Zhiyanski M, Glushkova M, Ferezliev A, Menichetti L, Leifeld J (2016). Carbon storage and soil property changes following afforestation in mountain ecosystems of the Western Rhodopes, Bulgaria. iForest 9: 626-634.
Abstract: Land-use changes and afforestation activities are widely recognized as possible measures for mitigating climate change through carbon sequestration. The present study was conducted to evaluate the effect of afforestation on (i) soil physical and chemical properties and soil carbon stocks in four mountain ecosystems and (ii) whole ecosystem carbon storage. The four experimental sites, situated in the Western Rhodope Mountains (Bulgaria) were characterized by typical forest-related land-use conversions. The four sites were a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) plantation (Rd1) established on former cropland, a mixed black pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) plantation (Rd2) established on former cropland, a cropland (RdA1) and an abandoned land with uncontrolled extensive grazing (RdA2) historically used as cropland. Soil parameters, i.e., sand content, pH, organic C and N contents, C/N ratio and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, were significantly affected by land use and land-use history. Conversion from cropland into forestland significantly reduced soil bulk density and coarse fragments at 0-10 cm depth. Compared with adjacent cropland and abandoned land, soils in coniferous plantations were acidified in their upper layers. Sites Rd2 and RdA2 contained the least SOC owing to the previous long-term arable cultivation (>100 years). Analysis of the ecosystem C stock distribution revealed that most of C in forests was stored in the aboveground tree biomass. Our study confirmed that afforestation of cropland turned the soil into a C sink for the selected mountain region, but showed conflicting results when afforestation occurred on abandoned cropland.
Mountain ecosystems are important for their distinct ecological features and the ecosystem services they offer such as regulating atmospheric composition and providing climate change mitigation via carbon (C) sequestration (, ). Under contemporary global change with widespread abandonment of agricultural lands and massive afforestation activities mostly in the last century, as well as the expected increase in summer temperatures and shifts in precipitation patterns, C storage patterns likely will change in various compartments of mountain ecosystems. Spatial variability of organic matter stocks and turnover in different types of ecosystem depend on many factors (air temperature, aboveground vegetation composition, soil type, soil moisture regime etc. - , ). Mountain ecosystems are highly sensitive to environmental changes (). A recent report in Europe highlights the fragility and vulnerability of mountain areas (), and projects that both climate and land-use changes (LUC) will have profound effects on their services and functioning. In addition, climate change impacts interact with LUC in mountains (, ). These changes are expected to affect many services that mountains provide, including C sequestration (, , ).
Environmental degradation, including soil C loss caused by inappropriate land use, is a worldwide problem that has fostered research into sustainable production systems (, , , ). Land-use changes influence the balance of soil organic carbon (SOC) and hence may cause CO2 emissions or C sequestration (). In recent years, numerous studies have focused on SOC changes in various ecosystems (, , ). Nevertheless, Poeplau & Don (), showed that in Europe different forms of land use and LUC can lead to either C loss or C accumulation in soils, and emphasized the lack of studies covering all major LUC and biomes with respect to qualitative and quantitative LUC effects.
Soil quality plays an important role in sustainable land management and for environmental integrity. During the recent decades, soil quality concepts have emerged and have been used to assess land or soil quality for various ecosystems (, ). Changes in land use and land management have great effects on the direction and degree of changes in soil physical and chemical properties (). Land-use change obviously affects the cycles of C (, ) and nitrogen (N - ) but also of soil potassium and phosphorus. Nitrogen is a key factor that influences the primary production of ecosystems () but, on the other hand, is also controlled by land use and management practices (, ). With continuous cultivation, physical soil properties may change and organic matter (OM) content, an important carrier of soil quality and storage compound for soil N, may decline (). An important factor for changes in OM content is the flux of plant residues, which is smaller in cropland compared with grassland or forest (, ). Organic matter input rates also differ among land-use types owing to the different share of root-derived residues (, ). Many studies have reported significant effects of LUC from cropland to forest and vice versa on soil C (, ). Conversion of a native ecosystem to cultivated land may cause changes in some soil properties, and often, long-term cropland management induces decreasing soil C stocks. The latter are caused not only by smaller residue inputs but also by less protection of soil C owing to physical disintegration of soil (, ).
Soil bulk density is the major discriminating factor in soil properties in relation to land use and management (, , ). Soil bulk density integrates effects of management and OM decline; these factors in conjunction result in smaller pore volumes and thus higher bulk densities. Celik (), for instance, showed that soil bulk density increased with cultivation relative to that of adjacent soils in forests and pastures in the southern Mediterranean highlands of Turkey.
In Europe, grasslands at relatively low elevations and flat topography are more and more intensively managed, whereas less fertile pastures at higher altitudes are increasingly abandoned or actively converted into forests (). The area and management of mountain pastures are changing rapidly at national scale (). Despite this rapid change, and in contrast to the vast literature on agricultural soils, only few studies have examined the effects of the long-term conversion from grassland or cropland on soil properties in mountain forest ecosystems (). Historical review on land-use in the mountain zones in Bulgaria showed that past forests have been threatened by excessive and improper use by the local population, which has led to replacement of typical tree species by others (, ). In Bulgaria, afforestation is of high importance for mountain ecosystems, and substantial land conversion took place during the last decades to contrast erosion, to increase the treeline zone and to use low-productive areas.
Our objective was to characterize soil properties and characteristics of aboveground vegetation in ecosystems of the Western Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria. We studied the effect of typical regional afforestation practices on soil physical and chemical properties and organic C stocks to evaluate which land-use types are most valuable for ecosystem C storage and, hence, climate change mitigation.
The study area was located in the temperate climatic zone and Trace forest region, sub-zone of the Western Rhodopes (). The average annual precipitation in the studied region was 630.5 mm with peaks from May to July, and the mean annual temperature was 7.2 °C. A specific feature of the regional climate is the period of increasing temperatures, which starts from early October to mid-November. The studied sites were located at 860-1270 m a.s.l. in the mountain climatic zone in Bulgaria ().
The study was conducted in 2013/2014 at four experimental sites, representing the main forest-related conversions in this region. The four land-use types included in the study were Rd1, a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii [Mirb.] Franco) plantation created on former cropland RdA1; Rd2, a mixed forest plantation dominated by black pine (Pinus nigra Arn.) in association with Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), created on abandoned agricultural land RdA2. At both forest sites, one experimental plot with a total area of 0.1 ha (25 × 40 m) was randomly selected near the adjacent site with maintained previous land use.
Site Rd1 was representative of Douglas fir plantations involving Scots pine and was, together with RdA1, located in the area of St. Petka, Velingrad. The plantation Rd1 was established in 1968 through afforestation in rows on existing cropland. Site RdA1 represented the cropland adjacent to Rd1, and was used for producing annual crops (vegetables and cereals including potatoes, beans, peas, corn, fodder beet, beetroot, rye and oats).
Site Rd2 was part of the area afforested with Scots and black pine plantations before the Second World War in the region of Velingrad for prevention of ongoing soil erosion (). It extended over 2700 ha. The experimental area was located in the locality Baba and Diado on a southern slope. Site Rd2 was the LUC of RdA2. Site RdA2 represented abandoned land, located near Rd2 in the upper part of the south-facing slope. Currently, the area is used occasionally for grazing animals (horses, sheep and goats). Until 80 years ago, RdA2 was managed as a cropland.
Details of the selected sites are given in Tab. 1. Afforestation at both forest sites was performed with 2-year-old seedlings with open root systems and planted with the "Sward of Kolesov".
Tab. 1 - Characteristics of the experimental sites. (FL): forest land; (CL): cropland; (AL): abandoned land. (*): Age of stand and land-use history (2014); (**): IUSS WG ().
Sites were sampled during the growing season between April and October in 2013 and 2014. Soils were sampled randomly in five repetitions within a 0.1 ha experimental plot for all studied land-use types (Tab. 1). All these sites presented similar slope and soil type within the sampled site. Soils were sampled by a hand auger (4 cm in diameter) in four soil layers: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 cm (20-40 cm depth was analyzed as an aggregated sample of 20-30 and 30-40 cm). In total, 80 soil samples were collected.
Soil properties were determined in accordance with the standardized methods in the Laboratory of Forest Soil Science at the Forest Research Institute - BAS (). Recorded data included morphological field description, bulk density, particle size distribution (wet sieving, including coarse fragments, i.e., particles with a diameter of 2-10 mm), textural classes, pH in H2O (), N content and organic C content. The bulk density was measured per each soil layer of undisturbed soil with cylinders with known volume in two repetitions. Fresh soil samples were individually weighed and dried for 48 h at 105 °C. Each soil sample was sieved in a 2 mm mesh to remove coarse sands while soil aggregates were broken. In the next step, the sample was ground and the total organic C content was measured by the modified method of Tjurin (). Total N content was measured according to the method of Kjeldhal (). The C content, combined with bulk density, was used to estimate the amount of carbon per unit area.
Forest floor (at afforested sites Rd1 and Rd2) and dead litter (RdA1 and RdA2) were sampled within each experimental plot using a 25 × 25 cm frame in three repetitions. Aboveground biomass at RdA1 and RdA2 formed by grasses and crop species was harvested once in the growing season, and biomass was measured by 1 × 1 m frames in three repetitions. All grass species were collected and their fresh weight was measured. Then the grasses were dried in an oven for 48 h at 105 °C and weighed. The samples from forest floor layers and grass species were separated and their dry mass (after 48 h at 105 °C) was measured individually; then each sample was ground. The C content in each layer (L, F and H) was estimated by multiplying the dry weight by the C concentration in dry matter and converted to t C ha-1.
Tree stand characteristics were measured using Bulgarian biometrical methods (). At both forest sites, number of trees, mean diameter at breast height, mean height and growing stock were determined and calculated per hectare. The volumes of biomass were calculated based on tree species tables for trees with bark for the region of the Western Rhodopes (, ) (Tab. 2), adjusted for stand density. For the present study, we applied IPCC reference values () for wood dry matter density and C content (1 m3 of wood contains a dry matter of 500 kg with a C fraction of dry matter of 0.5).
Tab. 2 - Biometric characteristics of trees at the studied forest sites (mean ± SE).
The organic C stocks in soil and litter were quantified according to the IPCC Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (). The SOC stock at each site was based on equivalent soil masses (, ).
Statistics were run using the SPSS 16.0 program. Departure from normal distribution of each soil variable was tested by χ2 normality test. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out, and differences of means of studied soil properties among depth layers per site and between study sites were verified by Tukey's test (α = 0.05). Pearson's linear correlation coefficients among studied parameters were calculated () and used to reveal the direction of relationships between selected soil properties and among study sites and soil depths.
Bulk density at 0-10 cm depth in the studied land-use types ranged from 0.82 to 0.93 g cm-3. Land use had no significant effect (P = 0.546), although higher densities occurred in cropland (RdA1) and abandoned land (RdA2), and lower densities in the forest stands. In contrast, at 20-40 cm soil depth, bulk densities were slightly higher in the forest stands (0.93 and 0.92 g cm-3) than in abandoned land (0.90 g cm-3 - Tab. 3). Although these values were not significantly different, the relatively higher bulk density in the upper layer of the cropland soil requires additional studies concerning probable indication for soil compaction due to more intensive cultivation by traditional farming and poor crop rotation practices in the region, i.e., a dominance of vegetables and missing cover crops. Some previous studies also indicated that soil cultivation significantly increases soil bulk density ().
Tab. 3 - Main soil and litter/forest floor parameters at the experimental sites (mean ± SE). (DW): Dry weight of forest floor and dead litter.
The coarse fragment distribution ranged from 13.2 to 28.6% in different layers of the four land-use types (Tab. 3), but the variability was not related to land use (P = 0.077). The coarse fraction tended to be highest in soil of abandoned land RdA2 (23.0-28.6%), probably because abandonment can result in increased surface stoniness (). This effect could also be related to erosion events and preferential loss of particles <2 mm during previous intensive land management. Under forest vegetation, coarse fragment contents at 0-10 cm depth tended to be low (13.2 and 21.7%). This implies abundant water-stable aggregates that may reduce the soil vulnerability to erosion. For cropland RdA1, the fraction of coarse fragments of between 18.9 and 26.8% indicated that soil in the upper layer was relatively little influenced by erosion but part of the silt fraction may have been lost. Generally, the coarse fragment content in the studied area was low, suggesting good conditions for seedling emergence.
Mean sand content differed significantly between sites (F = 6.050; P = 0.019). Both the highest and the lowest sand contents occurred in the forests (Tab. 3). Considering the three soil depths among sites, sand content was highest at 20-40 cm depth. For all land-use types except Rd2, sand content increased with soil depth. Soil erosion can modify soil properties by reducing soil depth, changing soil texture and inducing loss of nutrients and OM (). Soil silt and clay contents differed significantly between sites (F = 5.943, P = 0.020). This could be due to differences in soil formation but may also be caused by a preferential loss of fine fractions upon erosion (). Sand content increases upon soil erosion after forest conversion and, hence, can be used as an indicator for evaluating soil degradation (). The textural data tentatively suggested that erosion processes at RdA1 were still ongoing. Opposite to sand content, the fraction formed by silt and clay was largest in the superficial soil with highest values for Rd1 and RdA2 (Tab. 3). Plantation Rd2 had the lowest content of medium and small particles (silt and clay). Among sites, sand content was highest in the surface layer of the mixed forest plantation whereas clay content was highest in the surface layer of the RdA2. Unlike the clay fractions in forest sites and abandoned land, that in cropland RdA1 did not change with depth. Based on the data of textural composition, the studied soils were classified as sandy-loams.
Soil pH values were significantly affected by both land use (F = 83.516, P < 0.001) and soil depth (F = 57.693, P < 0.001). Generally, the pH values at the four sites were within the range of moderately acidic to neutral soil reactions as indicated by Foth & Ellis (). Considering the three soil depths, pH was highest in surface layers of RdA1, followed by RdA2 (Fig. 1). By contrast, forest soils were acidified in their upper layers, most likely due to differences in the quality of litter inputs and the acidifying effect of coniferous materials (). Moreover, soil pH at agricultural sites could be increased by management practices. Together, differences in land use came along with systematic and significant differences in soil physical and chemical properties, especially in the superficial soil layer.
Fig. 1 - Soil pH in soil layers. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean values per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land.
The average organic C content in mineral soil layers ranged from 0.35 to 4.14% and differed significantly between sites (F = 9.157, P = 0.006). At 0-10 cm depth, the highest C content was found at Rd1 and the lowest at RdA2 (Fig. 2). The highest content in the forest was most likely related to the presence of large biomass and deep-rooting plants that produced root input and prevented easy removal of nutrients from the soil. On the other hand, with conversion from cropland (RdA1) to forest (Rd1), soil C in the 0-10 cm soil layer increased by 3.7% after 40 years. The low C content in cropland RdA1 likely was related to the continuous cultivation of selected crops with high C exports, a factor known to be important for OM decline (). Sites Rd2 (mixed forest land) and RdA2 (abandoned land) had even lower C contents than site RdA1, probably due to previous long-term arable cultivation (>100 years). The forest vegetation at Rd2 caused a small increase in C content at 0-10 cm depth relative to the abandoned land site. An SOC inventory in southeast Germany revealed only slightly lower total SOC stocks in cropland soils compared with forest soils when both top- and subsoils were considered (). In the present study, ANOVA indicated significant differences in C content between the three soil layers (F = 11.046, P < 0.001) for the three land-use types with permanent vegetation, but not for arable cropland (RdA1).
Fig. 2 - Carbon content (%) in soil layers at the study sites. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean values per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land.
The N content varied between 0.04 and 0.79%, detected at Rd2 (20-40 cm) and Rd1 (0-10 cm), respectively (Fig. 3). Both land use (F = 59.676, P < 0.001) and soil depth (F = 8.225, P = 0.003) were significant factors affecting soil N. The highest N content at 0-10 cm depth was found at Rd1 and the lowest at RdA2. Average N contents at 0-40 cm depth differed between sites Rd1 and RdA1 and between sites Rd2 and RdA2 (P ≤ 0.05 - Tab. 4). It is important to consider that cropland soil generally contains little OM, and thus little organically bound nitrogen, because OM is removed during harvesting. Furthermore, N fertilization of croplands helps to maintain a higher level of soil N as compared with unfertilized fields (), although much of the added nitrogen is exported by harvest. The occasional inputs of fertilizers at study site RdA1 likely did not change the soil total N content. Long-term cultivation and harvesting at this site resulted in smaller SOC and N contents compared with Rd1, despite additional organic fertilization. Moreover, surrounding forest vegetation significantly affected soil N content, with higher values obtained at Douglas fir plantation Rd1 and mixed pine plantation Rd2 than at cropland RdA1 and abandoned land RdA2. This result confirms the findings of Holubík et al. () at sites in the Czech Republic, where soil development resulted in a higher production of C and N pools in the forest stands compared with agricultural land. Hence, we interpret the different soil N contents largely as being a result of continuous N removal from cropland that was not fully compensated by fertilizer additions.
Fig. 3 - Nitrogen content (%) in soil layers at the study sites. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test ( P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean values per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land.
Tab. 4 - Carbon and nitrogen contents C/N ratios and C stock in forest floor/dead litter ± standard deviation. Different letters indicate significant differences among the means after Tukey's test (p ≤ 0.05).
Soil C/N ratios ranged from 3.4 (RdA2) to 15.2 (Rd2), detected at 20-40 cm depth. The difference between the average values along the soil profile at the four sites was statistically significant (F = 9.951, P < 0.001). In the deepest layer, forest soils tended to have higher C/N ratios than cropland and abandoned land (Fig. 4), probably owing to a larger root-derived input.
Fig. 4 - The C/N ratio in soil layers at the study sites. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean values per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land.
Cumulated SOC stock differed significantly among sites (F = 44.069, P < 0.001) and soil depths (F = 45.168, P < 0.001). The SOC stock ranged from 8.9 to 35.6 t ha-1 at 0-10 cm depth. It was highest at Rd1 and lowest at RdA2 (Fig. 5). The SOC stock had a C content distribution along the profiles with the highest values at 0-10 cm depth and a general decline with depth (0-10 > 10-20 > 20-30 > 30-40 cm) for all sites but RdA1. The total SOC stock over the entire 0-40 cm soil profile differed by a factor of up to five, ranging from 21 to 103 t ha-1. Abandoned land RdA2 stored the least and forest lands the most carbon in mineral soil. The lowest SOC stock in RdA2 was caused by the low C content but not by a different soil bulk density (Tab. 3). Similarly, Li et al. () reported that conversion of natural forests to continuous cultivation and grazing decreased both the concentration and stock of SOC. Zhang et al. () found that SOC stock increased when arable cropland was abandoned. In our case, the lowest SOC stock was found under abandonment (RdA2). In comparison, SOC stock in topsoil was higher at Rd2. If we assume a similar starting condition prior to LUC, there are two possible explanations for this finding. Either there was a smaller SOC accumulation under abandonment, after cropland conversion, as compared with afforestation, or the abandoned site actually lost carbon since conversion. In any case, our results challenge the hypothesis that LUC from cropland to abandoned land might be beneficial for C accumulation in soil.
Fig. 5 - The SOC stock (t ha-1) in mineral soil layers at the study sites. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean values per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land.
Our data also indicate that SOC stock increased with elevation, which is consistent with the results of Wang et al. () and Zhang & McGrath (). However, because of the different starting conditions prior to LUC, we cannot say whether this increase was related to climate and associated gradients in OM decomposition (, ).
The C content, SOC stock and clay content of all samples correlated highly significantly and positively with land-use type (Tab. 5). Soil C correlated significantly and positively with both N content (r = 0.815, P < 0.01) and clay content (r = 0.500, P < 0.05). The N content was significantly and positively correlated with pH (r = 0.538, P < 0.05) and C content (r = 0.815, P < 0.01) and negatively with sand content (r = -0.518, P < 0.05). These results are in good agreement with findings of Kilic et al. (), who indicated significant correlations between some physical and chemical soil properties under different land uses in Turkey. Our results showed a mutual dependency of OM content and soil physico-chemical properties for soils of the Western Rhodopes and confirmed the role of OM as an ecosystem property (). Our results further showed that total SOC stocks were greater in the forests compared with other sites, and similar findings were reported by Kammer et al. ().
Tab. 5 - Pearson's correlation matrix for various soil physico-chemical parameters. (**): p<0.01 (2-tailed); (*): p<0.05 (2-tailed).
The forest floor formed in both forests was classified as "Moder" type (). The pH was acidic with variations between 4.8 and 4.9 and, according to Tukey's test, did not differ between both coniferous plantations (Tab. 2). The pH of litter materials from the other land-use types differed significantly among each other and from the forest lands (P < 0.05). The dead litter pH value was highest at RdA2 (abandoned land), where pH was near to neutral in the turf layer.
The dry weight of forest floor/dead litter differed significantly (P < 0.05) among the four sites. It was highest under abandonment (RdA2: 178.21 g m-2) and lowest under cropland use (RdA1: 14.92 g m-2). Sites RdA1 and RdA2 had completely different depth profiles, and the formed turf layer in the abandoned grassland likely played an important role in formation of plant inputs towards the mineral soil. On the other hand, the regular harvest export in the cropland resulted in very small amounts of litter.
The C content in forest floor/dead litter was not significantly different among the four sites (between 42.7 and 44.7% - Tab. 4). The N content varied significantly between land-use types (P < 0.05). It was lowest in the coniferous plantations (0.63-0.68%) and highest under cropland and abandoned land use (0.83 and 0.94%, respectively). The differences in C/N ratios between sites were statistically significant (P < 0.05, range 46.1-70.8) and indicated higher litter qualities, i.e., better decomposability for litter in non-forests than in forests. The C/N ratios were highest in forest floor litter (Rd1 > Rd2) and lowest in abandoned land litter (RdA2).
Forest floor/dead litter C stocks differed significantly between the four sites (F = 69.132, P < 0.001). Overall mean values for forest plantations were 5.78 and 7.01 t ha-1 for Rd2 and Rd1, respectively (Tab. 4). The cropland had the lowest dead litter C stock (0.34 t ha-1). A high dead litter accumulation on the abandoned land suggested a reduced microbial activity at this site or higher input of dead organic materials. Statistically significant and positive correlation was found for pH and N content (r = 0.748, P < 0.01), whereas the C/N ratio correlated significantly negatively with pH (r = -0.910, P < 0.01) and indicated that processes of nitrification of organic materials were related with pH.
The C stock was higher in the aboveground biomass of forests than of cropland or abandoned land (Fig. 6). Site Rd1 stored the most carbon in vegetation (196.7 t ha-1), followed by Rd2 (160.8 t ha-1). A substantial amount of carbon was accumulated also in aboveground parts of abandoned land, but more studies are required in order to reveal the seasonal variation and to estimate the annual mean. Concerning the aboveground tree biomass and carbon stored in it, more detailed studies are required to obtain data for branches and needles. The latter two are not explicitly considered in the growing tables applied in national forestry, especially for Douglas fir stands.
Fig. 6 - Carbon stock distribution in ecosystem compartments of studied land-use types. Different letters indicate significant differences among means after Tukey's test (P ≤ 0.05). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean per layer for each land use. Land uses compared: (Rd1) Douglas fir forest plantation; (RdA1) Arable cropland; (Rd2) Mixed P. nigra and P. sylvestris forest plantation; (RdA2) Abandoned land. Compartments included are: Soil, FF/litter - forest floor (F+H) and litter layer, Aboveground - tree and grass vegetation.
The C stock distribution in different ecosystem compartments showed that in forest land and under abandonment, aboveground vegetation represented the largest C pool. The amount of carbon in aboveground vegetation was similar for both forest stands, although they consisted of different coniferous species and with different stand characteristics (Fig. 6). The forest floor was another important C pool at the forest sites. At the abandoned land site, both dead litter and standing biomass contributed the most to the overall ecosystem C storage whereas mineral soil C played a minor role. At the arable cropland site, carbon was mostly stored in the mineral soil whereas fresh litter was removed from the system via harvest, leaving little litter material in the ecosystem.
Land-use change in the Western Rhodope Mountains is one of the major drivers for modulating soil characteristics. We found significant changes and variations of soil C storage down to 40 cm of soil depth, although differences were most pronounced in the superficial 0-10 cm of organo-mineral soil. Afforestation with coniferous tree species caused changes in soil pH expressed as acidification of the superficial soil layers. Typical mountainous agricultural land use was related with changes in textural fractions suggesting ongoing processes of superficial erosion. Different soil N contents were most significant between Rd1 and RdA1 as a result of continuous N removal from arable cropland (RdA1) that was not fully compensated by fertilizer additions. It could be summarized that due to afforestation activities, the N content in upper soil layers increased.
Afforestation helped accumulate and preserve soil C, but even several decades after the conversion from arable cropland or abandoned land to forest land use, this effect was expressed only weakly and could not compensate the organic C loss due to previous active cultivation. The C content in soil and its profile distribution were shown to be very sensitive to land-use and coverage changes and could be proposed as appropriate indicators for studying the long-term effects of LUC on soil properties. Of all studied compartments of mountain ecosystems, mineral soil remained the main accumulator of SOC for all studied land-use types. Together with mineral soil, aboveground tree vegetation also accumulated a major part of carbon at the studied forest and abandoned sites.
Afforestation considerably increased organic C stock in the uppermost soil layers of different land-use types in the Western Rhodope Mountains. Afforestation could be identified as a good practice that could preserve soil C and improve the regulating and sustaining ecosystem services of mountain regions. Therefore, we recommend conserving mountain soils by preventing abandonment and by establishing appropriate forest plantations.
The work was a part of the project "Land-use and management impacts on carbon sequestration in mountain ecosystems" financed within the framework of the Bulgarian-Swiss Research Programme (BSRP), 2011-2016, between the Government of Bulgaria and the Swiss Federal Council, contract number IZEBZ0_142972.
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Tab. 1 - Characteristics of the experimental sites. (FL): forest land; (CL): cropland; (AL): abandoned land. (*): Age of stand and land-use history (2014); (**): IUSS WG (2014).


aPeditra. CS Azuqueca de Henares. Guadalajara. España.
Reference of this article: Bernal Vañó E. Pediatrics' office approach to the most frequent skin conditions (warts, molluscum, acne and atopic dermatitis). Presentation. Rev Pediatr Aten Primaria. Supl. 2011;(20):181-3.


Russia's Communist Party faction has submitted a bill on nationalization to the lower house of parliament.
The legislation concerns the nationalization of companies that were privatized during the 1990s. Communists have always condemned the process of giving the state assets to individuals, many of whom turned into so-called oligarchs.
Observers say the Communists are trying to use their populist "trump card" now as they have started preparations for parliamentary elections scheduled for December. At the same time, the government is now launching another large-scale privatization campaign.
In an explanatory note to the draft bill, 24 deputies of the CPRF faction in the State Duma wrote that during the first 10 years of privatization about 140,000 enterprises were given to private owners. The state budget gained only about $10 billion, while in other European countries this figure was six times higher.
In Russia, privatization revenues per person were $54, compared to $2560 in Australia and more than a thousand dollars in other countries. "This was a targeted plunder of national property rather than privatization," the explanatory note reads.
Many politicians doubt that the legislation will be put to vote in the parliament. Privatization was carried out with numerous legal violations, but it is impossible "to turn back the wheel of history," Sergey Markov, Duma deputy from the ruling United Russia party believes.
People in Russia tend to consider big property as "illegal," although it has been formalized, the deputy said. He predicted that the Communists will gain some electoral advantages after this move, but stressed the bill "surely will not be supported" in the parliament.


The early line-engraved stamps were produced by the process invented by Jacob Perkins of the British firm of Perkins, Bacon & Petch, and consisted of hand engraving with a steel tool known as a burin on softened steel. The 'mother' or original die was then hardened, and a softened steel roller passed over it under very great pressure to produce the 'matrix' or secondary die. After hardening, this roller was used to produce multiple-impressioned plates from which the actual printing was done -- the 'tertiary' dies. The final plate bore the design in intaglio (recess). Printing was done by inking the plate, wiping off the surplus surface ink, and applying pressure to an imposed sheet of dampened paper. The paper picking out the ink from the incised design in the plate. Modern 'recess' printing is done from a plate mechanically inked and wiped, and on specially designed high-speed rotary presses.


text:
Q: Skype video feeds not showing Skype video feeds show up as a green box. The webcam is a Microsoft lifecam but that should'nt matter because the camera works in cheese webcam both and the person i am skyping can see me. I thought it might have something to do with video codecs or something. Help?

A: I had the same problem. VLC did not work either.
I have updated Intel drivers and it worked for me :)
Link to Intel driver updater

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


You can now bypass Gmail's meager 25MB attachment size limit by using Google Drive. By integrating its Google Drive with Gmail, Google now lets you attach files as large as 10GB (400 times larger than traditional attachments).
This may come as a surprise, but Google is known for its search capabilities and offers many useful search shortcuts. It's no wonder that Gmail does the same.
Send your important files and documents without having to worry about Gmail Attachment Limit. Send and track your documents using SalesHandy.
Gmail and attachments are tied to one another. These tips will help you find, manage, and delete the large attachments before they turn into a problem.
There is no limit for attached file size if you are using Gmail or Yahoo Email to send an email. Gmail and Yahoo Mail both integrated their email service with cloud storage and they practically took off the attachment file limit.
If you're pushing the 15GB limit for Gmail and Google Drive, you can save space by using FindBigMail's service, or by running some simple searches - though you still can't delete attachments without deleting the emails as well.
How to: Clean up your Gmail Inbox by deleting large attachments (Sort Gmail by Date/Size) So, apparently it is possible to fill out your Google Quota on Email.
Oct 18, 2009 · Explain your issue in full detail here: I would like to receive from a friend, to my gmail account, several pictures. What is the largest size individual attachment gmail will allow and what is the largest total size allowed per email?
Sometimes size really does matter, and an email attachment size limit is no exception. Being unable to send an email because the attached file is too large is highly frustrating.
Dec 12, 2007 · Best Answer: You should be able to do it with Gmail just fine ... Gmail puts a 20mb limit on attachment file sizes - so if the song is under that, no problem.
It's easy to search for attachments in Gmail, and with this tip you can search by size of attachment as well. To search for attachments in Gmail, the search parameter is has:attachment - this will bring up all emails with an attachment.


Windows are an architectural feature of your home that allows for fresh air and sunshine. Unfortunately, it is known that you can lose over 50% of your home's heat and cooling through your windows. The truth is that your windows are not always properly insulated which can end up costing you money through an increased energy bill. But there is a simple solution to your problem–new window coverings! Having the proper energy-efficient window treatments can make your windows look great and also provide you with multiple benefits while lowering your bill. Here are four window covering insulation solutions from the experts at Budget Blinds®.
Cellular shades, also known as Honeycomb shades, are one of the most popular energy-saving window coverings. They are designed with honeycomb-shaped cells which increase their insulation by trapping the air in the pockets making your home stay at a comfortable temperature throughout the day and night. Cellular shades can be exceptionally versatile due to the large selection of fabrics and colors that can match your particular style from modern to traditional. Cellular shades can help with proper insulation as well as privacy. They are offered in various degrees of light-filtering options from sheer to blackout. When closed, cellular shades will help retain indoor heat during the winter months, and during the summer months, they block the powerful heat from entering. Lastly, they can be custom-made to fit any size window and can be cordless, making them child-safe.
Window Shutters are designed to fit closest to the window frame, making them great for insulation. They are energy-saving because they work as an insulation shield by preventing cold drafts and blocking heat from entering your home. Shutters are perfect for any room in your home and will keep your home at a comfortable temperature. They come in different materials such as wood, faux wood, aluminum and composite with plenty of designs including Plantation, café and indoor/outdoor shutters. They offer an abundance of benefits including security, privacy, light control and, as a permanent fixture, even add value to your home. Lastly, window shutters can be made to fit any size or shape window, ensuring that all your windows are covered.
A fashionable way to dress your windows as well as provide insulation is drapery. They are normally lined and made with heavier fabrics which make them great insulators. When open, drapery allows for proper airflow and, when closed, can keep in the warmth. Drapes will give you a well-insulated window while looking trendy. With drapery, there are unlimited design possibilities due to a wide variety of fabrics, colors, patterns, and textures. Budget Blinds' Inspired Drapes® line is your one-stop shop for drapery, including ready-made panels, valances, cornices, decorative drapery hardware and even motorization. This collection will help you create a designer look for every room in your home.
Roman shades have many similarities to honeycomb shades due to their popularity. Roman shades are made with thicker fabrics making them an excellent energy-efficient choice. Due to their material, Roman shades trap in the warmth which can save you extra on your heating bill. They will help you save while looking beautiful on your windows and doors. With a wide selection of colors, prints, and textures, Roman shades can meet the needs of any home décor. Roman shades come in various degrees of light-filtering options for light control and privacy.
All four of these choices will help solve your insulation problem and save money on your energy bill. So what are you waiting for? Call 866-879-9730 today or find the Style Consultant nearest you and schedule your free, in-home consultation.


Hello, it's @adejoke16 your darling hairstylist.
You can follow us on @uniquehairaffairs to see our latest hair styles.
Hi @adejoke16, I'm @checky ! While checking the mentions made in this post I noticed that @uniquehairaffairs doesn't exist on Steem. Maybe you made a typo ?
Followed on IG. Hope business is good!


United States – SECRETARY POMPEO: Good morning. It's a tremendous honor to be here to join you in remembering the more than 400 innocents who lost their lives attempting to flee communism. We honor their sacrifice, and it's an honor for me to be here with you today.
It's great to be with the members of the Confederation of Political Prisoners of Slovakia, the group that erected this wonderful memorial.
Among those who we commemorate is Jon Slovencak. Jon was just a teenager when he decided to flee communist rule. He managed to make it all the way to Munich, but was arrested and imprisoned. He was released years later and attempted again to escape by crossing the Danube near the very place that we stand today. He was again captured and imprisoned. Jon and so many others knew that to flee was to risk death, but they still tried. Such is the human yearning for freedom.
I've witnessed this yearning up close. As a young Army officer from 1986 to 1989 during the Cold War, I was tasked with patrolling the Iron Curtain along the Czechoslovakian border. I saw in my early 20s the evils of communism firsthand.
It's been 30 years now since Europe cast off the Soviet yoke. Slovakia, together with the rest of Central Europe, courageously chose to join the transatlantic community of democracies. And what a good decision it was. Slovakia's never been more independent or prosperous than it is today. Where barbed wire and armed guards once stood, today people, goods, and information cross freely.
The United States has stood with the people of Slovakia as a friend, as a partner, and as an ally for the past 30 years, and we will continue to stand with you in the decades to come. This relationship was built on shared values, and now we must sustain it on those same, especially as Russian aggression undermines freedom on this continent, but also against a China that represses people while it's expanding its influence abroad.
We must recommit to our values again and again and again, generation after generation, to ensure that they live on. Memorials like the one that I'm standing in front of ensure that we remember what's at stake.
So it's great to be in Slovakia. I just talked about the shared values between our two countries. I talked about the importance of the relationship between each of these two nations. This is a special place for me. I talked about my role as a young soldier – I saw what happens when repression and tyranny rule a people, and we can't ever take that path again.
So I want to make sure that the Slovakian people understand that America is engaged. We're back. It's been 20 years since a secretary of state came to Slovakia. That's far too long. This administration is committed to standing with the people of Slovakia and helping them achieve their end-state, which is a free, prosperous, and successful Slovakia. I hope we can advance that cause today. That's the mission set.
SECRETARY POMPEO: Yeah. I hope that we make substantial progress. The pillars that were agreed to back in Singapore in June, I hope we make progress along each one: security and peace on the peninsula, the denuclearization in the peninsula, as well as ensuring that we create the conditions for a brighter future for the North Korean people. Each one of those points (inaudible).
SOURCE: news provided by STATE.GOV on February 12, 2019.


When it comes to practicing law, attorney Vincent Howard cannot imagine himself working in any other profession.
In his practice, Howard focuses on individual cases and mass torts involving personal injury and consumer protection matters. His experience in these areas stems from his time at the venerated plaintiffs' law firm Lopez, Hodes, Restaino, Milman & Skikos, where he handled high-profile mass tort litigation and pharmaceutical injury cases against such behemoth companies as Wal-mart, Merck & Co. and Halliburton Company.
Prior to becoming a lawyer, Howard protected the public as a military police officer in the United States Army, serving honorably during America's first major engagement with Iraq—Operation Desert Storm. During his time in the military, Howard received several awards, including an Overseas Medal, a National Defense Ribbon, and honors for marksmanship and good conduct.
It's no wonder then that Howard has been peer-rated in the national attorney rating directory Martindale-Hubbell as AV Preeminent—the organization's highest rating for ethical standards and legal ability. Howard has also been listed in Super Lawyers, a peer rating service that recognizes no more than 5 percent of lawyers in the state.
In addition to handling cases that call out for justice, Howard supports a variety of community causes and also provides leadership to organizations that help ensure access to the legal system, such as the Orange Country Trial Lawyers Association, American Association for Justice, Consumer Attorneys of California, and Consumer Attorneys Association of Los Angeles. In 2012 and 2013, the Consumer Attorneys of California recognized Howard's service to the organization by honoring him with its Presidential Award of Merit.


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Screening it to the right audience
Symphony certainly is a bit of a head scratcher. It's difficult to really put your finger on it; "A ha, Symphony is [insert pre-existing definition]!". It suffers from an identity crisis. Correction, Symphony knows very well who she is, the problem is people's perception of her. Judging from the public's opinion of Symphony and the type of support enquiries we receive, it's obvious that many people have the wrong idea about Symphony. It's our fault really, the product website fails to really define Symphony, who should use it and why it's useful. Now that I've acknowledged it, I am going to address the problem right here.
Is it a blogging app?
In the past, my answers had always been "yes, but…" then followed by a long and elaborated explanation. Recently, my answers have been a quick and short "no". In the wake of the blogger generation, what bloggers have been exposed to and have come to expect makes Symphony a very awkward girl. It's not that Symphony cannot do the things a typical blog system can do. It's like asking a Samurai to cut your bread - the blade is sharp and the wielder certainly knows how to use it but where in the world will you find a Samurai these days? More bluntly put, the issue is about finding the right tool for the right purpose. If all a blogger want is a system that is simple to skin, ready right out-of-the-box with a modest learning curve, most dedicated blog systems does the job exceptionally well.
Is it a CMS?
My problem with the term CMS is that it's too broad. My wife often asks me to explain how she should tell others what I do for a living. I usually reply, "Just tell them I'm in I.T.". Tragically, "I surf the net" is not only more descriptive but also fairly accurate. Content Management System essentially manage one's content over Internet protocols (Internet and Intranet) and by that definition, almost anything online can be a CMS. I am, of course oversimplifying it but the fact remains that the term CMS is just too broad. Symphony is a CMS, but I consider it as a blanket term for all data-driven systems.
Is it a framework?
Django is a high-level Python Web framework that encourages rapid development and clean, pragmatic design.
Ruby on Rails and Django are definitions of a framework. The idea of a framework is to give a developer a means of interfacing with a lower level system with ease. For RoR, that's Ruby and for Django, it's Python. Another important attribute of a framework is the concept of constraint. Unlike general-purpose programming languages such as C or Java, Frameworks promote constraint on coding methods in effort to achieve "good coding practices". Both of these attributes are also found in Symphony. The lower level system in Symphony's case is PHP and Symphony promotes a segmentation of presentation v.s. logic to promote "good coding practices". This comes naturally from how XSLT fundamentally works with XML but going further, Symphony extends upon it with concepts such as events, data sources, sections and URL Schema.
Yet despite the similarities, Symphony is not a framework. Generally speaking, frameworks does not have an user interface. A developer spends most of its time hacking away at lines of code to build their system. Symphony on the other-hand has an user interface and most of the structure is built through it. On the side of XSLT however, is synonymous to code hacking in frameworks.
Another important difference is in its scope. Symphony cannot do everything you would expect from a framework but nor does it try to. To solve its limitation, Symphony utilises a plug-in system called Campfire services. Depending on a developer's skill, one can achieve the scope of a framework by creating Campfire services through PHP, but the point is moot seeing how the same thing applies to purpose-built apps like blogging systems.
How about an IDE?
I especially like the idea of coining Symphony as an IDE. Integrated Development Environments like Dreamweaver, XCode and recently, Coda seem to fit more with how I personally perceive Symphony but once again, it's not quite one. Like an IDE though, Symphony's purpose is to provide a developer with tools to interface with existing technologies. Also, like an IDE, there is an editor for XSLT, data sources and creating data structures (sections and custom fields). Along with all of that is a debug page, which is another concept found in IDEs.
Unlike an IDE however, Symphony comes with an engine that interprets the components put together through its editor and executes it. Applications like dreamweaver merely create the assets but the output source does not require the application itself to function.
Symphony defined
Pipes also has a full web-based IDE. Even more amazingly, the IDE is incredibly rich and powerful, with the usual complement of editing tools you'd expect from a visual editor in a desktop application.
So what is Symphony really? Although it does not quite fit in any of the definitions described above, it certainly got qualities found in all of them. Most accurately speaking, I would say Symphony is a development environment to the same degree as technologies like Yahoo Pipes and Microsoft Popfly – all of which has got an integrated editor and some kind of core-level engine. Another important similarity between these technologies is the fundamental idea of interpreting data. Both Pipes and Popfly have an editor for hooking up data, much like you would with creating sections and custom fields and hooking it up with a data source. The main difference is, Symphony runs entirely on open technologies. These technologies are very new and this goes to show that the Internet is still young and new genre-defying technologies are created daily.
So now that you know how we've defined Symphony, why don't you share your thoughts on what Symphony is to you?
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


I've been attempting National Novel Writing Month every year since 2002. The goal is to write 50000 words of fiction during the calendar month of November. I failed in 2002, 2003, 2004, 2008, and 2012, and won in 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, and 2017. Every year (except for 2016, where I took a break and wrote pastiche in someone else's universe) I work on the same "novel," writing additional chapters which I will later concatenate, although this is technically forbidden by the Nanowrimo rules. So if you're a stickler, I've never won and you can go to hell.
I tried and failed Script Frenzy in 2007 -- it's the screenplay equivalent of Nanowrimo: write a 20000-word screenplay during the calendar month of June. I got about halfway through, but I lost momentum when my cat died on the 7th, and I never got all the way back in the game. It didn't help that the story sucked.
Collecting my brother's thoughts on Columbo, 1970s tv detective.
Yammer.net, a web-based gale client.
"Photography." Some of it in product form.
I went to a Spanish immersion school in Mexico twice, which experience I would recommend to others. Slang.
Ongoing mysterious notes to myself.
Feeding myself, September, 2000, and the project's conclusion.
Mesh subdivision demo programs, a summer research project in 1998.
Fair surface design, a mesh editing tool that incorporates mesh subdivision and linear time Taubin smoothing to allow real-time smooth deformations, for CS 174c, 1997.
Graphical editor for parallel programs written in mcc, for CS 139c, 1997.
An arcade game I wrote for CS174a, 1996.
Wavelet based texture synthesis, project for Peter Schröder, 1995-96.
It has been suggested that every home page should have a blurb describing the author's life so that when people run into each other they won't have to cover the boring basics every single time because they've checked the home page. So pay attention.
Since the last installment, seven years ago, I have continued working at Google, slowly becoming what I had always feared: someone who believes in his employer. It is not that I'm a believer in our product decisions, particularly the increasingly awkward issues around account management, but that I believe that this is where the state of the art in distributed systems infrastructure is being developed, and that that's my calling. The company has treated me pretty well, considering that I'm forging my own weird path focusing on low-level and unloved systems, and I enjoy traveling to offices around the world.
I bought a condo in San Francisco, one block from the apartment I rented for 7.5 years, because it turns out this is the place I want to live.
My cat, Wiener Dog, died in 2007. I have a new cat, Oliver Cromwell.
My brother lives in Bellingham, WA. One sister lives in central Washington; she has two children of whom I am very fond. The other sister lives in southern Washington and works in Portland, OR, but is considering a move to the Bay Area. Both sisters are married to good-hearted men. My parents are retired and spend roughly half their time traveling. For more details, befriend them on Facebook.
Twice as clear as heaven. Twice as loud as reason.


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Sylvain Tesson's wandering journey of solitude through the countryside of France
ON THE WANDERING PATHS is Sylvain Tesson's literary adventure and philosophical reflection during a three-month journey of solitude and personal contemplation while walking along vast stretches of mountain ranges and rivers, ancient bridges and villages, of France's countryside. This exquisite chronicle through landscapes that continue to resist urbanization and technology is a thoughtful and thought-provoking glimpse into a poet's adventurous life. Author Daniel Hornsby, who writes the Foreword to the new English translation from University of Minnesota Press, joins the Press's Eric Lundgren in conversation.
Eric Lundgren is the Outreach and Development Manager at the University of Minnesota Press. His novel The Facades (Overlook Press) was a Barnes & Noble Discover Great New Writers pick and a finalist for the William Saroyan International Writing Prize. His writing has appeared in Tin House, The Los Angeles Review of Books, Boulevard, and The Millions, and a new story, "Actaeon at the Movies", is out in Post Road 39.
Daniel Hornsby is the author of Via Negativa (Knopf) and Sucker (Anchor, February 2023). His stories and essays have appeared in the Los Angeles Review of Books, Bookforum, The Missouri Review, and Joyland.
This translation of On the Wandering Paths is published with the support of Villa Albertine, in partnership with the French Embassy.


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by Wesley Sykes
According to recent findings from Boston University researchers, chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) has been found in more than 91% of former NFL players involved in an ongoing study on the degenerative brain disorder. The findings were shared...
What is Athletic Heart Syndrome?
Heart health and athletic endurance go hand-in-hand. "Exercise strengthens the heart muscle, enabling it to pump a greater volume of blood with each heartbeat," said Dr. Deepak Bhatt, editor of the Harvard Heart Letter, in a recent Q&a...
Dealing with Upper Arm Injuries
Injuries to the upper arm muscles and tendons are most common in men 30–50, but women may also experience them. If the tendon ruptures, you may feel a tearing sensation and actually hear a pop, usually around the elbow but sometimes at the shoul...
Youngstown State Opens New Sports Medicine Center
In support of the overall student-athlete experience, the Youngstown State Department of Intercollegiate Athletics announced the creation of the Korandovich Family Sports Medicine Center in Beeghly Center. This newly-created 3,000-square-foot faci...
VATA Holds Annual Conference; Highlights Importance of ATCs at All Levels
The Virginia Athletic Trainers Association (VATA) held its annual conference over the weekend and used the gathering to localize the events of Buffalo Bills safety Damar Hamlin's cardiac arrest two weeks ago. One of the main takeaways highlighted ...
Army ATC Saves Hockey Player's Life after Inadvertent Neck Slash
When an Army hockey player had his neck slashed inadvertently during a hockey game against Sacred Heart, the Black Knights athletic trainer's quick actions saved a life in early January. Rachel Leahy, a second-year athletic trainer with the West P...
On-the-Go Recovery Device Aids Athletes While Being Academic Compliant
Collegiate football programs across the country are taking advantage of sustained acoustic medicine (sam®) — a low-intensity, long-duration ultrasound treatment developed by ZetrOZ Systems — to aid in the recovery process while not sacrificing ...
Study: Athletic Participation Linked to Increased Odds of Vaping
Teenagers who play team sports are more likely to vape, according to new research. Vaping increases the risk of respiratory problems and can be deadly in rare cases. A study in the journal Pediatrics examined more than 30,000 high school studen...


I'm delighted to have landed at the Museum of Art as the 2018–2020 Andrew W. Mellon Post-Doctoral Curatorial Fellow. I arrived at the beginning of June and have spent the past few months exploring the collection and enjoying my first summer in Maine. I've been thrilled to discover the truly global reach of our collections and impressed with our exhibitions and programming.
As the curatorial fellow, I'm excited to work closely with Bowdoin faculty to support teaching and research with the Museum's rich collections. As an art historian with a deeply interdisciplinary background (archaeology, anthropology, history of religion), I'm looking forward to continuing our ongoing efforts to encourage new and diverse perspectives at the Museum.
One new tool that we are debuting this fall is a new imaging technique, RTI (Reflectance Transformation Imaging), which creates a dynamically relightable image that we can use to study the surface shape and texture of an object. RTI imaging is useful for analyzing the techniques, materials, and condition of works of art—from seventeenth-century etchings to ancient Greek vases—and can be used to answer a wide range of questions from different disciplines.
My own research is on visual cultures across the ancient Mediterranean world, and the ways that experiences of immigration and diaspora have historically shaped visual cultures. I received my Ph.D. from Duke University in 2017 and have since held fellowships at the Metropolitan Museum of Art (Department of Greek and Roman Art) and the University of Michigan (Frankel Institute for Judaic Studies).
As the fall semester gets in swing, I look forward to welcoming new and returning faculty to the Museum. If you are a faculty member interested in working with our collections, I invite you to reach out and arrange a visit any time to chat about possible intersections.


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Q: Bootstrap 5 navbar with centered brand and a dropdown icon I am trying to create a responsive navbar with Bootstrap 5 with centered brand text and an icon with a dropdown menu which is not collapsed in the mobile view.
Here's my code so far:
https://www.codeply.com/p/95vE7k8i7W
The requirements are in the codeply but I'll add them here too:

*

*Center the Brand text in both expanded and collapsed view

*Person Icon on the right should always be visible in both expanded and collapsed view

*Person dropdown should appear under the icon. At the moment it appears on the left in expanded view and messes up the collapsed view

*Ideally I'd like to just do this in the html with Bootstrap classes, and not have to use hacky css!

A: One question, do you want it to be centered in the page or centered between the elements.
If you want it to be centered between the elements. You can wrap your button and login dropdown in a div (or another element), so that you have 3 children in your nav element.
Then you can add the classes d-flex justify-content-between to the nav.
Ohh.. also remove the navbar-collapse from the navbarNavDropdown, and replace it with d-flex (d-block works too). It has flex-grow: 1 which makes it hard to for the other element to center because it takes up the space.
For your third question it can also be fixed by wrapping your navbar-toggler button and the dropdown menu div, in a div with a position-relative.
Because the dropdown menu is positioned with absolute you can create another context for it with the position relative. So that it will position it self relative to the parent.

                Menu One

                Menu Two

Sub 1

Sub 2

    Center This Brand

        <button class="navbar-toggler" data-bs-toggle="collapse" data-bs-target="#navbarNavDropdown" aria-controls="navbarNavDropdown" aria-expanded="false" aria-label="Toggle navigation">

        </button>

Login

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Custom reusable bags are available in any shape and size with a myriad of print and finishing options – from 1 colour to full colour process print, with matte or gloss lamination, special handles and features, the possibilities are endless!
Whether it is to elevate your brand or for promotional purposes, we have the right bag for you!
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Trying to install Cloner on my multisite and it fails to do auto install and when I try manual I get "Server error status: OK ". Thoughts?
That's odd, this seems to be a site specific issue. Are you noticing this only for Cloner? Could you please send us your credentials so that we could give a closer look.


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Galapagos and the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu
Tuesday Departures Throughout the Year
Galapagos and the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu combines two of the most popular destinations in South America. Your tour begins in Quito, which has a well-preserved colonial center and spectacular views of the Andes and nearby volcanoes. You will then travel to the Galapagos Islands for a five day cruise aboard the Galapagos Legend, where you will enjoy plant and animal species that are found nowhere else on Earth. The final part of your tour will be an amazing hike of the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu, the spectacular mountain top citadel known as the 'Lost city of the Incas'.
Lodging and Meals: This tour includes accommodations for 15 nights (2 nights in Quito, 4 nights on the Galapagos Legend, 2 nights in Lima, 3 nights in Cusco, 3 nights on the Inca Trail, and 1 night in Machu Picchu) and 31 meals (15 breakfasts, 9 lunches, and 7 dinners).
Best Time to Go: April-October.
Destinations: South America, Ecuador, Galapagos, and Peru.
Interests: Adventure, Camping, Culture & History, Expedition Cruising, Hiking & Trekking, Sea Kayaking, Snorkeling, and Wildlife Viewing.
Places Visited: Quito, the Galapagos Islands, Baltra Island, Fernandina Island, Isabela Island, Rábida Island, Santa Cruz Island, Santiago Island, Lima, Cusco, the Sacred Valley, and Machu Picchu.
Day 1 (Tue): Quito.
Day 2 (Wed): City Tour of Quito-Middle of the World.
Day 3 (Thu): Quito-Baltra Airport-Bachas Beach (Santa Cruz).
Morning transfer to the airport in Quito for the flight to Galapagos. Passengers are picked up at the airport by our guides and taken on a ten minute bus ride to the pier to board the M/V Galapagos Legend.
Bachas Beach (wet landing). On the north side of Santa Cruz; behind the beach lies two small flamingo ponds where iguanas sunbathe, see coastal birds, Darwin finches, mockingbirds, and gulls, as well as interesting native vegetation like red and black mangrove, and salt bushes. This beach is one of the main sea turtles nesting sites in the Galapagos. A turtle can lay eggs 3 or 4 times per season with an average of 70 eggs each time. At this paradisiacal site, you will also find the remains of barges that sank a long time ago, when the United States Navy operated a base during World War II on Baltra Island. Local people modified the word barges to "Bachas". (Duration: one hour walk / one hour snorkeling/beach time). Overnight aboard the ship. (B,L,D)
Day 4 (Fri): Egas Port (Santiago)-Rabida.
Egas Port (wet landing). Egas Port is a black volcanic sand beach, visited by Darwin in 1835. The first section of the trail is formed of volcanic ash (eroded tuff) and the other half is an uneven terrain of volcanic basaltic rock. The unique, truly striking layered terrain of Santiago shore is home to a variety of animals including the bizarre yellow-crowned night heron and marine wildlife including lobster, starfish and marine iguanas grazing on algae beds alongside Sally light-foot crabs. It is easy to see colonies of endemic fur seals swimming in cool water volcanic rock pools. (Duration: 1.5 hour walk/one hour snorkeling).
Rabida Island (wet landing). Dark-red sand covers the unique beaches of this island, home to sea lion colonies; Rabida is considered the epicenter of the Galapagos Islands due to the diversity of its volcanic geology. Nesting brown pelicans are found from July through September plus nine species of the famous Darwin's finches. Here a dinghy ride along marine cliffs is done, to observe nesting seabirds. Snorkel off the coast, where marine life is particularly active. (Duration: 1.5 hour walk/one hour snorkeling/one hour dinghy ride). Overnight aboard the ship. (B,L,D)
Day 5 (Sat): Urbina Bay-Tagus Cove (Isabela).
Urbina Bay (wet landing). Volcanic black beach, depending on the season, it is possible to find giant tortoises, land iguanas, and the unusual flightless cormorant. After a short walk inland it´s snorkeling time, a chance to swim with sea turtles, sea lions, and countless tropical fish. Urbina Bay features a wide variety of plants with the different range of colors in flowers, attracting different insects, birds, and reptiles. One of the highlights of the island is the uplifted coral reef that resulted from the 1954 seismic activity; here the views of Alcedo Volcano are remarkable. When navigating from Urbina to Tagus Cove whale watching is possible from May to December. (Duration: 1.5 hour walk/one hour snorkeling).
Tagus Cove. Dry landing on Galapagos' largest island where you will learn about the eruption of the five volcanoes that form it. The trail leads to Darwin's salt-water crater-lake and excellent views of lava fields and volcanic formations. You will return by the same path for a dinghy ride along a shoreline full of marine wildlife, where you will admire a variety of seabirds, such as Blue-footed Booby, Brown Noddy, terns, Flightless Cormorant and depending on the season, a large number of Galapagos Penguins which are only 35 cm tall; the only penguin species in the world to live in the tropics.
The population of penguins on the islands is about 2,000 individuals, most of which live on this western portion of Isabela; others are scattered further south. You will have an opportunity to snorkel in deep water. Graffiti believed to have been left by 19th-century pirates is a curious reminder of an intriguing past. (Duration: 2 hour walk/40-minute dinghy ride/one hour deep water snorkeling). Overnight aboard the ship. (B,L,D)
Day 6 (Sun): Espinosa Point (Fernandina)-Vicente Roca Point (Isabela).
Espinosa Point (dry landing). From Espinosa Point, it is possible to admire a wide view of Isabela Island across the Bolivar Channel. This area boasts some of the highest diversity of endemic sea fauna in the Galapagos. Here, the largest, most primitive-looking marine iguanas are found mingling with sea lions and Sally Lightfoot crabs. Fernandina offers a wonderful opportunity to encounter flightless cormorants at their nesting sites, Galapagos penguins and the "King" of predators on the islands, the Galapagos hawk. Pa-hoe-hoe and AA lava formations cover the majority of Fernandina terrain. Vegetation is scarce inland, with few brachycereus cacti and in the shore mangrove can be found. (Duration: 1.5 hour walk/one hour snorkeling).
Vicente Roca Point. Experience great deep-water snorkeling at one of the richest marine havens on Earth, the Bolivar Channel. Accessible by water, you take a dinghy ride along the coast to observe a great diversity of sea and coastal birds; Nazca and blue-footed boobies, noddies, brown pelicans, penguins, and flightless cormorants. The upwelling of cold water currents in this part of the Galapagos gives rise to an abundance of marine life, a perfect place for deep snorkeling. (Duration: one hour snorkeling/one hour dinghy ride). Overnight aboard the ship. (B,L,D)
Day 7 (Mon): Highlands Tortoise Reserve (Santa Cruz)-Baltra Airport-Quito.
Highlands Tortoise Reserve (dry landing). In the mountains of Galapagos you can observe different kinds of birds, including tree and ground finches, vermillion flycatchers, paint-billed crakes, yellow warblers, and cattle egrets (usually standing on the tortoises' shell). The journey to the reserve also offers a great opportunity to see contrasting ecosystems. The road goes from the coast through the agricultural zone and straight up to the dense humid forests. Often, Galapagos Giant Tortoises are seen on the way, wandering through pastures in the paddocks. This spot is a bird watchers' haven since almost every land bird present on the island lives or migrates here. (Duration: 45 minute drive/1.5 hour walk).
After the visit, you will be transferred to Baltra Airport for your flight to Guayaquil, and then Lima, Peru. After passing through immigration and customs, proceed to the reception area, where our inbound services representative will be holding a sign with your name on it. You will be greeted and then transferred to your hotel. Overnight in Lima. (B)
Day 8 (Tue): Lima-City Tour.
In the afternoon, you will have a city tour of Lima. You will visit downtown Lima and see several examples of the Spanish architecture of the colonial period including the Plaza de Armas, the Presidential Palace, the Cathedral, and the Church of San Francisco and Catacombs. After that, you will see Huaca Huallamarca, a restored adobe pyramid dating from the pre-Inca period located in San Isidro. You will tour the upscale residential and commercial district of Miraflores and see the Parque del Amor, a seaside park with a huge statue of a kissing couple, before returning to your hotel. Overnight in Lima. (B)
Day 9 (Wed): Lima-Cusco-City Tour.
Early morning transfer to the airport for the flight to Cusco. Upon arrival, you will be transferred to your hotel. Because of the high altitude (10,912 feet above sea level), we recommend that you rest for a short period. In the afternoon, you will have a city tour that includes a walk-through of the Cathedral, the Koricancha ('site of gold'), typical streets, and the four ruins that surround the city: the Sacsayhuaman Fortress, Kenko, Puca Pucara, and Tampumachay. Overnight in Cusco. (B)
Day 10 (Thu): Cusco-Sacred Valley-Awanakancha-Pisac Market-Ollantaytambo.
Today you will have a full-day excursion to the Sacred Valley of the Incas. The tour begins at Awanakancha, a living museum of the Peruvian Andes, where you can observe traditional textile dyeing and weaving techniques and the four types of camelids that are native to the region. You will also visit the Indian artisan market in Pisac and have lunch at a local restaurant (included). The last stop is the impressive Inca ruins of Ollantaytambo that served as both a fortress and ceremonial center, and is the site of a short-lived victory by the Incas over the Spanish. Overnight in Cusco. (B,L)
Note: The Indian market is open on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Sundays from October to March, and daily from April to September. On the days of the week that the market is not open, you will be taken to the Inca ruins above the village.
Day 11 (Fri): Cusco-Chilca-Inca Trail.
Early morning transfer by minivan to the town of Chilca (km. 82), the start of the Inca Trail. We begin escorted by native "quechua" porters going through semi-arid terrain along the Urubamba River with magnificent views of snowcapped mount Veronica (18,636 feet). We walk past the Inca hamlet of Huayllabamba, an ancient Inca citadel that protected the entry to two valleys. Overnight on the Inca Trail. (B,L,D)
Day 12 (Sat): Inca Trail-Warmiwañusqa-Pacamayo.
We will begin to climb the first pass, Warmiwañusqa (13,776 feet), where there is a spectacular view of the valley below. At this pass we move from the dry puna ecology to elf forest, the highest of the tropical forest types where gnarled trees grow to two meters amid fog and low clouds, habitat for a profusion of orchids and strange animals. On this night, we will camp along river Pacamayo at the bottom of the pass. Overnight on the Inca Trail. (B,L,D)
Day 13 (Sun): Inca Trail-Runku Rakay-Sayacmarca-Wiñayhuayna.
After breakfast, we will hike towards Runku Rakay and traverse the second pass of the same name (12,464 feet). We will descend to Sayacmarca, an important archaeological complex, where we will have lunch. We will spend the night near the ruins of Wiñayhuayna, which means 'city above the clouds'. Overnight on the Inca Trail. (B,L,D)
Day 14 (Mon): Inca Trail-Inti Punku-Machu Picchu.
We will arise very early so that we may watch the sunrise from Inti Punku and have our first breathtaking view of Machu Picchu 'the Lost City of the Incas' (7,900 feet). This mountaintop citadel, which served as both a center of worship and an astronomic observatory, is located in the middle of the cloud forest overlooking the Urubamba River. There are both agricultural and urban areas constructed with the precision stonework that the Incas are known for. The agricultural area consists of terraces and food storehouses, and the urban area contains temples, squares, and royal tombs. Guided tour followed by lunch at the Sanctuary Lodge. In the afternoon, you will be transferred to your hotel. Overnight in Aguas Calientes. (B,L)
Day 15 (Tue): Machu Picchu-Cusco.
This is a free day to explore Machu Picchu on your own. You may want to hike Huayna Picchu or enjoy another activity. Mid-afternoon, you will depart from Machu Picchu by train to Poroy Station in the Sacred Valley, and then be taken to your hotel in Cusco. Overnight in Cusco. (B)
Day 16 (Wed): Cusco-Lima.
Transfer to the airport for your return flight to Lima and your final destination. (B)
About the Inca Trail
The Incas built a vast network of roads to communicate with the four regions of their vast empire. The network was called Qapaq Ñan (the sovereign's highway) or Inca Road, and was made up of stone paths suitable for two or three people with trains of llamas. Rivers were crossed by hanging bridges and the steep slopes were mastered with steps and ramps. There are remains of the Qhapaq Ñan throughout Peru that are still used to this day by local villagers and farmers. One of the most impressive and best preserved roads is the trail that links Cusco and Machu Picchu. Today, hiking the Inca Trail to Machu Picchu allows the visitor to step back in time and walk through a variety of eco-systems and dazzling scenery. The length of the 39 kilometers (24 miles) includes unforgettable views, archaeological remains; 400 different species of orchids and begonias, exotic trees like the pisonay, the queñual and innumerable species of fauna in their natural habitat, such as the cock-of-the-rocks, llamas and vicuñas, the white-tailed deer, the vizcacha and, if visitors are lucky, the endangered and vegetarian spectacled bear. The Inca Trail is one of the world's leading trekking and camping routes. (Source: PromPeru)
A Note About Your Free Day in Machu Picchu
On your free day, you will be on your own. If you choose to revisit Machu Picchu, you will need to purchase a second entrance ticket, which currently costs $74 per person. If you are staying in Aguas Calientes, you will also need to purchase a round-trip bus ticket ($28 per person) for transportation to the site. The first bus departs at 5:30 AM. As an alternative to visiting Machu Picchu again, you can hike Huayna Picchu (a +/- 60 minute hike), or partake in another activity. The cost for hiking Huayna Picchu is $13 (in addition to the second entrance ticket). At the end of the day (mid-late afternoon), you will walk to the train station for the return ride to Poroy train station, where our local representative will be waiting for you to take you to your hotel in Cusco.
Airport/hotel transfers including baggage handling.
Hotel accommodations including taxes and service charges.
Accommodations on board the M/V Galapagos Legend.
All meals scheduled on board and others as indicated on the itinerary.
Excursions to the islands conducted by English-speaking naturalist guides.
Use of snorkeling equipment.
Inca Trail, Machu Picchu, and other excursions as indicated on the itinerary including all applicable entrance fees.
Double occupancy tents.
Camping equipment: Bathroom tent, kitchen tent, dining tent, chairs, tables, and comfortable mattresses.
Cook, porters to carry food, tents, and cooking gear.
Porters for personal belongings (one for every two passengers).
Coffee breaks during the trek, first aid kit/oxygen.
Local, English-speaking tour guides.
Fuel surcharge for the ship ($50).
Gratuities to ship crew and naturalist guides, tour guides, porters, drivers, and hotel staff.
Alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages.
Gifts and personal items.
We will be happy to quote the cost of international airfare, domestic airfare within Peru, and travel insurance, and to make these arrangements for you.
4 Star – Hotel Dann Carlton Quito
5 Star – Swissotel Quito
First Class – Galapagos Legend
3 Star – Casa Andina Classic Miraflores Centro
4 Star – Sol de Oro Hotel & Suites
5 Star – J.W. Marriott Hotel Lima
Deluxe – Miraflores Park Hotel
3 Star – Casa Andina Classic Cusco Plaza
4 Star – Hotel Novotel Cusco
5 Star – Libertador Palacio del Inka
Deluxe – Hotel Monasterio
Machu Pichu
3 Star – El Mapi Hotel
4 Star – Casa del Sol Machu Picchu Boutique Hotel
5 Star – Inkaterra Machu Picchu Pueblo Hotel
Deluxe – Machu Picchu Sanctuary Lodge
Group Private: All services included in Quito and Galapagos are operated on a group basis. The city tour of Lima, city tour of Cusco, and the Sacred Valley excursion are group tours for single passengers and 3 star accommodations and private for 4 Star, 5 Star, and Deluxe accommodation levels. The Inca Trail to Machu Picchu hike is a group tour.
Elevations: Quito is 9,350 feet above sea level, Cusco is 10,912 feet, the Sacred Valley of the Incas is 8,944 feet, the Inca Trail varies from 8,528 feet to 13,776 feet, and Machu Picchu is 7,900 feet.
Passport/Visa: For Ecuador, U.S., Australian, Canadian, and EU citizens require a passport valid for at least six months from date of entry and return ticket for stays of up to 90 days. Citizens of other countries are advised to contact the Ecuadorian embassy in their country before traveling. For Peru, U.S., Australian, Canadian, and EU citizens require a passport valid for at least six months from date of entry and return ticket for stays of up to 90 days. Citizens of other countries are advised to contact the Peruvian embassy in their country before traveling.
To Book This Trip: We require a non-refundable deposit of $1,250 per person plus the cost of the international airfare (if we make the arrangements for you). The balance of the trip cost is due 60 days prior to departure.
Classic Machu Picchu and the Inca Trail
Galapagos, Machu Picchu, and Lake Titicaca
Galapagos, Inca Trail to Machu Picchu, and Easter Island
Peru FAQ
Inca Trail FAQ
Peru Weather
Peru Accommodations


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Diphascon dolmiticum är en djurart som tillhör fylumet trögkrypare, och som beskrevs av Giovanni Pilato och Bertolani 2005. Diphascon dolmiticum ingår i släktet Diphascon och familjen Hypsibiidae. Inga underarter finns listade i Catalogue of Life.

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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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