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Local families, state economy benefit from UF/IFAS prisoner farm worker programs
By Beverly James
GAINESVILLE, Fla. – In a move that helps Florida save money, aids local families and helps prisoners eat healthier, the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences has beefed up its programs that allow inmates to work on university farms.
At the UF/IFAS West Florida Research and Education Center in Jay, Florida, prisoners produced nearly $1 million of fresh produce that fed hundreds of needy families and saved the state money.
Each weekday morning, a van of 10 inmates from the Berrydale Forestry Camp–a minimum-security satellite facility of Century Correctional Institution–arrives at the farm. Under the supervision of correction officer Randy Dozier, prisoners work a 10-acre plot of land at the 640-acre research facility. Inmates grow sweet corn, collards, snap peas, tomatoes, cantaloupes, watermelons and squash.
"They spend seven hours a day learning about farming, how to check for diseases on plants, how to identify insects and lots of other skills," Dozier said.
UF/IFAS staff and prison officials said they look forward to years of working together. "This partnership is fruitful because everybody benefits," said Wes Wood, center director of the West Florida REC. "It really is phenomenal to see prisoners working hard, seeing the results of that hard work while they are giving back to the community."
Southwest Florida Research and Education Center in Immokalee, Gulf Coast Research and Education Center in Balm, Florida, and the Plant Science Research and Education Unit in Citra have partnerships with local prisons to work at their facilities.
The Gulf Coast REC employs a squad of 15 inmates from the Hardee Correctional Institution through the Community Work Squad Program. The inmates work four, six-hour days a week at a rate of $2 per hour, said Gary Vallad, Gulf Coast REC associate director. "They perform tasks vital for the production of ornamentals, vegetables and small fruit crops; tasks such as land preparation, planting, thinning, staking and tying, harvesting, and clean-up at the end of the season," he said.
Also, inmates assist with the environmental horticulture research and extension projects at the center, provide labor for small construction projects and help maintain the grounds at the research center, Vallad said. "We donate produce every season to the Hardee Correctional Institute," he said.
At the UF/IFAS Plant Science Research and Education Unit in Citra, the Plant Science Unit and the Marion County Sheriff's Office farm sent $1.25 million worth of produce into the prison kitchen with $823,227 coming from research projects in Citra, said James Boyer, coordinator of research programs at UF/IFAS. "It is an excellent program in which, ultimately, Florida taxpayers win," he said.
UF/IFAS Citra developed a partnership with MCSO and started out with two inmates. Currently, the county sends one deputy with 24 male inmates and a deputy with 10 female inmates daily to work in Citra, Boyer said. And costs for meals at the prison have dropped significantly because of the addition of produce grown at Citra.
"Before this program, the MCSO meal cost was approximately $1.27 per inmate per meal and we are helping to reduce that cost to $0.51 per meal," Boyer said. "With up to 2,000 inmates in our local jail, it is a substantial savings to the public."
The inmates receive five days off of their sentence for every 30 days they work at the facility, Boyer said. All inmates have a one year or less conviction with no violent or sexual offenses in their past, he said. "We have successfully used their help for 14 years, and faculty enjoy and appreciate the extra help
An eight-man crew of prisoners from the Ortiz Work Camp in Fort Myers, Florida works every Friday at the UF/IFAS Southwest Florida Research and Education Center in Immokalee, Florida, said John Dunckelman, coordinator of research programs at UF/IFAS Southwest REC. Additional crews come at harvest time, to help with destruction and tear-out of finished crops, to aid in maintenance and management of ditches, roads, fire breaks and woods, he said.
"We depend heavily on the Florida Department of Corrections for able-bodied help with some tough work that would be hard to accomplish without the manpower that they can bring," Dunckelman said.
The program at West Florida REC started in 2009 when farm manager Greg Kimmons suggested using prisoners to help renovate buildings and do maintenance at the facility. The program would provide manpower at the farm and give prisoners fresh produce to eat, Wood said. The prisoners started out working three acres on the Jay facility, and performed maintenance on farm equipment, cleaned offices, laid carpet and tiling, put up drywall and painted, Wood said.
"We are really proud of this program it's a big help to us. It is a mutually beneficial relationship that has made us the model for other prisons and farms to work together," Wood said.
Prisoners enjoy seeing the results of their hard work, and the state saves money, said Warden Douglas "John" Sloan. "Prisoners really appreciate the opportunity to work outdoors, stay busy and get exercise," Sloan said. "And, the program benefits the prison by bringing in healthy food and lowering the amount of money we spend on food that we purchase for prisoners. The food is healthy and locally grown, so we can substitute the processed foods with the farm foods."
Also, prisoners who have never worked on a farm have an opportunity to learn new skills, Sloan said. Prisoners who participate in the program have new skills when they leave the prison and re-enter society, he said.
In addition, the program provides fresh produce for needy families during Thanksgiving week through the Farm to City program. "Prisoners help us grow food for the Farm to City program for families in Santa Rosa and Escambia counties," Wood said. "Last year, we fed 600 families with the produce that prisoners grew."
Caption: Scott Taylor, director of operations for UF's Hastings Demonstration Unit, supervises St. Johns County Jail inmates renovating a UF building.
By: Beverly James, 352-273-3566, beverlymjames@ufl.edu
Sources: Wes Wood, 850-475-5230, woodwes@ufl.edu
Warden Douglas "John" Sloan, 850-256-6505
James Boyer, 352-591-2678, ja.boyer@ufl.edu
John Dunckelman, 239-658-3421, jdunck@ufl.edu
Gary Vallad, 813-633-4121, gvallad@ufl.edu
Category: UF/IFAS
← UF/IFAS expert urges returning college students to read, know their lease
Farming conference slated for Aug. 15 in Jacksonville →
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Steam power may seem like a thing of the past, given that we now have diesel, nuclear, solar and wind power to fuel our lives. But, almost 2000 years after its properties as an energy source were first harnessed; steam is still an essential part of many industries, including oil and gas, food and drink and manufacturing. In fact, even today, it is used at some point in the production of around 90 per cent of consumer goods.
Businesses in every industry are conscious of their energy consumption, for financial and environmental reasons. This is where Cheltenham-based Spirax Sarco comes in. The company provides products and solutions that help its clients, including Rolls Royce, Nestle, Proctor & Gamble and Coca Cola, to optimise steam usage, either by recycling the condensate or by using excess steam elsewhere. It has 4,500 employees in 39 facilities across more than 50 countries and its turnover in 2011 was £600 million.
Spirax Sarco is no stranger to overseas markets. The company's first venture beyond the UK took place 60 years ago and since then it has set up a direct presence in more than 50 countries. It has been in Mexico since 1966, when it started out with a local partner. Since buying out the partner in 2010, Spirax Sarco has grown steadily in recent years in Mexico, where it has 82 employees, and the company expects similar growth in 2012 and 2013. Its main Mexican clients include petroleum and food giants Pemex and Bimbo.
The company has had a relationship with UKTI in Mexico for several years. When it opened its new facility in Mexico City in 2009, UKTI secured extra press coverage by inviting representatives of the local media to the inauguration. Since then the relationship has thrived, with UKTI inviting the company to several events, including UK Embassy climate change conferences and networking events. UKTI also invited Spirax Sarco to join its UK-Mexico committee, through which the company meets other UK companies, sharing its own experiences of doing business in Mexico.
The company's long-term aim is to double the size of its Mexican operation by 2020. Part of this development will come from exploring new sectors, like hotels. The company plans to increase its Mexico staff to 90 over the next year, and is building a new manufacturing facility in the Cienega de Flores district of Monterrey which will need a further 24 employees. The Monterrey facility will export to the US and Canada, increasing revenue from the US from US$10,000 to US$1 million by 2020. UKTI helped Spirax Sarco to choose Monterrey as the site for this facility by pointing out its thriving business community and links to both the US and Mexico.
Meanwhile, Spirax Sarco plans to continue networking to meet new clients and to deepen relationships with existing customers in the region. In October 2012 the company attended the opening of new offices of UK industrial measuring equipment maker, Renishaw, along with UKTI and Monterrey's British Consul. This event provided another opportunity to meet and get to know British companies in Monterrey. As ever, UKTI was on hand to help.
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Photo Essay: TRX Gallery
TRX//MyCity
Completed in 2013, the stunning TRX Gallery was built as a foretaste of the Tun Razak Exchange, Kuala Lumpur's first dedicated financial district.
The doughnut-like structure hugs a grassy knoll from which the Merdeka tree grows. This majestic raintree found on the TRX site is estimated to be as old as the country itself. The tree's mighty trunk towers through the middle of the Gallery, while its boughs, branches, and leaves expand over the whole structure, offering a shady reprieve from the city centre heat.
The glass walls of the TRX Gallery create an expansive and light-filled interior which is complemented by the tropical hardwood used to construct the porte-cochère which wraps around the front of the building as well as the statement staircases – one on the outside and one on the inside – which lead from the ground floor to the terrace above.
The beautiful upper terrace, also made of tropical hardwood decking, overlooks the Tun Razak Exchange construction site, making it the perfect vantage point to witness the progress of this national project.
The elegant design of the Gallery is courtesy of Tun Razak Exchange master planners, the award-winning international architecture firm of Machado Silvetti and Associates, who partnered with local counterparts, Akitek Jururancang (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd.
The TRX Gallery has been used as a showcase building, hosting visits, meetings, and events, such as the TRX Talk series.
Beginning in October 2019, the TRX Gallery will be opened to welcome the public.
Members of the public will also be able to snap photos beside the Merdeka tree and the #TRX Lightbox on the upper terrace.
TRX Gallery will soon make way for the construction of the Northwest Plaza of TRX, slated to be an activated public space and major gateway into the district. The Merdeka tree will remain the centre point of the plaza, standing tall as a witness to how far Malaysia has come in its journey of progress into the future.
Tun Razak Exchange
TRX Gallery
Merdeka Tree
TRX Received the IEM Outstanding Engineering Achievement Award for 2021 for its Wastewater Treatment Plant
Seamless Navigation in TRX With Waze Beacons
The Smart City Becomes A Reality at TRX


text:
import cmwell.domain._
import cmwell.tlog.{TLog, TLogState}
import cmwell.common.{CommandSerializer, WriteCommand}

import collection.mutable
import java.io.File

import com.typesafe.scalalogging.LazyLogging
import org.scalatest._

import scala.concurrent._
import scala.util.Random
import scala.concurrent.ExecutionContext.Implicits.global

/**
 * Created with IntelliJ IDEA.
 * User: markz
 * Date: 12/6/12
 * Time: 9:37 AM
 * Test for TLog cass implementation.
 */

trait TLogServiceCassTest extends BeforeAndAfterAll with LazyLogging { this:Suite =>
  var tlogLin:TLog = _
  var tlogLinDummy:TLog = _
  var tlogPra: TLog = _
  var agentState : TLogState = _

  val numberOfChunks = 1000
  // on test do 200
  val chunkSize = 100
  val numberOfWrites = chunkSize * numberOfChunks

  override protected def beforeAll() {
    val cmwHome = System.getProperty("cmwell.home") match {
      case null => s"${new File(".").getCanonicalPath}${File.separator}target${File.separator}tlog-test"
      case s => s
    }

    System.setProperty("cmwell.home", cmwHome)
    tlogLin = TLog("payload", "w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
    tlogLin.init()

    tlogPra = TLog("payload_p" ,"w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L )
    tlogPra.init()

    agentState = TLogState("imp" , "payload" , "w1")
    val time = System.currentTimeMillis()
    logger.info("time: %s".format(time))
    Random.setSeed(time)
    super.beforeAll()
  }

  override protected def afterAll() {
    tlogLin.shutdown()
    tlogPra.shutdown()
    super.afterAll()
  }
}

class TLogCassSpec extends FlatSpec with Matchers with Inspectors with TLogServiceCassTest {

   "write to tlog commands" should "be successful" in {
     var data : mutable.Buffer[Infoton] = new mutable.ListBuffer[Infoton]()
     // init reader before writer
     val tlogCommandsWriter = TLog("payload_command", "w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
     tlogCommandsWriter.init()

     val tlogCommandsReader = tlogCommandsWriter
     // create 10 object infotons
     for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites ) {
       val objInfo = ObjectInfoton("/command-test/objinfo" + i,"dc_test", None, Map("name" -> Set[FieldValue](FString("gal"), FString("yoav"))))
       data += objInfo
     }

     // iterate buffer infoton and write them to TLog
     for ( item <- data ) {
       // create write command
       val cmdWrite = WriteCommand(item)
       val payload : Array[Byte] = CommandSerializer.encode(cmdWrite)
       tlogCommandsWriter.write_sync(payload)
     }

     var ts : Long = 0L
     var stop : Boolean = false
     var count : Long = 0
     var c : Long = 0

     val time = System.currentTimeMillis()
     Random.setSeed(time)
     // now lets run the real test
     while (!stop) {
       var itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1
       val d = tlogCommandsReader.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
         case (times,vec) => {
           // if vector empty check the bug that happend when the reader was initiated before the writer
           for(item <- vec) {
             val payload = item._2
             val cmd = CommandSerializer.decode(payload)
             cmd match {
               case WriteCommand(infoton,trackingID,prevUUID) =>
                 infoton.path should equal ("/command-test/objinfo" + c)
                 c = c + 1
                 assert(true)
               case _ => fail()
             }
           }
           count = count + vec.size
           if ( count == numberOfWrites)
             stop = true
           ts = times
         }
       }
     }
     tlogCommandsReader.shutdown()
   }

     "write to tlog" should "be successful" in {
     val m = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()
     for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites) {
       val payload : String = "Linear Test %d".format(i)
       m += ( payload -> payload )
       tlogLin.write_sync(payload.getBytes)

     }
     Thread.sleep(1000)
     tlogLinDummy = TLog("payload", "w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
     tlogLinDummy.init()
     Thread.sleep(1000)

     var ts : Long = 0L

     var stop : Boolean = false
     var count : Long = 0

     while (!stop) {
       var itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1

       val d = tlogLinDummy.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
         case (times,vec) => {
           for(item <- vec) {
             val payload = new String(item._2)
             // first lets check if payload exists and than we will remove it
             if(!m.contains(payload)) fail(s"m should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
             m -= payload
           }
           count = count + vec.size

           if ( count == numberOfWrites)
             stop = true
           ts = times
         }
       }
     }

     m.isEmpty should equal (true)
     tlogLinDummy.shutdown()
   }

    "write to tlog parallel" should "be successful" in {

      val m = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()
      for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites) {
        val payload : String = "Par Test %d".format(i)
        m += ( payload -> payload )
      }
      m.par foreach { p => tlogPra.write_sync(p._2.getBytes())}
      Thread.sleep(1000)

      val tlogDummy = TLog("payload_p", "w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
      tlogDummy.init()

      var ts : Long = 0L

      var stop : Boolean = false
      var count : Long = 0

      while (!stop) {
        var itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1

        val d = tlogPra.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
          case (times,vec) => {
            for(item <- vec) {
              val payload = new String(item._2)
              // first lets check if payload exists and than we will remove it
              if(!m.contains(payload)) fail(s"m should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
              m -= payload
            }
            count = count + vec.size
            if ( count == numberOfWrites)
              stop = true
            ts = times
          }
        }

      }
      m.isEmpty should equal (true)
      tlogDummy.shutdown()
    }

   "continuous tlog test" should "be successful" in {
     val tlogPraCont0 : TLog = TLog("payload_p_cnt" ,"w1" , bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
     tlogPraCont0.init()

     val m0 = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()
     for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites) {
       val payload : String = "Par Test Cont 0 %d".format(i)
       m0 += ( payload -> payload )
     }
     m0.par foreach { p => tlogPraCont0.write_sync(p._2.getBytes())}
     Thread.sleep(1000)

     var stop : Boolean = false
     var count : Long = 0

     var ts : Long = 0L

     while (!stop) {
       var itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1

       val d = tlogPraCont0.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
         case (times,vec) => {
           for(item <- vec) {
             val payload = new String(item._2)
             // first lets check if payload exists and than we will remove it
             if(!m0.contains(payload)) fail(s"m0 should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
              m0 -= payload
           }
           count = count + vec.size
           if ( count == numberOfWrites)
             stop = true
           ts = times
         }
       }
     }
     m0.isEmpty should equal (true)
     tlogPraCont0.shutdown()

     Thread.sleep(1000)

     val tlogPraCont1 : TLog = TLog("payload_p_cnt" ,"w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
     tlogPraCont1.init()

     val m1 = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()
     for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites) {
       val payload : String = "Par Test Cont 1 %d".format(i)
       m1 += ( payload -> payload )
     }
     m1.par foreach { p => tlogPraCont1.write_sync(p._2.getBytes())}

     stop = false
     count = 0

     Thread.sleep(1000)

     while (!stop) {
       var itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1

       val d = tlogPraCont1.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
         case (times,vec) => {
           for(item <- vec) {
             val payload = new String(item._2)
             if(!m1.contains(payload)) fail(s"m1 should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
             m1 -= payload
           }
           count = count + vec.size
           if ( count == numberOfWrites)
             stop = true
           ts = times
         }
       }
     }
     m1.isEmpty should equal (true)
     // shutdown tlogs
     tlogPraCont1.shutdown()
   }

   "p tlog read write" should "be successful" in {

     val time = System.currentTimeMillis()
     Random.setSeed(time)

     val tlogWriter : TLog = TLog("payload_p_w_r" ,"w1", bucketSize = 1L * 1024L * 1024L )
     tlogWriter.init()
     val tlogReader = tlogWriter
      // build collection to write
     val m0 = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()
     for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites) {
       val payload : String = "Par Read&Write Test %05d".format(i)
       m0 += ( payload -> payload )
     }

     val tWrite = Future {
      m0.par foreach { p => tlogWriter.write_sync(p._2.getBytes())}
     }

      var stop : Boolean = false
      var count : Long = 0

      var ts : Long = 0L

      while (!stop) {
        val itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1
        val d = tlogReader.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
          case (times,vec) => {
            for(item <- vec) {
              val payload = new String(item._2)
              // first lets check if payload exists and than we will remove it
              if(!m0.contains(payload)) fail(s"m0 should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
              m0 -= payload
            }
            count = count + vec.size
            if ( count == numberOfWrites)
              stop = true
            ts = times
          }
        }
      }
     m0.isEmpty should equal (true)

     tlogWriter.shutdown()
     tlogReader.shutdown()

   }
  "tlog position check" should "be successful" in {
    val tlogWriter : TLog = TLog("position" ,"w1" , System.getProperty("cmwell.home") , false, 1L * 1024L * 1024L )
    val tlogReader : TLog = TLog("position" ,"w1" , System.getProperty("cmwell.home") , false, 1L * 1024L * 1024L )

    val tlogPosition : TLog = TLog("position" ,"w1" , System.getProperty("cmwell.home") , true, 1L * 1024L * 1024L)
    tlogPosition.init()

    tlogWriter.init()
    tlogReader.init()

    val m0 = collection.mutable.Map[String, String]()

    for ( i <- 0 until numberOfWrites * 10) {
      val payload : String = "tlogPosition Read&Write Test %05d".format(i)
      m0 += ( payload -> payload )
    }
    // lets make the run the operation during reading
    val tWrite = Future {
      m0.par foreach { p => tlogWriter.write_sync(p._2.getBytes())}
    }

    Thread.sleep(2 * 1000)

    var stop : Boolean = false
    var count : Long = 0
    var t1 : Long = System.currentTimeMillis()

    var ts : Long = 0L

    while (!stop) {
      val itemsToRetrive = Random.nextInt(chunkSize) + 1
      val d = tlogReader.read(ts,itemsToRetrive) match {
        case (times,vec) => {

          for(item <- vec) {
            val payload = new String(item._2)
            // first lets check if payload exists and than we will remove it
            if(!m0.contains(payload)) fail(s"m0 should contain key($payload)") //using scalatest Inspectors is too heavy and slows the build
            m0 -= payload
          }
          count = count + vec.size

          if ( count == numberOfWrites * 10)
            stop = true
          ts = times
          // lets check that ts is >= position
          if ( System.currentTimeMillis() - t1 > 1000 * 10 ) {
            t1 = System.currentTimeMillis()
            // we are reading a head can not be
            tlogPosition.size should be >= ts
          }
        }
      }
    }
    m0.isEmpty should equal (true)
    tlogPosition.shutdown()
    tlogWriter.shutdown()
    tlogReader.shutdown()
  }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Russia's Head of Intelligence Service and Deputy Defence Minister in Pakistan
August 15, 2018 A
The Russians seek to mark their presence in Pakistan; first, the country was visited by Russia's Director of the Foreign Intelligence Service, Sergey Naryshkin, who
All Hands on Deck: The Caspian Sails Towards Eurasia Integration
The long-awaited deal on the legal status of the Caspian Sea signed on Sunday in the Kazakh port of Aktau is a defining moment in
The US-Turkey Crisis: The NATO Alliance Forged in 1949 Is Today Largely Irrelevant
There has been some reporting in the United States mass media about the deteriorating relationship between Washington and Ankara and what it might mean. Such
The Uyghur Militant Threat: China Cracks Down and Mulls Policy Changes
China, responding to United Nations criticism, academic and media reports, and an embarrassing court case in Kazakhstan, has come closer to admitting that it has
America's War on Yemen Exposed
As atrocities and scandal begin to mount regarding the US-backed Saudi-led war on the impoverished nation of Yemen, the involvement and hypocrisy of the United
The US' Rebuff of Russia's Cooperation Request in Syria Shows Its Cynicism
The head of the Russian Armed Forces General Staff Valery Gerasimov asked his closest American counterpart Joseph Dunford to assist his country in jointly stabilizing
The End of the US Unipolar Moment Is Irreversible
The past weeks have shown how part of the American establishment is weighing the pros and cons of the Trump administration's strategies around the world. I
America's Militarized Economy
Donald Trump's biggest success, thus far into his Presidency, has been his sale of $400 billion (originally $350 billion) of U.S.-made weapons to the Saudi


text:
OUTLINES OF HALACHOS
FROM THE DAF
prepared by Rabbi Pesach Feldman
of Kollel Iyun Hadaf, Yerushalayim
BAVA KAMA 42
PAST DEDICATION
BAVA KAMA 42 - Ari Kornfeld has generously sponsored the Dafyomi publications for this Daf for the benefit of Klal Yisrael.
A HUSBAND DOES NOT INHERIT RA'UY [inheritance :husband: Ra'uy]
(Reish Lakish): Since Kofer is not paid in her lifetime, only after death, it is only Ra'uy (apt to come). A husband inherits only what was Muchzak (in her possession), not what was Ra'uy.
Rambam (Hilchos Nachalos 1:11): If Levi's wife died, and afterwards Morishah (a relative who was destined to bequeath to her).died, Levi does not inherit her. A husband inherits only what came to her Reshus before she died, but not Ra'uy.
Magid Mishneh: The Rambam did not teach whether or not a husband inherits a loan owed to his wife. He taught (3:1,5) that a Bechor does not get a double portion of a loan, for it is Ra'uy. However, in Hilchos Ishus (22:7) the Rambam says that a husband inherits all property of his wife, i.e. Nichsei Melug (i.e. property that she brought into the marriage, and it is returned to her as is if she is widowed or divorced) ... He does not distinguish at all between different kinds of property. It seems that he holds like his Rebbi, the Ri mi'Gash, who says that a husband inherits a loan. Regarding a loan without a document, he distinguishes between whether or not payment was due before she died. The Ri mi'Gash did not act according to his opinion, out of concern for the Rif and R. Chananel, who equate a husband to a Bechor. The Ramban and Rashba hold like the Ge'onim, that a husband does not inherit a loan. This is primary. This is only if it is clear that the loan was from her. If she does business in the house, and there are documents in her name, there is no Chazakah that they belong to her (so he collects them).
Rosh (Bava Basra 8:11): He does not inherit her loan. Tosfos says that this is even if she lent her Nichsei Melug while married and she died before collecting it, her husband inherits it. We learn from Bava Kama 42b. One does not inherit damages owed to his wife according to Rabanan, for it is like a loan, even though had it come to her in her lifetime it would have been Nichsei Melug.
Rebuttal (Rosh): I say that if she lent her Nichsei Melug while married, her husband inherits it, for she had no right to lend the principal. The principal is in her husband's Reshus to eat the Peros. Her loan is no better than her sale. In Usha they enacted that her husband takes from the buyer; it is as if he is the first buyer. All the more so, if she lent money in her possession, her husband takes from the borrower and inherits the loan.
Bach (EH 90 DH u'Mah she'Chosav ba'Meh): Perhaps Tosfos discusses money from which, before Nisu'in, her husband waived his rights to it in her lifetime; she consumes the Peros and revenue from it. This is why It is called her Nichsei Melug. Alternatively, it is property from which a husband does not eat the Peros (EH 85). Tosfos did not say her Nichsei Melug, but the Rosh and Mordechai say so in the name of Tosfos. I say that Tosfos' opinion is primary. Perhaps the Rosh would agree; he argued because he thought that the Ri discusses regular Nichsei Melug. Perhaps this is why the Shulchan Aruch discussed a loan of Nichsei Melug, without saying 'her'.
Poskim
Shulchan Aruch (EH 90:1): If others owed a loan to a woman when she married, and she died before collecting it, her husband does not inherit it.
Rashba (Teshuvah 63 attributed to Ramban, cited in Beis Yosef DH Kosav ha'Rashba): Rav Papa taught that a Bechor does not inherit a double portion of a loan, and a husband does not inherit Ra'uy. He did not teach them together. Some, including the Ri mi'Gash, infer that this is because a husband inherits a Ra'uy loan. Most hold like the Rif and R. Chananel, who say that also a husband does not inherit a loan. Presumably, this applies only to a loan that she inherited, or she lent before Nisu'in, or lent from money she saved for herself, i.e. her husband waived his rights to it during Eirusin, or after Nisu'in with a Kinyan. If not, he has rights to the money like Nichsei Melug, and she cannot divert the money from him. Her stipulation before Nisu'in cannot help without his consent. If not, there would be no need for a Shtar Mavrachas (before Nisu'in she writes her property to a relative, so her husband will not get it). When the Gemara discusses a married woman with her own money, it says that her husband stipulated during Eirusin, or someone gave to her on condition that her husband will have no rights to it. It did not mention that she left money for herself, which is much more common, for it does not help. All the more so if she lent to her husband after Nisu'in, he acquires it like Nichsei Melug. Even if he waived his rights (in her money), he inherits half the loan, just like a Bechor who lent to his father collects an extra half-share of it, for it is a Safek whether Bechorah applies to it (Bava Basra 126a). If she had Mashkanta (land for collateral for a loan), in a place where the borrower cannot redeem his land before the set time, her husband inherits it, for it is as if she acquired it. Even a Bechor gets an extra share of it (Bava Metzia 67b). A Stam Mashkanta is like a place where the borrower cannot redeem it. A place where he can redeem it is only if he can do so even the same day.
Chelkas Mechokek (8): The Mordechai says that if she had a security for a loan, all agree that a Bechor gets a double portion, for a creditor acquires a security. The same applies here. A husband inherits such a debt, for it is as if was collected, even if the security was taken at the time of the loan. If one had a loan from his wife and she died, he is Muchzak in it and inherits it. If a Bechor borrowed from his father, it is a Safek, for it says "b'Chol Asher Yimatzei Lo)", i.e. what the father had. Here, it is not Ra'uy, for her husband has the money. However, the Rashba says that he inherits only half.
Beis Shmuel (9): Any loan considered Muchzak regarding a Bechor is Muchzak regarding a husband.
Shulchan Aruch (ibid.): However, if she lent her Nichsei Melug and she died before collecting it, her husband inherits it.
Chelkas Mechokek (9): The Rosh says that this is because she was not permitted to lend them. It seems that if her husband had no rights to eat the Peros, she may lend them, so it is Ra'uy, like money she lent before Nisu'in. However, we can distinguish. When he marries her, he becomes like a buyer. Even though he does not eat the Peros, he inherits her, and she cannot make it Ra'uy to uproot his inheritance against his will. Whatever she cannot sell, she cannot lend it to make it Ra'uy. The Rashba says that she can do so only if he wrote that he has no Reshus in it.
Beis Shmuel (11): The Rosh and Terumas ha'Deshen connotes that he can take the Nichsei Melug from the borrower even in her lifetime, for he has rights to eat the Peros. If he did not do so and she did not collect, he inherits. Even the Rambam, who does not allow him to take the property itself, would not consider this Ra'uy. The Rambam holds that a husband inherits even a loan! Also, perhaps the Rambam holds that he can take a loan. It is unlike property, for one cannot make a buyer lose his land.
Rema: Any property she had from which he does not eat the Peros, if she lent it to others, he does not inherit them.
Beis Shmuel (12): If she wrote a Mavrachas document, the sale is valid and the buyer eats the Peros. If she sold Tovas Hana'ah of her Kesuvah, she may give (or lend) the money to whom she wants. In both cases, he does not inherit. The third case in which he does not eat the Peros is if he gave a gift to her after Nisu'in. However, he eats the Peros of the Peros, so he inherits it.
Halachah Outlines for
Maseches Bava Kama
Bava Kama
to the Daf
�� ���


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text:
AmeriCorps Health Blog
» Ventricular Cardiomyopathy
Disease Genes
Tue, 11 Jun 2013 | Ventricular
The first identified ARVC/D gene in a dominant form was ryanodine receptor-2, involved in ARVD2 [25]. In ARVD2, there is fibro-fatty substitution of the myocardial tissue, though much less pronounced than in the typical ARVC/D. The distinctive feature of this form is the presence of polymorphic, effort-induced arrhythmias. RYR2 is one of the largest human genes (105 exons), encoding a 565Kda protein located in the membrane of smooth sarcoplasmic reticulum. The homo-tetrameric structure known as cardiac ryanodine receptor plays a pivotal role in in-tracellular calcium homeostasis and excitation-contraction coupling in cardiomyocytes [27, 28]. All RYR2 mutations detected in ARVD2 patients were missense resulting in substitutions involving amino acids highly conserved through evolution in critical domains of the protein [25, 29].
Mutations in the human RYR2 gene have also been associated with catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT; OMIM 604772) [30,31] and familial polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (FPVT); OMIM 604772) [32, 33]. Putative pathogenic mutations in RYR2 have been reported in
Table 1.1 • Known ARVC/D loci and disease-genes.
ARVD1
TGFb3
Cytokine stimulating fibrosis and modulating cell adhesion
Regulatory mutations in 5' and 3' UTRs
1q42-q43
RYR2
Calcium homeostasis
Missense mutations
14q12-q22
2q32.1-q32.2
10p12-p14
Cell-cell adhesion
Missense, nonsense and splice site mutations
12p11.2
PKP2
Missense, nonsense, insertion/deletion and splice site mutations
ARVD10
DSG2
20 out 240 patients referred for long-QT syndrome genetic testing [34].
All RYR2 mutations described to date cluster in three specific domains: the N-terminal amino-acid residues 176-433, the centrally located residues 22462504, and the C-terminal residues 3778-4959. Detection of RYR2 mutations in both ARVD2 and CPVT patients raises the question of the possible existence of a single genetic defect, different pheno-types of which might be simply due to variable expression and incomplete penetrance. Both ARVD2 and CPVT-RyR2 missense mutations would alter the ability of the calcium channel to remain closed. Intense adrenergic stimulation due to emotional or physical stress can lead to calcium overload, thus triggering severe arrhythmias. The functional role of mutations R176Q, L433P, N2386I, and T2504M, previously detected in ARVD2 patients [25], was recently investigated [35]. RyR2 mutants N2386I and R176Q/T2504M exhibited enhanced sensitivity to caffeine activation and increased Ca2+ release, in agreement with the current hypothesis that defective RyR2 causes Ca2+ leak. In contrast, RyR2 L433P mutation showed reduced response to caffeine activation. This mutation might be interpreted as a "loss-of-function." Therefore, RyR2 mutations might be either "gain-of-function" or "loss-of-function," thus suggesting heterogeneity in functional consequences of RyR2 mutations. Even with this additional information, the question of whether ARVD2 and CPVT are different diseases due to different mutations of the RYR2 gene still remains unsettled.
The first disease gene linked to autosomal dominant ARVC/D showing typical right ventricular phenotype was Desmoplakin (DSP) [22]. In 2002, genome scan in a family with ARVC/D indicated a linkage with a region of chromosome 6 short arm including DSP gene. DNA sequencing of all DSP exons in the affected persons of this family revealed a missense mutation in exon 7 (C1176G; AGC^AGG) (Fig. 1.1).The involved amino acid (Ser299Arg) is at the center of a coiled, charged region, separating the two short helices of DSP subdomain Z. The amino acid substitution suppresses a putative phosphorylation site, which, on the other hand, is fully conserved in related proteins belonging to the same family. This mutation is thought to disrupt a protein kinase C phosphorylation site which is involved in plakoglobin binding and in clustering of desmoso-mal cadherin-plakoglobin complexes.
Desmoplakin, together with plakoglobin, anchors to desmosomal cadherins, forming an ordered array of nontransmembrane proteins, which bind to keratin intermediate filaments (Fig. 1.2) [36]. The primary structure of desmoplakin contains three functional domains: the N-terminal, which binds to the desmo-some via connection with plakoglobin and plakophilin; the rod segment, which is predicted to form a dimeric coil; and the C-terminal domain, which binds intermediate filaments [37]. Alternative splicing of the protein produces two isoforms, desmo-plakin I and desmoplakin II. The cDNAs encoding these two highly related proteins differ in a 1.8 Kbase sequence that is missing in DSPII, most likely due to differential splicing of a longer transcript [38].
Fig. 1.1 • Family pedigree of the ARVC/D index case carrying the S299R DSP mutation and sequence electropherogram showing the heterozygous missense mutation
Fig. 1.2 • Schematic representation of relationships between desmosomal proteins in myocardiocytes.DSC2:desmocollin-2; DSG2: desmoglein-2; DSP: desmoplakin; PKP2: plakophilin-2; PKP4: plakophilin-4; JUP: plakoglobin; DES: desmin
Mutations in the desmoplakin gene have been shown to be responsible for some cases of an autosomal dominant skin disorder (striate palmoplantar keratoderma) without cardiac involvement [39-41]; a dominant form of ARVC/D without skin disease
[22]; an autosomal recessive condition characterized by dilated cardiomyopathy, woolly hair, and keratoderma (so-called Carvajal syndrome) [42], an autosomal recessive condition characterized by ARVC/D, woolly hair, and keratoderma [43] and a left-sided ARVC/D named arrhythmogenic left ventricular car-diomyopathy (ALVc) [44].
Mutations in DSP gene were detected in different families: they include twelve missense, two nonsense, and two splice-site mutations. In our experience, DSP mutations may account for a considerable number of ARVC/D cases.
In 2004, Gerull et al. [23] selected plakophilin-2 (PKP2) as candidate gene because a homozygous deletion caused a lethal cardiac defect in mice [45]. PKP2 gene encodes plakophilin-2, an essential protein of the cardiac desmosome. By sequencing all 14 exons of the PKP2 gene, including flanking intronic splice sequences, the authors identified 25 different heterozygous mutations (twelve insertion-deletion, six nonsense, four missense, and three splice site mutations) in 32 of 120 unrelated ARVC/D probands [23]. Plakophilin-2 is an armadillo-related protein, located in the outer dense plaque of desmosomes. It links desmosomal cadherins to desmoplakin and the intermediate filament system (Fig. 1.2). Plakophilins are also present in the nucleus, where they may play a role in transcription-al regulation [46]. Gerull et al. [23] speculated that lack of plakophilin-2 or incorporation of mutant plakophilin-2 in the cardiac desmosomes might impair cell-cell contacts and, as a consequence, might disrupt association between adjacent car-diomyocytes.
The frequency of PKP2 mutations among ARVC/D cases ranged from 11% to 43% in different studies [47-49]. These differences might be attributed to different geographical origin of cases or simply to selection bias.
Recently, we decided to shift from linkage studies in ARVC/D families to a candidate gene approach. Thus, we screened different genes encoding desmo-somal proteins. When analyzing DSG2 gene (Desmoglein-2, the only isoform expressed in cardiac myocytes), we detected nine heterozygous mutations in eight of 50 unrelated individuals with ARVC/D which proved negative for mutations of DSP, PKP2, and TGF^3 genes [24]. Among these, five were missense mutations, two were insertion-deletions, one was a nonsense and one was a splice site mutation; one patient had two different DSG2 mutations (compound heterozygote). Endomyocardial biopsy, obtained from five patients, showed extensive loss of myocytes with fibro-fatty tissue replacement. In three patients, electron microscopy showed intercalated disc paleness, decreased desmosome number, and intercellular gap widening [24]. Mutations in DSG2 gene were also detected in an independent study [50]. It is interesting to note that, in this study, there was one patient with compound-heterozygous mutations in DSG2 (Fig. 1.3).
In 2005, our group identified the gene involved in ARVD1 [26]. The large critical interval for ARVD1 included 40 known genes; five of them (POMT2, KIAA0759, KIAA1036, C14orf4, and TAIL1) were unsuccessfully screened for pathogenic ARVC/D mutations [51,52]. Among genes mapped to the ARVD1 critical region and expressed in myocardium, transforming growth factor-beta3 (TGF^3) appeared to be
Fig. 1.3 • Pedigree of the proband carrying two DSG2 mutations (988G>A, 1881-2A>G). Hatched symbol represents an individual of unknown disease status.Presence (+) or absence (-) of the DSG2 mutation is indicated
a good candidate, since it encodes a cytokine stimulating fibrosis and modulating cell adhesion. After previous analyses failed to detect any mutation in the coding region of this gene, mutation screening was extended to the promoter and untranslated regions (UTRs). A nucleotide substitution (c.-36G>A) in 5'UTR of TGF^3 gene was detected in all affected subjects belonging to a large ARVD1 family. After the investigation was extended to 30 unrelated ARVC/D index patients, an additional mutation (c.1723C>T) was identified in the 3' UTR of one proband. In vitro expression assays of constructs containing the mutations showed that mutated UTRs were twofold more active than wild type [26].
TGF^3 is a member of the transforming growth factor superfamily, which includes a diverse range of proteins regulating many different physiological processes. TGF^1, -^2, and -^3 are the prototype of the TGFP superfamily. They inhibit proliferation in most types of cells and induce apoptosis of epithelial cells. Conversely, they stimulate mesenchymal cells to proliferate and produce extracellular matrix and they induce a fibrotic response in various tissues in vivo.
Finding TGF^3 mutations associated with ARVC/D is very interesting, since it is well established that TGF^s stimulate mesenchymal cells to proliferate and to produce extracellular matrix components. Since mutations in UTRs of the TGF^3 gene, detected in ARVC/D, showed enhanced gene expression in vitro, it is likely that they could promote myocardial fibrosis in vivo. Myocardial fibrosis may disrupt electrical and mechanical behavior of myocardium and extracellular matrix abnormalities may predispose to reentrant ventricular arrhythmias. In agreement with this hypothesis, endomyocardial biopsy in the two probands in which TGF^3 UTR mutations were detected showed extensive replacement-type fibrosis. Moreover, it has been shown that TGF^s modulate expression of genes encoding desmosomal proteins in different cell types. cDNA microarray analysis, performed on RNA from cardiac fibroblasts incubated in the presence or in the absence of exogenous TGF^s, revealed increased expression of different genes, including plakoglobin [53].Yoshida et al. [54] reported that TGF^1 exposure of cultured airway epithelial cells increases the content of desmoplakins I and II. This suggests that regulation of cell-cell junctional complexes may be an important effect of TGF^s. Therefore, overexpression of TGF^3, caused by UTRs mutations, might affect cell-to-cell junction stability, thus leading to disease expression similar to that observed in ARVC/D due to mutations of genes encoding desmosomal proteins.
Desmosomes are important cell-cell adhesion junctions, predominantly found in the epidermis and heart. They couple cytoskeletal elements to plasma membrane at cell-cell or cell-substrate adhesions. Whereas adherens junctions are linked with microfilaments at cell-cell interfaces, desmosomes anchor stress-bearing intermediate filaments at sites of strong intercellular adhesion. The resulting scaffold plays a key role in providing mechanical integrity to tissues such as epidermis and heart, which experience mechanical stress. Desmosomes include proteins from at least three distinct gene families: cadherins, armadillo proteins, and plakins (Fig. 1.2). Desmoso-mal cadherins include desmogleins and desmo-collins; members of both subfamilies are single-pass transmembrane glycoproteins, mediating Ca2+-de-pendent cell-cell adhesion. Armadillo proteins include plakoglobin and plakophilins (PKP1-3). The plakin family proteins include desmoplakin, plectin, and the cell envelope proteins envoplakin and periplakin. Desmoplakin (involved in ARVD8), plakophilin-2 (involved in ARVD9), desmoglein-2 (involved in ARVD10), and plakoglobin (involved in Naxos syndrome, the autosomal recessive form of ARVC/D) are desmosomal proteins. Based on present evidence we may conclude that different defects in proteins of desmosomal complex lead to ARVC/D. Therefore, additional components of the desmoso-mal complex may be targets for pathogenic mutations leading to ARVC/D.
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text:
Marxist economists comment again on the crisis: 6. Costas Lapavitsas - The debacle of financialised capitalism
Submitted by martin on 26 January, 2009 - 9:07 Author: Costas Lapavitsas
What sort of new shape of capitalism do you think might emerge from the shake-out of this crisis?
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First of all, we have to see how capitalism looked before the crisis. My own view, as I argued previously, is that capitalism has been financialised. Finance has penetrated every aspect of economic and social life, and turned towards extracting profit from individual income. It has also substituted itself for the public provision of various services, and now mediates them - housing, pensions, health, education... It has done a very bad job of it, not only in terms of the everyday inequalities and inefficiencies, but also in terms of the gigantic crisis that has now manifested itself and its disastrous effect on the lives of many, many people.
Is that trend going to be reversed? At the moment I don't see any serious thought put in to reversing it, from the top. There are plenty of steps taken and noises made as regards macroeconomic policy. Monetary policy has lost influence compared to its previous status, and fiscal policy has been adopted. But in terms of restructuring finance, in terms of altering the relation between the productive sector and the financial sector, in terms of reorganising the capitalist economy as a whole, I see no serious proposals or serious thought from the mainstream.
From those who make policy, it's not clear where they're going to go. Part of the reason, of course, is the residual strength of the financial system. It's enormous. So despite all the talk from Obama, for example, that he is going to change everything, his economic team comprises people who were there in the Clinton era and who are beholden to Wall Street.
Any big change will take time to materialise.
Leo Panitch talks about the possibility of a "social-democratisation of globalisation", and Simon Mohun says that we could see something more like the regime of 1945-73...
I am far more sceptical about that. In the medium-term - give it a few years - I do expect changes to happen - possibly in that direction, in that we will see direct intervention by the state across the economy. Whether that can be called social-democratic or not, we need to discuss, but it's possible.
In the short-term, we are seeing increasing intervention by the state, but it is not leading towards that medium-term possibility yet. The governments are not willing to touch the financial system at present. They are not willing to intervene there, or, when they do intervene, they are not willing to draw the conclusions of their own interventions.
But they do have a problem. Expansionary fiscal policy, as they want to pursue it, and not touching the financial system, are not particularly compatible. They will have to do something about the financial system at some point if they want to sustain this expansionary fiscal policy.
They will have to confront the problem of the enormous growth of finance and the enormous power of finance. It will probably take them some time to realise that. When they come to confront the problem, it is not clear how they will go about it.
How do you think the present financial system undermines fiscal policy? More generally, the economists are dragging everything they can out of the lessons of the 1930s and of the Japanese depression of the 1990s to look for ideas. What critical assessment can we make of the ideas for stabilisation that they are coming up with?
They are not exactly squeezing out all the lessons of the thirties. Actually they have been very careful. In the 1930s, for example, there was imposed a clean separation of investment banking activity and commercial banking activity in the US. There has been none of that. It is true that they have brought interest rates down, but even that they have done by putting enormous amounts of liquidity in. They haven't done it by putting formal controls on interest rates and the way finance lends. They are allowing, for the moment, a market determination of those things.
So it's not true that they have done everything that they did in the thirties. They are very careful not to stop on the toes of the financial system.
They have been using the lessons of the 1930s, as far as they understand them, to promote expansionary fiscal policy. But that will mean state debt, and it may also mean printing money. It is not easy for the US or the UK state to borrow now, and not because they are over-borrowed - actually their debt is quite low. There are no domestic savings for them to borrow from, because of the policies they have been following for the last 15 to 20 years, so they have to borrow abroad. That is not easy, certainly not for the UK. It is easier for the US, but even in the US there are serious problems in relying on Arab money, or Russian money, or Chinese money, for expansionary fiscal policy.
Finance will not like the increase in debt, and they will not like the increase in money supply that may be necessary to support fiscal policy. Finance will act as a brake on these things. Finance will also act as a brake in the sense that while the state will be spending and expanding fiscal policy, finance will actually be reining in demand, because banks are over-extended and they need to adjust their balance-sheets.
Finance is also a problem in the sense that individual people are hugely over-extended with debt. That debt is like a ball and chain on people. For many decades we have been told that debt is good. Now people are going to discover that debt is not good.
Finance will be acting as a pressure on individuals, extracting income, stopping the economy from expanding. The governments will have to do something about it. They will have to restrain the strength of the financial interest. But it will take them a time to see that they have to do it. And it will not be easy, because the financial interest is still very strong.
We talked before about the fact that many of the securities being traded had their prices worked out by mathematical formulas. Some writers have suggested that the calculations were faulty, in the sense that they disregarded highly improbable turns of events, while in fact, given the scale of the markets, those highly improbable things were going to happen.
There is definitely something to do with that argument. It has to do with the ideology of risk management, and the practice of risk management adopted by the financial institutions in recent years, whereby financial institutions seem to have become less capable of assessing creditworthiness. They used to assess creditworthiness in a relational way, by accumulating knowledge, by knowing the debtor and finding out about the debtor's business and prospects. In recent years that has largely be replaced by mathematical and quantitative handling of risk based on assumptions about probability distributions which drew on past events and correlations between variables.
The assumption made by the people who built these models is that extraordinary events happen very, very rarely, so they could afford to disregard them. But capitalism generates the extraordinary quite regularly! And lo and behold, it has happened.
On top of that there has been a question of problematic practice in the financial markets, not just because they made the wrong assumptions about what might happen, but also in terms of how these large capitalist institutions work internally. They may seem to be buccaneering enterprises, but in fact they are very large bureaucracies, stodgy, multi-layered. People were passing estimates from desk to desk without doing any serious work, as long as the right boxes were ticked. The end result was disaster, because problems were accumulating that nobody knew about, or that everybody turned a blind eye to.
It is yet another example of the inefficiency of modern capitalism. It likes to pretend that it is very competitive, very efficient, but even in the competitive environment of those large financial institutions, internally they were very inefficient.
The total outstanding notional value of financial derivatives in the world is over $600 trillion - over $100,000 for every person in the world. There are different ways of counting the total, but however you count it, it is an enormous amount. And a lot of it must be the same underlying assets repackaged again and again. So isn't it a case of some problems being invisible because of the scale and speed of the markets?
I was thinking more of how the mechanics of risk management operate within the large investment banks. It's important, because these banks are supposed to be the social institutions that assess risk in a market economy, but in fact they don't do it very well.
I'm not sure that the size as such is a problem. The nominal sums are misleading. It is an example of Marx's "fictitious capital". But those who run the big business were losing sight of who owns what, where, and in that sense the system became less easy to read, more opaque, as it became more and more multi-layered.
Looking back on it, the mortgage crisis in the USA seems very small compared to the repercussions. How can we explain that this relatively small disturbance - on the scale of world capitalism - had such huge repercussions?
This is not a crisis in the normal mould, and Marxists would do well to appreciate that, in order to say useful things about it. The mortgage market is sizeable, but obviously it is not on a par with what has happened in recent months.
It is securitisation that has done that - the fact that on the back of a fairly moderate amount of debt from poor people in the United States an enormous structure of other debt had been developed, owned by financial institutions across the world.
That is not all. The money markets are frozen. The way the crisis unfolded, and the way the authorities have mishandled it, allowed the money markets to freeze completely. Lehman Brothers was a critical moment.
Any capitalist financial system pivots on the money market. If the money market - that is, the market in which banks exchange reserves among themselves and facilitate their other transactions - doesn't work, then everything is frozen. That is what magnified the effect of the disturbances and made them spread across the world.
On top of that, large numbers of working people in key developed countries are over-indebted. They have been hit very badly, and can't spend at the same level. The combined effect of the money markets freezing, and therefore credit freezing, and ordinary people suffering loss of buying-power, has catapulted the productive sector into a major crisis.
The money market is important, not only because a freeze there means that banks do not lend to other banks, but also because it makes it more difficult for industrial corporations to issue short-term debt to obtain cash to pay wages and so on. Working capital for big business has been very hard to procure, and as a result they have cut back output and employment. So you get unemployment rising.
In recent years, the New York financial markets, operating with cash put in from all across the world, have acted as a sort of lender of last resort to the world. Is there a prospect that they won't be able to do that any more? That we will have a world without a lender of last resort, and so a severe disruption of the world system and also a rebalancing of it so that New York will no longer be central?
There has been a period of US hegemony, including in finance. The major financial institutions are either US-owned or multilateral institutions which are US-backed. US hegemony in the political sphere has been matched by US hegemony in the financial sphere, and the US has been one of the main drivers of the financialisation of world capitalism.
But in the last 20 years, that has been done while the US has been suffering from structural balance-of-trade deficits. It has been done on the basis of other people giving the US money to borrow. In the 1990s, that tended to be the Japanese and the Europeans. In the last decade, the Japanese have remained significant suppliers of finance, but in the last four or five years it has been more the emerging capitalist economies in Asia. Some very, very poor countries have been sending funds to the US.
So the US has been absorbing funds from across the world. The US has a unique advantage, because it issues the money that is best available approximation to world money, the dollar. It can impose a sort of tribute on the rest of the world because of imperial power. The rest of the world, in a sense, sends money over to enable it to use the dollar.
Can this be maintained? Will things change? In the medium term I think they will. This is a major shock to the United States. The crisis is to do with US-centric methods of financial capitalism, and the crisis is very severe in the US specifically. In the medium term I expect US hegemony, in the sphere of finance and perhaps more broadly, to suffer.
But I stress: in the medium term. In the short term it is different. The dollar has become stronger, for a variety of reasons, but its use as a last resort has something to do with it. And one of the main providers of funds globally, to allow smaller capitalist countries to keep ticking over, has been the Federal Reserve. They have provided, of course, enormous amounts of money to capitalist firms in the US, but they have also created new and unprecedented facilities for Brazil, Mexico, Singapore, and South Korea, as well as allowing other central banks across the world access to dollars. The Federal Reserve has emerged as a major player globally in the stabilisation effort.
It is not as if the US is on its last legs, and Sarkozy and others are making all the running. That is not what's happening. But in the medium term the omens are not good for US hegemony.
How might a world with reduced US hegemony look? If the dollar is not the world money, what will be?
That, in a sense, is the major problem of capitalism today. Marxists had better appreciate that and start discussing it. Domestic financial systems and monetary arrangements are always problematic for the capitalist classes, but over the years they have developed institutions and practices to handle the problems - not always successfully, and with contradictions, but they have mechanisms in place.
On the global level, it is different. The history of the last thirty-odd years, since gold was finally detached from the dollar and stopped functioning as a world money, has been one of tremendous unrest, volatility, instability. And that in turn has boosted financialisation.
The options for finding a reliable world money to replace the dollar are very limited. At that level the contradictions are very hard to reconcile. Maybe they are impossible to reconcile with a capitalist organisation of production. It is possible that without the dollar as world money, then, as far as the eye can see, the world economy, if it continues on a capitalist basis, will subsist on the basis of global instability, with unstable exchange rates and unstable flows... maybe bilateral arrangements, maybe a number of competing world moneys.
What might a limited decline of US financial hegemony look like, then?
A rise in the power of China, in the first instance - and a more confident role for Chinese capitalism, if it doesn't itself implode. China possesses enormous financial reserves. It might invest them in other parts of the world. We might see multinational Chinese corporations emerging. And then, gradually, if China manages to find some modus vivendi, there might be some Asia-centred monetary system emerging. But the problems are enormous in that respect, mainly political problems.
Do you think that the monetary policies followed by the governments in the last few months are likely to lead to high inflation after the period of low inflation, or deflation, which seems likely in the coming months since we know that oil prices and basic commodity prices have gone down already? The central banks have done all the things which they said absolutely must not be done for fear of causing inflation.
It's quite incredible what the central banks have done. I looked at the balance sheet of the Federal Reserve. Bank deposits with the Federal Reserve, "high-powered money", the basis of the money supply, are now about a trillion and a half dollars, up from about $800 billion in the space of just a few months. The Federal Reserve has increased the supply of money to the banks phenomenally, by buying from the banks financial assets which it would not have dreamed of buying just six months ago.
But the banks have been sitting on the money. At the moment, monetary policy does not work, for reasons that Marxists have long known about. Keynesians call the liquidity trap - not exactly the same, but a related idea: that there comes a moment in a crisis at which money is the only way to hold value. So we have financial institutions hoarding that the central banks are providing to them.
Potentially this could lead to inflation. But I doubt it, because of the severity of the crisis and because of the previous experience of Japan. The Japanese central bank did the same thing - it bought all kinds of assets and expanded the money available to banks. It never led to inflation. In fact, prices maintained a downward slope.
The reason was, again, hoarding. In Japan, people and institutions have been hoarding money, and they have been doing it because of their predicament. Over-borrowing, uncertainty about the future, uncertainty about jobs, make people and institutions more conservative.
That is what I think will happen. No-one knows for sure, but at the moment it looks like falling prices rather than inflation. It looks like a major shock to prices, because capitalist operations cannot borrow, consumers cannot borrow, no-one is spending. Given the over-extendedness of borrowing consumers, that is not likely to change soon. People are hugely over-borrowed in this country, to the extent of 160% of disposable income. It is similar in the United States.
In other words, monetary policy has shot its bolt. The ruling class has begun to realise that and turn to fiscal policy.
Fiscal policy opens up all kinds of possibilities for the left. Fiscal policy has been the great unmentionable for many years past, because financial interests do not want it.
Fiscal policy allows the left to argue on a different basis about what needs doing in the economy, and which way it should be directed - should it be tax cuts, or targeted state spending, and so on? It takes us back to a terrain which is far better suited to the interests and the desires of the left.
It also presents the possibility of arguing for socialism. Fiscal policy is where the governments are heading to, but the financial system will keep dragging it back. The left should then be arguing for true socialisation of the financial system. Private finance has failed, and failed abysmally.
December 2008. Costas Lapavitsas is a Marxist economist specialising in the study of financial systems. His writings include The Political Economy of Money and Finance (with Makoto Itoh), and he is a lecturer at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. Interview by Martin Thomas.
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What a transformative weekend. Lesley has been kind enough to let me step in and be a kind of PR girl for the Olde Forge. I have one more FB and Twitter account to update!!!! Woohoooo! Amazing things happen when stand still long enough. Friday night we were blessed with the Scott Vance/Kothmann cousin band. Um, swooned, weak-kneed? Yes. Can you imagine a prettier setting than a big front porch, candle light mixed with mason jar fairy lights and three amazing men singing to you?
Next night was the Kathy Bauer Band featuring Mike and Lee. Kathy is a different kind of country and Mike has some serious talent. He plays the beat on a beat box??? I would have been dead after the first song. This is man who understands rhythm. Kathy understands how a song wants to be sung. Add in Lee on the guitar and you get a mix of eclectic and modern rock.
Before the live music last night a man named Mark Randall showed up wanting to entertain for free. He showed up today, Sunday and I can't begin to describe just how lively this place feels. He is a tribute singer focusing on classic country songs. Right rhythm and right time for his kind of songs!