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Home > Vol 7, No 1 (2019) >	Zabotkina
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Competence-based approach to a module design for the Master Degree Programme in Translation: Challenge of Tuning Russia Tempus Project[1]
Vera Zabotkina, Marina Korovkina, and Olga Sudakova[*]
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.18543/tjhe-7(1)-2019pp67-92
Received: 1 April 2019
Abstract: The article demonstrates the application of the modular competence-based approach for the design of a Master degree programme in translation studies. The case study is based on output materials produced during the lifetime of the Tuning Russia project involving a number of Russian universities, one of which is the Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH). The module in question – the LSP (language for special purposes) translation module – emphasizes interaction between the related disciplines on the basis of the common subject-matter, i.e. the translation of special purpose texts. The modular approach sets out to achieve key competences required for professional qualifications. In addition, the module considers teaching methods, ECTS and assessment tools. Attention is given to the concept of competence-based approach in contemporary education. The authors argue that the competence-based approach introduced in Russia at the national (Ministerial) level in 2016 facilitates Russia's interactive alignment with the main principles of the Bologna Process adopted by the European Higher Education Area.
Keywords: translator training in Russia; learning outcome; competence; module; master degree programme.
With the introduction by the Russian Ministry for Science and Higher Education of new competence-based higher education standards,[2] the impact of the Tuning methodology on the Russian higher education system has increased considerably. The main emphasis in the new standards is placed on the mechanisms of measuring competences according to different levels of successful mastery. Actually, the new federal standards referred to as '3++' (based on Tuning methodology) stand for the alignment of Russian higher education area with the European one.
The break-up of the Soviet Union and the ensuing globalization processes have caused tectonic shifts in post-Soviet higher education. A huge demand for professionals such as translators, interpreters and cross-cultural mediators was born to address the 21st century's need for communication and understanding between countries.
Russia's Institutions of Higher Education (HEIs) have undergone reforms which have led to greater freedom and an awareness of competition. This makes the need to restructure their teaching and learning increasingly pressing. Change and transformation echo the mainstream Bologna Process. The over-all requirement calls for a common higher educational area where compatible degrees and the promotion of academic mobility may be shared between countries. The Tuning Project and specifically the Tuning Russia project has successfully entered this shared educational area. The Tuning has developed into a process and approach to (re-)design, develop, implement, evaluate and enhance the quality of degree programmes and curricula.[3] Ten Russian Universities were involved in this project. RSUH was piloting the Tuning Russia project in the subject area of Modern Languages (Interpreting and Translation) in the period from 2010 to 2013. This has resulted in effective changes in teaching and learning methodologies in Russian HEIs.
II. Background information
Russia's transition to the three-cycle system comprising undergraduate, graduate and doctoral studies makes it necessary to redesign all the existing curricula, as they should be based on continuity and quality assurance. In 2002 a new credit system /ECTS/ was adopted by Russian universities to facilitate the compatibility of Russian university degrees on the international labor market. The credit unit consists of 36 academic hours while an academic hour in Russia is equal to 45 (40) minutes, with a lesson normally lasting 2 academic hours (which is eighty or ninety minutes). A full-time academic year accounts for about 60 credits making the Russian system compatible with the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS). A four-year Bachelor's degree requires 240 credits, a five-year Specialität: 300 credits, while a two-year Master's degree programme requires 120 credits. One credit (36 hours) splits into 14 contact hours and 22 hours of students' autonomous/independent work at the BA level and into 10 contact hours and 26 hours of the autonomous work at the MA level, in keeping with the framework imposed by the federal standards. However, the current federal legislation introduced by the Russian Ministry of Education and Science stipulates only the total number of workload/ECTS for a Master degree educational programme that should range from 25 to 30 astronomical hours, which amounts, for instance, to 36 academic (or 27 astronomical) hours at the Russian State University for Humanities (RSUH), or 34 academic (25 astronomical) hours at the Moscow State University for International Relations (MGIMO-university). The relation between contact hours and students' independent workload is rather flexible, though the above-mentioned figures (14 contact hours and 22 hours of autonomous work) are observed by HEIs, as established by the federal standards. The current trend is to increase the number of hours of students' autonomous work, though it cannot be feasible in some subject areas.
The cycle approach to the study programmes and curricula enhances the role of modules as their structural units: the use of modules provides interdisciplinary links and compatibility between curricula and cycle degree programmes. The focus is shifted from the programme contents to learning outcomes, and the teaching-learning process becomes less syllabus-dominated and more competence-based. As a result, it is getting more interactive and student-centered or "collaborative, experiential, and learning-centered rather than … teaching-oriented like the teacher-centered chalk-and-talk technique,"[4] with the teacher becoming a facilitator.
The principles and procedures for designing module programmes for the Russian education system were set out in the works by Oleynikova and Muravieva.[5] In their publications, they explore the significance of developing a module approach in vocational training. The high demand for it owes much to the transfer to a knowledge-based society and new technologies. The authors discuss the issues of the dissemination of the module technologies in international practices and the need to apply them in Russia in order to raise the level of higher education standards in different areas and students' mobility.
The module system puts together related disciplines on the basis of the common subject-matter. This process provides cohesion and consistency of the curricula and cycle study programmes as a whole. Firstly, this approach aides the support of each discipline linked by related subjects to achieve common learning outcomes, which are required for professional qualifications. Secondly, the module autonomy within a curriculum and a cycle degree programme enables students to devise and follow their own learning trajectory. A period of study at partner universities would be desirable, if not mandatory.
The article explains the modular approach through a description of a translation module designed to teach translation by developing professional translator competences at the Master degree level.
Competences play a core role in modern education. It is therefore essential to focus on this subject-matter in greater detail, starting with definitions. In Tuning terminology a competence means a proven ability to use knowledge and skills in one's working, professional and private practices.[6] The 2009 EMT's framework defines it as "a combination of aptitudes, knowledge, behavior and knowhow necessary to carry out a given task under given conditions."[7] In other words, competences can be described as inner resources used by an individual to perform their professional tasks. Though there has been some difference in the definition of the term and notion, the competence-oriented approach has gained ground, and now competences can also be deemed as common reference points for the curriculum design and evaluation as well as for the teaching and learning process.[8]
It seems interesting to observe how the competence-based approach has been applied in teaching translation. To start with, the competence-based approach in education and curricula design was actively explored in the Soviet Union in the 1970s. The term competence/competency was primarily used to describe the highest level of professional mastery. Being later influenced by western education methodology, particularly, by the communicative competence model in the second language acquisition developed by van Ek,[9] this term started to denote the ability to use one's knowledge and skills in a professional setting. As the communicative competence is the corner stone of languaging and mediation, it has been the focus of the teaching-learning process in the second language acquisition. (Mediation is used in two meanings: in a more narrow sense, which stands for cross-cultural mediation relating to translation and interpreting, and in a broader sense when it is used "not just to communicate message, but rather to develop an idea through what is often called 'languaging')."[10] The detailed description of the components of the communicative competence is given in the two guidelines documents: the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages[11] and the above-mentioned CEFR Companion Volume.[12] Gradually these guidelines were introduced into the programmes of the key linguistic universities in Russia. Moreover, the CEFR has also been taken into account by the above-mentioned Federal Standards.[13]
By way of reflecting the communicative nature of translation and interpreting, the term communicative competence was introduced into the Soviet translation studies. One of the first models of translation competences was built by Komissarov.[14] He put together language, communicative, text-building and technical competences and gave a detailed description of the psychological and intellectual qualities and aptitudes of a translator/interpreter. The language component was connected with the communicative competence, text-building related to the discursive one whereas the communicative competence accounted for the ability to make inferences. It was one of the first attempts made by the Soviet researchers to identify and describe the core competences, though they were defined in somewhat different terms compared to their current usage.
The latest models developed by the Russian researchers use the terminology compatible with that of the European Union. For example, Gavrilenko[15] designed a translator competence model for LSP translation that also correlates with CEFR.[16]
The fundamental notion of Gavrilenko's model is the communicative competence that consists of linguistic, pragmatic and socio-linguistic components. Another key competence includes the knowledge of the subject-matter of specialised source texts as well as discursive, strategic and IT competences. In other words, the translation competence model proposed by Gavrilenko is composed of the knowledge of specific subject-matters related to the topic of translated texts, the knowledge of culture and specifics of the LSP discourse derived from the source culture. Gavrilenko also highlights the importance of the translator possessing adequate psychological and cognitive capacities and aptitudes, as well as emotional intellect. The model in question is applied to teaching written translation of LSP-texts from a foreign/source language (French) into a target/native language (Russian) (direct translation), as is quite relevant for a work environment of would-be translators.
A recent attempt to design a professional translator competence model was made by Korovkina[17] in her PhD thesis defended in 2017, with special focus on the core translation competences, such as generic and subject-specific communicative and cognitive competences which require more time to develop.
It should be noted that the latest translation competence-based models developed in Russia are compatible with the studies conducted by European researchers. Newmark[18] was one of the first in Europe to develop a comprehensive translation competence model. Other prominent researchers worked along the same lines,[19] for example, Roberts,[20] Göpferich,[21] Kiraly,[22] Malmkjaer,[23] Neubert,[24] Schaffner.[25] The researchers have singled out such principal competences as language, textual- discursive, transfer competences and the knowledge of the subject-matter. They also stressed the importance of pragmatic aspects in translation and related skills, for example, the ability to understand the communicative situation which depends on the level of the development of communicative and discursive competences, the knowledge of culture which presupposes the well-developed extra-linguistic competence.
Another important group of researchers – PACTE (Hurtado, Orosco, Fox, Presas, Beeby and others)[26] – has been carrying out empirical-experimental research into translation competence and its acquisition in written translation since 1997, and merits special acknowledgments. The Spanish researchers have built an integral holistic translation competence model, which has been adjusted and fine-tuned for more than twenty years. They look into the process of translation through the lens of the interpretative model.[27] The process of translation consists of three stages: grasping the sense of the source text, deverbalizing it, and, while switching over to the target language, reverbalizing the invariant meaning into the target language-specific structures. The PACTE competence model includes the following components: bilingual sub-competence (which in its turn encompasses pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual and lexico-grammatical knowledge in the source and target languages), extra-linguistic sub-competence (made up of encyclopaedic, thematic and bicultural knowledge), the translation knowledge, instrumental and strategic sub-competences.[28]
The PACTE group also makes it a point that inverse translation called into life by pragmatic reasons is viable and relevant, with this position opposed in the past by some mainstream European researchers. For example, Newmark believes that inverse translation can be used only as a teaching/learning device, as texts translated from the mother tongue into a foreign language can never reach the quality of a text produced by a native speaker in his/her native language.[29] Lederer argues that an inversely translated text can never sound natural for pragmatic reasons, as it is practically impossible to render the expressive function of the text at a high idiomatic level.[30] So it can be assumed that efforts and resources should not be spent on teaching the inverse translation, as the efficiency of teaching will always fall short. However, the current situation is as follows: if the inverse translation is not taught, the much-needed act of intercultural communication may fail to take place.[31] In this case, a translated text is assessed in terms of acceptability and quality of translation. Thus, at present the attitude towards inverse translation has undergone significant changes. European researchers have recognized the need to teach inverse translation from rare languages into a foreign language (Slavic languages included) whereas Spanish translation researchers and teachers have always been proponents of inverse translation and its teaching for pragmatic reasons on account of market demands. For example, Beeby[32],[33] described the competences needed for the translation from the mother tongue into a foreign language (Spanish – English) and emphasized the comparative and dynamic nature of the communicative and discursive competences, as the translation process is based on the comparison of grammar, vocabulary, communicative situations and the means of cohesion between the source and target languages. Other researchers also support the need for inverse translation training, for example; Chodkiewicz,[34] Elamin,[35] Yuste Frias,[36] Kelly et al.,[37] Pavlović,[38] Pokorn,[39],[40],[41] Roiss and Weatherby,[42] Schjoldager,[43] Seghiri,[44] Stewart,[45] and Ulrych.[46]
Unlike Europe, the Soviet/Russian school of translation has always advocated the need to teach inverse translation. Actually, there are some other possibilities to improve the quality of inverse translation, for example, through editing made by a native speaker. Another interesting option was suggested by Semenov, namely, working in translators' tandems, when the working languages of two partner translators are the same, though their mother tongues are different, with a native speaker acting as a consultant when a non-native speaker translates into a foreign language.[47] The same was suggested by Nida as back as in 1964[48] and Pokorn.[49],[50]
Moreover, according to some researchers, the global demand is currently growing for LSP-texts translations from different languages into English, and the translation by a non-native speaker together with other non-native speakers facilitates the understanding.[51]
Another important point is that all researchers of the PACTE group are unanimous in their views that the acquisition of translation competence as well as that of the instrumental and strategic ones are crucial in the process of teaching translation, given that all the other competences should be already well-developed (primarily the communicative competence, or bilingual one, as it is called by the group).[52] In practice, this means that the European researchers in general believe that it is more efficient to teach translation at the level of a Master degree after the communicative or bilingual (language) competence has already been well developed.
The Soviet school of translation used to have a different view on the problem: it recognized that all the competences and sub-competences that set up translation competence could be taught at the same time, and, actually, that was the only possible way to teach translation in the Soviet era. At present these attitudes are undergoing changes in both directions. In Europe researchers and teachers are also designing and implementing translation undergraduate degree programmes, as "many advantages are to be gained by shaping all or part of an undergraduate degree specifically to prepare students to enter the translation profession (or other professions in which translation-related skills are required)."[53] For example, this is done in Spain, Portugal and Belgium.[54] In Russia, translation is taught both at an undergraduate and graduate level, in Master degree programmes.
One of the aims of translation research studies is to raise quality of translator training. This is the concern of the Bologna Process as well. The Bologna requirements for translation were set out by the European Master in Translation framework (EMT) in 2009 and 2017. The 2009 EMT[55] presented them in the shape of a wheel, while the 2017 EMT[56] re-arranged essentially the same competences in a different format employing the term skills at the same conceptual level as the terms competences, knowledge, and learning outcomes. This terminological variety which is present in the Russian educational usage needs clarification. We have already discussed what is meant by the term competence. Alongside with this term, the Soviet teaching methodology used the terms knowledge, abilities and skills (znaniya, umeniya, naviky) as well. At present these are covered by the term competence, which is perceived as an inner resource required for professional activity (see definitions above). These terms – knowledge, skills and competences – are all used simultaneously, but the term competence has become universally accepted. In accordance with the established tradition in Russia, the term skill is used to stand for a minor sub-concept, which is part of a broader concept of the term competence. This understanding is in line with that of the Tuning methodology: a skill is "an intrinsic part of competence."[57]
The term learning outcome is new for Russia, and has not been used in the Russian HEIs before. We follow the Tuning's definition of learning outcomes as "what students should be able to know, understand, demonstrate, acquire, perform, and/or feel on completion of a course. They are performance-oriented parameters to measure the anticipated students' achievements."[58] "Learning outcomes indicate the level of competence that is desired and should be achieved. They are, in other words, the specifications of the results and outcomes of a learning process."[59] The introduction of the concept of 'a learning outcome' to the Russian education system proves instrumental for quality enhancement of teaching/learning process.
Another asset of the Tuning methodology is the principle of structuring the competence model on the basis of generic and subject-specific competences including four basic components (cognitive, communicative, socio-economic and methodological ones). This principle was applied to translation and interpretation in the Reference Points for the Design and Delivery of Degree Programmes in Interpreting and Translation (Tuning Russia project).[60] The competence model proposed there can be used for designing translation/interpreting curricula and programmes at the Bachelor and Master levels.
III. Problem
Here we present the design of an LSP-Translation module for the Master degree in Theoretical and Practical Translation, as little attention, if any, has been given to the modular competence-based approach in design of an LSP-translation module. The challenge is to do it properly in order to be able to achieve key competences required for professional qualifications. Moreover, the problem is how we can implement in reality the student- or learner-centered approach in teaching translation through competences/learning outcomes-based paradigm.
The module is constructed on the basis of the Tuning methodology. The material described is largely based on the above-mentioned Reference Points for the Design of the Degree Programmes in Interpreting and Translation,[61] in particular, the translation course syllabus offered at the Translation Department, School for Philology and History, RSUH (Moscow). This document published in 2013 in the framework of the Tuning Russia project finalised the joint efforts by a number of Russian universities to lay out a framework for devising degree programmes in the area of translation and interpreting. In addition to RSUH that coordinated the subject area group of modern languages (translation and interpreting), the following four universities were also involved in the design of new degree programmes in T/I: the Moscow State Academy of Business Administration, Udmurt State University, Don State Technical University, Yaroslav–the–Wise Novgorod University under the expert guidance of the University of Deusto, Bilbao, Spain, and the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. The model designed by these four universities has laid the basis for the new Federal Standards 3++ in translation and interpreting. That is why modules implemented at various universities within different cycle programmes are fairly similar to the one described in the article, though each university may have some specifics. For example, MGIMO-university master programme focuses on training translators and simultaneous interpreters for international organizations. The Moscow State Linguistic University offers undergraduate and master cycle programmes based on a universalist approach as its graduates are able to work practically in all sectors of the economy. The RSUH's competitive edge has long been in the humanities, that is why its graduates are mostly involved in this sector of the labour market.
As we describe an LSP translation module, we need to say a few words about LSP and LSP translation as such. In the 1970s English linguists coined the term 'Language for special purposes' – LSP (in opposition to the 'Language for general purposes'), which was used to facilitate communication in special areas of human knowledge or subject areas, for example, in technologies, law, finances, management, mass media and others. Khaleeva singled out four major areas of communication related to human activities: a) practical area connected with production of goods, b) daily life, c) spiritual or/and cultural area, and d) political area.[62] It is only in our daily life or daily routines that we use the language for general purposes, while all other areas of knowledge require LSP. LSP is studied through various methodological approaches, in the framework of the discourse analysis, functional stylistics, text linguistics and some others. Picht and Draskau believe that the function of the special communication is to convey specialised information at various levels of complexity in order to disseminate knowledge.[63]
In translation we have to take into account text functions, the leading function of the LSP texts being denotational or informative. This means that in teaching LSP-translation the focus is made on terms and notions denoted by the terms that belong to a specific subject area. The skopos-theory states that translation strategies should take into account the text functions.[64], [65] Pym[66] believes that it is easier to translate the informative texts that those belonging to a broad pragmatic context (the term by Givon[67]), which are not only informative, but also expressive. Moreover, we argue the possibility of both direct and inverse translation, as there is demand for both directions in Russia, as well as a growing global demand for LSP inverse translation from a mother tongue into English, as it has been stated above.
The choice of this particular module out of the ten constituents of the above-mentioned programme (alongside with such modules as Language Theory (Linguistics), Translation Studies, Area or Country Studies) can be explained by its key role in professional translator training. The objective of the module is to provide a student with knowledge, expertise and skills he or she may need to translate texts relating to different functional styles, at C1-C2 level of proficiency (according to CEFR).[68]
It is a prerequisite for the Master Degree applicant to have a language competence at least at the C1 proficiency level, which is to be upgraded to C2 upon completion of the course.
According to the Tuning methodology, the initial stage of the degree programme design needs to identify a list of competences the student is supposed to develop, which includes generic and subject-specific competences. The next step is to define inter-related competences that can be built in the framework of a module. In our case, the LSP-Translation module aims to develop the following competences:
• Generic Competence:
– Ability to search for, process and analyze information.
• Subject-Specific Competences:
– Translation competence: ability to translate (primarily meaning transfer phase between two languages)[69] and localize all basic types of texts, providing comments and references required.
– Pragmatic and Stylistic Adaptation competence: ability to reproduce the multi-layer structure of the source text with the help of the target language stylistic adaptations of various types and the target reader-oriented adapting strategy, in accordance with the norms of the target language and the criteria applied to a high-quality translation.
– Socio-cultural and cross-cultural competence: ability to apply and decode socio-cultural information contained in a source text.
– Information Technology competence: ability to use modern ITs to search for information, including terminological databases.
The full list of competences in the Translation Studies subject area is presented in the above-mentioned Reference Points.[70] One module is to develop from three to five competences. It should be noted that there is no unilateral correspondence between a module and a competence: each competence is not supposed to be developed only within one particular module whereas several modules can build one and the same competence. Some competences can be developed and fine-tuned in the course of the translator's professional life, for example, when he/she acquires knowledge and translation experience in a number of LSP areas.
The Tuning methodology assumes that the competences that a student acquires on completing the module help to identify the list of the disciplines which are to be included in the module. They are called the module's structural units. Here we would like to present an LSP-translation module which encompasses the above four subject-specific competences. The table below features five obligatory units (disciplines/subjects), their workload in ECTS and academic hours. The corresponding term of studies is also indicated.[71]
LSP-Translation Module Structure
Information Technologies in Translation
Translation of Journalistic Texts
Translation of Official/Legal Documents
Translation of Scientific/Technical Texts
Translation of Financial and Economic Texts
All subjects should be studied in a logical sequence from the first to the third term in order to build the required level of competence. Obviously, the course of Information Technologies in Translation should come first as it provides the basis for other specialized translation courses. The courses offering translation of journalistic, scientific/technical, economic/financial, and legal texts and official documents are supposed to take one term at the minimum or more, if deemed necessary.
Nowadays Russian universities calculate their academic workload both in the ECTS to conform to European universities, and in traditional academic hours, in line with the Federal Standards.
The disciplines in question have a total workload of three credit units (ECTS), or 108 hours. The number of hours and ECTS allotted to each discipline is defined by each individual university. The total number of hours of the MT degree allotted for LSP translation amounts to 410 – 540 hours (which is about 15 ECTS) or even 648 hours (18 ECTS), according to programmes drafted by different Russian universities. This is an approximate total time the students need to study a discipline at the Master level (to build the required skills). The module's practical orientation provides for the student's autonomy, that is why some 30 percent of hours are spent in class (instructor-led), though some programmes provide for a 50/50 split between in-class and individual study.
Our choice of the above-mentioned module is justified by the fact that LSP-translation is commonly offered at Master degree programmes in Russia owing to a high demand for this kind of translation.
Literary translation is quite another matter. In the Soviet era both the translated literature and its translation were highly popular, as they opened up new horizons for the Soviet people. Literary translation was taught at universities together with other translation modalities and types. At present Russian universities place emphasis on the LSP-translation for pragmatic reasons. Literary translation is taught at a limited number of universities which possess special resources. One of the key educational centres offering literary translation is the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute in Moscow which teaches at present direct translation from English, Spanish, Italian, German, French, Tatar, Bashkir and other Turkic languages into Russian. In this case, naturally, only one-way direct translation is possible. A course of English-Russian literary translation is also offered at the School for Philology and History at the Russian State University for Humanities where it is taught by well-known professional translators (G. Kruzhkov, A. Livergant). Similar courses have been designed by the Moscow State University and Moscow State Linguistic University, and other well-established universities in Russia.
Going back to the LSP translation module, we need to identify the types of work and learning methods that would build the above-mentioned competences in the framework of the module's disciplines. The basic types and modes of teaching are as follows:
1. Lectures: Despite the module's practical orientation, students need to obtain theoretical knowledge, as well as the methodology of working with different types of texts. They also need to be able to edit and search for various information sources. The subject Introduction into Translation is more theory-oriented than other disciplines of the module, with lectures accounting for 15 percent.
2. Practical exercises: They account for the bulk of the hours spent in class aimed at developing written translation skills. In the course of training the students perform translation tasks similar to those they will face in their future work. They also translate texts and do translation exercises resorting to special software (translation memory systems) and professional tools (databases, terminology dictionaries and other diverse tools). Moreover, the students are involved in group discussions aimed at analysing texts and contexts of the source language, selecting the best translation strategies, comparing translations and discussing the pros and cons of their classmates' translations, editing translated texts. These activities should account for at least 35 percent of the time spent in class.
3. The student's autonomous work (independent studies): It accounts for more than 60 percent of the total workload. Written translations, search for information through specialized tools and on-line resources are included in their individual work. Group projects are also welcome, when students perform real orders for translation. Such a project-based activity promoted by Kiraly[72] can be most helpful for translating financial, economic or technical texts which will involve all the translation stages: discussing the volume and methods of work, required resources, deadlines, and handing in the final version of a translated text to the client. Peer review or feedback makes a significant impact in this case. As Kiraly puts it, these activities "would serve as the venues for initiating and pursuing the development of translator sub-competences through first-hand experience, with the support of peers (project team members)."[73] All this may lead to students' greater autonomy and may "empower them to take responsibility for their own learning, their own sense-making and their own future."[74]
Another meaningful method in the student's independent work is a comparative analysis of parallel texts. There are two meanings to this term. The first stands for two absolutely identical texts in A and B languages: the original and its translation.[75] Another meaning relates to the texts produced by two or even more linguistic communities, which belong to the same subject area or even the same topic.[76] Working with parallel texts, students compare discursive elements in both languages, the means of cohesion and coherence, discursive markers and connectors, the way the information is presented in the text in terms of the theme and rheme[77] (or sentence functional perspective), and the correct usage of terms. This analysis enables the students to use more language-specific and idiomatic means in their own translations.[78]
The assessment of learning outcomes is the cornerstone in translation training. In order to assess the students' knowledge of the discipline and their acquisition of the competences developed on completion of the module, the following assessment tools are used: (a) individual tasks of translating texts of various styles; and (b) registers and genres, group translation projects, presentations offering the analysis and comparison of the available translations, editing the final translation versions, and written exams.
To assess the level of competence mastery and acquisition, many Russian universities, the RSUH being one of them, have adopted the European grading scale. Together with that grading system, Russian universities continue to use the long-established 5-point grading scale, as well as 'pass/no pass' grading options.
The main challenge is how to assess or evaluate a student's translation: what is the weight of a grammar, lexical, and stylistic mistake, or a semantic one causing the distortion of meaning? Each university tends to stick to its own assessment criteria. However, it is obvious that the assessment system should be uniform for the whole translator training area.
Actually, the assessment of students' learning outcomes is a concern of many teachers[79] (not only of those teaching translation).
This problem requires a special attention and is beyond the scope of the present article. It should be mentioned that solid research studies on translation quality assessment are well under way in Russia. To mention just a few, the recent monograph by Knyazheva[80] is one of them.
The above case study illustrates the design of one module of the Master degree programme for translator training within the competence-based, student-centered approach. It makes part of the whole study programme and fits in the general set-up, which is instrumental for quality programme design.
IV. Conclusions
Given the great impact of Bologna Process on the Russian higher education system, the latter has undergone tremendous changes over the past two decades. With the introduction of the 3-cycle system and competence-based new education standards (3++) at the federal level, modern Russian degree programmes become increasingly compatible with those in EU.
First of all, the above case study which reflects the impact of the Tuning Russia project helps to highlight important methodological issues related to translator training and programme design in Russia. Competences prove to be the cornerstone of contemporary education process. The insight into Russian translator training shows that the competence-based approach, which was discussed as early as the 1970s, has undergone rethinking and has become a major issue for the quality design of a new generation of MA in translation. The analysis of the state-of-the-art in translation training in Europe shows a certain degree of compatibility between Russian and European programmes, with the common denominator being a competence-based approach. Given that a lot of research on translation competences is going on in the EU (e.g., EMT, PACTE) and Russia (e.g., the Tuning Russia project), it is essential that consensus should be finally achieved and some common translation competence-based models developed.
The methodological principles of the competence-based education can be exemplified by the LSP translation module designed for the Master Degree programme. The detailed description of the module based on the Tuning methodology can serve as a possible model to design an EU compatible programme in translation. The module is analyzed according to the competences and learning outcomes to be achieved, workload and schedule, constituent disciplines, learning technologies and teaching methods, tools and competence acquisition/mastery assessment criteria.
One of the challenges is the adequate assessment of students' competences/learning outcomes; this issue is under consideration in the present-day translator training. It is an issue for a separate publication, as it is beyond the scope of this article.
The adequate assessment of students' competences/learning outcomes is part and parcel of translator training, and the unification and uniformity of assessment criteria need to be further coordinated in the global educational area.
Common methodology, principles and approaches facilitate the alignment of the Russian higher education system with the main principles of the Bologna Process.
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———. "Towards a Model of Translation Competence and Its Acquisition: The Longitudinal Study TransComp." In Behind the Mind: Methods, Models and Results in Translation Process Research, edited by Susanna Göpferich, Arnt Jakobsen and Inger Mees, 12–38. Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur, 2009.
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———. "Growing a Project-Based Translation Pedagogy: A Fractal Perspective." Meta 57, no. 1 (2012): 82–95. https://doi.org/10.7202/1012742ar.
———. "Towards a View of Translator Competence as an Emergent Phenomenon: Thinking Outside the Box(es) in Translator Education." In New Prospects and Perspectives for Educating Language Mediators, edited by Don Kiraly, Silvia Hansen-Schirra, and Karin Maksymski, 197–224. Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 2013.
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———. "What is Translation Competence?" Revue Française de Linguistique Appliqué 14, no. 1 (2009): 121–134. https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-linguistique-appliquee-2009-1-page-121.htm.
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———. "Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues." Meta 20, no. 2 (2005): 609–619. https://doi.org/10.72/02011004ar.
———. "Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Acceptability and Decision-making." Across Languages and Cultures 10, no. 2 (2009): 207–230. https://doi.org/.10.1556Acr.10.2009.2.3.
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———. Challenging the Traditional Axioms: Translating into a Non-mother Tongue. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, 2005.
———. "Natives or Non-natives? That is the Question: Teachers of Translation into Language B." The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 3, no. 2 (2009): 189–208. https://doi.org/.10.1080/1750399X.2009.10798788.
———. "Bilingual Teachers in Translation Courses: An Ideal Situation?" In Translationskultur Revisited: Festschrift für Erich Prunč, (Stauffenburg Festschriften), edited by Nadja Grbić, 245–260. Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 2010.
———. "Is It So Different? Competences of Teachers and Students in L2 Translation Classes." Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione 18 (2016): 31–48. https://doi.org/.10.13137/2421-6763/13664.
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[*] Vera Zabotkina (zabotkina@rggu.ru) is Vice-Rector for International Cooperation, Director of the Centre for Cognitive Programs and Technologies, and Professor at the Department of Translation Studies of the Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH), Russia. Olga Sudakova (olgsud@yandex.ru) is a professor at the same Department of Translation Studies, while Marina Korovkina (mekorovkina@gmail.com) is a senior lecturer teaching translation and interpreting at Moscow State Institute for International Relations (MGIMO University), Russia.
More information about the authors is available at the end of the article.
Acknowledgements: We are grateful to Dr. Victoria Kruglyakova who contributed to the article at the initial stage of its preparation.
[1] This article was prepared with financial support of Russian Science Foundation grant 17-78-30029.
[2] Russian Federal State Educational Standards for Higher Education in Linguistics (Master's Level) [in Russian], no. 783 (2016), http://fgosvo.ru/news/4/1890.
[3] Vera Zabotkina et al., Reference Points for the Design and Delivery of Degree Programmes in Interpreting and Translation (Bilbao: University of Deusto, 2013), 12. Please follow the sample citations (Notes and Bibliography) for books: https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide/citation-guide-1.html.
[4] Don Kiraly, "Growing a Project-Based Translation Pedagogy: A Fractal Perspective," Meta 57, no. 1 (2012): 84– 85, https://doi.org/10.7202/1012742ar.
[5] Olga Oleynikova et al., Module Technologies and the Development of Study Programmes [in Russian] (Moscow: Alfa-M 2010), 4-256.
[6] Raquel Crespo et al., "Aligning Assessment with Learning Outcomes in Outcome-based Education," EEE Education Engineering (IEEE EDUCON Education Engineering, 2010), 1-8.
[7] https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_competences_translators_en.pdf.
[8] Robert Wagenaar, "Competence and Learning Outcomes: A Panacea for Understanding the (New) Role of Higher Education?," Tuning Journal for Higher Education 1, no. 2 (May 2014): 291.
[9] Jan van Ek, "Coping," The Language Teacher 1 (1988): 35-40.
[10] The CEFR Companion Volume (2018), 33, https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume0with-new-descriptors-2018/16800787989.
[11] Common European Framework of References for Languages, Council of Europe (2001), https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.
[12] The CEFR Companion Volume (2018), https://rm.coe.int/cefr-companion-volume0with-new-descriptors-2018/16800787989.
[13] Russian Federal State Educational Standards for Higher Education in Linguistics (Master's Level) [in Russian], no. 783 (2016), http://fgosvo.ru/news/4/1890.
[14] Vilen Komissarov, Theoretic Fundamentals of Translation Teaching Methods [in Russian] (Moscow: Rema, 1997), 37–73.
[15] Natalia Gavrilenko, Teaching LSP-Translation [in Russian] (Moscow: RUDN, 2008), 1–175.
[16] Common European Framework of References for Languages, Council of Europe (2001). https://www.coe.int/en/web/common-european-framework-reference-languages.
[17] Marina Korovkina, "Theoretic Aspects of Sense Modelling in LSP-Translation from Mother Tongue into Foreign Language (on the Basis of Newspaper Texts of Economic Discourse)" [in Russian] (PhD diss., Military University, Moscow, 2017), 30–152.
[18] Peter Newmark, About Translation (Clevedon/Philadelphia/Adelaide: Multilingual Matters, 1991), 184.
[19] We do not strictly follow the chronological order.
[20] Roda Roberts, "Compétence du Nouveau Diplôme en Traduction," in Traduction et Qualité de Langue. Actes du Colloque Société des traducteurs du Québec (Québec: Éditeur officiel du Québec, 1984): 172–184.
[21] Susanne Göpferich, "Towards a Model of Translation Competence and its Acquisition: The Longitudinal Study Transcomp," in Behind the Mind: Methods, Models and Results in Translation Process Research, ed. Susanne Göpferich et al. (Copenhagen: Samfundslitteratur, 2009), 12–38.
[22] Don Kiraly, "Towards a View of Translator Competence as an Emergent Phenomenon: Thinking Outside the Box(es) in Translator Education," in New Prospects and Perspectives for Educating Language Mediators, ed. Don Kiraly et al. (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 2013), 197–224.
[23] Kirsten Malmkjaer, "What is Translation Competence?," Revue française de linguistique appliqué 14, no.1 (2009): 121–134, https://www.cairn.info/revue-francaise-de-linguistique-appliquee-2009-1-page-121.htm.
[24] Albrecht Neubert, "Competence in Language, and in Translation," in Developing Translation Competence, ed. Christina Schaffner and Beverly Adab (Birmingham/Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Aston University, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000), 3–18.
[25] Christina Schaffner, "Running Before Walking? Designing a Translation Programme at Undergraduate Level," in Developing Translation Competence, ed. Christina Schaffner and Beverly Adab (Birmingham/Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Aston University, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000), 143–155.
[26] PACTE, "Acquiring Translation Competence: Hypotheses and Methodological Problems in a Research Project," in Investigating Translation, ed. Allison Beeby et al. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2000), 99–106.
[27] Marianne Lederer, Translation. The Interpretative Model (Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2003), 153–155.
[28] PACTE, "Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues," Meta 50, no. 2 (2005): 609–619, https://doi.org/10.7202/011004ar.
[29] Newmark, About Translation, 50.
[30] Lederer, Translation. The Interpretative Model, 153-155.
[31] Gerard Mcalester, "The Evaluation of Translation into a Foreign Language," in Developing Translation Competence, ed. Christina Schaffner and Beverly Adab (Birmingham/Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Aston University/ John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000), 228.
[32] Allison Beeby, "Evaluating the Development of Translation Competence," in Developing Translation Competence, ed. Christina Schaffner and Beverly Adab (Birmingham/Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Aston University, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000), 185–199.
[33] Allison Beeby, "Genre Literacy and Contrastive Rhetoric in Teaching Inverse Translation," in La Direccionalidad en Traducción e Interpretación – Perspectivas Teóricas, Profesionales y Didáctica, ed. Dorothy Kelly et al. (Granada: Atrio, 2003), 155–166.
[34] Marta Chodkiewicz, "What Types of Errors Do Undergraduate Make Depending on Directionality?," in Translation and Meaning. New series, volume 2, part 2, ed. Łukasz Bogucki et al. (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2016): 191–208.
[35] Saadia Elamin, "Foreign Language Courses for Translation Undergraduates. Adapting to Changes in Translation Directionality – A Case Study: English Grammar for Arabic Students," Forum 14, no. 2 (2016): 239–254, https://doi.org/.10.1075/forum.14.2.04ela.
[36] Jose Yuste Frias, "Didáctica de la Traducción Inversa Español-Francés – El Fin Justifica los Medios," in Estudios sobre traducción – Teoría, didáctica, profesión, ed. Jose Yuste Frias and Alberto Álvarez Lugris (Vigo: Servizo de Publicacións da Universidade de Vigo, 2005), 147–170. http://www.joseyustefrias.com/docu/publicaciones/JoseYusteFrias%202005d.pdf.
[37] Dorothy Kelly, Maria-Louise Nobs, Dolores Sanchez, and Catherine Way, "Reflections on Directionality in Translator Training," Forum 4, no.1 (2006): 57–81. doi:10.1075/forum.4.1.04kel.
[38] Nataša Pavlović, "What Were They Thinking?! Students' Decision-making in L1 and L2 Translation Processes," Hermes - Journal of Language and Communication in Business 44 (2010): 63–87, https://doi.org/10.7146/hjlcb.v23i44.97267.
[39] Nike Pokorn, "Natives or Non-natives? That is the Question: Teachers of Translation into Language B," The Interpreter and Translator Trainer 3, no. 2 (2009): 189–208, https://doi.org/.10.1080/1750399X.2009.10798788.
[40] Nike Pokorn, "Bilingual Teachers in Translation Courses: An Ideal Situation?," in Translationskultur Revisited: Festschrift für Erich Prunč, (Stauffenburg Festschriften), ed. Nadja Grbić (Tübingen: Stauffenburg, 2010), 245–260.
[41] Nike Pokorn, "Is It So Different? Competences of Teachers and Students in L2 Translation Classes," Rivista Internazionale di Tecnica della Traduzione 18 (2016): 31–48, doi:10.13137/2421-6763/13664.
[42] Silvia Roiss and Joanna Weatherby, "A Need for Reorientation – Creative Strategies for the Teaching of Translation into a Foreign Language," in Translators' Strategies and Creativity, ed. Ann Beylardey et al. (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998), 213–221. https://doi.org/.10.1075/btl.27.29roi.
[43] Anne Schjoldager, "Are L2 Learners More Prone to Err When They Translate?," in Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes, ed. Kirsten Malmkjær (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2004), 127–149. https://doi.org/.httpdoi:10.1075/btl.59.10sch.
[44] Miriam Seghiri, "El Corpus Comparable para la Didáctica de la Traducción Jurídica Inversa (Español-Inglés)," in Traducir en la Frontera, ed. Susana Cruces-Colado et al. (Granada: Atrio, 2012), 815–830.
[45] Dominic Stewart, "Vocational Translation Training into a Foreign Language," in TRAlinea 10 (2008), http://www.intralinea.org/archive/article/1646http://www.intralinea.org/archive/article/1646.
[46] Margherita Ulrych, "Teaching Translation into L2 With the Aid of Multilingual Parallel Corpora – Issues and Trends," Miscellanea 4 (2000): 59–80.
[47] Arkadiy Semenov, Theory of Translation [in Russian] (Moscow: Academy, 2013), 138.
[48] Eugene Nida, Toward a Science of Translating: With Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1964), 1–202.
[49] Nike Pokorn, Challenging the Traditional Axioms: Translating into a Non-mother Tongue (Amsterdam, Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, 2005), 1–161.
[50] Nike Pokorn, "Translation into a Non-mother Tongue in Translation Theory: Deconstruction of the Traditional," in Translation in Context: Selected Contributions from the EST Congress, ed. Andrew Chesterman et al. (Amsterdam, Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, 1998), 61–72.
[51] Basil Hatim, Teaching and Researching Translation (London, New York: Longman/Pearson Education, 2001), 164.
[52] PACTE, "Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model: Acceptability and Decision- making," Across Languages and Cultures 10, no. 2 (2009): 207–230, https://doi.org/.10.1556Acr.10.2009.2.3.
[53] Kirsten Malmkjaer, ed., Translation in Undergraduate Degree Programmes (Amsterdam-Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2004), 3.
[54] Michael Bastin, "Translation Schools in Belgium," BeTranslated, last modified May 8, 2017, https://www.betranslated.co.uk/blog/translation-schools-belgium/.
[55] Competences for Professional Translators, Experts in Multilingual and Multimedia Communication (2009), https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_competences_translators_en.pdf.
[56] EMT Competence Framework (2017), https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/emt_competence_fwk_2017_en_web.pdf.
[57] Robert Wagenaar, "Competence and Learning Outcomes: a Panacea for Understanding the (New) Role of Higher Education?," Tuning Journal for Higher Education 1, no. 2 (May 2014): 297.
[58] Ahmud Al Husban et al., "Implementing the Competences-Based and Student-Centered Learning Approach in Architectural Design Education. The Case of the T MEDA Pilot Architectural Programme at the Hashemite University (Jordan)," Tuning Journal for Higher Education 4, no.1 (November 2016): 57.
[59] Robert Wagenaar, "Competence and Learning Outcomes," 294.
[60] Vera Zabotkina et al., Reference Points, 70.
[62] Irina Khaleeva, The Theoretic Basics of Teaching Understanding a Foreign Language [in Russian] (Moscow: Vysshaya shkola, 1989), 5–238.
[63] Heribert Picht, Jennifer Draskau, Terminology: An Introduction (Guildford: University of Surrey, 1985), 4–265.
[64] Katharina Reiss, Hans Vermeer, Grudlegung einer Allgemeinen Translationstheorie (Tübingen: Niemeyer, 1984), 5–250.
[65] Christiane Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis (Amsterdam-New York: Rodopi, 2005), 10–250.
[66] Anthony Pym, Miriam Shlesinger, Zuzana Jettmarova, Sociocultural Aspects of Translating and Interpreting (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 2006), 5–255.
[67] Talmy Givon, Mind, Code and Context: Essays in Pragmatics (New Jersey: Hillsdale, 1989), 5–456.
[70] Vera Zabotkina et al. Reference Points, 29.
[71] The 4th term is omitted here, as it is supposed to be used for writing an MA dissertation.
[72] Don Kiraly, A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education. Empowerment from Theory to Practice (Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, 2000), 1–207.
[73] Don Kiraly, "Growing a Project-Based Translation Pedagogy: A Fractal Perspective," Meta 57, no. 1 (2012): 84, https://doi.org/10.7202/1012742ar: 84.
[74] Ibid: 84.
[75] Arkadiy Semenov, Theory of Translation [in Russian] (Moscow: Academy, 2013), 1–126.
[76] Susanne Göpferisch, "Paralleltexte," in Handbook Translation, ed. Mary Snell-Hornby et al. (Tübingen: Stauffenburg Verlag, 1999), 184–186.
[77] The Russian term for the sentence functional perspective.
[78] Hayeyoung Kim, "Teaching Translation into the Second Language to Undergraduate Students – Importance of Background Knowledge and Parallel Texts," Forum 1 (2004): 29–29, https://doi.org/.10.1075/forum.2.1.03kim.
[79] Anna Serbati and Alessio Surian, "Developing Reflection on Competence-Based Learning: the Russian Experience with the Tuning Approach," Tuning Journal for Higher Education 1, no. 2 (May, 2014): 469.
[80] Elena Knyazheva, Translation Quality Assessment: History, Theory, and Practice [in Russian] (Moscow: Flinta, 2018), 1–248.
VERA ZABOTKINA (zabotkina@rggu.ru), PhD, is Vice-Rector for International Cooperation, Director of the Centre for Cognitive Programmes and Technologies, and Professor at the Department of Translation Studies at the Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH). She has expertise in EU project management (Erasmus+, EMA2, EM Joint MAs, Tempus, Council of Europe, UNESCO and UNICEF projects, etc.). She is a Bologna promoter and has experience in developing the university strategy of international cooperation with focus on compatibility of degrees, and curricula development for 2 cycles based on the needs of the labor market. She is a certified Higher Education Reform Expert (HERE) and an Expert of the National Training Foundation. She has expertise in setting up quality assurance system within dual degree programme in the framework of Joint European Tempus Project. Prof. Zabotkina is the editor and one of the authors of the Quality Handbook for Joint International MA Programmes. She was coordinating a group of six universities (subject area group – modern languages, translation) within the Joint Tempus project "Tuning Russia" and has more than 190 publications including 5 monographs and articles on cognitive linguistics and international projects. She is a member of the editorial board of several Scopus journals including Tuning Journal for Higher Education. She teaches a course on Foundations of Cognitive linguistics for translators/interpreters.
OLGA SUDAKOVA (olgsud@yandex.ru), PhD, is a professor at the Department of Translation Studies, Russian State University for the Humanities (RSUH), Moscow (Russia). She teaches Written Translation, International News Translation, and Publicistic Translation (English-Russian). Her research interests include text ambivalence and pragmatics in political discourse translation. She translates for "The New Historical Bulletin", a Scopus-indexed research journal (RSUH). Dr. Sudakova participated in the Tuning Project Russia, being a co-author of "The Reference Points for the Design and Delivery of Degree Programmes in Interpreting and Translation" (2013).
MARINA KOROVKINA (mekorovkina@gmail.com), PhD, is a Senior Lecturer teaching translation and interpreting at Moscow State Institute for International Relations (MGIMO University). She is a practicing simultaneous interpreter in the following subject areas: economics, finance, legal issues, environmental protection, education, cognitive sciences and linguistics, military and political issues, chemistry, medicine, nuclear industry, and some others. Dr. Korovkina is actively involved in research, having published about twenty papers on translation and interpreting. Dr. Korovkina also participates in Russian and European conferences on related topics. She was awarded with the Certificate of Merit by the Ministry for Education and Science of the Russian Federation for her contribution into the training of high-skilled translators and interpreters. Dr. Korovkina has designed a course aimed at developing LSP-translation skills in finance and economics. This course takes into account the differences in the conceptual and language world views of Russian and English. Its upgraded edition is used for the training of simultaneous interpreters at the graduate level.
Copyright for this article is retained by the Publisher. It is an Open Access material that is free for full online access, download, storage, distribution, and or reuse in any medium only for non-commercial purposes and in compliance with any applicable copyright legislation, without prior permission from the Publisher or the author(s). In any case, proper acknowledgement of the original publication source must be made and any changes to the original work must be indicated clearly and in a manner that does not suggest the author's and or Publisher's endorsement whatsoever. Any other use of its content in any medium or format, now known or developed in the future, requires prior written permission of the copyright holder.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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— A Return to Art Criticism —
Open Secrets: Gossip and the Reframing of a Canadian Painting Dynasty
After the Afterparty: Alan Belcher and Friends, in Retrospect
"What Makes Great Art?" with Isabel Lewis
Momus: A Return to Art Criticism Vol. 1
Mandate and Masthead
Retrospective: Pollock in LIFE
By Cliff Eyland • Features• March 27, 2015
Pollock at work, with Less Krasner behind. Photo by Martha Holmes for LIFE, 1949.
Pollock. Photo by Martha Holmes.
From LIFE, a Congolese village photographer named Mayola Amici holds up a finger as a way of saying "watch the birdie."
A cartoon from the 1949 issue of LIFE that featured Pollack.
Pollock as featured by LIFE.
Journalists follow a time-tested format. An example of this occurs in what is perhaps the most important article about art published in any magazine, LIFE's feature on Jackson Pollock, published in 1949. It has become a journalistic template, an enduring post-war ideal of arts writing, still regularly conjured to reflect romanticized attitudes to contemporary art and reinforced by Hollywood movies such as Lust for Life, Basquiat, and, of course Ed Harris's Pollock.
The title of the LIFE piece asks the question "Jackson Pollock. Is he the greatest living painter in the United States?" as though challenging the reader to arrive at a judgment. The magazine implies "yes" and does not offer alternatives.
The unattributed opinion of an unnamed critic, by all accounts Clement Greenberg, is adduced as proof: "Recently a formidably high-brow New York critic hailed the brooding, puzzled-looking man shown above as a major artist of our time." The article goes on, "He is fast becoming the most talked-of and controversial U.S. painter," though nothing specific about what is controversial in the art is mentioned. The artist's process is as unfathomable as the art: "Finally, after days of brooding and doodling, Pollock decides the painting is finished, a deduction few others are equipped to make." The work is said to fetch high prices, $1800 for the painting Number Nine, or as the magazine puts it, $100 per foot for the 3×18-foot piece.
Willem de Kooning famously said that Pollock in LIFE "broke the ice" for abstract painting. But, more truly, LIFE encased a concept of "abstract painting" or "Modern Art" in ice, as if to say that contemporary art cannot be understood very well, like the Theory of Relativity or a Buick's drive shaft. However, with patience, free association, and perhaps the help of a critic, a sort of aesthetic mechanic, Modern Art is comprehensible. These assertions were followed throughout the 1950s in American Cold-War rhetoric by another essential truth, namely that abstract painting is free expression in a free country, however much you may not understand it.
Pollock's art is put into perspective by his grocer, an everyman like the feature writer (who goes unnamed) and putative reader of LIFE: "He [Pollock] has also won a following among his own neighbors in the village of Springs, N.Y., who amuse themselves by trying to decide what his paintings are about. His grocer bought one which he identifies for bewildered visiting salesman as an aerial view of Siberia."
Ten years after Pollock appeared in LIFE, the art historian E.H. Gombrich in Art and Illusion doesn't do much better than the grocer's reading of "Siberia." Gombrich, wary of the "code-breaking sophistication" Pollock presumably assumes of the viewer, asserts that Gestalt psychology is a savvy approach. He characterizes an informed viewer as "only those who know how to apply the various traditional consistency tests and thereby discover the absence of any meaning except the highly ambiguous meaning of traces." Though today's sophisticated viewers are more likely to connect a new work of abstract art with a previous one (hence Walter Robinson's recent term "zombie formalism"), the LIFE article's audience had to overcome impulses that produced a representational work from an abstract painting.
Pollock in LIFE didn't do much to unravel the complexities of his art for the magazine's readership, but rather underscored issues related to American cultural nationalism. In the 1950s, branch-plant status was a growing concern, causing Clement Greenberg to remark:
If Pollock were a Frenchman, I feel sure that there would be no need by now to call attention to my own objectivity in praising him; people would already be calling him "maitre" and speculating on his pictures. Here in this country the museum directors, the collectors, and the newspaper critics will go on for a long time–out of fear if not out of incompetence – refusing to believe that we have at last produced the best painter of a whole generation; and they will go on believing everything but their own eyes.
Because picture magazines were as popular in 1949 as television would soon become (and what web-surfing is today), much of the post-war artworld outside of New York was introduced to Pollock's art by LIFE's article, the tail that wagged the dog of high culture. LIFE's Pollock sailed over the heads of advanced art's gatekeepers to arrive at the stoops of Americans – and others (a later iteration would wink its reference, General Idea's 1960s/'70s parody product, FILE Magazine). Denise Leclerc, in The Crisis of Abstraction in Canada, claims that both Art McKay and Jean-Paul Riopelle were introduced to Pollock's work by way of LIFE.
Pollock's artistic company in the magazine is inescapable to the contemporary reader. These subjects are portrayed as ordinary people who happen to paint, sculpt, or take photographs. On page 13, a Congolese village photographer named Mayola Amici holds up a finger as a way of saying "watch the birdie"; on page 80, an illustrator named Stevan Dohanos works on a painting for a Saturday Evening Post cover; on page 81, two artists named James and Laura Fraser wheel around their sculptures; also on page 81, an artist named Helen Hokinson sits primly on the lawn of her Westport house, "where she draws her famous cartoons of fat and fatuous ladies for the New Yorker magazine." These little profiles compete for attention with articles on dime-store fashions, the Zurich zoo, a vertical wind tunnel, "respectable motorcyclists," cardsharps, and a very strange cartoon contest by Al Capp.
By contrast, Pollock stands out as a proto-beatnik who peers defiantly off the page past his artistic company. He is American modernity writ large, even if it has yet to exchange its Dustbowl dungarees for Soho slacks. Pollock's tough demeanor aligns well with what we know about the artist, his hard-drinking pals at the Cedar Tavern, and his early and abandoned mentor Thomas Hart Benton. But Pollock also heralds the emerging James-Dean era of popular culture in which the hard guy is vulnerable, too.
The 1967 Museum of Modern Art Pollock retrospective (the museum issued a second one in 1998) was the largest ever devoted to an American artist, but its catalogue did not include a critical essay. Instead, a chronology of Pollock's life and career is presented, one that reinforces a mythology of the artist as issued in LIFE, complete with the same 1949 photographs, and one from 1928 (also featured in LIFE) that pictures Pollock as a Californian cowboy. In alignment with the dominance of American movies at the time, Pollock was made cinematic. Certainly Ed Harris's 2000 film can be seen as the final triumph in this regard, though one, too, of LIFE's enduring portrayal. The magazine may have encased Pollock in ice, but Harris built a glacier around him. We may still wonder, can the ice around our ideas about the avant-garde be broken?
By Cliff Eyland
Cliff Eyland is a painter, writer, and curator. He studied at Holland College, Mount Allison University, and the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design. Since 1981, he has made paintings, drawings, and notes in an index card format. He has shown his work in public and secret installations in art galleries and libraries in Canada, the United States, and Europe, and has published reviews and essays about art since 1983.
Latest Posts By Cliff Eyland
Art McKayClement GreenbergCliff EylandDenise LeclercEd HarrisJackson PollockJean-Paul RiopelleLIFE MagazineMartha HolmesMoMAMomusThe Crisis of Abstraction in Canada
Previous articleInterview: The Difficulty in Distilling Suzy Lake
Next article"I Don't Give a Shit About Authenticity": Sholem Krishtalka Performs His Reveal in "A Berlin Diary"
Land and Landlessness: A Conversation with Larry Towell
Let Them Eat Crystal: Rodney Graham and the Bankruptcy of Ironic Art
An Allegory for an Absconded Modernity: Claudio Correa's Brigantine Signals Chile's Speculative Present
Physically light, Libertad, Igualdad, Fatalidad (2016) is not underweight on ambition or conceptual ballast. Its creator, Chilean artist Claudio Correa, installed a real-scale brigantine…
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The Business of Setting A Healthy Example….
While working out at the gym the other day, I was exercising alongside a gentleman who seemed to be happily giving it his all. He looked to be a healthy gentleman approximately in his mid-50's, This guy was really enjoying himself! He commented to me that he was "trying to keep this old body limber." I replied, "yeah, after 50 it isn't so easy"……… as this was my own experience! His response was, "yes……well, I'm 83." I almost dropped the dumbbell in my hand. I couldn't believe it. This man looked amazing!!
We struck up and conversation and my curiosity got the best of me. I decided to dig deeper into his wellness history. I asked him if he had always worked out and eaten healthy. He shared his lifestyle story with me…. and it was amazing. He said that in his younger years, when his friends would head out to the local bars after work, he would head to an underground gymnasium to exercise for a few hours. In the years that followed, he worked to remain mindful of his eating habits and worked out diligently. He and his wife, (who are now celebrating 64 yrs of marriage), went on to have 4 children. He very proudly told me that all of his children graduated from college. The good news? He didn't even have to pay for two of them.
Through the years, this man's family followed his lead by eating healthy, exercising, and taking care of themselves. As a result, two of his children went all the way through college on athletic scholarships. His grandson had also been awarded an athletic scholarship. His entire family had been influenced by his example of self-care, fitness, and healthy eating. This lifestyle became the cornerstone of their family story.
Healthy eating habits, exercise, and a positive mindset are practices that can not only give us the best chance for a strong, healthy, and long life. It's important to note that these choices can also have a profound effect on the health of our families for generations to come!


A Homebuyer Associates' client recently purchased a condominium. They decided they did not want the demands of maintaining a home and wanted the freedom to be away. A condominium purchase was right for the lifestyle they wanted. I cautioned our client that a condominium purchase can be fraught with challenges.
I am selling a condominium that my wife and I used to live in at 2555 N. Lake Dr, Milwaukee. (see the link below).
One potential buyer of our condo opted for a newer condominium. They were not clients, so I could not counsel them about what to be aware of when buying a condominium, although ours is good.
1. What is the owner occupancy rate of the condominium?
The owner-occupancy rate for our condominium development is 96%. A potential buyer of our unit purchased a different, newer condominium (which shall remain nameless) where the owner occupancy rate was 58%. That means 42% of the condominiums were owned by the developer or by absentee owners. With no disrespect to renters, renters do not maintain property to the extent owners do. They have no skin in the game.
The lower the owner occupancy rate of the development, the greater chance maintenance will be deferred and the long-term Reserve fund for capital improvements underfunded. That is bad. If you are buying a condominium, take a very hard look at the owner occupancy rate. If you don't, it is my opinion you are buying a long-term rental.
2. What is The Financial Condition of the Homeowners Association (HOA)?
When considering a condominium purchase, look at the financials, especially the Reserve fund for the HOA. A downtown condominium (again, remaining nameless) advertises "low monthly fees." The sign should say, "Low fees now so you can get socked later for capital improvements when we are gone." Maybe they just didn't have space on the advertising sign. The truth takes 16 words and the false only 3.
Roughly 4 years ago it was it was time for planned capital improvements at the condominium I am presently selling. For that work there were no special assessments. We had adequate Reserves to install a new roof (20-25 year lifecycle); redo the courtyard (30 year lifecycle) and paint/caulk the exterior of the development. We continue to set aside sufficient Reserves for projects that will need to be done in 25 – 30 years.
Board members and Reserve fund planning should be pro-active, looking to the future and banking reasonable – not too low, not too high – funds for long-term capital improvements. If you look at a condominium that advertises or has low fees and low reserves – run. Those words which appear so attractive now mean special assessments will be needed in the future. You will use other &%$#! words then.
3. What are the Monthly Fees?
You want monthly fees to cover items like landscaping, common electric, snow plowing, management fees and other routine maintenance costs. Sometimes buyers look at the fee structure and forget that as a home owner – factoring the time value of money – they may have spent the same or more than the monthly condominium fee to maintain their home. I find it one of the attractive features of condominium ownership.
Be aware of the quality of the sound insulation of the unit. All condominiums are not created equally in this respect. We advise clients to not be adjacent to a bus stop (start and stop noise); near a bridge that raises and lowers (and can give a pounding sound as traffic moves across the bridge); near a stop light (radio noise while waiting for the light to change) or above the main garage door entrance for a multi unit building. Little things matter.
If you have questions about condominium ownership or real estate in general, I believe the cost of a cup of Joe remains $1.89 at one of our local coffee shops. Contact me and we'll talk.
Oh, yes. If you know of someone interested in our condo, pass the information on.


Payment Protection Insurance (PPI) plans have been mis-sold by many high-street banks, mortgage lenders and credit card suppliers for a number of years now. If you have taken out a personal loan, credit card or mortgage in the last 10 years you may be eligible to make a PPI claim.
After being reprimanded by the Financial Services Authority (FSA) and having rulings made against them by the British courts, many high street-banks have been setting aside large amounts of money in order to pay out compensation claims made by customers.
Banks have also been hiring a large number of staff in order to organise the process of paying out compensation to those filing PPI reclaim paperwork.
For customers who have been mis-sold Payment Protection Insurance it is a great time to launch a claim for compensation.
Since the ruling against the way in which PPI had been sold by many major banks, in April 2011, professional experts, such as Payment Protection Partnership, have been helping those in need to recoup the expenses they have lost on PPI schemes.
Many customers who have been mis-sold PPI are not even aware that they may have been paying out extra for an insurance plan that was neither compulsory nor always necessary.
Yet the process of reclaiming compensation can often be a complicated and confusing trail of paperwork and communication with your high-street bank. Fortunately, companies such as Payment Protection Partners are available to offer a helping hand.
If you find yourself needing more help with your claim, a face-to-face meeting can often be arranged with a local expert, removing the complications that can occur over the phone. However, it is important to remember that many customers are not sure whether they have been sold a payment protection insurance plan or not.
Consequently, it is a wise decision to check through the details of any lending contracts or paperwork that you have collected in the last 10 years.
Alternatively, your bank may have retained the information concerning your loan, in which case a company of professional experts will be able to aid you in making your claim.
If you didn't ask for PPI, but it was added to policy regardless, or if you were told that adding PPI was compulsory, you may be entitled to compensation and should look into making a claim.
Similarly, if you were not aware payment protection was optional, or were unemployed, retired or self-employed at the time the protection was taken out, you may be eligible for compensation.
Considering the amount of money you may receive in compensation, it is well worth taking the time to contact experts and see what your options are.
Direct Debit, Standing Order or Continuous Payment Authortiy – What's The Difference?
Which Bank Account is Right For You?


The farm currently has Honey, Eggs, and Vegetables available to the community. We invite the community to pick up food at the farm or beginning at the Upcountry Farmer's Market in Kula every Saturday from 7am-11am. Contact us to organize a time to come by and pick up food.


Did you know that long term car rentals offer greater flexibility and value for money than leasing or purchasing your vehicle outright?
Not only do you save money in the short-term thanks to a smaller initial investment, long term rentals have more far-reaching advantages too.
The option to update your car every several months, along with all-inclusive pricing ensuring all your tax and insurance needs are covered means you can drive away with both peace of mind and a much bigger bank balance.
Looking for a cheaper alternative to buying a new car? Let's look at the benefits of long term rentals compared to buying or leasing your next vehicle.
Long term car rentals are an ideal solution for companies looking to get the maximum benefit out of their vehicles for the minimum investment. They are also a popular choice for those in need of a simple, cost-effective alternative to keeping up with the kind of ongoing maintenance that can soon become a burden to car owners.
At Dan Dooley, we offer fixed-term rental periods of between 1 month and 24 months, payable in easy to manage monthly installments.
As part of our agreement with you, you can also take advantage of competitive rates on servicing, insurance and other essentials, though any excess mileage (beyond the figure quoted in our agreement), and of course any damages caused to the vehicle whilst in your care, must ultimately come from your wallet.
Why chose long term rentals over purchasing?
Along with the benefits we've already mentioned, opting to rent your next car rather than buy it opens up a world of advantages that makes getting on the road much more cost effective and much less complicated.
It's a simple fact faced by all motorists that the vehicle they buy will be worth a lot less at the end of its life than it was at the start. When you chose a car rental agreement over a long-term payment agreement, this obviously isn't something you'll have to worry about.
You enjoy a smaller initial investment, better payment terms, and the satisfaction of knowing that you won't have lost anything when it comes to trading in your car.
One of the main reasons that cars depreciate in value centers around all the TLC they require during their life on the road.
Not only can sourcing the best deal on car servicing, maintenance and repairs take up time you would much rather be spending doing other things, it can also take a big bite out of your budget.
Though it's your responsibility to pay for damages to your rental car, with fixed price options on car servicing and other essentials included in your agreement, that's one more weight off your mind.
When you're on a strict budget, you may find that certain top models are just a little too far out of your reach. Thanks to rentals, you could well find that the car you once yearned to drive but could never quite afford is now a viable, affordable option.
Many companies taking advantage of long term car rentals for their business needs find that the monthly payments put them in greater control over the cost of their vehicles, improving their cash flow in the process. In some cases, rentals can even be offset against taxes.
Dan Dooley Car Rentals have been providing both long and short-term car rentals to business and private users for over fifty years. Our helpful staff are always on hand to listen to your needs and come up with the right solution for you.
To find out more about long term car rentals or to obtain a free, no obligation quote, contact us today.


Japanese architecture and a comfy Sushi Bar are sure to be a hit with your city's inhabitants.
Great work! You efficiently began construction and you receive a well-earned reward.
Social Quantum's internal name for this quest is "В японском стиле" which translates to "In Japanese style".
Social Quantum's ID for this quest is 20980.


text:
SEPULTURA's DERRICK GREEN: 'I Can't Imagine Retiring Anytime Soon'
Stay Tuned Interviews conducted an interview with vocalist Derrick Green of Brazilian/American metallers SEPULTURA on November 19 in Bristol, England. You can now watch the chat below. A couple of excerpts follow (transcribed by BLABBERMOUTH.NET).
On whether it ever gets easier to come up with new riffs and lyrical ideas:
Green: "I think lyrically, it becomes pretty challenging. I think the actual placement of words becomes easier, but the actual lyrical content can be difficult if you really don't wanna repeat yourself. But there's always things to write about, so that's endless. So I'd say half and half. Sometimes you can have a block in your writing, but there's always something to write about, there's always something new to write about — a new emotion or a new feeling. So it has its ups and downs."
On whether he can see himself touring around the world for the rest of his life:
Green: "Not at the pace that we're doing it now, because we're usually doing six shows a week, sometimes fourteen shows back to back. I find that very difficult. I think everybody finds that very difficult in the band. I think less shows, more time off in between, I could see doing it for a much longer time. It takes a lot [out of] your body. It's really physical — to be on stage, to be traveling on a bus, sitting in airplane seats, traveling at crazy hours of the night, being away from family and friends. So I think it would have to be spread out more, but I don't see why it would be impossible to keep doing this and doing this. But forever? It's a long time. [Laughs]"
On how a musician is supposed to retire:
Green: "I don't know. It's a good question. I can't imagine retiring anytime soon. But I love music. I mean, I don't necessarily need to be on stage. I think a musician can write music off a stage and do many different styles of music. I mean, it's really open. Just being able to do something related to music, I think, is enough for a musician or an artist who's gotten older, just to be a part of it in some way."
SEPULTURA is continuing to tour in support of its latest album, "The Mediator Between Head And Hands Must Be The Heart", which came out on October 29, 2013 via Nuclear Blast.
Find more on Sepultura


text:
Amanda Mason
Video Reporting
News: 23 ABC
Special: Reporting in Puerto Rico
Special: How to Get the Job
News: Cronkite News
Puerto Rico: Six Months After Hurricane Maria
Months after Hurricane Maria, Puerto Rico still struggles with power. Arizona Public Service Co., the state's largest electric company, sent a second crew of volunteer linemen to help the island in the most difficult locations remote and rural areas.
The National Guard hosted a medical event to help residents of Canovanas, who were struggling with power and supplies. Col. Peter Polanco said these events have assisted thousands of people, and officials have held about 12 to 15 events a month since Hurricane Maria.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency provides supplies and building materials to help people make repairs and move back into their homes. The Voluntary Agencies Leading and Organizing Repair program brings together voluntary agencies to use those materials and make the necessary repairs.
Site Design By: Amanda Mason Entertainment
Youth Advocate
Miss New York 2013


5 Star LaGrange are holding tryouts for the 2019 spring season for ages 9-12u at our indoor facility in LaGrange. Please come join the number 1 ranked travel organization in the country ranked per perfect game!
Please arrive 30min prior to start time to complete a short registration form. Tryouts are free!


The surname Puter was first found in Cornwall where they held a family seat as Lords of the Manor of Basustowe. Cornwall was a land set apart, a land of mystique and quaint customs, more strongly related to Brittany and Wales than to England. It was not until the 10th century that they submitted to the Saxon rule of England. Since then, their influence has moved east into Devon, Somerset and Dorset.
This web page shows only a small excerpt of our Puter research.
Another 138 words (10 lines of text) covering the years 1319, 1380, 1510, and 1600 are included under the topic Early Puter History in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible.
Spelling variations of this family name include: Peutherer, Pewtress, Pewter, Puter, Putter, Puetter, Peuther, Pewterer, Pewterwre, Pewterers and many more.
More information is included under the topic Early Puter Notables in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible.
Some of the first settlers of this family name or some of its variants were: Thomas Pewter, who came to Virginia in 1666; Jane Pewteres, who came to America in 1675; Saml Pewter, who arrived in Maryland in 1723; and John Pewter, a bonded passenger who arrived in America in 1767..