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Auditory Deficit as a Consequence Rather than Endophenotype of Specific Language Impairment: Electrophysiological Evidence
D. V. M. Bishop ,
* E-mail: dorothy.bishop@psy.ox.ac.uk
Affiliation Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
Mervyn J. Hardiman,
Johanna G. Barry
Current address: MRC Institute of Hearing Research Nottingham Clinical Section, Eye, Ear Nose & Throat Centre, Queens Medical Centre, Nottingham, United Kingdom
D. V. M. Bishop,
D. V. M. Bishop Mervyn J. Hardiman Johanna G. Barry
Are developmental language disorders caused by poor auditory discrimination? This is a popular theory, but behavioural evidence has been inconclusive. Here we studied children with specific language impairment, measuring the brain's electrophysiological response to sounds in a passive paradigm. We focused on the T-complex, an event-related peak that has different origins and developmental course from the well-known vertex response.
We analysed auditory event-related potentials to tones and syllables from 16 children and 16 adolescents with specific language impairment who were compared with 32 typically-developing controls, matched for gender, IQ and age.
We replicated prior findings of significant reduction in Ta amplitude for both children and adolescents with specific language impairment, which was particularly marked for syllables. The topography of the T-complex to syllables indicated a less focal response in those with language impairments. To distinguish causal models, we considered correlations between size of the Ta response and measures of language and literacy in parents as well as children. The best-fitting model was one in which auditory deficit was a consequence rather than a cause of difficulties in phonological processing.
The T-complex to syllables has abnormal size and topography in children with specific language impairment, but this is more likely to be a consequence rather than a cause of difficulties in phonological processing.
Citation: Bishop DVM, Hardiman MJ, Barry JG (2012) Auditory Deficit as a Consequence Rather than Endophenotype of Specific Language Impairment: Electrophysiological Evidence. PLoS ONE 7(5): e35851. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035851
Editor: Sam Gilbert, University College London, United Kingdom
Received: January 20, 2012; Accepted: March 23, 2012; Published: May 9, 2012
Copyright: © 2012 Bishop et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Funding: This project was funded by Wellcome Trust Programme Grant 053335 (www.wellcome.ac.uk). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
Specific language impairment (SLI), also known as "developmental dysphasia", is a heritable neurodevelopmental disorder that is diagnosed when a child has difficulties learning to produce and/or understand speech for no apparent reason [1]. One theoretical account of SLI regards oral language difficulties as a downstream consequence of low-level auditory perceptual limitations. Although such theories have a long history, debate continues as to whether SLI is essentially an auditory processing disorder, and if so, whether the auditory limitations are specific to speech [2]. Despite some 40 years of research it has been surprisingly difficult to resolve this issue. In part, this is because correlational data are poor at distinguishing causal models. All four models shown in Figure 1 predict an association between auditory deficit and language impairment. The Endophenotype model is often assumed to be the explanation if a correlation is found: this regards auditory deficit as a mediating factor between a genetic risk for SLI and overt language deficits. The Additive Risks model, on the other hand, regards auditory deficit as an additional risk factor that moderates a genetic risk for language impairment [3]. Another possibility is that the two deficits are independent consequences of a genetic risk variant, as shown in the Pleiotropy model. Finally, in the Neuroplasticity model, auditory deficit is the consequence of language impairment, with brain processing of sounds being affected by poor language skills. As will be argued below, progress can be made in distinguishing these causal models if we have measures of parental language as well as child auditory and language skills.
Figure 1. Causal models of the relationship between auditory deficit, language impairment and family risk for SLI.
As well as logical problems, there are methodological difficulties inherent in this field. It is difficult to get reliable data from children using psychoacoustic procedures that involve long sequences of uninteresting stimuli. Electrophysiological methods have been proposed as an approach that could overcome this problem [4], but in practice it has been difficult to find solid, replicable effects that could be the basis for a clinical test [5]. One of the most popular neurophysiological indicators of auditory discrimination, the mismatch negativity (MMN) is useful in group comparisons, but insufficiently reliable or valid for clinical diagnosis of individuals [6].
Recently, attention has shifted from the MMN to measures based on the auditory event-related potential, obtained by averaging the waveform from electrodes placed on the scalp during an interval associated with stimulus presentation [7]–[10]. Most research has focused on the vertex response, an auditory event-related potential (AERP) with a distinctive pattern of peaks and troughs, which is sensitive to age and aspects of stimulus presentation [11]. AERPs recorded from temporal sites differ from the vertex response, being generated in secondary auditory cortex, and lateralised with a right-sided predominance [12]–[13]. Also, the T-complex has a different developmental trajectory to the vertex response as it matures earlier and remains relatively constant in form from puberty onwards [12]–[17].
The AERP recorded from temporal sites was first studied in detail by Wolpaw and Penry [18], who described a series of negative (∼90 ms), positive (∼110 ms) and negative (∼125 ms) peaks at temporal sites. They suggested that this was composed of the vertex N1–P2 complex originating from a wide area of cortex plus an additional wave in the 80–200 ms range produced within secondary auditory cortex. In order to reveal the additional wave, the N1–P2 response at the vertex (electrode Cz) was scaled to, and subtracted from, that recorded at temporal sites. The resultant waveform was labelled the T-complex, a positive wave at 105–110 ms (Ta) followed by a negative deflection at 150–160 ms (Tb). Subsequent researchers have retained the term T-complex but have not adopted the approach of subtracting the standardized vertex response. This seems appropriate given that there is little correlation between the response recorded at the midline electrodes and that recorded at temporal sites [13].
The amplitude and shape of the observed waveform at temporal sites will be influenced by the reference used. Wolpaw and Penry [18] used a non-cephalic reference, but others have used the nose, electrode FPz, or average of all electrodes. However, the latter approach is potentially problematic because of the large impact of the vertex response on the average, which, if subtracted, can lead to a waveform that is dominated by an inverted vertex response.
Recently, Shafer et al [19] reanalysed data from a series of ERP studies, and found differences in the T-complex (recorded with a nose reference) between children with SLI and matched typically-developing children. Group differences were most marked for the Ta positive peak, which occurs around 80–160 ms after the onset of an auditory signal. Among children with language impairments, 73% had poor T-complex measures, compared with only 13% of the typically-developing children. Shafer et al noted that this striking difference is consistent with some much older, neglected studies. Mason and Mellor [20] first described abnormal responses to a 1000 Hz tone at temporal sites in children with speech and language disorders. Their sample of children was not well-described, with no psychometric data on IQ or language, and this aspect of their results has not received much attention. Tonnquist-Uhlén [9] included the T-complex in an extensive study of auditory event-related potentials in 20 children with severe language impairments. She found that a substantial minority of children did not show a Ta component to a 500 Hz tone, compared with only one of twenty control children. However, psychometric data were not provided, and the EEG was pathological in nine of the language-impaired children and borderline in two. Only two children had a family history of language impairment. In this regard, the sample was rather different from that of most English-speaking samples with SLI, where there is typically high familiality and no obvious neurological abnormalities [21].
The results of Shafer et al [19] suggest that the auditory ERP at temporal sites may be a useful index for documenting abnormal brain responses to sounds in children with SLI in a context where there are no task demands beyond sitting passively while auditory stimuli occur. The current analysis aimed to replicate their findings for the Ta amplitude recorded at temporal sites, and to address further issues that are important for fully understanding the significance of this result, as follows:
All of Shafer et al's studies involved speech stimuli (vowels, nonword syllables, and words).The earlier studies of Mason and Mellor [20] and Tonnquist-Uhlén [9] suggested that deficiencies of the T-complex are also found for nonverbal stimuli (tones). In the current study, we compared responses recorded at temporal sites to syllables and tones.
Another question concerns lateralisation of the T-complex. With monaural presentation, the T-complex is larger on the side contralateral to stimulation, but superimposed on this effect is an asymmetry that is evident even with binaural presentation, whereby the T-complex is larger on the right side [22]–[23]. This raises the question of whether this asymmetry develops normally in SLI, where atypical cerebral lateralisation for higher language functions has been observed [24]–[25].
Where reduced amplitude of an AERP component is found, it is usually assumed that the brain is less sensitive to the signal. However, two other explanations need to be considered. First, the recording may simply be noisier than usual, masking the peak. Second the relevant component may be present, but in a different topographical location.
If the T-complex is abnormal in children with SLI, this could represent delayed maturation, or a more persistent abnormality [26]–[27]. To distinguish these options, as well as assessing children of similar age to previous studies, we included a group of teenagers.
Finally, the Ta component could be regarded as an endophenotype for heritable SLI (see Figure 1). For this to be the case, abnormality of Ta would need to meet two criteria: (i) it would have to be correlated with measures of language or literacy in children; (ii) it would need to be a mediating variable that could explain shared variance on language/literacy measures between affected children and their parents. Prior research has identified rather few correlations between electrophysiological measures and language or literacy skills, though in general the focus has been on MMN rather than the T-complex [5]. Where positive associations between behavioural measures and auditory ERPs (or magnetic counterparts) have been found, these have predominantly involved phonological processing [6] [8] [28], reading [29] or receptive language skills [7]. These behavioural measures were therefore selected as the focus of the current study.
For the purposes of this study, we used a dataset that was originally collected to examine mismatch responses to sounds in children and teenagers with SLI and their typically-developing (TD) controls [30]. We were able to replicate the finding of abnormal T-complex in children and teenagers with SLI, but a model of T-complex abnormality as an endophenotype did not give the best fit to the data.
Children (N = 16) and teenagers (N = 16) with SLI were recruited from special schools and classrooms for children with language or literacy problems. Inclusion criteria were a scaled score of 1.3 SD or more below average on at least two of eleven language measures (see below), a nonverbal IQ of 80 or above, and normal hearing for speech frequencies (500 to 4000 Hz). Typically-developing controls (N = 32) were matched on age and nonverbal IQ to the children with SLI. All had nonverbal IQs of 80 or above and passed a hearing screen. No child was selected purely on the basis of poor literacy scores. All participants had taken part in the study reported by Bishop et al [30], which gives further details. The study was approved by the Oxford Psychiatric Research Ethics Committee and parents of all participants gave written informed consent.
Diagnostic Test Battery
Nonverbal ability was assessed using the two performance subscales of the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence [31]. The standardized instruments used to identify language impairment were: (i) A parent checklist giving a global index of communication problems - the Children's Communication Checklist, version 2 [32]. (ii) A test of oral language comprehension: The Test for Reception of Grammar, version 2 (TROG-2) [33]; (iii) The Expression, Reception and Recall of Narrative Instrument (ERRNI) [34], which provides measures of mean length of utterance, story content, story recall, and story comprehension. (iv) The NEPSY [35], which provides measures of nonword repetition, sentence repetition and oromotor skills; (v) Reading of words and nonwords, assessed by The Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) [36]. With the following exceptions, scores were converted to scaled scores according to test manuals: Tables of norms for NEPSY oromotor skills give conversion of raw scores to a five-point scale corresponding to centile ranges. For NEPSY nonword repetition, which was modified to be suitable for children speaking British English, we used our own norms to cover the full age range studied here. The measures used for causal analysis were nonword repetition, oromotor skills, nonword reading and TROG-2. Internal consistencies for British children were .83, .74 and .90 for the first three of these tests [37] and .88 for TROG-2 [33]. Estimation of structural model fit works best if measures are on a similar scale, so scores on relevant variables were converted to z-score relative to the standardisation norms, except for oromotor skills, where 3 was subtracted from the centile range score provided in the manual to give a range from −2 to 2.
Measure of Familial Risk for SLI
A measure of family risk for SLI was created using data from Barry et al [38], who had administered a language battery to at least one parent of 60 of the 64 participants in this study. This battery included four of the measures given to children: NEPSY nonword repetition, Test for Reception of Grammar-E [39] and the Test of Word Reading Efficiency [36] and NEPSY oromotor sequences [35]. Scores on TROG-E and TOWRE were converted to z-scores using published test norms; for the NEPSY tests, where adult norms are lacking, we used our own normative data from a larger sample of parents of typically-developing children.
Electrophysiological Methods
Stimuli.
Stimuli are described in detail by Bishop et al. [40]. The analysis reported here was restricted to standard stimuli, i.e., a 1000 Hz tone and a modified natural speech token of the syllable "bah". The stimuli had durations of 175 ms, were windowed at 15 ms, and were presented monaurally to the right ear at 86.5 dB SPL through sound-attenuating Sennheiser HD25-1 headphones.
Tone and syllable stimuli were presented in separate blocks. Standards were presented on 70% of trials, with one of two other (deviant) stimuli occurring on 15% of trials in a quasi-random sequence. Deviant stimuli, which are not analysed here, were a 1030 Hz and 1200 Hz tone for the tone condition, and the syllables "bee" or "dah" for the speech condition. Stimulus onset asynchrony was 1 s. For each stimulus type there were two blocks each of 333 trials, making a total of 466 standards. Participants were seated in a sound-attenuated electrically-shielded booth, and they played Gameboy or watched a silent film during stimulus presentation.
EEG recording and data analysis.
The EEG was recorded on a SynAmps or NuAmps NeuroScan system using Ag/AgCl sintered electrodes and a water-soluble conductive gel. Early pilot studies indicated no difference in the results obtained from the two recording systems, and the proportions of children from each group tested on each system did not differ significantly. An electrode cap was fitted according to the International 10–10 system to record from 28 sites: FC1, F7, FP1, FZ, FP2, F8, FC2, FT9, FC5, F3, FCZ, F4, FC6, FT10, T7, C3, CZ, C4, T8, CP5, P7, P3, PZ, P4, P8, CP6, M1, and M2. M1 or M2 was selected as reference electrode and ground was placed at AFZ. Electro-oculograms (EOG) were recorded from supra- and infra-orbital electrodes on the left eye and also from electrodes placed lateral to the left and right eyes. Impedances for all electrodes were kept below 8 kΩ. The EEG was recorded continuously on-line and stored for off-line processing. EEG data were digitised at 500 Hz and band-pass filtered (0.01–70 Hz for SynAmps; 0.1–70 Hz for NuAmps) and a 50 Hz notch filter was employed.
Offline analysis.
The continuous EEG was epoched to give trials for all standard stimuli of 1000 ms duration, including 200 ms baseline. Subsequent data processing is described in detail by Bishop et al. (2011b). This was done for each participant separately for standard tone and syllable stimuli. An initial stage of artefact rejection was conducted to remove trials with extreme amplitudes (+/−350 µv), while retaining blinks. Blinks and other regular artefacts were then mathematically subtracted from the data using independent component analysis (ICA) (see [12]. Further artefact rejection was then applied with cutoff +/−75 µv.
Conventional analysis of the Ta component was conducted on the averaged AERP for each participant. Mean amplitude of Ta was measured at the temporal electrodes T7 and T8 over the time window 88–160 ms post signal onset, which was the interval used by Shafer et al [19] for this component. Mean amplitude rather than peak amplitude was used because of concerns that peaks are more affected by noise in the signal. Following Shafer et al [19], the Ta was measured relative to a baseline of 0–76 ms post stimulus onset. Internal consistency was computed by measuring Ta amplitude separately for odd and even epochs for each stimulus type and electrode. Correlations between Ta amplitudes for odd and even epochs were .78, .76, .85 and .88 for tones (T7 and T8) and syllables (T7 and T8) respectively. To ensure normal data for structural equation modeling, values that were more or less than 2 SD from the mean for that electrode and condition were censored, i.e. a value corresponding to ±2 SD was substituted, ensuring that skewness and kurtosis were nonsignificant for all Ta measures. This affected 5% of values. In addition, the noisiness of the signal at electrodes T7 and T8 was estimated using the standard deviation of the amplitude across time in the pre-stimulus period (−200 to 0 ms) of the waveform.
To visualise the topography of the auditory ERP the grand average waveforms for each group and stimulus combination were analysed to extract two independent components following the procedures adopted by Bishop et al [12]. This approach allows one to investigate topography of activity after extracting the P1–N2–P2 vertex response, which dominates the auditory ERP and usually emerges as the first component. In our data, the later N2 (peaking around 400 ms) was also substantial and a 2 Hz high-pass filter was first applied to minimize its impact on the auditory ERP. This filtering has minimal impact on the T-complex and N1–P2 complex, which occur earlier, and it ensures we do not have a component corresponding to N2 emerging as one of the first two components. The EEGlab routine 'runica' was then applied to each grand averaged waveform to extract two independent components after reducing the dimensionality of the data with principal components analysis. Polarity of components is arbitrary: for group comparisons, polarity of component 1 was made consistent with Fz, and polarity of component 2 was made consistent with T7.
Analytic Approach
Our analysis focused on amplitude of the Ta component at T7 and T8, as this gave the clearest evidence of group differences in previous studies and we wished to use a priori statistical tests. The null hypothesis was that Ta amplitude would be similar in SLI and TD groups. Comparisons of quantitative AERP indices in SLI and TD were conducted using four-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with stimulus (tone vs syllable) and side (T7 vs T8) as repeated measures, and clinical status (SLI vs TD) and age band (child vs teen) as between subjects variables. Topography of the AERP was evaluated visually from head maps showing electrodes contributing to the two independent components.
Associations with ERP measures were conducted for the specific language and literacy measures listed in Table 1. Missing data on child or parent behavioural tests were imputed by assigning a score equivalent to the individual from the same group with the closest average language test score. Predictions of four models of the relationship between Ta amplitude, language measures and parental language (Figure 1) were tested formally using structural equation modelling implemented with OpenMx software [41].
Table 1. Mean (SD) age, nonverbal IQ and scores on language/literacy tests in relation to age and SLI status.
Comparison of Mean Ta Amplitudes
Figures 2 and 3 show the grand average AERP for children and teens respectively, for tones and syllables, at temporal sites T7 and T8. Means are shown in Table 2. It is evident on inspection that the Ta is much less pronounced in the participants with SLI. ANOVA of mean amplitudes in the Ta region confirmed a significant main effect of SLI status, F (1, 60) = 17.7, p<.001, η2 = .23, as well as a significant effect of age band, F (1, 60) = 8.1, p = .006, η2 = .12, reflecting a decrease in Ta with age. As is evident from Figures 2 and 3, Ta was significantly larger at T8 (right temporal) than at T7 (left temporal), F (1, 60) = 54.6, p<.001, η2 = .48. This is noteworthy when one considers that stimulus presentation was monaural to the right ear, which might have been expected to lead to a greater left hemisphere response. There was also a significant effect of stimulus type, with a larger Ta for syllables, F (1, 60) = 16.8, p<.001, η2 = .22. No interactions were significant.
Figure 2. Average response at T7 and T8 for SLI (grey line) and TD (black line) children.
Figure 3. Average response at T7 and T8 for SLI (grey line) and TD (black line) teenagers.
Table 2. Mean (SD) Ta amplitude for four groups by electrode and stimulus type.
Categorisation of Children According to Whether Ta was Present
For comparison with Shafer et al [19] participants were categorised according to whether or not they showed a Ta peak. The criterion for peak identification is rather arbitrary, but an attempt was made to set an objective cutoff, by using data from individual trials. At each time point, the set of amplitudes for all trials was compared with zero using a one-sample t-test. Given the large number of time-points, it is likely that some t-values will exceed conventional levels of significance by chance. A criterion was therefore identified that yielded a small number of 'significant' peaks in a portion of the waveform where no peaks were expected, i.e. end of the trial, from 724 to 800 ms post stimulus onset. The criterion used was different for tones, where the Ta was smaller and briefer in duration, than for syllables. For the tone condition, a peak was identified when there were at least two t-values greater than 2.32 (p<.01) in the time window; For 128 waveforms (64 participants×2 electrodes) this identified only six (5%) false 'peaks' in the 724–800 ms window. By contrast, in the Ta window of 88 to 160 ms, 57 (44%) significant peaks were identified by this criterion. For the syllable condition, the criterion was at least four t-values greater than 2.32 in the time window. This gave only two peaks (2%) in the 724–800 ms portion of the waveform, whereas 59 (46%) were detected in the Ta interval of 88–160 ms.
Table 3 shows the numbers of individuals with a significant Ta in the different stimulus conditions. The children and teens were added together for chi square analysis to test whether the distribution of the four categories of Ta occurrence differed for SLI and TD. For the tone condition, the difference fell short of significance: χ2 = 6.32, d.f. = 3, p = .10, but for the syllable condition, the difference was highly significant, χ2 = 14.7, d.f. = 3, p = .002. Nevertheless, consistent with the findings of Shafer et al [19], it was not unusual to find participants from the TD group who did not show a significant Ta on either left or right. Thus presence of a Ta peak would not be a useful diagnostic marker, despite the substantial group difference for the syllable condition.
Table 3. Number of individuals (out of 16) showing Ta in tone and syllable conditions.
Children in the SLI group had quite varied profiles of language difficulty, raising the possibility that an abnormal ERP might predict the language profile. To test this idea, a broad distinction was drawn between children with SLI who had no significant Ta at any electrode for either tones or syllables (N = 13) and the remainder (N = 19). Children were divided into those whose problems encompassed receptive language (defined as having a score more than 1 SD below the mean on either TROG or the ERRNI comprehension), and the remainder. The trend was for better comprehension in children who did not show a Ta, where 6 of 11 cases (46%) had a receptive language problem, compared with 11 of 19 (58%) of receptive problems in those who had at least one Ta. However, this difference was not reliable, Fisher exact test, p = .385.
Comparison of Groups on Measure of Baseline Noise
A secondary analysis was conducted to determine whether the lower Ta values in SLI could be the consequence of noisier data, but this was not confirmed. ANOVA of the noise index (standard deviation during the baseline) revealed a significant effect of age, with noisier data in children than teens, but there was no effect of SLI (data not shown). Furthermore all correlations between Ta amplitude and baseline noise were very low and nonsignificant.
Topography of Ta Responses
A further question concerned the spatial distribution of activity. Figure 4 shows grand average headplots for two independent components for the four groups in both conditions. Component 1 corresponds to the vertex response and component 2 to the T-complex. On inspection there is little evidence of any difference for the tone stimuli, but a marked difference for component 2 for syllables. Whereas the headplots are very similar for tones and syllables in the TD group, they are different for the SLI groups. In both children and teenagers, activity is far less focal for syllables than for tones, with asymmetric activity dominating left temporal and posterior sites.
Figure 4. Weightings from electrodes for two independent components corresponding to the vertex and T-complex.
Correlations with Behavioural Measures
Table 4 shows the correlation matrix between Ta amplitudes and the selected language and literacy measures in children and their parents. Children show significant correlations between at least one Ta measure and nonword repetition, nonword reading and TROG. However, this does not tell us whether (i) abnormal brain responses lead to language problems (Endophenotype and Additive Risks models in Figure 1), (ii) language problems lead to abnormal brain responses (Neuroplasticity model), or (iii) a third factor increases the risk for both language problems and abnormal brain responses (Pleiotropy model). The familial risk measures, based on language and literacy test scores of parents, are useful for distinguishing causal accounts. As shown at the bottom of Table 4, all parent measures show significant correlations with at least two child language measures, but only one, oromotor skills, is significantly correlated with the child T-complex measures.
Table 4. Correlations between Ta and behavioural measures, whole sample (N = 64), with significant correlations bolded.
Maximum Likelihood Testing of Structural Models
To relate these data to the models in Figure 1, we specified latent variables of Auditory deficit and Language impairment. Initially, the indicators of the Auditory deficit variable were the four measures of Ta amplitude (tones and syllables, at T7 and T8). However, these gave a poor-fitting model, because the Tone T7 measure was weakly correlated with the Syllable T8 measure. Dropping Tone T7 and equating paths from the three other indicators to the Auditory factor gave a good factor structure fit which was therefore used in the final causal models. The Language impairment latent variable was indicated by the four language/literacy measures. The Family risk variable was indicated by the corresponding four language/literacy measures from parents. Before proceeding to formal fit of the models, we can consider how well each agrees with the data, simply by comparing the pattern of correlations between variables, using path-tracing rules to estimate expected values [42]. Consider the Endophenotype model (Figure 1). If x is the path from Family Risk to Auditory Deficit and y is the path from Auditory Deficit to Language Impairment, then z, the Path from Family Risk to Language Impairment = x.y. Thus if correlation between Family Risk and Language Impairment (x) is negligible, we should see no association between Auditory Deficit and Language Impairment. This follows because the Endophenotype model regards Auditory Deficit as a mediating variable that accounts for the association between parent and child language. This prediction does not appear to be supported by the data in Table 4, which show stronger correlations between parent and child language measures than between parent measures and child T-complex measures.
The Additive Risks model is more plausible, because it predicts that x, the correlation between Family Risk and Auditory Deficit, will be zero, broadly consistent with observed data. According to this model, Auditory Deficit serves to moderate the impact of genetic risk, but it is not caused by genetic risk. The Pleiotropy model fares less well, as it predicts that y = x.z, i.e. once again, a zero correlation between Family Risk and Language Impairment would entail that there would be no significant correlation between Auditory Deficit and Language Impairment. Finally, the Neuroplasticity model predicts that x = y.z. A low and nonsignificant value of x would be consistent with this model, provided that y and/or z were not large.
These informal impressions of model plausibility can be subjected to more formal evaluation using structural equation modeling to estimate goodness of fit. The current sample size is smaller than is usually recommended for such analysis, but given the simplicity of the models, with covariance between just three latent variables to be explained, we felt justified in carrying out a comparison of different model fits. The four models in Figure 1 were tested for fit against a baseline ("saturated") model that included the three latent variables and their indicators, plus covariances between all three latent variables. Fit indices are shown in Table 5; a model with good fit will have a non-significant chi square value, indicating that the observed covariances are consistent with those predicted by the model. The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), and RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) can be used to compare models, with lower values indicating better fit, whereas for the Cumulative Fit Index (CFI), a higher value corresponds to better fit. In addition, models can be compared with the fit of the saturated model, in which all covariances between latent variables are included. If the new model does not differ significantly from the saturated model, this indicates that the paths that differentiate the two models can be dropped without affecting model fit.
Table 5. Model fit and unstandardised path estimates (SE) for models from Figure 1.
Satisfactory fit was obtained for all four models, but the only model that gave as good a fit as the saturated model was the Neuroplasticity model, in which the causal relationship goes from Language Impairment to Auditory Deficit. Estimated standardized paths for this model are shown in Figure 5. These allow direct comparison of effect sizes for different paths, whereas the unstandardized paths shown in Table 5 are scaled in the original units of measurement.
Figure 5. Neuroplasticity model specification for structural equation modeling, with estimated values for standardised paths.
N.B. estimated variances omitted from diagram; variances for latent variables fixed at 1.0. Key: _P = parent measure; _C = child measure; Nwrp = Nonword repetition; Read = Nonword reading; Oro = Oromotor sequences; Fam = Family risk; Lang = Language impairment; Aud = Auditory deficit.
We replicated the study of Shafer et al [19], finding robust differences between SLI and TD groups in the amplitude of the Ta, particularly when syllables were used. Our findings demonstrate abnormal responsiveness to meaningless sounds at an early stage of cortical processing in a passive task requiring no explicit discrimination. Significant group differences were also seen for pure tones, indicating that the impairment is not specific to speech.
As in Shafer et al. [19], discrimination between the TD and SLI groups was far from perfect when a categorical classification of T-complex was used. Even though the effect size of the difference between TD and SLI children was relatively large by the standards of this field, many of the TD children did not show a T-complex, whereas some children with SLI did. It would not, therefore, be possible to use the T-complex as a diagnostic measure for SLI.
Our stimuli were presented monaurally to the right ear. Nevertheless, as in previous studies, we found that the T-complex was greater on the right, ipsilateral side. This effect was seen in all groups, however, and did not interact with SLI/TD status. The fact that the abnormality of the T-complex was just as pronounced in teenagers with SLI as in children speaks against any simple explanation in terms of delayed maturation, although it would be compatible with a model such as that proposed by Wright and Zecker [27], who proposed that maturation of auditory function is terminated at puberty.
The analysis of variability in the baseline period allowed us to rule out an explanation in terms of noisier ERPs in the participants with SLI. Scrutiny of the headplots of two independent components in the Ta time period revealed, however, more topographically diffuse activity in children and teenagers with SLI when syllables were used. This finding is compatible with an earlier study of the same dataset in which we analysed late-discriminative negativity responses to stimulus change in series of tones or syllables [30]. In that study, the evidence was more indirect, but on the basis of an analysis of synchronisation of brain responses across different epochs, we proposed that analysis of sound characteristics may involve activation in a broader region of cortex in those with SLI.
A significant relationship was found between the size of the Ta component and some of the language measures. Such findings are often interpreted as evidence that language impairment is the consequence of an auditory deficit that is evident in the ERP, and which itself is caused by some earlier causal factor such as genetic risk. This causal model, which we term the Endophenotype model, was the least well-fitting of the models that we considered. Our data support the notion that SLI is heritable: there were significant correlations between parent and child language measures. However, the failure to find significant correlations between most measures of parent language status and child auditory ERP deficit does not agree with the notion that auditory deficit is the mediating factor leading to this parent-child correlation.
The best fit was obtained with the Neuroplasticity model; this regards abnormalities of the ERP as a consequence of language impairment. Thus a genetic risk factor may affect the child's ability to form phonological categories, which has a knock-on effect on the representation of sound in the brain as reflected in the ERP. It would be rash to assume this model is the only explanation for the results; the sample size is relatively small for structural equation modeling, and other models, which assumed the reverse direction of causation, achieved an acceptable fit. Furthermore, the test of oromotor skills showed a different pattern of correlations from other indicators of family risk, with significant correlations between parental scores and child Ta. Given the small sample size and the failure to find this pattern for other heritable language measures, we cannot rule out sampling error as an explanation, but this result does suggest that speech production may be more strongly linked to the auditory ERP than those that tax phonological categorisation or memory.
Further indirect support for a Neuroplasticity model comes from the categorical analysis that suggested that the Ta abnormality was more marked for syllable stimuli than for pure tones. We know that phoneme-specific representations develop in the brain on the basis of experience with sounds of a language [43]–[44]. Furthermore, mismatch responses to sound changes in a second language can be affected by exposure to that language [45], and differ in bilinguals according to their proficiency in detecting those changes [46]. It is thus feasible that poor phonological skill, arising for whatever reason, might lead to development of less focal phonemic representations. It would be possible to test this idea by repeating the study with different stimuli in individuals with normal language skills: One would predict a broader topographical distribution of T-complex activity for non-native than for native sounds.
In sum, in a field where many findings are inconsistent or inconclusive, the finding of robust differences in the AERP at temporal sites is striking. The waveforms obtained here are remarkably similar to those reported by Shafer et al [19], despite differences in stimuli and technical details such as reference electrode. However, optimism that this is an ERP signature for SLI that could be used for early diagnosis is not justified, given the large numbers of typical children who had no Ta. In addition, the Ta does not appear to be a viable endophenotype for genetic studies. The causal analysis suggests that a small and non-focal Ta peak appears more likely to be the consequence of poor phonological skills than an underlying cause of SLI. The results are compatible with the idea that development of perceptual representations in the child's brain is affected by expertise and experience.
We gratefully acknowledge the help of the many schools and families who participated in the research. Without their support and enthusiasm this work would not have been possible.
Conceived and designed the experiments: DVMB JGB MJH. Performed the experiments: JGB MJH. Analyzed the data: DVMB. Wrote the paper: DVMB JGB MJH.
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44. Kuhl P, Conboy B, Coffey-Corina S, Padden D, Rivera-Gaxiola M, et al. (2008) Phonetic learning as a pathway to language: new data and native language magnet theory expanded (NLM-e). Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 363: 979–1000.
45. Cheour M, Shestakova A, Alku P, Ceponiene R, Näätänen R (2002) Mismatch negativity shows that 3-6-year-old children can learn to discriminate non-native speech sounds within two months. Neurosci Lett 325: 187–190.
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Is the Subject Area "Language" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Syllables" applicable to this article?
Event-related potentials
Is the Subject Area "Event-related potentials" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Children" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Speech" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Literacy" applicable to this article?
Neuronal plasticity
Is the Subject Area "Neuronal plasticity" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Phonology" applicable to this article?


text:
Serena Williams Still Play
US Open 2022 On Aug 25, the US Open officially announced that Williams would play in her final tournament there, which began on Aug 29 in New York Williams is a six-time champion at the event, and reached the semifinals in 2020Sep 2, 2022
Who is the goat of tennis? Or even the one voted by his contemporaries as the best ever? Federer certainly has a number of 'GOAT' accolades from his peers and beyond following his retirement announcement with the likes of fellow recent retiree and 23-time Grand Slam winner Serena Williams describing the Swiss maestro as the GOAT
Moreover, Who is retiring from tennis 2022?
Who is the #1 tennis player in the world?
Has Roger Federer announced his retirement?
Are Venus and Serena friends?
What kind of car does Serena Williams Drive?
Is Venus retired?
Who is better Serena or Venus?
Who knocked Serena out of US Open?
Who has the most grand slams in tennis?
Who is the No 1 tennis player in the world?
Roger Federer Announces He Will Retire From ATP Tour After 2022 Laver Cup Tennis legend Roger Federer announced Thursday he plans to retire from the ATP Tour following his appearance at the Laver Cup in London next week Federer, 41, is one of the most decorated players in history
Furthermore, Who is the best tennis player of all time? Here are the five best tennis players of all time, ranked using their overall grand slam victories
Margaret Court Credit: Getty
Serena Williams Credit: Getty
Rafael Nadal and Steffi Graf Credit: Getty
Novak Djokovic Credit: Getty
Roger Federer Credit: Getty
2022 Men's Tennis ATP Rankings
Men's Singles Rankings
1 Carlos Alcaraz 0
2 Casper Ruud 0
3 Rafael Nadal 0
Who is the most decorated tennis player of all time? Most major singles titles
Pro Slam tournaments
US Pro
Ken Rosewall 23 1963, 1965
Rafael Nadal 22
Novak Djokovic 21
What is Serena Williams going to do when she retires? Serena will now move to next phase of her life, growing her family, working on her business ventures and enjoying life off the court It's hard to know how much she will be around the game of tennis going forward "You can't really feel sorry for her," 18-time Grand Slam champion Chrissie Evert said
Why did Federer retire? Last week, he announced he will retire after playing his final tournament this weekend Tennis great Roger Federer has revealed his knee injury is to blame for his retirement, saying he "stopped believing" after playing Wimbledon last year
(CNN) Roger Federer has announced that he will retire from the ATP Tour and grand slams following the Laver Cup next week in London "I am 41 years old I have played more than 1500 matches over 24 years
Has Venus Williams retired from tennis?
Williams last played in a Grand Slam final at Wimbledon in 2017, where she lost to Garbiñe Muguruza, and last won a Grand Slam title in 2008 at Wimbledon, where she beat her sister Her time away from tennis and the winner's stage has left Williams ranked at No 1,504 in the world How much is Serena Williams worth right now?
Just under $95 million of Serena's income has come from on-court winnings, twice as much as the next female player on the list, Venus In 2022, Forbes pegs her net worth at $260 million Serena has long been the gold standard for endorsement deals
Who is more decorated Venus or Serena?
Venus has won 49 singles titles over the course of her career, and Serena won 73 The Williams sisters are the only two women during the Open Era to contest four consecutive major finals: from the 2002 French Open to the 2003 Australian Open Serena won all four of these finals
The bond between Venus and Serena Williams is legendary The sisters have been great rivals on the court, but share a close bond off it They also share a deep connection with their half-sisters
Who won more Serena or Venus? Venus has won 49 singles titles over the course of her career, and Serena won 73 The Williams sisters are the only two women during the Open Era to contest four consecutive major finals: from the 2002 French Open to the 2003 Australian Open Serena won all four of these finals
Who is worth more Serena or her husband? And her net worth makes her substantially richer than her husband and Reddit co-founder Alexis Ohanian, who is worth $70million as of 2019 She launched a direct-to-consumer clothing line, S by Serena, in 2018
How much did Nike pay Serena Williams?
How Much Did Nike Pay Serena Williams? Williams' biggest endorsement was with Nike In 2003, she signed a deal worth an estimated $40 million, which would extend to $55 million if Williams hit "all of her performance incentives"
Serena Owns A Lincoln Navigator
Williams became a brand ambassador for the Lincoln Navigator in 2018, which has seen the tennis star behind the wheel of the luxury SUV
Why did Venus Williams stop playing tennis?
The period between 2003 and 2006 was a difficult one for Williams as she suffered injury troubles These problems lasted for a number of seasons with an abdominal injury stopping her from playing the second half of 2003
Venus, 42, has not announced any retirement plans, but some in the tennis world believe she will also call it quits after playing the Open
Is Serena out of US Open?
Serena Williams has been knocked out of the US Open, in what may have been the final singles campaign of her career The 40-year-old recently announced her plans to retire, declaring she was "evolving away from tennis" and looking to "grow her family"
Will Nadal play US Open 2022? His loss to Frances Tiafoe was Nadal's earliest defeat at a major tournament in more than five years and the first time he had been beaten in any major in 2022
Serena Williams loses to Tomljanovic in US Open farewell : NPR Serena Williams loses to Tomljanovic in US Open farewell The 23-time Grand Slam champion staved off five match points to prolong the three-hours-plus proceedings, but could not do more, and was eliminated from the US Open in the third round
Rafael Nadal and Margaret Court currently hold the record for most Grand Slam titles in their respective singles fields Nadal only recently became the sole holder of the men's singles record after edging past Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic with his 2022 Australian Open triumph
ATP records and distinctions
Roger Federer has the record of 237 consecutive weeks at No 1 Novak Djokovic also holds the record for the most year-end No 1 rankings, achieving the feat for seven years (including the pandemic-shortened season)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


September 6th, 1996, Tupac Shakur is the most successful hip-hop artist in the world. To his legions of fans, he is the ultimate gangster rapper. He is the angry voice of urban America, and as he himself said, he will go out in a blaze of glory.


text:
VIA Rail selects New Fleet for Quebec-Windsor Corridor
By	TAO-admin | Intercity Rail and Bus
VIA Rail Canada announced on December 12 that Siemens Canada has been selected as the successful bidder in its fleet renewal program for the Quebec-Windsor Corridor. This is a day that Transport Action Ontario and our affiliate organizations have long campaigned for, and we welcome this federal investment in VIA Rail and environmentally responsible transportation.
The value of the contract is $989M to build 32 new bi-directional trainsets (160 passenger cars and 40 locomotives) plus a 15 year Technical Services and Spare Supply Agreement valued at $23.7M/yr. The first trains are expected to be delivered for testing in 2022, and to be phased in across the Quebec-Windsor corridor over the following two years.
The fleet will be assembled at Siemens plant in Sacramento, California, although Siemens has pledged to source 20% of the parts and services from Canadian suppliers, establishing procurement offices in Ontario and Quebec.
The fleet is based on the Siemens Viaggio design, which has been operating on Austria's express intercity "Railjet" service across Europe since 2006. This design has also proven itself in North America on Brightline's express rail services between Miami and West Palm Beach, which will soon be extended to Orlando and Tampa under the Virgin Trains USA brand. Similar equipment is also on order for Amtrak's Midwestern services and to replace older equipment on California's inter-city rail services.
The passenger cars will have fast wireless internet, bicycle spaces, quiet zones, and will surpass current universal accessibility standards. They will feature wide aisles, larger washrooms, level boarding at stations with high platforms like Ottawa, Montreal, and Quebec City, and automatic lifts for accessibility at other stations, helping to fulfill VIA Rail's commitment to Canadian disability and veterans' groups.
The trains will run at up to 160 km/h on existing routes, including tracks which VIA Rail services share with CN's freight operations, and are capable of operating at more than 200 km/h if the federal government also approves VIA Rail's High Frequency Rail proposal to provide dedicated passenger tracks in parts of the corridor.
The new equipment could also be used to improve service frequencies and reduce travel times in Southwestern Ontario if Ontario's new government transforms the previous government's exploration of High Speed Rail into a targeted investment in maximizing the utility of existing rail corridors.
VIA Rail states that it undertook a fair, open, rigorous and transparent procurement process following the best international practices in this field. However, the decision to award the contract to an international bidder has come under fire from Unifor and Quebec politicians who would prefer to have seen a Canadian supplier win. In defence, VIA claims that the Siemens bid was far superior to all other bids in schedule, quality and price. Meanwhile, Bombardier Canada has benefited from numerous orders for its highly successful bi-level commuter equipment, both from Canadian and US transit agencies, including an order for up to 999 cars for New Jersey Transit worth as much as $3.6 billion, clearly demonstrating that Canadian workers also enjoy the advantages of bilateral trade in the rail industry.
VIA Rail is also investing $154M in refurbishing its fleet of Budd-built stainless steel passenger cars for transcontinental and regional services, providing updated seating, wheelchair lifts and fully accessible bathrooms. These contracts, and a contract for refurbishing four dinning cars, have all been awarded to Canadian companies, supporting some 300 jobs in Quebec.
With the "Renaissance" fleet of British-built cars on the Ocean service to Halifax also in need of replacement, Transport Action hopes to see federal funding to refurbish more of VIA Rail's stainless steel sleeping cars in the near future, a contract that is also likely to go to a Canadian facility.


Visual Studio 2008, due for release at the end of 2007, promises numerous improvements for Visual Basic, a data query called the Language Integrated Query (LINQ), a new Entity Framework for ADO.NET and updated tools for ASP.NET AJAX and Office 2007 development.
An n-tier application is spread among any number of different systems, typically a service layer, an access layer and a business logic layer. With such a model, it is easy to share validation logic between entities. Unfortunately, developing such applications in Visual Studio 2005 is pretty much impossible because a dataset and the code that connects it to a database are in the same file. The change in Visual Studio 2008 is subtle but important, as the table and the dataset now reside in different layers.
Visual Studio 2005 designer is a little more of the Internet Explorer renderer turned into an editor. To improve upon this, the Visual Studio group turned to Expression, the Microsoft product suite for Web designers. The new designer allows developers to apply styles in line, with an existing class, with a new class or with Internet Explorer. In addition, changes such as margins and paddings around images can be applied to rules and not just individually. This also makes for cleaner CSS files.Finally, the designer offers a split view, so developers can look at source code and design simultaneously. This is a response to the growing trend of development using two monitors.
The biggest changes to ADO.NET revolve around its Entity Framework, which, unfortunately, is now slated to be released quite a while after Visual Studio 2008. This framework consists of a conceptual layer, which fits between an application's logical database layer and its object layer, and the Entity Data Model. Run the Entity Data Model Wizard in Visual Studio 2008 and the output is three files - a conceptual model that talks to object classes, a logical model that the relational database talks to, and map between the conceptual and logical models. Within the conceptual layer, one finds entity types bundled into sets, associations that define the relationship between entities, and sets of associations. The information in this layer will handle the back and forth with SQL Server without touching data access code. Once entities have been created, developers can use the either CreateQuery or new LINQ to Entities query to retrieve entity objects, data records or anonymous types.
In Visual Studio 2005, querying a dataset typically involves a stored procedure, a newly created view and a bit of ADO.NET filtering. This is the case because data exists in rows, while .NET code deals with objects. They are always two different worlds and LINQ puts queries inside the languages and merges the worlds together.
(a) Firstly LINQ statements begin with a From statement instead of the Select statement. By listing the data source first, IntelliSense is triggered.
(b) Secondly, since C# is an object-oriented languages, whatever you can express in C# you can make part of LINQ queries. This encompasses anything that is IEnumerable - entities, collections and even XML. Moreover, since the queries are being made in an object-oriented environment, you can do very complex things that result in a completely different result set, such as calling up an instance of objects that did not exist in the source at all.
LINQ also brings about the introduction of several new language concepts for Visual Basic and C#. The expression tree, for example, is a data representation of the LINQ expression that bridges the gap between the .NET code and the SQL Server. In addition, property initialization makes it possible to create an object and set its properties in a single line of code.
Other new language concepts, which will be discussed below, include implicit types and extension methods.
Implicit types provide strong typing without forcing developers to figure out the type they need. The compiler does the work for them, since the type is inferred from the initializer expression. Implicit types work well when looping through a collection, since in such a scenario a developer is likely to be looking only for a key and a value and will not know, or care, what is the index type. In addition, inferring types makes it possible for extensions to bind to data types such as XML. This is fundamental to making LINQ work.
Extension methods is a feature coming straight from LINQ, since all LINQ query operators are extension methods. These methods are marked with custom attributes and are then added to other objects automatically (so long as they are not already there). Extension methods can be used just about anywhere a developer would use a normal function. However, they cannot contain optional parameters, parameter arrays or generic arguments that have not been typed. Also, late binding cannot be done with extension methods.
Check this MSDN article to learn more on relaxed delegates and initializers. The emphasis there is on productivity gains developers can expect to enjoy when building data-oriented applications with an increasingly dynamic language.


Old muscles can be rejuvenated using a molecular signal that helps them to heal, scientists said today.
Experts believe the discovery could lead to ways of fighting ageing by maintaining youthful muscles.
Scientists used to think this was simply because of a reduced number of muscle-generating cells.
The new research reported in the journal Science points to impaired molecular signalling being the real source of the problem.
The desire not to look one's age has become an obsession in the image-fixated early 21st century. There are many theories not just on how to live longer but also on how to look younger.
Some psychologists have reported that the most effective way to keep one's looks is to maintain an active love life.
As the ageing process begins, or damage to the skin appears, the layer of collagen beneath the surface of the skin becomes worn, with lines, wrinkles, creases and furrows appearing as a result.
Walking improves circulation, bone strength and immune functions and can help people look between five and eight years younger in middle and later years, researchers have found.
Some people swear by strict dietary regimes and expensive cosmetics. The number of people aged 80 and over in the UK is set to more than double over the next 40 years, according to recent figures.
The average age of the population is expected to rise from 38 years in 2000 to 42 years in 2025.


Showing results for tags 'n42'.
Alright gang. Stupid question amnesty time, but I want to be sure before I eat a cam up. I have a "C" stamped cam on a N42 head. It looks like the cam has the holes for the internal oiling. I just want to verify that I do not need to run a spray bar. From the info I can find around here, it's difficult to tell how the N42s and 260 cams were lubricated. Thanks guys.
My E31 was seemingly machined by a one eyed chimpanzee and was cut too thin in the rear and below minimum thickness, as well as having a substantial crack in it, which is filling my cylinders with coolant. I' Badly in need of a new head. Located in Carlsbad/San Marcos area, Southern California. Any help or advice is much appreciated. Thank you very much!
Hi everyone, I have a couple of cylinder heads: 1) E31 Cylinder Head - Complete ($380 includes insurance) plus shipping I have an E31 Cylinder Head removed from a 1970 Datsun 240z. The head is in really great condition. All the water jackets are in great shape and no corrosion. This cylinder head appears to have never been resurfaced which is a plus for a vehicle restoration project or building a performance motor. As many of you know, this is a high compression cylinder head. Would recommend changing the studs. The thermostat housing has two broken nuts; one of which is attached to the bottom housing and the other one attached to the head. Please take a look at the pictures. 2) E31 Cylinder Head – Missing camshaft ($250 includes insurance) plus shipping I have an E31 Cylinder Head removed from a 1970 Datsun 240z. The head is in good condition. All the water jackets are in great shape and no corrosion. This cylinder head appears to have been resurfaced previously and rebuilt at one point. This cylinder head is missing the Camshaft and Cam Towers. As many of you know, this is a high compression cylinder head. Would recommend changing the studs. One of the bolt holes where the lower thermostat housing attaches to the Cylinder Head is a bit chewed. Please take a look at the pictures.
L28 N42/N42 NEED HELP CHOOSING TURBO!
Looking to trade an N42 cylinder head for a P90 cylinder. N42 came off car that ran before it went into storage 15+ years ago. I really just need the head and the cam mounts, possibly rockers if they are in good shape as I be will getting a new cam, springs and valves anyway.
Looking for a N42 or P90 head. Looking to practice porting so ok if they are junk heads or warped. Located in San Francisco Bay Area work in Mountain View and live in San Jose.
I have a stock drivetrain. For transmission I'm thinking a OS-Giken Super Single Clutch. Is there a difference between the NS081-AB8 and the NS081-AA8? For the engine, I want to bore the engine out to 3.0 or 3.1 L. But I don't know if the N42 block will be able to withstand the HP. Me questions is- Are the upgrades I want to do, to my N42 Block/Head which is only at 90K miles, going to be ok?
I am looking for a N42, non-EGR intake manifold. If you have one that is shaved already, or modified for cable linkage, I would be interested in those options as well. Thanks!
Looking for a Non egr N42 Intake. PM or email me at josephcchristen@gmail.com Thanks!


Krillbite Studio | Goodbye winter (and hello GDC)!
17 Mar Goodbye winter (and hello GDC)!
After several weeks of intense work we are finally ready for GDC. Right now Martin, Adrian, Torstein and Jon Cato are somewhere over the Atlantic, heading to San Francisco for an eventful week.
Originally we weren't planning on showing our upcoming game Mosaic in public, but when we got the opportunity to join Day of the Devs, we couldn't say no. It's a big move for us. Mosaic is a strange and atmospheric game, where we want the player to discover as much as possible on their own. So we picked a fragment of the game that we hope will give some hints about what's going on, without revealing too much.
GDC this year will be all about meetings. We want to meet players at the Day of the Devs-exhibition and hear their thoughts on Mosaic. And we want to meet both existing and future partners.
The Norwegian winter has been harsh, with record amounts of snow and freezing temperatures, so we also hope to spend some time in the California sun and catch some of that spring energy before we head back home again in a week.
If you want to stay in the loop on what happens during GDC, feel free to follow us on Instagram and Twitter. We are also on Facebook. And please don't hesitate to talk to us if you see us at Day of the Devs. Every year at GDC we make new friends, this year will be no exception!


Legal Firm Name. The full legal name of Edgerton Immigration Law registered with the North Carolina Secretary of State is Edgerton Law Firm, PLLC. The firm has registered the trade name Edgerton Immigration Law with the North Carolina State Bar.
No attorney-client relationship. Edgerton Immigration maintains this website exclusively for informational purposes. It is not legal or other professional advice and does not necessarily represent the opinion of Edgerton Immigration or its clients. Viewing this site, using information from it, or communicating with Edgerton Immigration through this site by Internet email does not create an attorney-client relationship between you and Edgerton Immigration.
Nonreliance. Online readers should not act or decline to act, based on content from this site, without first consulting an attorney or other appropriate professional. Because the law changes constantly, this website's content may not indicate the current state of the law. Nothing on this site predicts or guarantees future results. Edgerton Immigration is not liable for the use or interpretation of information contained on this site, and expressly disclaims all liability for any actions you take or do not take, based on this site's content.
Links. Edgerton Immigration does not necessarily endorse and is not responsible for content accessed through this website's links to other Internet resources. Correctness and adequacy of information on those sites is not guaranteed, and unless otherwise stated, Edgerton Immigration is not associated with such linked sites.
Contacting us. You may e-mail us through this site, but information you send to Edgerton Immigration through Internet e-mail or this website is not secure and may not be confidential. Communications to us will not be treated as privileged unless we already represent you. Do not send us confidential information until you have established a formal attorney-client relationship with Edgerton Immigration. Even if we represent you, understand that Internet e-mail security is still uncertain and that you accept all risks of such uncertainty and potential lack of confidentiality when you send us unencrypted, sensitive, or confidential e-mail. E-mail from Edgerton Immigration never constitutes an electronic signature, unless it expressly says so.
Jurisdiction. Legal problems and solutions depend on their unique facts. Laws and regulations often differ from one jurisdiction to another. Materials on this website may be inappropriate in jurisdictions other than North Carolina. Edgerton Immigration's attorneys practice primarily in the State of North Carolina. Users who access this website from other locations do so at their own risk and are responsible for complying with local laws and regulations. This website (not including linked sites) is controlled by Edgerton Immigration.The laws of North Carolina apply to everything concerning use of this website, without regard to North Carolina's conflict of laws principles. You agree to submit to the exclusive personal jurisdiction and venue of the appropriate North Carolina court to resolve any dispute concerning your use of this website.


Happy Tuesday and Happy Free Cut File Day! My plan from now on is to begin sharing a new FREE digital cut file with you every week. If you have any ideas or suggestions on designs that you would like to see, feel free to leave them in the comments section below!
Thanks so much for stopping by today and as always, feel free to share with me what you create when you use my cut files! I would really love to see it!!!
ackkkkk I think you read my mind, I love these thankyou!
Gorgeous!! I am loving how you added extra circles to your page!!!! Beautiful!!!!!
These are amaz-a-licious! You are soooooo kind to make them free to use! And your page showcases them sooo well - lovely!!!
Thank you for a great freebie. Love the circles!
Hi Karen. Thank you for your reply. Yes, I am aware that my new SVG files will not open with the most recent Silhouette Cameo software update. I use the most recent version of Adobe Illustrator to create my files and these two programs are not communicating well for some reason. I have notified them of this problem and they said they are working on it. My SVG files will open with the older version of the Silhouette software. Another option is for you to use the DXF file and open it in Silhouette. HUGS!
Thanks so much Juliana! Your file is fab and I love your layout!
Thank you! Love this file.
Thank you for the freebie! This is the first time I've been on your site and love several other files. Thanks so much for sharing them.
Welcome Brenda! I'm glad you enjoyed your visit. I hope you will come back soon.
Thank you so much. Love your work!


This version of WatchMaker Live Wallpaper APK includes several changes which are mentioned below. You can Download WatchMaker Live Wallpaper v1.2.0 APK Directly from APK4Market, all you have to do is click one of the two Direct Download Links given below.
Move / resize watch and background separately!


Business to consumer fulfillment is a fast growing segment of the economy. As ecommerce grows in scale and sophistication, B2C fulfillment suppliers will be challenged to keep pace.
Delivering to consumers is very different from delivering to a business. When you deliver to a business, they have logistics professionals with regular working hours. Their shipping team knows how to receive shipments and deal with problems.
Consumers on the other hand, may only receive an occasional delivery. They don't have regular receiving hours or a receiving process and they certainly don't want to deal with problems. B2B fulfillment is between two logistics professionals. B2C fulfillment is between one logistics professional and a consumer who expects a good customer experience.
The bar is higher for B2C fulfillment, which is why your company should hire Dynamic 3PL. Dynamic has significant experience and expertise in fulfillment for retailers, wholesalers, ecommerce companies and distributors.
Order accuracy. We recognize the importance of delivering the right stuff to the right people at the right time. Proper technology, good processes and communication between us and our customers helps us exceed our customer expectations for order accuracy. We measure order accuracy and provide weekly reports to our customers. On the very rare occasion where we have a bad order, we root cause the problem and implement preventative controls.
Customer integration. Our goal is to create an excellent experience for our customer and their customer. To create an end to end seamless experience, we have learned that integration with our customers is key. We want to become an extension of your company. We want to understand your needs and the needs of your customer. Ideally, we can integrate systems, processes and develop really good informal and formal communication between our fulfillment team and your company.
Personalization. We work with our customers to create a personalized experience for their customers. Whether it's an extra phone call, email or a personal note included with the product. Personalization increases customer satisfaction and repeat business.
Excel at the Basics. The blocking and tackling of fulfillment and warehouse management is where Dynamic excels. We have the people, processes, technologies and experience to exceed the expectations of our customers. We effectively manage documentation, returns, inbound / outbound transportation, order processing, order entry, inventory management and customization. For every customer, we conduct a rigorous discovery process upfront and then design an optimized solution.
Contact the B2C Fulfillment experts today. (815) 553-8920.


Cushion moss develops well in sandy soil. As its name implies, it grows in the shape of a fluffy emerald cushion. It is also referred to as "white moss." It grows from tiny plants that look similar to bean sprouts. Once this moss plant takes root, it turns a garden into an artistic creation. It can be transplanted by simply cutting into the soil and removing a small section of the sources and plant. Try planting moss in garden stepping stones. It does well in an indoor terrarium and can be used to make fanciful swags and wreaths.
There are more than 100 species of this type of moss. The feature of this moss is its ability to retain water. It may grow naturally near drain spouts and areas where water collects in small pools and is dried by sunlight. Its tiny frizzy shoots identify it. It has excellent garden value once dried as peat moss. It will turn a dark brown shade when dried by the sun. Grow this moss and dry it for use as a protection for delicate plants that require above average moisture to survive. A professional florist highly prizes it for use in flower pots. Use this moss in the base of a flower pot to ensure moisture isn't quickly drained away.
This moss is often found in densely forested areas. Its piney evergreen appearance readily identifies it. It grows in dense mounds and is one of the hardiest of moss species. Its frothy look and slightly one to two-inch tendrils give this moss an airy look.
It's relatively easy to encourage live moss to grow in shady areas. Use sturdy plantings and provide excellent drainage and sandy or woody soil. Live moss is relatively maintenance free. However, it can become overgrown if given the opportunity. Use live moss indoors in pots or train it into geometric shapes to create a natural garden focus.


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Susan McLean on Sad News: Passing of MWor. Bro. Vaughan Werner
John Tobin on Sad News: Passing of MWor. Bro. Vaughan Werner
MW Bro Rob Casson, Past Grand Master, South Australia on Sad News: Passing of MWor. Bro. Vaughan Werner
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Freemasons Victoria
New Grand Secretary
RWBro. Garry Runge, PJGW, has been appointed to the role of Grand Secretary – Masonic Services Manager.
Garry will take up his role on Monday, August 20, 2018 and will be invested as Grand Secretary at the September Quarterly Communication.
Garry will join the staff of FMV and manage the Masonic Services function, providing the Craft in Victoria with member and Lodge support services. As Grand Secretary, Garry will support the Grand Master, and the Deputy Grand Master as well as discharging the Masonic functions associated with the role.
RWBro. Garry Runge succeeds RWBro. Bruce Cowie as Grand Secretary.
He is an accomplished Detective and Senior Sergeant with Victoria Police, who transitioned into Local Government as a Councillor and municipal Mayor. He served in the 1996-97 Ceremonial Team, being a contributing member of many Grand Lodge committees and currently holds the position of Grand Superintendent of Membership. e has a strong understanding of the Board's strategic direction and has a substantial wealth of knowledge of the Book of Constitutions and other relevant Masonic principles
Garry began his professional career with Victoria Police serving as a Detective Senior Sergeant where he was the Manager of the surveillance and undercover unit. After fulfilling his goals as a Senior Investigator, Garry expanded his career path within Local Government. In 2004-2005, he was the Mayor for Cardinia Shire Council. From 2005-08, he was the Senior Review Officer for the Office of Police Integrity where he engaged in reviewing complaint files about Victoria Police members and from 2008-09, he was the Director of the Special Investigation Services.
From 2009 – 2014, Garry served as the Director of Sacon Investigations, where he conducted internal investigations and mediation services for the Department of Human Services and Victoria Police. Recently, Garry was the Chief of Staff to a Member of Parliament for the Federal Electorate of La Trobe, where he managed the Canberra office and the electoral office for 5 years.
Having been a Freemason for many years, Garry's Masonic experience extends beyond the Craft. He is currently the Grand Superintendent of Membership and was the Assistant Grand Pursuivant with the 1996-97 Ceremonial Team. He prepared a strategic plan for the Ritual and Ceremonial Committee in 2016 as well as having co-ordinated the activities of the 25 Inspectors of Workings in 2015. He is a current member of the Rose Croix holding the 18th Degree and a member of the St Andrew Council, holding the 30th Degree. He is also a member of the Victorian Lodge of Research No. 218 and has been affiliated with the Berwick Balcara Lodge No. 359 since 1984.
As an accomplished Senior Sergeant, Councillor and Freemason, Garry joins the Operations team of Freemasons Victoria with a portfolio of successful projects and experience under his belt. The values and principles taught within Freemasonry have directed many of his decisions and the notion of making good men into better men has guided him in both his Masonic and professional career.
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Home » Actress » Kimberly Elise Wiki, Husband, Divorce, Boyfriend and Net Worth
Kimberly Elise Wiki, Husband, Divorce, Boyfriend and Net Worth
Maurice Oldham(div.)
Yes(once)
$2 Million Dollars
AjaBleu Oldham(daughter), Butterfly Rose Oldham(daughter)
Kimberly Elise Trammel is an American actress of both movies and TV shows; best known for her role as Denver in Beloved (1998), as Fannie in Bojangles (2001), as Michelle Jordan in Woman Thou Art Loosed (2004) and many others. She was born as one of the four daughters into a middle class family, of Afro-American ethnicity on the 17th of April, 1967. Kim was born and raised in Minneapolis, Minnesota, U.S.A where her mother Erma Jean worked as an elementary teacher and her father Marvin Trammel, was the owner and an executive search in a firm. Kim, who has a degree in Mass Communications from University of Minnesota got into acting after playing a couple of small TV roles. To find out more about her career and life, you can read her biography, which is available in Wikipedia and other websites.
It is no surprise that a beautiful girl, with such fame and a good personality have been in more than on relationship. But in this case, it could be surprising because she has only been in two affairs so far, which some people think is less. Without doubt, media follows her most of the time, and they spice things up by putting whoever's name she meets or talks; along with hers. However, the sources have confirmed her two boyfriends and one of them was her husband. Her first affair was with Maurice Oldham, whom she began dating around 2007 and after a year got married.
The couple, with love for each other started a family and soon Maurice was pregnant with her first child; AjaBleu Oldham. A mother of two daughters; her second daughter was born three years later and was named Butterfly Rose Oldham. But due to some personal issues and distrust, the two of them got divorced in 2005. It was later revealed that Maurice was in another relationship with actor Shemar Moore for almost a year, when the divorce happened. After the divorce, she broke up with Shemar as well and since then, there is no news of her dating or marrying anyone. You can stay updated with all her recent activities by following her on Instagram and Twitter. In 2015, her estimated net worth value is around 2 million US dollars.
Kimberly is a woman who has got many appealing features, and one of those is her sexuality. Considered to be Hot by the "Women's Magazine" in 2009, she has got a pretty well maintained figure to prove the fact. Although her appeal is not only sexual, and she has a beautiful face and also a beautiful personality to match with that. She has got a sexy figure, with long and slender legs that are exposed on many occasions. With a height of about 5 feet and 7 inches, she has a body weight of 54 kg, which is very good for someone of her built. Her body measurements read 33-28-33 inches (Breast, Waist and Hip) and her feet are size 7. With many hot pictures in two pieces, she has never been naked in front of the camera.
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I've just been so lucky to have the opportunity to visit London. If you ever visit the Great Britain, set aside some of your time to visit Portobello Market. People with the knack for vintage cameras, antique finds and other cool things, this is the place for you.
Portobello is quite famous because of the film, "Notting Hill" and yes you will find the bookshop there. The first photo is the place used in the film, but the actual bookshop is the one on the second photo.
The road of Portobello is full of antique sellers and great finds. I actually wanted to buy stuff but my problem was putting them in my bag and bringing it along to three more countries before I go back home to Manila. So I just resorted into taking photos. There were hard-to-find vinyl records, second-hand clothing, paintings from local artists, vintage teacups and pots, vintage cameras and silverware.
Portobello Market is not only known for antiques, you can also have a happy tummy trying out the food stalls in the area. I was quite giddy when I saw the fresh produce that they sell in Portobello. I wish we could have that in the Philippines too. The vegetables and fruits were top notch fresh. We bought strawberries before leaving and they were so good!
So "Notting Hill" fans, if ever you're in London don't forget to visit Portobello, or even if you're not a fan and you just want a cool place to buy (cheap) souvenirs and other trinkets, you should definitely go to Portobello!


A new financial product, the S&P 500 Market Index CD, is being marketed as a safety net for stock market investments by combining the security of a CD with an opportunity to participate in the stock market.
For low-risk investors, it`s an excellent vehicle to share in profits of a rising stock market while protecting the original investment. It`s safely insured, up to $100,000, by the FDIC, and is routed through Banker`s Trust of New York.
Because S&P gained 28% last year, the S&P 500 Market Index CD was born as a result. The S&P 500 Price Index, the stock market measuring stick most often used by institutional and professional investors, measures price activity of stocks of 500 top U.S. corporation without including dividends. The Market Index CD avoids many risks involved with investing in a limited number of singular stocks by associating it with the performance of the diversified S&P Index, Snow said.
The minimum investment is $5,000, with $1,000 increments afterwards, and CDs are usually issued for 5 to 15 year terms. There`s no sales load, but there is an early withdrawal penalty of 6% to 8%. Retirement accounts can be invested with $2,000. However, if the S&P 500 Market Index is doing well, it might be worthwhile to absorb the early withdrawal penalty and reinvest, Snow said.
A mutual fund is comparable, Snow said, but is not FDIC-insured. Taxes on CDs can be deferred if set up through an IRA. Otherwise, approximately 7% of income will be taxed annually. Prices are updated quarterly rather than monthly, he said.
Investors of all ages are buying the new financial product, and people with existing CDs are purchasing them to diversify, Snow said.
Market Index CDs will be available from Sept. 10 to 23, he said.


We are not simply attorneys, we are here as counselors and advisors. Yes, law is our profession of choice, but for every instance or scenario that looks like an impossible scenario to a client in Osceola County, we look upon as a challenge to overcome, and an opportunity to assist a client.
There are risks and opportunities in every scenario or situation, so we make it a high priority to communicate and explain the details of legal decisions that are made. We are here to listen and advise. Call 407-870-5551 for a consultation. We're here to help!
The Law Office of D'Lugo & DeFlora prides itself on being able to consistently handle complex legal matters for its clients by combining extensive experience with a devoted work ethic.
We pay close attention to every case no matter the size. The cases we handle in Osceola County are serious matters to us. Our attention to detail and our commitment to thorough communication makes this evident.
To provide quality legal services covering all areas of criminal law.
We are aggressive advocates and handle all types of misdemeanor and felony cases.
We provide attentive, dependable and honorable counsel and representation to the Central Florida community.
Call upon legal help with experience, understanding coupled with a desire to help.


Awesome powerboat rentals near Malahide, County Dublin.
Explore Malahide, County Dublin onboard a powerboat.
Rent or charter a powerboat for a fun and memorable experience in Malahide, County Dublin. Choose from either inboard or outboard powerboats. Grab your family and friends and get out on the water for that boat day you always talk about. Rent a boat on your own or charter with a captain for your convenience. Malahide, County Dublin is the perfect boat rental destination.


Is a private site that conducts the business of selling car audio/ stereo any specifications , as such information posted by regarding products for sale must be factual. Energy Guide Label Energy Guide Label; Literature Printer Friendly Spec 455. View and Download JVC KW- NT1 instructions manual online. There' s nothing quite like the feeling of singing along to your favorite tunes instructions, jamming out to your favorite beats at the stop ee kitchen appliance user manuals product support information. Page 1 KW- R710 CD RECEIVER Please read all instructions carefully before operation to obtain the best possible performance USER GUIDE from the unit. Antiquated names for head unit are receiver in- dash stereo dash stereo. France refers to its digital radio services collectively as Radio Numerique Terrestre but that alone doesn' t explicitly define a technical standard.
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Get the best deal for Car CD Changers from the largest online selection at. To use an analogy allowing the user to control the sound output , car radio adjust it as they see fit. Since 1974 we' ve loved helping folks find the right gear.
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Some of the radios on this page ( the ones so marked) will also receive the system selected as the official standard for France. Jvc car stereo user guide.
JVCKENWOOD' s product information site creates excitement audio, car audio products , peace of mind for the people of the world through JVC brand video camera, projectors, headphones professional business products. It has far too many names! Jan 28 · I literally just found a TEAC SA- 200 Integrated Amplifier a TEAC ST- 200 AM/ FM Stereo Tuner.
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Find the user manual you need for your camera and more at ManualsOnline. Find the user manual you need for your cellphone and other products at ManualsOnline.
Original equipment car stereos have greatly improved over the years but even the premium factory receivers still can' t match the features , audio quality available in the aftermarket many vehicles still come with a basic AM/ FM radio as standard equipment. Appliance manuals and free pdf instructions. 69 MB; About this Product This TV is manufactured distributed warranted by AmTRAN Video Corporation under brand license by JVC Kenwood rmation for the Televisions.
Find replacement ( after- market) car audio/ stereo video multimedia receivers with hands free Bluetooth technology built- in. Camera manuals and free digital camera pdf instructions. To do the swap I had to buy the JVC radio harness the harness to switch from stock radio to aftermarket radio for the truck itself after everything is hooked up properly I cannot get sound out of my speakers but everything else turns on.
Someone threw them out, but they seem to work just fine. Oct 10, · A new Double DIN Stereo Head Unit can really help to make your car that little bit more user friendly. Jvc car stereo user guide.
JVCKENWOOD Corporation For customer Use: Enter below the Model No. I have taken out the old stock radio to replace it with a JVC radio model number KD - g400. DMB DMB- A , DMB- Radio, DMB- R DMB- Audio are some of the technical ones. Without car speakers car rides would be silent dreary.
No one tests headphones like we do. Jvc car stereo user guide. Find the user manual you need for your home appliance products and more at ManualsOnline.
An automotive head unit is a component of an automotive infotainment, which provides a unified hardware interface ( mainly, the screen , sometimes referred to as a deck buttons) for the entire system. An external antenna glass- mounted, whether roof- mounted will always give you better results than one located inside the vehicle. StereoManuals has High Quality Service Manuals Factory ORIGINAL Manuals PDF Manuals Electronics Repair Schema Schematic & User Owner Operating Instruction Manuals Vintage Classic Audio Stereo.
That way everything will be integrated into your radio, making it look feel like a stock setup directly from the manufacturer. KW- NT1 GPS pdf manual is not a forum for product reviews.
In fact who wants to touch buttons at all – it' s so analogue! Magnetic layers with practical Curie temperatures are made from proprietary alloys of iron terbium, cobalt, gadolinium , platinum various other rare earths. A roof- mounted antenna should.
The other consideration is longevity I quote two paragraphs from the excellent book by John Watkinson The Art of Digital Audio where he is discussing the magnetic layer of a Magneto- Optical disc:.
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