text) for deletion.

**descender** a part of a letter that extends below the level of the base of an _x_ (as in _g_ and _p_ ).

**desktop publishing** the process of laying out pages on-screen.

**diacritic** an accent or similar sign which is written above, below, or through a letter to indicate pitch, stress, or vowel quality.

**digital artwork** images created with graphics/image-editing software, or a digital camera, or by scanning an **original** to produce electronic files.

**digraph 1** a combination of two letters representing one sound, as in _ph_ and _ey_. **2** another term for **ligature**.

**displayed quotation** a quotation that is broken off from the text to begin on a new line, often set in smaller type.

**drop capital** (also **drop initial** ) a large capital letter at the beginning of a section of text, occupying more than the depth of one line.

**DTP** short for **desktop publishing**.

**dummy** a mock-up of a book or the layout of a page.

**duotone** a half-tone illustration made from a single original with two different colours.

**dust jacket** another term for **jacket**.

**edition** a version of a book at its first publication and at every following publication for which more than minor changes are made.

**em** a unit for measuring the width of printed matter, originally reckoned as the width of a capital roman M in the typeface in use, but in digital fonts equal to the current typesize.

**embedded** another term for **run on** ; matter that is integrated in the text such as a graphics file.

**em rule** (also **em dash** ) a long dash (—).

**en** a unit of horizontal space equal to half an **em**.

**en rule** (also **en dash** ) a short dash (–), used in particular to elide ranges of figures.

**end matter** (also **back matter** ) material that supplements the text and is placed after it.

**endnote** a note printed at the end of a book or section of a book.

**endpaper** a leaf of paper fixed to the inside of the cover at the beginning or end of a hardback book.

**epigraph** a quotation placed at the beginning of a volume, part, or chapter.

**epilogue** an author's short concluding comment on the text.

**EPUB** open-source standard and file format for ebooks.

**errata slip** (singular **erratum slip** ) a list of errors and their corrections inserted loose in a book.

**even working** a situation whereby the text of a book fits neatly into the allotted number of pages so that there are no blank pages at the end.

**face** short for **typeface**.

**fascicle** (also **fascicule** ) a separately published section of a very long book.

**figure** an illustration (often a diagram or other line drawing) that is integrated into the text.

**flatten** compress the digital layers that make up an image into a single plane.

**flush** aligned with the left- or right-hand edge of the text.

**flyleaf** a blank page at the beginning or end of a book.

**folio** **1** a sheet of typescript. **2** the page number in a printed book.

**font** (also **fount** ) a set of type of one particular face and size.

**footer** text that is repeated at the foot of the page, such as the page number.

**footnote** a note printed at the bottom of a page within the text area and above the **footer**.

**foreword** a recommendation of the work written by someone other than the author, printed before the main text.

**frontispiece** an illustration that faces the title page.

**front matter** another term for **preliminary matter**.

**full out** aligned (or 'flush') with the left- or right-hand edge of the text.

**gathering** a group of signatures or leaves bound together in the production of a book.

**gutter** the blank space between facing pages of a book or between adjacent columns of type.

**hair space** a very thin space between characters, as, for example, between multiplied units of measure or consecutive punctuation marks; Unicode code point U+200A hair space.

**half-title** the first page of the preliminary matter of a book, bearing only the work's title.

**half-tone** a reproduction of an image in which the various tones of grey or colour are produced by variously sized dots of ink.

**hard hyphen** a nonbreaking hyphen that is keyed and appears whether the word containing it is split across the end of a line or not; cf. **soft hyphen**.

**header** text that is repeated at the top of a page, such as a chapter title or main heading.

**heading** a title at the head of a page, a section of a book, or a table.

**headword** a word that begins a separate entry in a reference work.

**HTML** Hypertext Markup Language, a standardized coding system for tagging text files to achieve formatting, graphic, and hyperlink effects on websites.

**imposition** the layout on the quad sheet of the pages of a publication so that when the sheet is printed and folded they will fall in the correct order.

**impression** a particular printed version of a book, especially one reprinted with no or only minor alteration.

**imprint** the name and other details of a book's publisher.

**inferior** another term for **subscript**.

**infographic** clear visual representation of otherwise complex data.

**ISBN** International Standard Book Number.

**ISSN** International Standard Serial Number.

**italic** a sloping style of type like _this_.

**jacket** (also **dust jacket** ) a removable paper cover, generally with a decorative design, used to protect a book.

**JPEG** a **bitmap** file format that compresses the image data to produce a smaller file.

**justified** (of text) adjusted so as to fill the width of the text area and align at the left and right margins.

**kern** a part of a printed character that overlaps its neighbours.

**kerning** adjustment of the spacing between characters in a piece of text.

**label** explanatory description of a feature in an illustration.

**landscape** a format of printed matter which is wider than it is high; cf. **portrait**.

**leader line** a labelled line added to an illustration to point out a salient feature.

**leaders** a series of dots or dashes across the page to guide the eye.

**leading** the amount of blank space between lines of print.

**leaf** a single sheet of paper, forming two pages in a book.

**legend** another term for **caption**.

**lettering 1** decorative letters inscribed on e.g. a book cover. **2** see **label**.

**ligature** a character consisting of two or more joined letters (e.g. æ, œ, fi, ffl).

**line artwork** graphic material, such as a map, diagram, or graph, consisting of solid lines or other shapes on a white background, as opposed to a **half-tone**.

**linefeed** the distance from the bottom of one line of type to the bottom of the next.

**lithography** printing from a flat surface treated to repel the ink except where it is required for printing.

**lower case** small letters as opposed to capital letters ( **upper case** ).

**margin** the white space around the text area on a page.

**markup 1** the process or result of correcting text in preparation for printing. **2** the tags or codes used in **markup languages** such as **HTML**.

**markup language** a system for coding text so that content can be described for output in print or digital media; an example is **HTML**.

**minuscule** of or in lower-case letters.

**moral rights** the right of an author or artist to protect the integrity and paternity of their work.

**note** a piece of explanatory or additional information printed at the end of a section or in the end matter of the publication ( **endnote** ) or at the foot of the page ( **footnote** ).

**octavo** (abbrev. **8vo** ) a size of book page that results from folding each printed sheet into eight leaves (sixteen pages).

**offprint** a printed copy of an individual article or essay that originally appeared as part of a larger publication.

**offset** a method of printing in which ink is transferred from a plate or stone to a uniform rubber surface and from that to the paper.

**opening** a double-page spread (see **spread** ).

**original** artwork in physical form that can be captured for reproduction digitally by photography or scanning.

**orphan** the first line of a paragraph set as the last line of a page or column, considered undesirable.

**overmatter** material that cannot be accommodated in a work.

**Oxford comma** another term for **serial comma**.

**page proof** pages composed in **DTP** software with all the elements, e.g. text, running heads, and images, laid out in the final form.

**Pantone** ® a system for matching colours, used in specifying printing inks.

**parentheses** (also **parens** ) round brackets ().

**PDF** Portable Document Format, a file format for capturing and sending electronic documents in exactly the intended format.

**pica** a unit of type size and line length equal to 12 points (about ⅙ inch or 4.2 mm).

**picture library** agency that represents the creators or the assigned copyright holders of images and sells licences for the images it holds.

**pitch** the density of typed or printed characters on a line.

**pixel** picture element; single physical point in a **bitmap** image.

**plate 1** a sheet of metal, plastic, etc. bearing an image of type or illustrations from which multiple copies are printed. **2** a photograph or other illustration that is separated from the text, especially one on superior-quality paper.

**point** a unit of measurement for type sizes and spacing, in the UK and US traditionally 0.351 mm, in Europe 0.376 mm, now standardized as 1/72 in. (0.356 mm).

**portrait** a format of printed matter which is higher than it is wide; cf. **landscape**.

**preliminary matter** (also **prelims** ) the pages preceding the main text of a book, including the title page, title page verso, contents page, and preface.

**preface** a section in the preliminary matter where the author sets out the purpose, scope, and content of the book.

**proof** a trial impression of typeset text, which is checked for errors before final printing.

**proof-edit** process whereby unedited material that is laid out in pages is corrected.

**proofread** read proofs, mark any errors, and make a final check of the material.

**quad sheet** the large sheet of paper that is printed with text and then folded and cut to produce separate leaves.

**quarto** (abbrev. **4to** ) a size of book page resulting from folding each printed sheet into four leaves (eight pages).

**ragged right** (of text) justified only at the left margin, with the result that the width of lines is variable.

**range** (with reference to type) align or be aligned, especially at the ends of successive lines.

**raster image** see **bitmap image**.

**ream** 500 (formerly 480) sheets of paper.

**recto** the right-hand page of a spread, having an odd page number; cf. **verso**.

**register 1** the exact correspondence of the position of colour components in a printed positive. **2** the exact correspondence of the position of printed matter on the two sides of a leaf.

**reprint** a republication of a book for which no corrections or only minor corrections are made.

**resolution** number of dots or pixels in a given area, measured in dots per inch (dpi) or pixels per inch (ppi).

**RGB** (red, green, blue) colour model used by computer monitors to display colours, which therefore render differently to **CYMK** colour printing processes.

**roman** an upright style of type used for text that requires no special emphasis or distinction.

**Roman numeral** any of the letters representing numbers in the Roman numerical system (I or i = 1, V or v = 5, X or x = 10, etc.); cf. **Arabic numeral**.

**round brackets** parentheses ().

**running head** (or **running foot** ) a book title, chapter title, or other heading which appears at the top (or bottom) of every page or spread.

**running sheets** a set of unbound pages that are checked to ensure that the correct order has been achieved.

**run on** (also **run in** ) continued on the same line as the preceding matter, rather than broken off or displayed.

**sans serif** a style of type without **serifs**.

**serial comma** (also **Oxford comma** ) a comma used after the penultimate item in a list of three or more items, before 'and' or 'or'.

**serif** a slight projection finishing off a stroke of a letter, as in T contrasted with T.

**signature 1** a group of pages formed by folding a single sheet. **2** a letter or figure printed at the foot of one or more pages of each sheet of a book as a guide in binding.

**small capitals** capital letters which are of the same height as a lower-case x in the same typeface, as in this style of type.

**soft hyphen** a hyphen inserted automatically into a word when it is divided at the end of a line of text, sometimes shown as the symbol.

**special sort** a generic term for a symbol or accented character.

**spread** (also **double-page spread** ) a pair of pages (left-hand and right-hand) exposed when a book is opened at random, in particular a pair of pages designed as an entity, as in an illustrated book; cf. **opening**.

**style sheet 1** house style guidance for authors and editors on the client's preferred forms of text, such as variations in spelling, hyphenation, and capitalization, and treatment of references, lists, quotations, and numbers. **2** a list of the wordprocessor or **DTP** styles used in a particular project.

**subscript** (of a letter, figure, or symbol) written or printed below the line.

**superscript** (also **superior** ) (of a letter, figure, or symbol) written or printed above the line.

**table** an arrangement of data in columns and rows.

**tag 1** a set of plain text characters used in **markup languages** to describe content, e.g. <H1> to signify a main heading. **2** another term for an artwork **cue**.

**text area** the part of the page in which the text and images of the book are accommodated; the area inside the margins.

**title page** a page at the beginning of a book containing the complete title and subtitle of the work, the name of the author or editor, and the publisher's name.

**title page verso** the verso of the title page, on which is printed the statements and clauses that establish the copyright of the material, the identity of the work, and its publication history.

**turn-line** (also **turnover** ) **1** the part of a line of verse or quoted material, a bibliographical citation, etc. that has to be carried over on to a new line. **2** the last line of a paragraph.

**type** characters or letters that are printed or shown on a screen.

**typeface** a particular design of type.

**typescript** the text of a publication in paper form.

**typeset** arrange or generate the type or data for a piece of text to be published.

**typography 1** the style and appearance of printed text. **2** the process of setting and arranging text in type for printing.

**Unicode** an international encoding system by which each letter, digit, and symbol is assigned a unique numeric value that applies across different platforms and programs.

**upper case** capital letters as opposed to small letters ( **lower case** ).

**vector image** a graphics file with mathematical descriptions of the objects within, e.g. a line or the boundary of a shape.

**verso** the left-hand page of a spread, having an even page number; cf. **recto**.

**widow** a last word or short last line of a paragraph falling at the top of a page or column, considered undesirable.

**x-height** the height of a lower-case x, considered characteristic of a given typeface or script.

**XML** Extensible Markup Language, a system that allows users to define their own customized markup languages, especially in order to display documents on websites.

#  Index

The index entries appear in word-by-word alphabetical order.

Page references in italics indicate illustrations.

abbreviations 174–85

academic qualifications , ,

apostrophes

bibliographic ,

books of the Bible , 147–9

capitalization , 177–8,

in citations , 254–5

colloquial 176–7

dates , , 184–5, 199–200

defining

dosage

editorial style

in headings

indefinite article with

indexing

law texts 254–5, 256–7, ,

and line breaks

list , , 11–12, ,

in notes , , 337–9

in parentheses ,

plurals , 181–2

possessives

proper names ,

punctuation , , 176–9, ,

of 'saint'

scientific , , , , ,

solidus with

in tables

in text

titles and ranks 109–10

typography 176–9

units of measure ,

US usage ,

work titles , , 150–1, ,  _see also_ symbols _and under individual languages_

_-able_ , words ending in 50–1

academic qualifications , , ,

accents ,  _see also under individual languages_

acknowledgements

author's , , ,

copyright , , 402–3

acronyms , , , 383–4

Acts of Parliament , , 260–2,

AD

addresses ,

adjectives

capitalization ,

spelling

use of comma 76–7 _see also_ modifiers

adverbs , 57–8

use of comma 75–6 _see also_ modifiers

_-ae-_ spellings , ,

Afrikaans 210–11

afterword

ages

aircraft ,

aliases _see_ names, alternative

alphabetization

in indexes 384–90

letter-by-letter 384–6

of proper names 113–15,

of 'saint'

word-by-word 384–6

in word-processing packages  _see also_ indexes and indexing

alphabets _see under individual languages_

alt tags

a.m. ,

American English _see_ US usage

ampersand (&) , , , ,

angle brackets , , , , ,

as cues

in online resource locators

animal names, plurals

annexes _see_ appendices

anonymous works , 352–3

anthologies, permissions

Apocrypha 148–9

apostrophe 69–73,  _see also under individual languages_

appendices 17–18,

numbering , ,

approximations, rounded

apps _see_ digital products

Arabic 206–7

proper names 115–16

Arabic numerals

for biblical references

for chapter numbers , ,

in citations ,

for dates

for introduction ,

in law texts

in lists

in modern Greek

in musical work titles

in note cues ,

for page numbers

for Paris arrondissements

for part numbers ,

in Russian

in scientific text ,

for volume numbers

archaism, intentional

archival material, citation

arithmetical symbols, spacing

arrows, in chemical formulas

art. cit.

article

definite

in alphabetization , ,

capitalization ,

in lists

in titles ,

transposition  _see also under individual languages_

indefinite

with abbreviations

in alphabetization , ,

in bibliography

in titles ,

transposition

articles

citing , , , 361–4,

online

scientific ,

submitted for publication ,

titles , , , ,

of treaties

artist

copyright

moral rights 328–9

artwork

author-prepared

colour , 324–6

copyright , , , , 328–9

cropping

digital , 322–7

hard copy 327–8

labelling (lettering) 316–17

layout 314–15

numbering , ,

permissions and acknowledgements 328–9

for print or digital media

resolution ,

size 315–16, 323–4

submission 326–7, , 337–8

in tables

types  _see also_ illustrations

ash (Æ, æ) ,

asterisk , , ,

in computing

as note cue

in scientific text

astronomy , 297–8

atlases ,

audio and audiovisual materials 368–9

audio books

audio recordings 368–9

Australian English ,

author–date (Harvard) system , , 339–44

author–number (Vancouver) system , , 344–5

Authorized Version (AV) of the Bible

authors' names , 158–9, ,

ayn (ʿ)

back matter _see_ end matter

backslash ,

bacteria

'bang'

bar charts 320–1

BC , , , , , , , ,

Belarus

Belarusian

Berne Convention

bias

Bible

Apocrypha 148–9

chapter and verse references ,

editions and versions

Hebrew

New Testament

Old Testament

roman type ,

use of definite article

biblio page

bibliographic information and locations 144–5

bibliography 18–19,

abbreviations and contractions ,

alphabetization 347–8

articles in periodicals 361–4

audio and audiovisual materials 368–9

authors' names , 158–9, , 348–9, 350–3

capitalization

chapters or essays

citations 335–9, ,

compilers' names 353–4

corporate authors

date of publication , , , 342–3, , , , , ,

digital media 370–6

editions 359–60

editors' names 353–4

elements 349–50

em rule

enumerative

'etc.'

grey literature 367–8

list of abbreviations

manuscripts and documentary sources 365–8

page numbers

parentheses 358–60

personal names 347–54

place of publication , , , , 357–8, ,

primary and secondary sources

publisher's name

reprints and facsimiles 360–1

reviews

revisers' names 353–4

series

small capitals

theses and dissertations

thin spaces

titles and subtitles , 354–6

translations

translators' names 353–4,

unpublished work

volume numbers 362–4

volumes 356–7

websites 371–2 _see also_ author–date (Harvard) system; author–number (Vancouver) system

billion

binding

binomial system

biography, frontispiece

biological nomenclature 274–80

bitmap graphics 322–3

bits/bytes

blasphemy 405–6

block quotations _see_ quotations, displayed

blogs , ,

blood groups

_The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation_

board games, titles

bold type , 132–3

in glossary

in index ,

in mathematics ,

boldface _see_ bold type

bonds, in chemical formulas

book sizes

books

online

parts of 1–25

titles

Bosnian

braces ,

brackets

in chemical formulas

in mathematics

nested

and punctuation 89–90

round _see_ parentheses

types  _see also_ angle brackets; parentheses; square brackets

brand names

Brazilian _see_ Portuguese

breathings, in Greek 226–7

British Approved Name (BAN) ,

British Standards

indexing ,

proofreading marks

transliteration

broadcast works , , ,

Bulgarian

bulleted lists

_c_. _see_ _circa_

calendars

French Republican

Greek

Jewish ,

Muslim

non-western

Old Style/New Style 201–3

calories

Canadian English

capitalization , ,

abbreviations 177–8

adjectives

character names

compass directions

dates, periods, and events 99–100

in displayed text

geographic locations 98–9

honours and awards

of hyphenated compounds ,

in law texts

legislation 100–1

minimal ,

month names

nicknames

in official documents 100–1

organizations and institutions 97–8

people and languages

personal pronouns

personifications 103–4

poetry

proper names 95–7

with question marks

in quotations ,

religious names and terms ,

Roman numerals

scientific terms ,

ships, aircraft, and vehicles

species names ,

in tables

on title pages

in titles , , 156–7

titles and ranks 102–3

trade and proprietary names 105–6

work titles , 140–1 _see also_ small capitals _and under individual languages_

captions , , , 317–19,

card games, titles

case citations , , 254–5, 257–60

case-bound books

catalogues, published

cataloguing in publication (CIP) data ,

CD-ROMs

_-ce_ , words ending in

Celtic languages _see_ Gaelic; Welsh

centuries , 198–9, 215–16

cf. ,

chapters , 14–15

headings , , 14–15

numbering ,

opening page

in references

titles , 14–15,

character names , ,

chemistry 283–6

drawing packages 285–6

elements and symbols 180–1,

formulas and equations 283–6

small capitals

superscripts and subscripts

Chinese 207–9

place names

proper names

chromosomes

CIP data ,

_circa_ ( _c_.) ,

citation databases

citations

groups ,

linking

of location within a work , 336–7,

of sources 335–9 _see also_ bibliography; references; work titles

classical names , 117–18

classical works, titles ,

clauses, and use of comma

CMYK mode ,

coding _see_ tagging

collections

colloquialisms ,

colon 80–1

after salutation

capitalization after , ,

and direct speech ,

in lists 80–1, ,

in mathematics

in times of day

in titles ,

US usage 407–8

vs dash

colophon , ,

colour, for print and screen 324–6

columns

numbered

in tables 306–7

comma

in addresses

with adverbs and adjectives 75–6

appositional use

in case citations

in direct speech ,

in index

and introductory clauses 75–6

inverted _see_ quotation marks

in letters

in lists ,

in numbers

with numerals

paired 74–5

parenthetical use ,

with punctuation marks

with relative clause 73–5

in salutations

serial (Oxford) , 71–2, 77–8,

in signatures

splice

in text references

US usage

in work titles

Command Papers

company names _see_ organizations and institutions

comparatives ,

compass directions , , ,

compound numbers

compound words

capitalization ,

hyphenation 58–61,

and line breaks

plurals

possessives

US usage

computer monitors, colour rendering 324–6

computing , 286–9

symbols , , , 288–9

typography 287–8

_Concise Oxford English Dictionary_ ,

conclusion ,

conference papers, titles

consent, for use of photographs ,

content, repurposing

content management system

contents list, for electronic products

contents page , , 9–10

continuation note ,

contractions , ,

and apostrophe 72–3 _see also_ abbreviations

contributors

list , 11–12

notes on

cookery, units of measure ,

coordinates

copy preparation 25–41 _see also_ markup

copy-editor/copy-editing , , 27–31,

editorial style

house style 36–7

on paper

style sheets 37–8

technical considerations 43–7 _see also_ markup; word-processing software

copy-fitting

copyright 395–400

acknowledgements ,

Crown copyright 401–2

database rights 399–400

disclaimer

displayed verse

European law

fair dealing 397–8,

illustrations , , , 328–9,

infringement , 396–7, ,

international conventions

Internet material

joint

jurisdiction ,

limitations on sales

moral rights , 398–9

notice , ,

ownership , ,

period

symbol (©)

tabular matter

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 , , ,

corporate bodies _see_ organizations and institutions

corrections

to copy , 29–30

to proofs , 32–3, 38–43

correspondence _see_ letters

corrigendum/corrigenda ,

country names

county names, abbreviations

courts , 258–9

credits _see_ acknowledgements; sources

Croatian

cross-references

to artwork

bold type

in ebooks

in index , , 382–4,

internal

italic type

notes

small capitals

to subheadings

Crown copyright 401–2

cues

in digital products

illustrations

not in titles or headings

notes , , , , , , , , , ,

in scientific text 270–1,

tables , ,

cultivars 276–7

curly brackets _see_ braces

currencies , , 193–4

cutline _see_ captions

Cyrillic alphabet ,

Czech

dagger (†)

Danish 243–4

dash , 86–8

US usage  _see also_ em rule; en rule; hyphen; _see also under individual languages_

data storage

data visualization

database

citing ,

online , ,

rights 399–400

title

date of publication

in references , , , 342–3, , , , , ,

on title page verso ,

dates

abbreviations 184–5

all-figure style

ambiguous 84–5,

astronomical ,

BC ,

capitalization 99–100

_circa_ ( _c._ )

editorial style

ISO style

and line breaks

of new year ,

in parentheses 358–9, ,

precise ,

quoting verbatim

regnal years 200–1

solidus in ,

spacing ,

spans

uncertain 84–5, 184–5,

US usage

days of the week

abbreviations

capitalization

preceding a date  _see also_ dates

_de, d', de la_ (proper name prefixes) 113–14

decades

decimal comma ,

decimal fractions

decimal places, in tables

decimal point ,

dedication ,

defamation , 403–4

defining and non-defining clauses 73–5

definite article _see_ article, definite

degrees

of inclination or angle

of latitude/longitude

subdivisions

symbol (°) , ,

of temperature

deity, references to

Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly Zaire)

demotic Greek

design , ,  _see also_ web design software

development editor

diacritics _see_ accents

diacritics _see also under individual languages_

diagonal _see_ solidus

dialogue

and em rules

in French

and new paragraphs

and quotation marks 164–5

dictionaries

alphabetization

bold type

italic type in

running heads 20–1 _see also_ _Concise Oxford English Dictionary_; _Oxford Dictionary of English_

digital photography

digital products

artwork

in bibliography 370–6

citations 372–6

contents list

display of text 1–2

errata/corrigenda

hyperlinks , ,

indexing ,

mathematics

multimedia

note cues

notes ,

order of prelims

paragraph length

tabular matter

titles , , 152–3

workflow  _see also_ web publishing; websites

direct speech

introducing

punctuation ,

and quotation marks

use of colon  _see also_ quotations

diseases , ,

displayed material ,

lists ,

mathematics 294–5

quotations , ,

dissertations ,

DNA

dollar symbol

dosage, abbreviations

dots

in chemical formulas

leader  _see also_ ellipses

double entry, in index

double numbering, section headings ,

double possessive

double punctuation, avoiding , , , , ,

double-page spread

drop folio ,

drug nomenclature 282–3

_du_ (proper name prefix)

Dutch 209–11

proper names ,

DVDs

ebooks ,

citing 375–6

correcting errors

cross-references

EPUB files

indexing

ISBN

layout 1–2,

notes

titles

eclipsis, in Gaelic 216–17

edh _see_ eth

edition

on imprint page , ,

in references , , 359–60

editions of texts

notes ,

published

editor

in references , , , 353–4, , , ,

on title page

editorial insertions , , 166–7

editorial style 34–8 _see also_ copy-editor/copy-editing

e.g. , 182–183

_-ei-_ spellings

electronic formats _see_ digital products; ebooks; websites

elision

of letters 72–3

in number ranges 189–90

ellipses

for continuation of a sequence

for effect

to indicate omission 81–2, , ,

in mathematics ,

em rule (em dash) 87–8

em space

emails ,

embedded indexing

embedded quotations _see_ quotations, run-on

en rule (en dash) 86–7

in eponyms

in number ranges , ,

US usage

en space

encyclopedias

alphabetization

bold type

running heads

end matter , , , , , , 16–19, ,  _see also_ appendices; bibliography; endnotes; glossary; indexes and indexing

endnotes , , , 331–9 _see also_ cues

endpapers

English, varieties

English titles, for foreign language works

enzymes

epigraphs , 12–13,

epilogue

eponyms , 271–2

EPS files

EPUB files, for ebooks

equation editor, word-processor

equations

chemical 283–6

mathematical ,

numbering 16–17, ,

eras , , 199–200

errata/erratum slips

essays , ,

Eszett (ß) , ,

et al. ,

etc. , ,

eth or edh (Ð, ð) , ,

European Human Rights

European Union

database rights 399–400

law texts

legislation 261–2

_Official Journal_ ,

treaties 261–2

even workings 24–5

events, capitalization 100–1

exactitude, false 186–7

exclamation mark , , ,

exclamation point _see_ exclamation mark

expressions, mathematical

extracts _see_ quotations, displayed

f./ff. , ,

Facebook post

facsimiles

factorial sign

fair comment

Faroese

fascicles 13–14

festivals and holidays, capitalization

fictional works

numbers

quotation marks , , 164–5

series titles

style ,

typography , ,

figures _see_ artwork; illustrations

figures (numbers) _see_ Arabic numerals; numbers; Roman numerals

file extension

filenames

films , , ,

final proofs

fixed space  _see also_ hair space; thin space

Flemish  _see also_ Dutch

floors of buildings, US usage

_floruit ( fl.)_

flush left/right

flyleaf

folios (page numbers) , , , 19–20

folios (sheets)

fonts

for mathematics

monospaced 287–8

for non-roman alphabets

Unicode-compliant , ,  _see also_ special sorts; typeface; Unicode

footers ,

footnote symbols _see_ reference marks

footnotes 330–5,

cues ,

indexing  _see also_ cues; notes

foreign language _see_ non-English

foreword ,

forms of address

nobility 110–11 _see also under individual languages_

formulas

chemical 283–6

mathematical

forward slash _see_ solidus

fractions ,

Fraktur , 223–4

free-text searching 377–8

French 211–16

addresses

capitalization

dates

in EU courts

names , , , , 116–17,

French Republican calendar

front matter _see_ preliminary matter

frontispiece , 3–4

full capitals _see_ capitalization

full out , 45–6

full point

in abbreviations , , ,

in contractions

in lists 301–2

in quotations , 163–4

in times of day

US usage ,  _see also_ ellipses

full stop _see_ full point

full title _see_ title page

function words, US usage

further reading list ,

Gaelic 216–17

proper names

galley proof 31–2

games _see_ sports and games

gazetteers ,

gender , ,

generic terms, capitalization ,

genes 278–9

genus names ,

geographical features

capitalization 98–9,

indexing 388–9

geographical names

alternatives

redundancy 123–4 _see also_ place names

geology ,

German 217–24

dates

names , ,

typefaces , 223–4

Glagolitic alphabet

glossary ,

glosses

got/gotten

government publications, Crown copyright

graphics

file formats 322–3

software ,

suitability for print output ,

graphs ,

Greek 224–9

calendar

names 117–18

greengrocer's apostrophe

Gregorian calendar

grey literature

group nouns, singular/plural verb

guillemets , , , ,

Hadith

haemoglobin

hair space ,

half-title ,

half-title verso ,

half-tones _see_ tone artwork

hamza ( )

Hansard 263–4,

hard copy , , , ,

scanning , ,

scientific text  _see also_ markup

Harvard (author–date) system _see_ author–date (Harvard) system

he/she _see_ gender

header _see_ running head(line)

headings 16–17

bold type

capitalization

chapter , , , 14–15

hierarchy

house style

italic type

in mathematics

number ranges

numbering

punctuation

small capitals

styling or tagging

and subheadings 15–16

in tables ,

in web material , ,  _see also_ subheadings

headline _see_ running head(line)

Hebrew 229–31

names 118–19

Hellenic names _see_ Greek, names

histocompatibility leukocyte antigens (HLA)

histograms

history

apostrophe

capitalization , , 99–100,

dates 184–5

frontispiece

indexing of names

honours and awards

abbreviations

capitalization

house names

house numbers

house style 36–7, , , , , 340–1,

however

HTML

hybrids 276–7

hyperlinks , ,

hyphens/hyphenation 58–64

of compass directions

in compound numbers

in compound words

editorial style

in fractions

hanging

hard and soft ,

line ends ,

in mixed nationalities

of numbers

of prefixes 61–2, ,

in proper names

of suffixes 62–3

symbols for

US usage  _see also_ en rule; word division _and under individual languages_

_i/j_ , ,

ibid.

_-ible_ , words ending in 50–1

Icelandic

names 120–1

id./ _idem._ 338–9

identifiers, after names

idioms, US usage ,

i.e. , 182–3

_-ie-_ spellings

illustrations

colour 324–6

copy-editor's responsibilities

copyright

on endpapers

frontispiece

list , , ,

online image 374–5

plates ,

in scientific text 267–8 _see also_ artwork; captions

illustrators

images _see_ illustrations

immunology

imperial units

US usage

imposition

impression ,

imprint page 4–7

inclination or angle, degrees

indefinite article _see_ article, indefinite

indentation

of computer programs ,

of dialogue ,

of displayed mathematics

of index entries 392–3

of lists

of paragraphs , , , 45–6

of quotations

of turnover lines , , ,

of verse ,

word-processor styles

indexes and indexing , , , , 377–94

alphabetization 384–90

bold type ,

chronological ordering

consistency with text

content ,

cross-references , , 382–4,

digital aspects 377–9

electronic submission

em rules

embedded

end matter

explanatory note

hierarchical ordering

house style

hyperlinks

illustrations and tables

inverse forms

italic type

layout 392–3

length constraints 377–94

letter-by-letter 384–6

levels , ,

main entries , 380–1

multi-author works

multi-volume works

multiple

names 386–9

non-alphabetical order , 390–1

non-English words ,

notes

number references 393–4

professional

scientific terms

set-out vs run-on style 392–3

small capitals

specialist software ,

strings of locators 380–1,

style 391–2

subentries , , 381–2,

symbols and numerals 389–90

tagging

unpaged content 377–9

word-by-word 384–6

inequality signs

and brackets  _see also_ angle brackets

inflections

infographics

initialisms ,

initials

capitalization 95–6,

and line breaks

inscriptions ,

institutions _see_ organizations and institutions

interactive elements

interferons

International and British Standard, for indexing ,

International Legal Materials (ILM) citation

International Standard Book Number (ISBN) , ,

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)

International Standards Organization (ISO)

date style

decimal comma

paper sizes 22–3

Internet

copyright of material  _see also_ blogs; websites

interviews, online

introduction

introductory clause, and use of comma 75–6

inverted commas _see_ quotation marks

iota

Irish Gaelic _see_ Gaelic

Irish names

ISBN _see_ International Standard Book Number

_-ise/-ize_ spellings , 49–50

Islamic scriptures 149–50

'isms'

ISO _see_ International Standards Organization

ISSN _see_ International Standard Serial Number

Italian 232–4

names , 113–14,

italic type , 128–9

biological terminology , , ,

cross-references

in dictionaries

editorial notes

in index

in italicized text

in legal texts ,

in lists

in mathematics ,

names of ships, aircraft and vehicles

non-English words and phrases 129–31, ,

in plays

in scientific text ,

tagging (coding)

titles , , , , ,

Japanese

date style

names

Jewish

calendar

names 118–19

scriptures

journals , , , , , , , , , , 362–3

online , ,  _see also_ periodicals

JPEG

judges 264–5

judgment/judgement

Julian calendar

junior/senior

justification 44–5,

Koran , 149–50,

Korean names 119–20

labelling (lettering), of artwork 316–17

landscape format , , , ,

languages _see under individual languages_

LaTeX _see_ TeX/LaTeX

Latin 235–6

abbreviations 175–7, 182–3, 320–2 _see also_ individual abbreviations

binomials

legal terms

medical terminology

in notes 338–9

work titles

Latin texts, Roman numerals

Latinization of Greek names 117–18

latitude/longitude

law texts 253–65

abbreviations 254–5, ,

capitalization

case citations , , 254–5, 257–60

EU courts

international treaties and conventions 262–3

judges' designations and judgments 264–5

legislation 100–1, 260–2

numerals , ,

references 256–7

reports , , , , ,

typography

unreported cases ,

US usage

_le_ / _la_ , in proper names

leader dots

leading

legal documents, numbers ,

legend

letters, use of comma

lexical variation 414–20

libel

Library of Congress, CIP data , 6–7

limits, in mathematics

line breaks , , , , , , 294–5 _see also_ hyphens/hyphenation; word division

line endings

line numbers

line spacing

linefeed

list of abbreviations , , 11–12, ,

list of acknowledgements

list of contributors ,

list of illustrations , , ,

list of tables ,

lists , 299–303

bulleted

displayed ,

end punctuation 301–2

incomplete

italic type

numbered 302–3

punctuation , 79–80,

run-on

simple

loanwords , , , , , , ,

loc. cit.

location codes, for indexing

_-logue_ , words ending in

long _s_ , ,

lower case

abbreviations

in indexes

for SI units

Mac/Mc 112–13, 386–7

Macedonian

magazines ,

Mandarin _see_ Chinese

manuscripts , 137–8, , 366–7

maps , , ,

markers _see_ cues; reference marks

marks of reference _see_ reference marks

markup

editorial , ,

hard copy

proofreading 34–8

markup languages, for mathematics ,

married names ,

mathematics 289–96

angle brackets

bold type , ,

brackets

displayed material 294–5

fonts

headings

layout 294–5

markup languages ,

roman type , ,

symbols , 291–2, , 295–6,

TeX/LaTeX

two-line format

underlining

measurement, units of _see_ SI units; units of measure

media _see_ broadcast works; digital products; multimedia material

medical images, high-resolution

medical terminology 280–3

eponyms , ,

_-ment_ , nouns ending in

metadata

metric conversions, false exactitude

microorganisms

Middle English _see_ Old and Middle English

mobile apps

modifiers

compound 59–60

monarchs' names, abbreviations

money  _see also_ currencies

monographs ,

months

abbreviations

capitalization

French Republican calendar  _see also_ dates

moral rights , 6–7, 328–9, 398–9

multi-author works , , 11–12, 19–20

indexing

list of abbreviations

notes

running heads

multi-volume works , ,

contents list

indexing

multimedia material

multiplication point

multiplication symbol, in dates 184–5,

music albums, titles , ,

musical works , 153–6

Muslim calendar

mutation, in Celtic languages 216–17,

names

adopted

alternative 108–9

capitalization

including a number or letter

indexing 386–9

of monarchs

of popes  _see also_ personal names; place names; proper names

nationalities, capitalization

_né(e)_

negative index, with SI units

negative numbers

negligent misstatement

_New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians_

_New Oxford American Dictionary_

_New Oxford Dictionary for Scientific Writers and Editors_ ,

_New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ , , , , ,

_New Oxford Spelling Dictionary_ ,

New Testament

news reports, online

newspapers

digital

items within

quotation marks ,

references to ,

titles ,

nicknames 108–9

nobiliary particles 113–15

nobility, forms of address 110–11

non-breaking space , ,

non-English material

date of translation 157–8

hyphenation 60–1

indexing ,

italicization 129–31, ,

names ,

naturalized 130–1

plurals 56–7

quotations 171–3

work titles 154–5, 157–8 _see also under individual languages_

non-keyboard characters 43–4

non-print formats 1–2, ,

non-restrictive (non-defining) relative clause 73–4

non-roman alphabets

transliteration ,

Unicode

non-text items, spacing around

none, takes singular verb

Norwegian 243–4

notation, non-standard 266–7

note to reader , ,

notes , , 333–45

abbreviations , 337–9

cross-references

cues , , , , , , , , , ,

in digital products ,

editorial style

in the humanities 331–2

indexing ,

Latin terms 338–9

layout 334–5

numbering ,

parallel sequences

placement 332–4

in scientific text 270–1

to tables

use of 'etc.'

work titles

nouns

capitalization ,

countable , 420–1

plurals 54–7

number ranges , 189–91,

numbered paragraphs ,

numbers ,

approximate

compound

consistent use

dates

indefinite quantities

indexing 389–90

line breaks

mixed styles , 193–4

negative

in official or legal documents

plural forms

punctuation ,

in scientific text

SI guidelines

times of day

with units of measures 193–4

use of commas

words or figures , 186–8,  _see also_ Arabic numerals; Roman numerals _and under individual languages_

numerals _see_ Arabic numerals; numbers; Roman numerals

numerical data, US usage 409–10

oblique _see_ solidus

obscenity

octavo , ,

_oe_ , in quotations

_œ_ (ligature)

offensive language

official documents

capitalization 100–1

numbers ,

official secrets

Old Church Slavonic

Old and Middle English , 236–8

Old Style/New Style dates 201–3

Old Testament

Olympiads, in Greek calendar

omissions

indicated by asterisks , ,

indicated by ellipses 81–2, ,

indicated by em rule

indicated by en rule

in quotations ,

on-screen editing  _see also_ copy-editor/copy-editing

online editing ,

online material, citing 372–6

op. cit.

opening ,

operas, titles ,

operational signs 291–2

operators, roman type

oratorios, titles

ordinal numbers , , ,

Ordnance Survey publications

organizations and institutions

apostrophe in names ,

as authors

capitalization 97–8

indexing 383–4

orphans

orthographic reform

French

German 217–18, ,

orthographic signs

orthographic variation 411–14

outsourcing

Oxford comma _see_ comma, serial

_The Oxford Companion to the Year_

Oxford Dictionaries Online

_Oxford Dictionary of English_ , , 59–60,

_Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_ _see_ _New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors_

_Oxford Spelling Dictionary_ _see_ _New Oxford Spelling Dictionary_

page breaks

page depth 46–7

page make-up , 304–5, 314–15

page numbers , , , , 19–20

citing , , , ,

in digital media ,

and illustrations

in index ,

omission

spans

page proofs , ,

pagination

end matter

frontispiece

introduction

numbering

part title pages 13–14

paintings, titles , 156–7

paper sizes 22–3

paperbacks, formats

paragraphs

in dialogue

in digital products

indentation , , 45–6

length

numbering ,

paraphrase, of non-English quotations

parentheses , , 88–90, , ,

in bibliographies 358–60

in biological nomenclature

in case citations ,

in chemistry ,

for comment or clarification , , , , , ,

double (nested)

in index , ,

in lists 302–3

in mathematics ,

placing of note cues

references in , , ,

Parliamentary select committees, reports

parties, in legal cases

parts , ,

numbering , ,

part titles , ,

_passim_

passing off 405–6

patient identification, removing

patronymics 120–1

PDFs

of intended layout

markup ,

proof-editing 30–1

quality

showing symbols

peers, titles

Pentateuch

people, references to _see_ personal names

per cent/percent ,

performing rights , 7–8

period _see_ full point

periodicals

article titles

numbers

online

published

titles ,

permissions 328–9, 401–3

personal communications 343–4

personal names 107–22

apostrophe in

in bibliography 347–54

comma in ,

compound

indexing 386–9

Roman numerals  _see also_ forms of address; names; titles and ranks; _and under individual languages_

personal pronouns

personification 103–4

photographer, moral rights 328–9

photographs

consent , 328–9

copyright

pica

pica em

picture libraries

picture research

Pinyin transliteration system , , 208–9

pipe _see_ vertical rule

pixels

place names

anachronisms

anglicization ,

apostrophe in

capitalization 95–7

changes ,

chronology

identification 124–5

indexing

Indian cities

roman type

romanization

sensitive issues 122–3

spelling 122–4

place of publication

in bibliography , , , , 357–8, ,

on imprint page ,

plates , ,

plays

character names , ,

italic type in

numbering of acts, scenes, and lines ,

published

quotations from 169–70

Roman numerals

of Shakespeare 150–1

titles

typography 169–70 _see also_ verse

plurals 54–7

of abbreviations 181–2

apostrophe in

capitalization

numbers

units of measure

plus and minus signs, in genetics ,

p.m. ,

podcasts  _see also_ broadcast works; digital products

poems

published

titles ,

poetic metres, capitalization

poetry _see_ verse

point size

points of suspension ,

Polish

popular music, work titles 153–4

portrait format ,

Portuguese 238–9

Brazilian ,

names ,

positional references, avoiding 305–6,

possessives

of abbreviations

apostrophe in 69–72

and capitalization

scientific eponyms 271–2

postcodes , ,

pre-editing ,

preface , 8–9

prefixes

in chemical names

hyphenation 61–2

in proper names 113–15

for units ,

preliminary matter 2–13, , , ,

not usually indexed

Roman numerals

prelims _see_ preliminary matter

prepositions ,

capitalization ,

in index

and titles

US usage

presentation software , ,

primes

printer, name and location , ,

printing ,

probability values, conventional

programming languages ,

pronouns, capitalization

pronunciation, and word division ,

proof-editing 30–1

proofs, underlining

proofs and proofreading

against copy

'blind'

correction , 34–43

final

instructions ,

passed for press

PDFs ,

proof-correction marks , 38–9

proofreader's responsibilities , 46–7

style sheet 37–8

technical considerations 43–7

proper names

alphabetization 112–15,

alternative names 108–9

capitalization 95–7

commas in ,

double-barrelled

indexing ,

and line breaks

non-English 115–22, ,

plurals ,

possessives

prefixes 113–15

roman type  _see also_ personal names _and under individual languages_

proper nouns, words derived from

proprietary or trade names, capitalization ,

prosody, vertical rule

proteins

pseudonyms , ,

public holidays, capitalization

publication details

publication right

published works ,

publisher

in citations , , ,

copyright

on imprint page 4–5

publishing history ,

punctuation

of abbreviations , , 176–9, , ,

with brackets 89–90

in computer programs

of direct speech

double _see_ double punctuation

in indexes

in lists , , , 301–2

minimal

and note cues

in notes

of numbers ,

of quotations , 163–4,

of reference lists 340–1

in scientific texts

in tables ,

terminal , ,

and text references

times of day

type style 127–8,

US usage 407–8

in work titles 142–3 _see also_ apostrophe; brackets; colon; comma; ellipses; em rule; en rule; exclamation mark; full point; hyphens; question mark; quotation marks; semicolon; solidus; _and under individual languages_

quad sheet ,

quarto

question mark 76–8

in Greek

inverted

in parentheses

in uncertain dates

questions

quotation marks

in computer programs

in dialogue 164–5

double or single , , 162–4

for emphasis or explanation 92–3, ,

in newspapers

for nicknames 108–9

for non-English terms

with other punctuation 163–4

for quotations within quotations , 162–3

for run-on quotations

for titles , , 153–4,

US usage 162–3

when not required

quotations

capitalization ,

copyright restrictions

correction of errors , 166–7

displayed ,

epigraphs , 12–13

from plays 169–70

from statutes

integration into text

interpolations 166–7

introducing

layout 160–5

nested , 161–3

non-English material 171–3

omissions ,

punctuation ,

regularization of style

roman type

run-on

source , ,

spelling

translation vs paraphrase

typography 165–8

US usage

within quotations , 162–3

Qu'ran/Quran _see_ Koran

racial hatred

racist language

radio programmes _see_ broadcast works; podcasts; TV and radio series

ragged right (unjustified) 44–45

ranged left/right

ranges _see_ number ranges

RAW files ,

Recommended International Non-Proprietary Name (rINN)

_recte/rectius_

recto , , , ,

reference books, copyright

reference list , 340–1

reference management software

reference marks , , ,

references 330–45

abbreviations 337–9

access to multimedia material

author and short title 335–6

author–date (Harvard) system 339–44

author–number (Vancouver) system 344–5

citation 335–9

combined with notes

digital citation linking

editing

in law texts 256–7

to location with a work 336–7

note-based systems 331–5

online

parenthetical

systems

in text 341–4 _see also_ bibliography; notes

regnal years 200–1

rekeying , , ,

relative clauses, restrictive and non-restrictive 73–5

religious denominations 95–6,

religious names and terms ,

religious texts _see_ sacred texts

reports

online

of select committees ,

titles

reprint editions , , 360–1, ,

resolution, of digital artwork ,

restrictive relative clause 73–4

reverse solidus _see_ backslash

reviews, references to , ,

revised proofs , 32–3

revision tracking , ,

RGB mode ,

road or highway numbers

Roman numerals 195–7

capitalization

in chemistry

in citations

in classical texts

in dates ,

in law texts

in lists

in manuscript

as note cues

for part numbers

for part titles

in personal names

in plays

in preliminary matter , ,

for sections of poems

small capitals ,

use

for volume numbers ,  _see also under individual languages_

roman type

chemical symbols

in chemistry

for computer filenames

general use

in legal references ,

in mathematics , ,

for non-English words and phrases 130–1

for quotations

for taxonomic groups

and titles , ,

romanization

of Chinese

of Japanese

of place names

round brackets _see_ parentheses

rounding, in tables

row headings (stub), in tables

Royal Society

royalty

rules

in tables , 306–7 _see also_ em rule; en rule; vertical rule

running foot(line) ,

running head(line) 19–20,

automatic generation

based on chapter title 14–15

content 20–1

in encyclopedias and dictionaries 20–1

end matter

for endnotes ,

for index 391–2

length

in multi-author works

omission of ,

over tables

in prelims ,

running title _see_ running head(line)

Russian 240–3

names  _see also_ Slavonic languages

_s._ , in medieval manuscripts

sacred texts

indexing

roman type

titles ,

work titles 145–50

St _see_ saints' names

saints' names 111–12,

salutations, punctuation

Scandinavian

languages 243–4

names 120–1

scanning, of hard copy , ,

Schwabacher

scientific journals, styles and templates ,

scientific/technical text

abbreviations , ,

brackets

capitalization

commas in ,

common usage

hard copy

hyphenation

indexing

multiple authorship

notation , ,

note cues 270–1,

punctuation ,

references ,

semicolon in

solidus in

symbols , 180–1 _see also_ astronomy; biological nomenclature; chemistry; computing; geology; mathematics; medical terminology

scores, in games ,

Scottish, proper names

Scottish Gaelic _see_ Gaelic

screen-reading software

sculpture, titles of 156–7

_-se_ , words ending in

sections and subsections 15–16

_see_ / _see also_ references , ,

semibold type

semicolon 79–80

in archaic titles

in index ,

in lists ,

in text references

sentence capitals 94–5

September 11 (9/11)

Septuagint

Serbian

Serbo-Croat

serial comma _see_ comma, serial

serial publications, ISSN

series

in prelims , ,

titles 138–9, , , ,

TV and radio , ,

sexist language

shading, in artwork ,

Shakespeare, references to 150–1

shelf mark ,

shilling mark _see_ solidus

ships , ,

short forms  _see also_ abbreviations; acronyms

short lines

short stories, titles

short title

in notes 335–6

short title catalogue (STC) numbers

_Shorter Oxford English Dictionary_

SI units , ,

_sic_ , 166–7

sigma ,

signatures, small capitals

signatures (in letters)

signatures (in printing)

signs _see_ symbols

slash _see_ solidus

slash, _see also_ backslash

Slavonic languages , 245–7 _see also_ Russian

Slovak

Slovene

small capitals 133–4

in abbreviations

in chapter openings

for character names

for Roman numerals ,

suitable font 133–4 _see also_ capitalization

sobriquet _see_ nicknames

software tools

copy-editing

graphics ,

indexing ,

infographics

page make-up (layout) 304–5,

presentation software , ,

reference management software

screen readers

spreadsheets , , ,

web design

word-processing , , , , , 304–5, ,

solidus , 90–1

in bibliography

in computing

in dates

and line breaks ,

in mathematics ,

in SI units ,

US usage

in verse quotations

songs, titles , 153–4,

sources

abbreviations

citing 335–9

crediting

editorial style

epigraphs 12–13,

grouping ,

in the humanities

location within a work 336–7

notes

in parentheses ,

of quotations ,  _see also_ acknowledgements; bibliography

spaces/spacing

horizontal 45–6

in indexes

interlinear ,

in mathematics ,

around non-text items

after sentence punctuation

in scientific texts , ,

around symbols

with units of measure ,

vertical ,  _see also_ em space; en space; fixed space; hair space; justification; non-breaking space; thin space; word spacing

Spanish 248–50

names , , 121–2

spans _see_ number ranges

special sorts , , ,

species names ,

speech, direct _see_ direct speech

spelling , 48–52

ambiguities 412–13

computing terminology 286–7

in early modern works

place names 122–4

in quotations

US usage , 411–13

variant , 56–7, , ,

in work titles 141–2

sports and games

capitalization

race distances

scores ,

spread , , ,

spreadsheets , , ,

square brackets 88–9

in case citations ,

in chemical formulas

for editorial interpolations

in references , , , , , , ,

square roots

St _see_ saints' names

St, indexing

-st (suffix)

stage directions ,

statistical matter ,

statutory instruments

STC (short title catalogue) numbers

stellar nomenclature ,

stroke _see_ solidus

structural formulas 283–6

style sheets , 37–8, ,

styles and templates , , ,

subheadings

in chapters 14–15

numbering

as running head  _see also_ headings

subjunctive mood, US usage

submodifers, US usage

subscripts , , , , , 292–3,

subspecies

subtitles ,

suffixes

apostrophe

elided

hyphenation 62–3

spelling 50–2,

US usage ,

and word division ,  _see also under individual languages_

sulfur/sulphur

superlatives ,

superscripts

in chemistry

in dates

in mathematics , 292–3

as note cues , , ,

as note numbers ,

in original spelling

in virus names

surnames , , , , , , ,

eponyms 271–2

indexing

in references ,

in taxonomic names  _see also_ proper names

Swedish 243–4

Swiss German ,

names ,

symbols , 179–81

chemical 180–1,

in computing , 288–9

confusable

currency

for hyphens

indexing 389–90

inequality signs

list

mathematical , 295–6

musical

orthographic

proof-correction marks , 38–9

punctuation

range of meanings

reference marks , , ,

in scientific text , 180–1,

spacing

trade marks

typographical ,

vertical rule

synonyms, indexing

Système International (SI) _see_ SI units

T cells

tables 304–12

acceptable breaks

alignment

body 307–10

of cases and legislation ,

data not available

editing , ,

headings 306–7

list ,

notes

numbering , 305–6

portrait or landscape format ,

presentation

readability

rekeying

rules , 306–7

as spreadsheets

totals

turn-lines ,

tabular matter _see_ tables

tagging (coding) ,

of index terms

for italicization

XML , , , , , ,

Talmud ,

taxonomic groups 274–5

technical text _see_ scientific/technical text

telephone numbers 409–10

television _see_ broadcast works; TV and radio series

temperature

degrees

scales

US usage

templates _see_ styles and templates

TeX/LaTeX , , , 289–90, , ,

textbooks

bold type

chapter headings

paragraph numbering

subheadings

_that_ or _which_

_the_ _see_ article, definite

_they_ (singular)

thin space , ,

in bibliography

in compound units

in ratios

as thousands separator , , , ,

thorn (Þ, þ) , ,

thousands separator

comma

thin space , , , ,

TIFF

times of day , 194–5

in French ,

in German

punctuation

US usage ,

tipping-in ,

title page , , , , , , , , ,

title page verso , , 4–8

titles and ranks 109–10

capitalization 102–3

courtesy titles 110–11

hereditary titles

use of forename ,

titles of works _see_ work titles

tone artwork, hard copy

toponymic designations

Torah

trade marks

trade names ,

translations

in brackets

citing

date 157–8

of quotations , , , ,

titles 157–8

of work titles , 355–6

translator , , , 353–4, ,

transliteration , ,  _see also_ Arabic; Chinese; Greek; Hebrew; Russian; Slavonic languages

treaties 261–3

trillion

triple-numbering, section headings ,

turn-lines

in glossary

in index

in mathematics

in tables , ,

in verse ,

turned commas, in German

turned pages _see_ landscape format

turnovers _see_ turn-lines

TV and radio series , ,

Twitter post (tweet)

typeface , , , , , , ,  _see also_ font; special sorts

typescript ,  _see also_ copy preparation; markup

typesetter

instructions

style sheet 37–8

typesetting , , ,

typography

abbreviations 176–9

computer files 287–8

fictional works , ,

index 391–3

law texts

mathematics

notes 334–5

plays 169–70

quotations , 165–8

work titles

_u/v/vv_ , , ,

Ukrainian

underlines _see_ captions

underlining , ,

Unicode 43–4, , , , 295–6

Uniform Commercial Code (UCC)

units of measure

abbreviations ,

in astronomy 297–8

British usage

capitalization

conversion

in cookery ,

false exactitude

imperial units

and line breaks

with numbers , 193–4

in parentheses ,

powers

SI , 268–9

SI-compatible

singular/plural

spacing ,

in tables

US usage 408–9 _see also_ SI units

Universal Copyright Convention ,

unpublished works

titles 139–40

upright rule _see_ vertical rule

URLs

capitalization

as resource locators 371–2

solidus in ,

US usage 407–22

abbreviations ,

brackets

capitalization ,

colon 407–8

comma

compounds ,

dash

dates , ,

en rule

floors of buildings

full point ,

function words

hyphens

idiomatic , , 420–2

imperial units

indexes and indexing

initialisms

judgment

law texts

naturalized words

numerical data 409–10

_percent_

prepositions

proper names

punctuation , , , , , 407–8

quotation marks , 162–3

quotations

Roman numerals in personal names

scores in games

spelling , , 411–13

subjunctive mood

temperature

_that_ and _which_

times of day ,

titles and ranks

units of measure 408–9

verbs 417–18, 421–2

zero

_van, van den, van der_ (proper name prefixes) 114–15

Vancouver (author–number) system _see_ author–number (Vancouver) system

variables, italic type

variant readings

variant spellings _see_ spellings, variant

vectors and matrices, bold type , ,

vehicles ,

verbs 52–4,

with group nouns ,

US usage 417–18, 421–2

verse

capitalization

copyright conditions

displayed quotations ,

quotations

run-on quotations

solidus in

translations 172–3

vertical rule in

verso , , , ,  _see also_ half-title verso; title page verso

vertical rule

in mathematics

in run-on verse quotations

video , , ,

video games _see_ digital products

vinculum (overbar)

virgule _see_ solidus

viruses 277–8

vitamins

viz.

volume numbers

in references , , , 362–3

Roman numerals ,

volumes

in index

multi-volume works , , , 356–7

in prelims , ,

_von, von dem, von der, vom_ (proper name prefixes) 114–15

Vulgate

Wade–Giles transliteration system , , 208–9

walking-stick rule

-ward/-wards (suffix)

web design software

web publishing ,

webcast

websites

asterisks

in bibliography 371–2

capitalization

copyright

creation and maintenance

notes

numerals

quotation marks

thumbnails

titles , 152–3

vertical rule  _see also_ URLs

weights and measures _see_ SI units; units of measure

Welsh 251–2

proper names

wen _see_ wyn(n)

_which_ or _that_

whiskey/whisky

widows

Wikipedia

word division 57–62, 64–8, 242–3

according to construction

according to pronunciation ,

principles 65–6

special rules 66–8 _see also_ _line breaks_ _and under individual languages_

word spacing , , ,

word-processing software

for editing , , ,

embedded indexing

equation editor

graphical output

table editor 304–5

work titles

abbreviations

anglicized

archaic

articles

blog articles

bold type

broadcast works

capitalization 140–1, , 156–7,

chapters

contractions

databases

digital products , , 152–3

editorial insertions

essays

films

including other titles

indexing

integration into text 158–9

italicization , , ,

item within a publication

newspaper columns

non-English, 146–7, 150–1, 157–8, ,  _see also under individual languages_

operas

periodicals

poems

popular music 153–4

provisional

punctuation , 127–8, |142–3,

quotation marks

as quotations

roman type

sacred texts 145–50

sections within websites

Shakespeare 150–1

short stories

small capitals

songs 153–4,

spelling 141–2

translated versions ,

treated as singular

treatment 136–59

'true' vs generic 154–5

truncation

typography

unpublished works 139–40

works of art 156–7

written works 136–45

works of art, titles , , 156–7

world English ,

written works, work titles 136–45

wyn(n) (Ƿ, ƿ)

XML, tagging , , , , , , , ,

XML files , , , 287–8

yearbooks

years _see_ dates

Yiddish

yogh (Ȝ and ȝ) ,

YouTube video

Yugoslavia (former)

_-yze_ spellings

zero

in decimal fractions

leading ,

US usage

zip code

# Table of Contents

  1. Cover page
  2. Halftitle page
  3. Title page
  4. Copyright page
  5. Preface
  6. Contents
  7. Editorial team
    1. Editor in chief of 2014 edition
    2. Editor in chief of 2005 edition
    3. Project managers
    4. Project manager of 2005 edition
    5. Contributors to both editions
    6. Design
    7. Special thanks to
  8. Chapter 1: The parts of a book
    1. 1.1 General principles
    2. 1.2 Preliminary matter
    3. 1.3 Text
    4. 1.4 End matter
    5. 1.5 Folios and running heads
    6. 1.6 Errata slips
    7. 1.7 Paper and book sizes
    8. 1.8 Even workings
  9. Chapter 2: Preparing copy
    1. 2.1 Definitions
    2. 2.2 Making changes to copy
    3. 2.3 Editorial style and house style
    4. 2.4 Marking proofs
    5. 2.5 Technical issues for the copy-editor and proofreader
  10. Chapter 3: Spelling and hyphenation
    1. 3.1 Spelling
    2. 3.2 Inflection
    3. 3.3 Hyphenation
    4. 3.4 Word division
  11. Chapter 4: Punctuation
    1. 4.1 Introduction
    2. 4.2 Apostrophe
    3. 4.3 Comma
    4. 4.4 Semicolon
    5. 4.5 Colon
    6. 4.6 Full point
    7. 4.7 Ellipses
    8. 4.8 Question mark
    9. 4.9 Exclamation mark
    10. 4.10 Hyphen
    11. 4.11 Dashes
    12. 4.12 Brackets
    13. 4.13 Solidi and verticals
    14. 4.14 Quotation marks
    15. 4.15 Asterisk
  12. Chapter 5: Capitalization
    1. 5.1 General principles
    2. 5.2 Sentence capitals
    3. 5.3 Use to indicate specific references
    4. 5.4 Institutions, organizations, and movements
    5. 5.5 Geographical locations and buildings
    6. 5.6 Dates and periods
    7. 5.7 Events
    8. 5.8 Legislation and official documents
    9. 5.9 Honours and awards
    10. 5.10 Titles of office, rank, and relationship
    11. 5.11 Religious names and terms
    12. 5.12 Personification
    13. 5.13 People and languages
    14. 5.14 Words derived from proper nouns
    15. 5.15 Trade names
    16. 5.16 Ships, aircraft, and vehicles
    17. 5.17 Names including a number or letter
  13. Chapter 6: Names
    1. 6.1 References to people
    2. 6.2 Place names
  14. Chapter 7: Italic, roman, and other type treatments
    1. 7.1 General principles
    2. 7.2 Italic type
    3. 7.3 Quotation marks
    4. 7.4 Bold type
    5. 7.5 Capitals
    6. 7.6 Underlining
  15. Chapter 8: Work titles in text
    1. 8.1 General principles
    2. 8.2 Titles of written works
    3. 8.3 Sacred texts
    4. 8.4 References to Shakespeare
    5. 8.5 Films, broadcast works, and digital media
    6. 8.6 Musical works
    7. 8.7 Works of art
    8. 8.8 Non-English work titles
    9. 8.9 Integration of titles into text
  16. Chapter 9: Quotations and direct speech
    1. 9.1 General principles
    2. 9.2 Layout of quoted text
    3. 9.3 Styling of quoted text
    4. 9.4 Poetry
    5. 9.5 Plays
    6. 9.6 Epigraphs
    7. 9.7 Non-English quotations
  17. Chapter 10: Abbreviations and symbols
    1. 10.1 General principles
    2. 10.2 Punctuation and typography
    3. 10.3 Symbols
    4. 10.4 The indefinite article with abbreviations
    5. 10.5 Possessives and plurals
    6. 10.6 e.g., i.e., etc., et al.
    7. 10.7 Abbreviations with dates
  18. Chapter 11: Numbers and dates
    1. 11.1 Numbers: general principles
    2. 11.2 Numbers with units of measure
    3. 11.3 Times of day
    4. 11.4 Roman numerals
    5. 11.5 Date forms
    6. 11.6 Decades, centuries, and eras
    7. 11.7 Regnal years
    8. 11.8 Calendars
  19. Chapter 12: Languages
    1. 12.1 General principles
    2. 12.2 Arabic
    3. 12.3 Chinese
    4. 12.4 Dutch and Afrikaans
    5. 12.5 French
    6. 12.6 Gaelic
    7. 12.7 German
    8. 12.8 Greek
    9. 12.9 Hebrew
    10. 12.10 Italian
    11. 12.11 Japanese
    12. 12.12 Latin
    13. 12.13 Old and Middle English
    14. 12.14 Portuguese
    15. 12.15 Russian
    16. 12.16 Scandinavian languages
    17. 12.17 Slavonic languages
    18. 12.18 Spanish
    19. 12.19 Welsh
    20. 12.20 Yiddish
  20. Chapter 13: Law and legal references
    1. 13.1 Introduction
    2. 13.2 Typography
    3. 13.3 References
    4. 13.4 Citing cases
    5. 13.5 Legislation
    6. 13.6 International treaties, conventions, etc.
    7. 13.7 Other materials
    8. 13.8 Judges' designations and judgments
  21. Chapter 14: Science, mathematics, and computing
    1. 14.1 General principles
    2. 14.2 Biological nomenclature
    3. 14.3 Medical terminology
    4. 14.4 Chemistry
    5. 14.5 Computing
    6. 14.6 Mathematics
    7. 14.7 Astronomy
  22. Chapter 15: Lists and tables
    1. 15.1 Lists
    2. 15.2 Tables
  23. Chapter 16: Illustrations and artwork
    1. 16.1 General principles
    2. 16.2 Specific types of illustrations
    3. 16.3 Digital artwork and graphics files
    4. 16.4 Line and tone artwork: hard copy
    5. 16.5 Permissions and acknowledgements
  24. Chapter 17: Notes and references
    1. 17.1 General principles
    2. 17.2 Footnotes and endnotes
    3. 17.3 Author-date system
    4. 17.4 Numbered references
    5. 17.5 Citation linking
  25. Chapter 18: Bibliography
    1. 18.1 General principles
    2. 18.2 Books
    3. 18.3 Articles in periodicals
    4. 18.4 Theses and dissertations
    5. 18.5 Citations to support author-date referencing
    6. 18.6 Manuscript and other documentary sources
    7. 18.7 Audio and audiovisual materials
    8. 18.8 Websites and other digital media
  26. Chapter 19: Indexing
    1. 19.1 Introduction
    2. 19.2 What to index
    3. 19.3 Alphabetical order
    4. 19.4 Non-alphabetical order
    5. 19.5 Presentation of indexes
    6. 19.6 Number references
  27. Chapter 20: Copyright and other publishing responsibilities
    1. 20.1 Introduction
    2. 20.2 UK copyright
    3. 20.3 Copyright conventions
    4. 20.4 Permissions
    5. 20.5 Defamation
    6. 20.6 Negligent misstatement
    7. 20.7 Passing off
    8. 20.8 Trade marks
    9. 20.9 The Internet
    10. 20.10 Blasphemy, obscenity, racial hatred, and official secrets
  28. Chapter 21: US and British English
    1. 21.1 Overview
    2. 21.2 Punctuation
    3. 21.3 Quantities, units, and numerical information
    4. 21.4 Orthographic variation (spelling and hyphenation)
    5. 21.5 Lexical variation (word choices)
    6. 21.6 Grammatical and syntactic variation
    7. 21.7 Other varieties of English
  29. Appendices
    1. Proofreading marks
  30. Glossary of printing and publishing terms
  31. Index

## Landmarks

  1. Cover
  2. Title page
  3. Table of contents

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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaBook