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Posts Tagged 'ancient'
Nubia, irrigation and parasitic worms, a tale told by a Mummy
// June 8th, 2011 // Comments Off on Nubia, irrigation and parasitic worms, a tale told by a Mummy // Recent Research
A few months ago I wrote about Ancient Nubians and their antibiotic beer, delivering a dose of tetracycline in every brew.
Now bioarcheologist George Armelagos has co-authored a study showing that early irrigation channels changed how humans were affected by parasites.
I'll describe the research at the end, but first – a story! Make yourself a cup of tea and come back to read it.
Nubia, 500AD
Cotton. Image by Martin LaBar
Since he'd taken his first wobbly steps on Nubian soil, Alara had been pulling his then insubstantial weight on the family farm. He'd pull up weeds with grubby fingers under the watchful eye of his older cousins by day. Lunch was often a paltry loaf of flat bread to share between the lot of them, supplemented with whatever local edible plant was in season, eaten hastily and followed by a brief break in which he built dirt pyramids with other children.
Now 30, Alara remembered his childhood as carefree and unplanned. His memories swam together like waves billowed out from boats on the Nile. Only small moments stood out with any clarity. A snarling dog snapping at his leg. The taste of bread warmed by the sun, seasoned with hunger. Buzzing with disbelief at the stories told by his cousins of things adult and forbidden.
A life in the sun had baked him hard and capable, and he still worked on the same farm he had as a toddler. His extended family shared the plot of land, shared the work, shared the harvest, shared the income. Shared the good years and the bad. He was a cotton farmer through and through, born and raised to the plough.
A friendly slap on the should shook Alara out of his reverie. "Wake up, brother, you are asleep on your feet! It's time for lunch and then I need to walk to the river and check the channels. The water is not flowing as it should. Will you go with me?"
"Lunch already, Arty? I didn't notice the sun was so high. Of course I'll come with you."
The midday meal of onion and lentils served with flat bread for eating with was waiting hot on the table. They ate quickly and had a weak cup of tea before walking to the Nile.
They could hear the river well before they could see it. The sound of saqiya irrigation was like music that infiltrated the whole valley, though they were so used to it they barely heard it. As they approached their saqiya, they called out a greeting to Nala who was driving the cow.
"Nala! We have brought food for you."
"Thank you uncle," she called back. "I'll come down to eat."
Al-Jazari's Water-raising-device ca 1205AD
The saqiya was the heart of the farm, pumping the water of life from the river to the fields where it was needed. Made of wood, it consisted of cogs and a large open-spoked wheel. The cow, encouraged by young Nala, moved a wooden arm around, turning the wheels and cogs to move a pulley.
That pulley was studded with jars which dipped down into the water and lifted up to the farm's main channel. Each jar then deposited its precious load which ran to the farm and branched out into smaller channels, delivering water for the cotton.
Alara inspected the cow and saqiya while Nala ate lunch. Despite a slightly thirsty cow, everything seemed to be working fine. The problem must lie in one of the channels.
Walking along the main channel, he stopped now and then to check the water level. Sometimes silt and aquatic plants collected at the bottom, blocking the flow of water. When he and Arty came to the first branch in the channel, they separated to cover more ground. Following his channel through several other branches, Alara found one that was a problem.
The side of the channel must have collapsed recently. Mud clogged the small stream, causing water to dam up behind it and overflow. Alara reached in and started to pull up clumps of the stuff. The water became turbulent and muddy, and he noticed more than a few of the fresh-water snails that liked to live in the slowly flowing channels. As he cleared it, the water began to run clean again and move into the farm. He spent the rest of the afternoon checking other channels, clearing several that were silting badly.
Though he didn't know it, those snails were responsible for the troubling, itchy spots many adults had on their arms and feet. Well, it wasn't the snails exactly, it was the tiny worms inside them.
Several species of trematode of the genus Schistosoma could infect humans. These tiny parasitic worms hatched in water and quickly found snails to infect, burrowing into their large feet. They moved through the life stages of miracidia and sporocyst inside that host, emerging as free swimming cercariae which needed a mammal host to continue to the next stages.
In contact with humans, or for some species other animals, they penetrated the skin and lost their tails, moving through the circulation as schistosomulae. In the liver they would mature into adults, pair, and migrate so the eggs they produced would be shed in stool. Those eggs would make their way to water to repeat the cycle.
Two weeks later, Alara woke in the night with a pain in his stomach which sent him running to the toilet area. By morning he was exhausted and feverish. Though the disease didn't kill him, researchers would later find evidence of the parasitic worms in his mumified remains.
Schistosomiasis, the chronic disease caused by these worms, is thought "the most important water-based disease from a global public-health perspective" in modern populations. It infects an estimated 200 million people per year. It has a low mortality rate, but causes development problems in children and damages internal organs.
Modern irrigation systems, particularly slow moving ones, boost the disease by providing habitats to the snails. But what about ancient populations?
To find out, Armelagos, Hibbs, Secor and Van Gerven studied dessicated remains (aka mummies) from two Nubian populations. Wadi Halfa (N = 46) lived in 500AD when the Nile was lower, and used saqiya irrigation on their crops. Kulubnarti (N = 191) lived 300 years later, during a time when Nile flooding was good and irrigation was less critical. They hypothesised the Wadi Halfa population would have more Schistosoma mansoni, and it would be more prevalent in children and men due to differential water contact.
One out of three ain't bad. Indeed, Wadi Halfa people had more of the parastic worms: 26% to Kulubnarti's 9%. However peak prevalence of infection did not occur at a younger age in the Wadi Halfa, and there was no sex difference.
Hibbs AC, Secor WE, Van Gerven D, & Armelagos G (2011). Irrigation and infection: The immunoepidemiology of schistosomiasis in ancient Nubia. American journal of physical anthropology, 145 (2), 290-8 PMID: 21469072
Note: I tried to be accurate about life in Nubia, 500AD, but please correct me in the comments
(Also, I want to be a bioarcheologist! Should I apply for one of these Graduate Programs at Emory University?
Connecting via common ancestors and Genographics – Interview with Wolfgang Haak
// December 8th, 2010 // Comments Off on Connecting via common ancestors and Genographics – Interview with Wolfgang Haak // Recent Research, Science Communication
At the Genographic Event at the RiAus I also interviewed Dr Wolfgang Haak, who spoke about Y-chromosome markers to determine paternal ancestry. He's been involved in the Genographic Project for three and a half years.
What are the benefits of understanding ancestry?
It's pretty much a personal thing, at the end of the day, because I suppose everyone's interested in his or her own genetic history. This is my personal driving force, finding out more about myself. Where's my place in this planet, in this world, where do I tie into the global picture? That's a big motivation for me, and as I find out more as I work with people that it's the same motor or driving force with them as well.
We share a common ancestry after all, there's a common interest in our genetic history as well.
What first attracted you to the Genographic Project?
I have always been interested in genetics, but I actually come from an anthropologic background and genetics is certainly a part of that. I also come from an Ancient DNA lab. This was a step further into more modern population genetics. This is about getting both things together. Having a modern day perspective, plus adding a timely depth to that picture that we get from modern day diversity.
Tell us about your own ancestry, have you genotyped yourself?
Yes, I've done both. Mitochondrial, I'm haplogroup H, and I can further pin that down to group H1, so that is a Palaeolithic, Mesolithic one that might have come into Europe prior to the last glacial maximum, around modern day Spain or Italy or even a South Eastern refuge. It's not entirely clear but we'll find out over the next couple of years.
On the paternal side its even more enigmatic. I'm part of a North African lineage that probably originated around the Horn of Africa, so there's that connection on the Eastern side of Africa where it connects to Saudi Arabia, and that has a high frequency there into the Nile Valley, and from it spreads into South Eastern Europe. Not entirely sure when it spread across the Mediterranean region, but probably historic times rather than prehistoric times.
Genographics, Neanderthals and Cannibalism, an Interview with Carles Lalueza-Fox
// December 8th, 2010 // 1 Comment » // Recent Research, Science Communication, Sex and Reproduction
After the event last night about the worldwide Genographic Project, I caught up with Prof Dr Carles Lalueza‑Fox, the first speaker on the night, for a quick interview. He's an expert on Neanderthals, or Neandertals I think we call them now. Named after the Neander Valley where the first specimen was discovered.
What first sparked your interest in studying Neandertals?
When the first Neandertal sequence was retrieved in 1997 I had been working on ancient DNA for a while, but then Neandertals seemed to be something in a different league.
In the first ten years it was only possible to get mitochondrial DNA from Neandertals.
For me, I really liked Neandertals and human evolution as a child. Ancient DNA was something particularly difficult at the time, and the thing that brought me to the subject.
How human do you think Neandertals were?
How human?
Yes, tricky question.
Haha, yes. It's a very long question, a very difficult question. One must always take into mind our tendencies are always fluctuating. We saw them as a very primitive human lineage in the early 20th Century, but I'd say that now we're turning to the point where we see them as very similar to us.
Maybe the best thing to think about Neandertals is they are more different from us than any modern human to any other modern human. That's the way we should think about them.
If we want to think of them as a different species that's fine for me, but there is a range of difference between us and the Neandertals.
The cuts found along Neandertal bones you suggest are evidence for cannibalism. Could they just be an example of de-fleshing prior to burial?
Well, yeah, it might be right in some circumstances. But this is not only cutting, you know de-fleshing the bones. It's also fragmenting the bones with small stone tools, very small fragments, and even the skull, and the faces. For me it's very difficult to think that this kind of post mortem activity is something more because this is a complete destruction of the bones.
It's very similar to what we see in other sites with fauna, the bones are broken to extract the marrow in the same way.
And it's a pretty common thing, well, not common these days, but certainly we humans have our own history of cannibalism.
Yes, well there are several sites with the signs in Neandertals. But you almost think that life was very tough and they were structured in very small groups, so the fact that you find another one… I mean you'd say "hey, we are Neandertals all of us," but I'd say that's a modern conception.
Whereas for them it might be "hey, you're not one of my family I may as well eat you."
Yeah, the idea of humankind, in fact, is very recent. After the second World War, and the UNESCO thing. So even the idea of humankind is more recent than we might think now.
And what do you think of the possibility of Neandertals and humans mating?
I think it's plausible with the data we have. It was probably something that was a minority, restricted in time and space, it was nothing important in my view. The thing is we can detect it now in non-African modern humans is because this was an expanding population, so even a small event of just a few, say it was, this was amplified later on.
Antibiotic beer, as drunk by the ancient Nubians
// September 8th, 2010 // 4 Comments » // Drugs, Recent Research
Image by Peter Trimming
Today's schooner of science is literally science in a schooner. Plus it comes with a new career path – bioarcheologist, expert in ancient diets.
George Armelagos is the bioarcheologist in question, and he'd been studying the ancient Nubians who lived just south of ancient Egypt in present-day Sudan.
George was looking at some bones and found evidence that they had been exposed to tetracycline, an antibiotic. Tetracycline is absorbed into bone, and fluoresces green. It's sometimes used to measure bone growth – take tetracycline at day 0, again at day 12, and at day 21 take a biopsy. The distance between the two green lines will show how far the bone grew in 12 days.
Anyhoo, tetracycline in bones from 350-550 AD is weird, seeing as we first invented antibiotics with the discovery of penicillin in 1928. Now we find out the ancient Nubians beat us to it, and as with all great ideas they came up with it over a beer.
The grain they used to ferment the beer contained streptomyces bacteria, which produces tetracycline as a kind of germ warfare. Like penicillin comes from a fungus, tetracycline is made by a bacteria. It's a bad-ass antibacterial that can treat disease like chlamydia, gonorrhea, and pneumonia which are caused by bacteria. It can even kill Yersinia pestis cause of the black plague.
Were the ancient Nubians drinking it by accidental contamination, intentional medication, or did streptomyces bacteria just grew on the corpses?
To find out they needed (da dada dum!) a CHEMIST! This particular hero was Mark Nelson, who dissolved the bones in some hardcore hydrogen fluoride – "the most dangerous acid on the planet," according to Mark. Woah. After showing the bones who was boss, Mark mass spec'd the shizz out of them and discovered a metric buttload of tetracycline, confirming that it was ingested and in high quantities.
The scientist duo concluded that this was a brew with a purpose – an antibiotic alcoholic. Even the bones from a four year old child contained a lot of tetracycline, perhaps he was given the antibacterial to cure a disease.
My question is, why are WE not taking our antibiotics in beer? That would be SO much better!
Nelson ML, Dinardo A, Hochberg J, & Armelagos GJ (2010). Brief communication: Mass spectroscopic characterization of tetracycline in the skeletal remains of an ancient population from Sudanese Nubia 350-550 CE. American journal of physical anthropology, 143 (1), 151-4 PMID: 20564518
Leviathan, the ancient marine predator discovered
// July 6th, 2010 // 1 Comment » // Recent Research, The Realm of Bizzare
Deep in a desert in Peru palaeontologists were searching for a skull. Some years ago, teeth thought to belong to a new species of marine animal had been found, but they needed a head to identify it. Hunting in the richest area for ancient sea remains, luck eluded them until the very last day of their travel. Then they found…
Leviathan melvillei. Named after that most fearsome animal the white whale, likened to Leviathan in Herman Melville's most excellent book Moby Dick. In the old Testament Leviathan was a sea demon, a guardian of the gates of hell. Other cultures thought a dragon or a crocodile, but in modern Hebrew the word means simply whale.
And what a whale is Leviathan.
With 30 cm long teeth it was a dangerous predator. It may have hunted medium-sized baleen whales, who have no teeth and live on plankton. It's huge teeth would have inflicted deep bites, tearing the baleen whales into pieces. Leviathan lived some 12 million years ago, and looks similar to a modern day sperm whale.
One major difference between the fossil and modern sperm whales is Leviathan had teeth on both jaws. Modern sperm whales only have teeth on the lower jaw, and eat by sucking squid into their mouth. Killer whales are like the funsize version of Leviathan, with teeth on both jaws and violence towards seals. Watch the YouTube documentary to find out more.
They haven't found the rest of the fossil, so they don't know how large the whale was, but it was probably around the same size as the sperm whales of today. That's really big! The largest animal that has ever lived is the blue whale that is still in the ocean now. There are theories that the blue whale is as big as things will ever get.
And so let us take a moment to think of mighty, mad Ahab. That crazy captain who lost his leg to a sperm whale. Wherever you are, Ahab, I be glad you never lived to see this day. The mighty Moby Dick who stole your sanity had but half the dental framework of legendary Leviathan.
Paper published in Nature. Hat tip to Not Exactly Rocket Science.
Update: The name Leviathan was already taken (whoops!) so it has now been renamed Livyatan melvillei, Livyatan being a Hebrew name for large marine monsters.


Valley at Work is Rossendale's business association. We aim to connect, celebrate and support Rossendale's business community. Valley at Work is an independent association, run by local businesses for local businesses.
Our aim is to help local businesses help each other.
We meet on the first Wednesday of every month at local venues, look on the Meetings page to see what's coming soon. We have great guest speakers from local businesses at each meeting, who share their knowledge and experience.
As far as we're concerned, every business in Rossendale is part of the Valley at Work business association. You can attend most Valley at Work meetings free of charge. If you share your email address with us, we'll send you a regular Valley at Work update.
For a small annual fee (£50), you can join Valley at Work as a full member. Full members are listed on this website and get a free ticket for the Rossendale Business Awards ceremony. Full members also participate in the Governance of Valley at Work, electing officials and contributing to what we do and how we do it.


DYNAMIC Suella Fernandes will represent Fareham at the next general election after she was chosen by the Conservative party as parliamentary candidate.
The 34-year-old will stand for election in May when current Fareham MP Mark Hoban steps down.
A political hustings took place today at Fareham College, where Ms Fernandes came out as the winner in the first round, beating Portsmouth's council leader Donna Jones, Nick Rose, from Bournemouth and Jeremy Quin, from Buckinghamshire.
Ms Fernandes, a barrister from London, said she was looking forward to standing in Fareham.
Ms Fernandes said: 'I am thrilled, delighted and excited, if a little bit nervous.
Thomas Fyfe, chairman of the Fareham Conservative Association, said: 'I am pleased that Suella has been selected by Fareham Conservative members to stand as our candidate in the upcoming general election.
'Suella will be a great MP for Fareham and make a significant contribution to our local community and in Westminster.
'Suella stood out because of her commitment to serving the people of Fareham.


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How Japanese and Japanese-Americans Brought Soyfoods to the United States and the Hawaiian Islands - A History (1851-2011)
Publication Date: 2011 July 11
Number of References in Bibliography: 1259
How Japanese and Japanese-Americans Brought Soyfoods to the United States and the Hawaiian Islands – A History (1851-2011)
Almost all of the earliest known companies making soyfoods in the United States were started by people of Japanese ancestry - most of them in small communities in California, the Hawaiian Islands, Oregon and Washington.
How do we know all this? Largely because of two remarkable public directories published in San Francisco by the Nichibei Shinbun-sha (Japanese American News Inc.). The first, published from 1905 to 1916, was titled Zaibei Nihonjin Nenkan, retitled Nichi-Bei Nenkan in 1909 (Japanese-American Yearbook). The second, published from 1919 to 1941, was titled Nichibei Jūshoroku (The Japanese American Directory).
There is, unfortunately, no known corresponding directory listing Chinese businesses in the United States – until about the 1930s (Dr. Ming Sun Poon, 2008, Library of Congress; and search of OCLC / WorldCat database). Nevertheless, people of Chinese ancestry have made an immense contribution to bringing soyfoods to the United States and the Hawaiian Islands.
A note about pronunciation of Chinese / Japanese characters. Most characters can be pronounced in more than one way. Thus, when the name of a Japanese company or person is listed in the Yearbooks or Directories in characters only, without romanization (i.e., not written in roman letters / English), Akiko has had to guess at the pronunciation. When more than one pronunciation appears in this book, the first one is more likely to be correct than the second one, etc. – based on Akiko's knowledge of Japanese as a native speaker.
1851 March – Shipwrecked Japanese, picked up in the barque Auckland, then quarantined off San Francisco, bring the first soybeans to California; they give them in gratitude to Dr. Benjamin Franklin Edward, who takes them to Illinois and to the Midwest (Evening Picayune, March 5, p. 2; Hymowitz 1987, p. 28-32).
1868 – The first Japanese arrive in the Hawaiian Islands on the ship Scioto (Saioto-go), bringing shoyu and miso with them. It is Meiji 1 – the first year of the Meiji period, a period of awakening, expansion, and opening to the outside world after 268 years of peaceful isolation during the Edo (Tokugawa) period.
1868 – The Japanese population of the United States (not including Hawaii, which was annexed to the USA in 1898 and became a state in Aug. 1959) is six – the earliest known statistic.
1879 – Saheiji Mogi, of Noda, Japan, registers Kikkoman, his family's pride and flagship brand of shoyu (Japanese-style soy sauce), as a brand name in California – six years before it is granted the same legal protection in Japan. He is soon exporting small wooden kegs, bound with bamboo hoops (18 liters or 4.76 gallons capacity) of Kikkoman shoyu to California and the Western United States where it is prized by the growing number of Japanese immigrants (Fruin 1983, p. 59-60).
1891 – The earliest known manufacturer of shoyu in Hawaii or the United States is started in Honolulu, Oahu, by Jihachi Shimada; the company name and brand name are unknown. The company closed soon after it started.
1897 – Yamamori Jozo-sho (Yamamori Brewery) starts to make Yamamori Shoyu (soy sauce) in San Jose, California. It is the first company to make soy sauce in the continental United States.
1897 – The Japanese population of the United States is estimated to be 13,000. After Hawaii was forcibly annexed by the United States in 1898, the Japanese population in the continental USA rose to an estimated 35,000 in 1899 and 53,764 in 1904. Hawaii served as a sort of stepping stone for many, making it easier to get to the continental USA.
1905 – Sugita Jozo-sho (Sugita Brewery) is now making Sugita Shoyu in San Jose, California. It is the second company to make soy sauce in the continental United States, and also in San Jose!
1905 – Yamajo Soy Co. (Yamajo Shoyu Seizo-sho) starts to make shoyu in Honolulu, Oahu. Established by Mr. Nobuyuki Yamakami, it is the first successful shoyu manufacturer in Hawaii. By 1909 it was renamed Hawaiian Soy Co. Ltd. (Hawaii Shoyu K.K.).
1905 – There are 6 Japanese tofu shops in the United States; 2 in Los Angeles, and 1 each in San Francisco, Sacramento, San Jose, and Isleton - all in California.
1906 – The first Japanese tofu shop in Washington state is in operation (in Seattle).
1907 – Miso is first made commercially in the continental United States by Yamane Miso, Sakana Sho in Sacramento, California. The next four commercial miso makers in the continental USA all started in California, owned and operated by Japanese. 1908 – Sanyo Shokai, in Melrose (near Alameda); 1913 – Marumi Miso Seizo-sho, in Los Angeles; 1917 – Fujimoto Co., in San Francisco (Brand: Kanemasa Miso). 1919 – Norio Co., in San Francisco (Type: Shiro miso = Sweet white miso).
1908 – Miso is first made commercially in Hawaii by the Hawaiian Yamajo Soy Company of Honolulu.
1907 – The first Japanese tofu shop in Utah is in operation (in Ogden).
1908 – The first Japanese tofu shop in Nevada is in operation (in Reno).
1908 – The Japanese population of the United States rises to a peak of 103,683.
1909 – Sanyo Shoyu Jozo Gaisha starts making soy sauce in Portland, Oregon – the state's first shoyu manufacturer. By 1913 the company had been renamed Sanyo Shoyu Jozo-sho.
1909 – The Japanese-American Yearbook (No. 5, p. 69) states: The value of the 1900 soybean crop in the United States is $7,634,262 and the value in California is $1,022,586. Note: This is the earliest document seen (July 2011) that gives soybean production or area statistics for either the USA or California – earlier than any U.S. Department of Agriculture statistics. Unfortunately, the source of these statistics is not given.
1910 – 2.88 million gallons of Kikkoman soy sauce are now exported from Japan, the principal destinations being Honolulu, Portland, San Francisco, Tacoma, Denver, and Chicago.
1909 early – At a time of anti-Japanese sentiment in California, stirred up by leaders of the labor movement, the California legislature "approved an appropriation of $10,000 to be utilized for investigating the conditions of Japanese in that state." The investigation was directed by John D. Mackenzie, Commissioner, California Bureau of Labor Statistics. Work was begun on April 15, 1909, with the appointment of nine special agents – all white. No Japanese were employed in any capacity. The surveyors went to every part of California where Japanese believed to live, and eventually surveyed an estimated 95% of the Japanese in California. Most Japanese welcomed the surveyors and responded accurately and in detail on forms which were printed in both Japanese and English. A very high percentage of the forms were returned by mail to the survey headquarters.
1910 early – Mr. Mackenzie submits to the governor of California his 78-page report titled Labor Laws of California: First Special Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics. It praises Japanese and concludes that the Japanese population is making an important contribution to the state (Mackenzie 1909; California Bureau of Labor Statistics 1910; K. Kawakami 1912, p. 343-44). The 1911 Nichi-Bei Nenkan (Japanese-American Yearbook), subsequent Yearbooks, and the Nichi-Bei newspaper in San Francisco, all seem to have benefitted greatly from the Report and the work of the Commission, in part by the addition of many new and interesting statistics – but we have never been able to find out exactly how. The Report itself, unfortunately, no longer exists.
1910 – The Japanese population of the top 8 U.S. states is: California 55,901, Washington state 16,930. Colorado 4,557. Oregon 3,873. Utah 2,529. Idaho 2,399. New York 2,260. Wyoming 1,409. About 90% of these people are men (adult males).
1910 – The value of miso and shoyu imported from Japan to San Francisco tops $100,000.
1910 late – At least 65 Japanese tofu shops have been established in the continental United States; none in the Hawaiian Islands. Some are no longer in business.
1911 – The Japanese-American Yearbook (No. 7, p. 54, in a table) states that in 1911 some 2,785,516 bushels of soybeans were produced in the entire USA worth $7,767,702. Note: Again, the source of these statistics is not given. These are very early statistics on soybean production in the United States – earlier than any known USDA statistics. Moreover: A table of U.S. imports and exports from Japan (p. 74) shows that $109,316 worth of miso and shoyu were imported to the USA; they were considered dutiable items, with a 40% duty levied on each (part 2, p. 23).
1911 – Ohta Tofu-ten (Ota Tofu Co.) is now making tofu at 266 Davis St., Portland, Oregon. The owner is Saizō Ota.
1911 – The first Japanese tofu shop in New York is in operation (in Brooklyn).
1913 – The first Japanese tofu shop in Idaho is in operation (in Sugar City).
1913 – Japanese population in the top East Coast states: New York: 2,209. New Jersey 277. Massachusetts 230. Pennsylvania 223. Florida 89. Washington, DC 54. Rhode Island 41. Maryland 29. About 95% of these are males.
1917 Dec. – Eight Mogi and Takanashi family companies, the leading shoyu producers in the Noda area of Japan, merge to form Noda Shoyu Co., Ltd., a company with capital of ¥7 million and the predecessor of Kikkoman Corporation.
1919 Jan. 1 – The first issue of the annual Nichi-Bei Jushoroku (The Japanese American Directory) appears, replacing the Nichi-Bei Nenkan (Japanese American Yearbook – which was first published (under a different title) in 1905.
1919 Jan. – Tomoe Tofu-ya (Tomoe Tofu Co.) is now making tofu at 324 Jackson St., Los Angeles, California. It was later acquired by Matsuda Tofu Co.
1920 Jan. 1 – Yamaizumi Miso Seizo-sho is making sweet white miso, fresh koji, and dried koji at 1436 Cahuenga Ave., Los Angeles, California. In 1975 this company was acquired by Miyako Oriental Foods of Los Angeles.
1920 – At least 166 Japanese tofu shops have been started in the USA and Hawaii. Some are no longer in business.
1923 – H. Iwanaga is now making tofu at Rear 1031 Aala, Honolulu, Hawaii. He is the earliest known tofu maker in the Hawaiian Islands (one of 3, the other two being Yazaemon Ono and Yasuzu Tanouye – also in Honolulu). The company (H. Iwanaga Daufu) was purchased twice by Shoshiro Kanehori and Mrs. Haruko Uyeda; it was finally purchased in 1939 by Mr. and Mrs. Shokin Yamauchi, and later renamed Aala Tofu Co. It is thus the earliest known Hawaiian ancestor of Hinode Tofu Co., which became America's largest tofu manufacturer, run by Mr. Shoan Yamauchi.
1924 - Oriental Show-You Company begins production of Japanese-style fermented soy sauce in Columbia City, Indiana.
1930 – Azumaya Tofu Seizo-sho (Azumaya Co.) is now making tofu at 1636 Post Street, San Francisco, California. The company existed as early as 1922 as a maker of Japanese pickles. Azumaya may have started making tofu several years before 1930; we have been unable the examine Japanese directories from 1926-1929.
1930 – At least 293 Japanese tofu shops have been established in the United States and Hawaii. Some are no longer in business.
1934 Jan. – Matsuda Tofu-ten (Matsuda Tofu Co.) is now making tofu at 2844 East 1st St., Los Angeles, California.
1939 – Mr. Shoan Yamauchi starts making tofu at Rear 1031 Aala, Honolulu, Hawaii. By 1955 the company had been renamed Aala Tofu Factory.
1940 – At least 392 Japanese tofu shops have been started the United States and Hawaii. Some are no longer in business.
1941 late – By food: As of late this year, 537 different Japanese-owned companies in the United States and the Hawaiian Islands have made soyfoods. Of these, 418 (78% of the total) have made tofu, 62 have made miso, 57 have made shoyu (soy sauce), and 4 have made natto. Five of these companies have made more than one soyfood product. Many of these companies are no longer in business.
1941 late – By state: As of late this year, 311 of these 537 companies have operated in California (58% of the total), 156 in Hawaii, 22 in Washington state, 15 in Utah, 10 in Oregon, and 4 in Idaho.
1941 Dec. 7 – Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Life suddenly becomes much more difficult for Japanese and Japanese-Americans living in the United States.
1942 Feb. 19 – Executive Order 9066 is signed by President Franklin Dr. Roosevelt. Basically all Japanese and Japanese-Americans living in the western USA (west of the Rocky Mountains) are sent to harsh internment camps, where they are kept behind barbed wire during World War II until late 1944 – when the entire operation is ruled unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court. All Japanese-owned companies making soyfoods in the Western USA cease operations and most are no longer there when their owners return home after World War II. The owners must start all over to rebuild their businesses.
1942 – Showa Shoyu Brewing Co. (Glendale, Arizona) starts making Marusho Shoyu. The company is owned and run by Takeshi Tadano and his son, John Tadano. Actual bottles of this soy sauce still exist.
1943-1944 – At the ten Internment camps housing Japanese and Japanese-Americans during World War II, tofu was made at eight (starting at Poston in Jan. 1943; 4,000 cakes a month); miso was made at three (starting at Jerome in Sept. 1943; 1,000 lb/week), HVP shoyu was made at one (Manzanar, starting in Nov. 1942; 1,000 to 5,000 gallons a month), and soymilk was made at one (Poston, starting in Dec. 1943).
1946 – Tomoe Tofu-ya (Tomoe Tofu Co.) in Los Angeles is acquired by Matsuda Tofu Co. for $8,000 (Interview with Shoan Yamauchi, 1982).
1947 March – Hinode Tofu Seizo-sho (Hinode Tofu Co.) starts making Hinode Tofu (Japanese-style Soft, and Chinese-style Firm) at 706 E. Sixth St., Los Angeles. The company was started by the former owners of Tomoe Tofu Co. (Mr. Tomoe and probably a partner).
1950 – At least 425 Japanese tofu shops have been started the United States and Hawaii. Some are no longer in business
1957 June – Kikkoman International Inc. (KII) is established in San Francisco, California, in the United States.
1950s mid – Before Kikkoman entered the U.S. market, soy sauce was sold strictly as a seasoning for Oriental foods. But starting in the mid-1950s. Kikkoman began to take a new approach, marketing its savory sauce as both all-purpose and all-American, using attractive (and expensive) television and color print media ads with American-style recipes featuring meat, fish, and poultry.
1958 – The first KII branch is established in Los Angeles.
1963 – Matsuda-Hinode Tofu Mfg. Co. is now making tofu in Los Angeles. It is the biggest tofu maker in the Western United States. In 1964 the company established three milestones: (1) It became the first company on the West Coast (and perhaps in the world) to package tofu; (2) It became the first U.S. company to get tofu into a supermarket chain (Boy's Market in Los Angeles); and (3) It became the first U.S. company to make natto. In 1969 the company built and moved into a new location at 526 S. Stanford Ave.
1964 October – Noda Shoyu Co., Ltd., is renamed Kikkoman Shoyu Co., Ltd.
1966 April 12 – Erewhon opens as a small macrobiotic and natural foods retail store in Boston, Massachusetts. Aveline and Michio Kushi, Japanese teachers of macrobiotics, are the founders. Over the next several decades the macrobiotic movement nationwide does more than any other group or company to introduce Americans to miso and (after Kikkoman) to shoyu, and to a lesser extent to tempeh, tofu, natto, and soymilk.
1966 July 30 – Mutual Trading Co. (under president Noritoshi Kanai) imports its first 2 cases of edamamé (green vegetable soybean in the pod) from Japan. On 1 July 1970 edamamé first appeared in Mutual's restaurant catalog. As Mutual Trading Co. was introducing authentic sushi, made in Japanese restaurants by a sushi master, it introduced edamamé as a side dish for the sushi. Americans loved both.
1968 – Bottling of Kikkoman Soy Sauce for the American market begins at the Leslie Foods plant in Oakland, California.
1968 July 1 – The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act, signed into law Oct. 3, 1965, by President Lyndon Jonson), becomes law. A new era in Asian immigration to the United States begins.
1972 March – Kikkoman Foods, Inc. (KFI), is established in Walworth, Wisconsin (USA) for the purpose of manufacturing soy sauce and teriyaki sauce.
1973 June – Kikkoman's sparkling new plant in Walworth, Wisconsin, with a capacity of 10 million liters (2.6 million gallons) a year begins operations – making Japanese-style shoyu and teriyaki sauce. The plant cost about $6-10 million to build and initially employed about 100 people.
1976 – Kikkoman passes La Choy (a nonfermented HVP soy sauce made by Beatrice Foods) to become America's best-selling soy sauce. In 1971 Kikkoman had passed Chun King (an HVP soy sauce made by Del Monte's RJR Foods) to become No. 2.
1976 Jan. 21 – Miyako Oriental Foods is founded; operations began on June 1. Noritoshi Kanai is president. Teruo Shimizu is factory manager. Miyako (at 404 Towne Ave., Los Angeles), a division of Yamajirushi Miso Co. in Japan, is now making Yamajirushi (Shinshu type) Miso, Kanemasa Miso, Yamaizumi Miso, Aka Miso, and Koji Miso.
1977 July. – Takai Tofu & Soymilk Equipment Co. introduces its "Takai Catalog of Small and Medium-Sized Equipment" – the first such catalog in English. This makes it much easier for Americans to order the equipment they need to start their own companies making tofu on a commercial scale. Bean Machines Inc. is founded in California to import Takai equipment. A "Takai Catalog of Large-scale Equipment" appeared in Feb. 1979.
1977 – Morinaga Milk Industry Co. (of Tokyo, Japan) starts to sell Morinaga brand Tofu: Soybean Curd in the United States in an innovative new long-life aseptically packaged Tetra Brik carton. This "Kinugoshi tofu" product was developed for the American market.
1978 April – Morinaga's product is re-introduced with a new name (Morinaga Silken Tofu) and new package design and a recipe for "Creamy Tofu Dressing" on the package. This is the first use of the term "silken tofu" on a commercial tofu product. The product is also sold with a new recipe booklet. Over the next two decades Morinaga plays a major role in introducing tofu to the USA with handsome color print ads, a "Healthy Life" newsletter, and many promotional and outreach activities.
1978 May – Miyako Oriental Foods (at 404 Towne Ave.) launches Cold Mountain Firm Granular Koji, with a leaflet for using it to make homemade red miso, homemade sweet white miso, and amazake.
1980 Sept. – America's sushi boom begins in California when the very popular TV miniseries and epic drama Shogun, based on the novel by James Clavell, sparks a great interest in traditional Japanese culture (including food culture) among Americans. They flock to sushi bars and drink Japanese beer and saké. But, true to tradition, Japanese restaurants serve edamamé, free of charge, with the beer. "It was a mass sampling of the edamamé without people having ordered it! So the success of sushi, Japanese
beers, Japanese saké, and edamamé, are all tied in together" (Interview with Atsuko Kanai, June 2001).
1982 Sept. 24 – Open house at Miyako Oriental Foods new and expanded, 20,000-square-foot miso factory at 4287 Puente Ave., Baldwin Park, California.
1983 – House Food Industrial Co., Ltd. of Japan purchases 50% ownership in Yamauchi Enterprises (formerly Hinode Tofu Co., owned by Mr. Shoan Yamauchi) in Los Angeles. The company is renamed House Foods & Yamauchi, Inc.
1985 Oct. – Morinaga Nutritional Foods opens its first office in the United States, in Los Angeles. Prior to 1985. Mori-Nu was distributed by Mutual Trading Co. of Los Angeles, with sales targeted to the Asian market. After this opening, sales of Mori-Nu Tofu increased from 60,000 to 400,000 cases in less than four years. Each case contains 25 x 10.5 oz. packs of tofu.
1985 – This year Morinaga sells 4.8 million cakes of tofu to 32 countries worldwide.
1987 Sept. 24 – San J International, the American subsidiary of San Jirushi Co. in Japan, dedicates the first tamari brewery outside of Japan – in Richmond, Virginia.
1993 – Azumaya Inc., America's largest tofu manufacturer and the low-price leader, is purchased by Vitasoy of Hong Kong.
1993 – House Foods Corporation of Osaka, Japan purchases the remaining 50% of House Foods & Yamauchi, Inc. from Mr. Shoan Yamauchi. The new company is renamed House Foods America Corporation.
1990 July 2 – Niichi Co. breaks ground for its new MicroSoy Flakes production plant in Jefferson, Iowa. The plant will have a capacity of 6 tons/hour of edible soy flakes, using in making tofu, etc.
1992 – Yamasa, the world's second largest manufacturer of soy sauce (after Kikkoman) sells 1.3 million gallons of soy sauce to the United States, all of it imported (Ritchie 1994, p. 33). But, since 1973, the Japanese yen has appreciated dramatically, making the cost of exports almost prohibitive (Kevin 1994, p. 31).
1994 May 27 – Tak Kimura, a food broker representing Yamato Flight Kitchen, sells his first package of edamamé (green vegetable soybeans in the pod) at Whole Foods Market in Berkeley, California. He is soon demoing edamamé at natural food stores, upscale supermarkets, and major chain stores (Costco) in California. A real pioneer, he has earned the name "Mr. Edamamé."
1994 Aug. – Yamasa Corporation starts making shoyu at its new 65,000-square-foot plant in Salem, Oregon. In April 1995 the first soy sauce will be ready to ship. When fully operational, the new plant will be able to produce 1.7 million gallons per year (Okamoto 1994).
1996 Aug. 10-11 – First Annual L.A. Tofu Festival is organized by Little Tokyo Service Center as a fundraiser. House Foods Corporation (Hinoichi Tofu) is the main sponsor. More than 30,000 people attended the seventh festival in 2002. It was held for one weekend every summer until 2007, but was replaced in 2008 by "La Vida Sake," a saké and food tasting event.
1997 March 4 - Morinaga Nutritional Foods' new
tofu plant in Tualatin, Oregon, holds its official grand opening. Mori-Nu Tofu, previously made in Japan, starts to be made in America for the first time. The plant, 65,000 square feet worth about $15 million, is on the same property as Pacific Foods of Oregon, but in a separate building.
1997 March 12 – House Foods America Corporation holds a ceremony to mark the completion of America's largest, state-of-the-art tofu factory in Garden Grove, California. This new, much larger and more modern plant, has three fully automated tofu production lines. The 130,000-square-foot plant cost $21 million and will more than double the company's tofu production capacity – to 150,000 cakes/day of tofu vs. 70,000 in the old plant. Production will start in April.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


To observe and report suspicious activity to the UTA Police Department.
Provide Mavs Courtesy Escorts for students, faculty, and staff.
Assist students, faculty, staff, and guests with questions or problems.
Report non-functioning lights or other safety concerns.
Assist with other non-law enforcement duties as assigned such as traffic and crowd control and crime prevention programs on campus.
Allow police officers and public safety officers to focus on other tasks that enhance safety.
The MavWatch Patrol Officer positions are part-time paid positions. MPOs work seven (7) days a week, primarily evenings throughout the academic year (September to May). Additional shifts during the week may be scheduled, from time to time, to assist the UTA Police Department with other operational functions (student's academic schedule permitting).
MavWatch Patrol Officers are UTA students employed by the Police Department to augment the Patrol Division. While they do not perform the same duties as police officers, they do serve as extra eyes, ears, and smiles of our department.
The ability to demonstrate good judgment with assigned tasks.
The ability and willingness to work their assigned shift, and to be responsible for finding a replacement in the event that they cannot fulfill a shift assignment.
Subject to a criminal background check. Anyone who has been convicted of a felony or some misdemeanor offenses, are ineligible for MavWatch. Those with multiple questionable police contacts may also be excluded.
Failing to note a conviction in the application will result in disqualification.
Must complete a mandatory training session.
Must adhere to all local, state, and federal laws, as well as University policies.
Students should not have negative reports or prior records on file with campus police or the Office of Student Conduct.
Must submit letters of recommendation from two UTA faculty or staff members.
Students enrolled in the Criminology and Criminal Justice program at UTA will be given first preference.
Questions? Download our MavWatch Frequently Asked Questions (PDF) by clicking here.
To Apply: All applicants should locate The University of Texas at Arlington SNAP Jobs website and fill out a non-work study application for the position. This application will be sent to The University of Texas at Arlington Police Department and reviewed promptly.


The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends a daily sodium intake of fewer than 2,300 milligrams of sodium based on a 2,000 calorie diet. But it can be tricky to keep track, particularly if you're eating out.
The FDA considers 140 mg of sodium or less per serving a 'low' amount and notes that most adults should try to remain under 1,500 mg per day — particularly those with high blood pressure.
To put this all into perspective, consider that a teaspoon of salt contains about 2,300 mg of sodium — your entire daily value. Fast food restaurants usually use more than this amount in their food products.
Low sodium fast food: Is it possible?
Let's start by talking about why we crave fast food. One of the main reasons is because of the high salt content, which enhances its flavor and taste. Fast food restaurants use salt in most dishes, which increases our appetite and our need for hydration — prompting us to buy more fast food.
While seeking out low sodium fast food options can be challenging, it's not impossible. As more and more people become informed about their health, fast food restaurants are changing their menus to better cater to the concerns of their customers. Menus now have options that are gluten-free, heart-healthy, dairy-free, and sugar-free — and low sodium fast food options are slowly being added to the list.
It's true: fast food probably isn't the best choice for a low sodium meal. But if you have limited options and don't want to skip meals, it's important to arm yourself with the right information before you get there so you can ensure you're making the best choice.
Steer clear of sides, dressings, spreads and fatty toppings. These items are usually loaded with salt and/or sugar, in addition to unhealthy calories. If you're ordering a salad, minimize the amount of sodium by saying 'no' to bacon and croutons on top. If you want dressing, choose a simple vinaigrette and ask for it on the side.
Choose grilled, broiled, or baked meats. While deli, fried, and breaded meat options can be tempting and look delicious, they're guaranteed to have far more added salt than, for example, grilled options.
Avoid super-sized items. The words "jumbo," "super-size," or "double" are clear red flags that indicate high levels of salt, calories, and unhealthy fat.
Stick with water. While most drinks don't contain high amounts of sodium, getting in the habit of drinking water with your meals is a good idea — especially when you're eating out and have less control over what's in your food and how it's prepared.
If you're following a low sodium diet, it's best to research menus beforehand to find low sodium fast food options — especially if you're on your period, pregnant, or breastfeeding.
Generally speaking, fruit cups, oatmeal, and yogurt parfaits are ideal low sodium fast food options for breakfast. Greek yogurt options, in particular, can also be enjoyed for lunch. We've sorted through menus to find some other low-sodium items at popular eateries, with the number in brackets representing the amount of sodium per serving.
McDonald's has a surprisingly good variety of low sodium fast food options that contain less than 500 mg of sodium per serving.
Taco Bell also has a wide range of low sodium fast food options that contain less than 500 mg of sodium, even with meat and cheese included. You can further reduce the sodium content by opting for corn tortillas instead of flour ones, where applicable.
Panera Bread has over 2,000 restaurants in the US and Canada and boasts a wide range of low sodium fast food menu options to suit every diet and taste.
Chick-fil-A is known for its heart-healthy nature and genuine desire to make food that considers their customers' health.
Subway has partnered with the American Heart Association with the aim of improving the overall health of the country. Therefore, the base sandwiches without sauces and condiments are generally heart-healthy.
- Tuna Salad with lettuce, spinach, tomatoes, onions, green peppers, cucumbers, and olives (270 mg).
Preparing a low sodium meal at home is simpler than you may think. There is a myriad of salads and low-sodium vegetarian sandwiches you can prepare with minimal effort. Homemade food is great because it allows you to better control the amount of salt, sugar, and fat that go into your food.
If you're serious about your venture into low sodium fast food cooking at home, you'll need to make some small changes. Perhaps most importantly, you must eliminate (or significantly minimize) processed, cured, and smoked meats from your diet, as they have a rich sodium content. Replace these foods with fresh poultry and fish. Likewise, canned fruits and vegetables also tend to contain a lot of sodium. If you're using canned products, be sure to choose ones that are labeled 'low sodium' or 'sodium free,' and always check the nutritional label to determine how much sodium these products actually contain. You should also rinse them thoroughly beforehand, which can help wash away some of the salt. Meal prep is imperative in order to succeed with low sodium fast food at home. Using quick and affordable ingredients and following tried and tested recipes will save you tons of time. Creating a weekly or monthly meal plan is also a good idea to ensure your ingredients are used up for various meals and they don't go bad sitting in the fridge.
There's lots of recipes and information out there to help you stick to a low-sodium diet without sacrificing taste. Arm yourself with it, and you'll be set no matter whether you're eating at home or out.


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Home > Subjects > Sciences > Actuarial Science Degrees in USA
Actuarial Science Degrees in USA
Study Actuarial Science
Actuarial science is responsible for the application of mathematical skills to the social sciences to solve problems for insurance, commerce and government, among others. You will be expected to apply mathematical formulas, as well as assessing risks for insurance plans.
An undergraduate degree in actuarial science will provide you with a foundation level of knowledge in the areas of finance and probabilities, before exploring the more complex ideas and concepts. You will study modules on economics, statistics and stochastic processes, as well as many other topics.
Your degree will be delivered mainly through lectures and seminars. You may be required to participate in a placement module, but this is not guaranteed.
Find out more about studying actuarial science
Study in the USA
The number one choice for international students, the US is the global leader in international education with the most universities featured in the top 10 in the world.
Find out more about studying in the USA
Suggested Actuarial Science degrees in USA
BBA Actuarial Science
Elizabethtown College
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Browse our Actuarial Science pathway and foundation courses and find a route to study your ideal course.
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Your search resulted in 10 resources
LEEP Case Study: University of Minnesota Parking Structure
One of the nation's largest schools serving over 60,000 students, the University of Minnesota (U of M) is upgrading the lighting at all 18 parking ramps and garages on its Minneapolis campus. In the Northrop Auditorium Garage, a small 24,000 square foot facility with 75 parking spots, U of M replaced low-wattage high-pressure sodium fixtures with high efficiency, lower- wattage LED fixtures with lighting controls. This Lighting Energy Efficiency in Parking (LEEP) Campaign Award winning project achieved 90% energy savings by upgrading to LEDs with lighting controls.
LEEP: Hospital Parking Lighting Controls (VacaValley)
NorthBay VacaValley Hospital completed lighting retrofits to their 150,000 square foot parking lot and its 225 parking spaces. They did so with help from The California Lighting Technology Center (CLTC) at the University of California, Davis. The project has achieved 65% savings and received a 2014 Lighting Energy Efficiency in Parking (LEEP) Campaign's award for best use of lighting controls. In addition, the retrofits improved lighting maintenance operations and end-user satisfaction.
The lighting retrofit included replacing roughly 50 induction luminaires with new LED fixtures with embedded lighting controls.
The new LED fixtures were coupled with various kinds of lighting control systems, including a radio frequency (RF) connectivity control system that was installed in dedicated zones with passive- infrared (PIR) and long-range microwave sensors to achieve energy savings. An "ultra-smart" lighting control network was also put in place, giving facility managers the ability to adjust lighting schedules, light levels and time-out settings, monitor the system's energy use, and receive automated alerts when luminaires require maintenance.
LEEP Case Study: Big-Box Retail Parking Lot (Walmart)
When it comes to achieving significant sustainability gains, an international retail giant has unique opportunities to cut energy use. With a total of 4,500 sites, Walmart's commitment to efficiency in parking lighting in new construction and retrofits is paying off in major savings.
As a result of its lighting upgrades Walmart received individual Lighting Energy Efficiency in Parking (LEEP) Campaign awards for a superstore, a neighborhood market and a Sam's Club. Across 100 stores including both new and retrofitted sites, over 40 million square feet in surfaces for parking and over 100,000 parking spaces, Walmart is saving over 15 million kWh each year as a result of lighting upgrades.
LEEP Case Study: Medical Center Parking Structure (ThedaCare, Appleton)
With 7 hospitals and 22 physician locations serving more than 9 Wisconsin counties, ThedaCare has ample room to implement and reap the benefits of building efficiency measures. At the Appleton Medical Center, ThedaCare's Lighting Energy Efficiency in Parking (LEEP) Campaign Award winning project involved replacing inefficient medium-wattage HID lighting fixtures at a 126,000 square foot parking structure with high efficiency low-wattage LED fixtures. The resulting energy savings exceed 80 percent of the previous usage. A 100-year old company and the third largest health care employer in Wisconsin, ThedaCare has now implemented LED exterior lighting throughout Appleton Medical Center.
LEEP Case Study: Casino Parking Structure
The second largest gaming company in the world by revenue, MGM Resorts International (MGM) has recently installed energy efficient parking area lighting and controls at 65% of its U.S. facilities. With 20 U.S. facilities in NV, MI, and MS, MGM lighting projects have covered more than 8 million square feet of parking area. By replacing more than 4,400 existing metal halide and high-pressure sodium light fixtures in the parking facilities with a mixture of LED and induction fixtures, MGM saved 4.5 million kWh per year across their portfolio.
Most impressively, at the MGM Grand Detroit Casino–a 401-room hotel and gaming facility— the company achieved 4 million kWh of annual energy savings by replacing medium-wattage metal halide fixtures in a 2.6 million square foot parking structure with high efficiency, low- wattage LED fixtures.
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Office Buildings
This guide primarily applies to facility managers and energy managers of large existing office buildings larger than 100,000 square feet, but also includes considerations for small and medium office buildings. By presenting general project planning guidance as well as financial payback metrics for the most common energy efficiency measures, this guide provides a practical roadmap for effectively planning and implementing performance improvements for existing buildings.
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Retail Buildings
Retail buildings in the U.S. are second only to office buildings in total energy consumption and represent approximately 13% of energy use in commercial buildings nationwide. The Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Retail Buildings presents general project planning guidance as well as more detailed descriptions and financial payback metrics for the most important and relevant energy efficiency measures to provide a practical roadmap for effectively planning and implementing performance improvements in existing buildings. This guide is primarily designed for facility managers and energy managers of existing retail buildings of all sizes.
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Healthcare Facilities
This guide was created to help healthcare facility decision-makers plan, design, and implement energy improvement projects in their facilities. It was designed with energy managers in mind, and presents practical guidance for kick-starting the process and maintaining momentum throughout the project life cycle.
Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Grocery Stores
The Advanced Energy Retrofit Guide for Grocery Stores was created to help grocery store decision makers plan, design, and implement energy improvement projects in their facilities. It was designed with energy managers in mind, and presents practical guidance for kick-starting the process and maintaining momentum throughout the project life cycle.
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Homepage » Environmental Protection » What's The Climate Change?
By Jack On December 31, 2014 . Posted in: Environmental Protection, Why Green?
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time. Climate change may refer to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term average conditions. Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to as "global warming".
Learn About Carbon Dioxide – CO2
Europe's infrastructure is inevitably suffering the impacts of climate change
Information about Solar Energy & the Environment
Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions.
Scientists actively work to understand past and future climate by using observations and theoretical models. A climate record – extending deep into the Earth's past – has been assembled, and continues to be built up, based on geological evidence from borehole temperature profiles, cores removed from deep accumulations of ice, floral and faunal records, glacial and periglacial processes, stable-isotope and other analyses of sediment layers, and records of past sea levels. More recent data are provided by the instrumental record. General circulation models, based on the physical sciences, are often used in theoretical approaches to match past climate data, make future projections, and link causes and effects in climate change.
On the broadest scale, the rate at which energy is received from the sun and the rate at which it is lost to space determine the equilibrium temperature and climate of Earth. This energy is distributed around the globe by winds, ocean currents, and other mechanisms to affect the climates of different regions.
Factors that can shape climate are called climate forcings or "forcing mechanisms". These include processes such as variations in solar radiation, variations in the Earth's orbit, variations in the albedo or reflectivity of the continents and oceans, mountain-building and continental drift and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond more slowly in reaction to climate forcings, while others respond more quickly. There are also key threshold factors which when exceeded can produce rapid change.
Forcing mechanisms can be either "internal" or "external". Internal forcing mechanisms are natural processes within the climate system itself. External forcing mechanisms can be either natural or anthropogenic.
Whether the initial forcing mechanism is internal or external, the response of the climate system might be fast, slow, or a combination. Therefore, the climate system can respond abruptly, but the full response to forcing mechanisms might not be fully developed for centuries or even longer.
Internal forcing mechanisms
Scientists generally define the five components of earth's climate system to include atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere (restricted to the surface soils, rocks, and sediments), and biosphere. Natural changes in the climate system ("internal forcings") result in internal "climate variability". Examples include the type and distribution of species, and changes in ocean currents.
Ocean variability
The ocean is a fundamental part of the climate system, some changes in it occurring at longer timescales than in the atmosphere, massing hundreds of times more and having very high thermal inertia (such as the ocean depths still lagging today in temperature adjustment from the Little Ice Age).
Short-term fluctuations (years to a few decades) such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, the Pacific decadal oscillation, the North Atlantic oscillation, and the Arctic oscillation, represent climate variability rather than climate change. On longer time scales, alterations to ocean processes such as thermohaline circulation play a key role in redistributing heat by carrying out a very slow and extremely deep movement of water and the long-term redistribution of heat in the world's oceans.
Life affects climate through its role in the carbon and water cycles and such mechanisms as albedo, evapotranspiration, cloud formation, and weathering. Examples of how life may have affected past climate include: glaciation 2.3 billion years ago triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis, glaciation 300 million years ago ushered in by long-term burial of decomposition-resistant detritus of vascular land plants (forming coal), termination of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum 55 million years ago by flourishing marine phytoplankton, reversal of global warming 49 million years ago by 800,000 years of arctic azolla blooms, and global cooling over the past 40 million years driven by the expansion of grass-grazer ecosystems.
External forcing mechanisms
Orbital variations
Slight variations in Earth's orbit lead to changes in the seasonal distribution of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface and how it is distributed across the globe. There is very little change to the area-averaged annually averaged sunshine; but there can be strong changes in the geographical and seasonal distribution. The three types of orbital variations are variations in Earth's eccentricity, changes in the tilt angle of Earth's axis of rotation, and precession of Earth's axis. Combined together, these produce Milankovitch cycles which have a large impact on climate and are notable for their correlation to glacial and interglacial periods, their correlation with the advance and retreat of the Sahara, and for their appearance in the stratigraphic record.
The IPCC notes that Milankovitch cycles drove the ice age cycles, CO2 followed temperature change "with a lag of some hundreds of years," and that as a feedback amplified temperature change. The depths of the ocean have a lag time in changing temperature (thermal inertia on such scale). Upon seawater temperature change, the solubility of CO2 in the oceans changed, as well as other factors impacting air-sea CO2 exchange.
Solar output
The Sun is the predominant source of energy input to the Earth. Both long- and short-term variations in solar intensity are known to affect global climate.
Three to four billion years ago the sun emitted only 70% as much power as it does today. If the atmospheric composition had been the same as today, liquid water should not have existed on Earth. However, there is evidence for the presence of water on the early Earth, in the Hadean and Archean eons, leading to what is known as the faint young Sun paradox. Hypothesized solutions to this paradox include a vastly different atmosphere, with much higher concentrations of greenhouse gases than currently exist. Over the following approximately 4 billion years, the energy output of the sun increased and atmospheric composition changed. The Great Oxygenation Event – oxygenation of the atmosphere around 2.4 billion years ago – was the most notable alteration. Over the next five billion years the sun's ultimate death as it becomes a red giant and then a white dwarf will have large effects on climate, with the red giant phase possibly ending any life on Earth that survives until that time.
Solar output also varies on shorter time scales, including the 11-year solar cycle and longer-term modulations. Solar intensity variations possibly as a result of the Wolf, Spörer and Maunder Minimum are considered to have been influential in triggering the Little Ice Age, and some of the warming observed from 1900 to 1950. The cyclical nature of the sun's energy output is not yet fully understood; it differs from the very slow change that is happening within the sun as it ages and evolves. Research indicates that solar variability has had effects including the Maunder minimum from 1645 to 1715 A.D., part of the Little Ice Age from 1550 to 1850 A.D. that was marked by relative cooling and greater glacier extent than the centuries before and afterward. Some studies point toward solar radiation increases from cyclical sunspot activity affecting global warming, and climate may be influenced by the sum of all effects (solar variation, anthropogenic radiative forcings, etc.).
Interestingly, a 2010 study suggests, "that the effects of solar variability on temperature throughout the atmosphere may be contrary to current expectations."
In an Aug 2011 Press Release, CERN announced the publication in the Nature journal the initial results from its CLOUD experiment. The results indicate that ionisation from cosmic rays significantly enhances aerosol formation in the presence of sulfuric acid and water, but in the lower atmosphere where ammonia is also required, this is insufficient to account for aerosol formation and additional trace vapours must be involved. The next step is to find more about these trace vapours, including whether they are of natural or human origin.
The eruptions considered to be large enough to affect the Earth's climate on a scale of more than 1 year are the ones that inject over 0.1 Mt of SO2 into the stratosphere. This is due to the optical properties of SO2 and sulfate aerosols, which strongly absorb or scatter solar radiation, creating a global layer of sulfuric acid haze. On average, such eruptions occur several times per century, and cause cooling (by partially blocking the transmission of solar radiation to the Earth's surface) for a period of a few years.
The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991, the second largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century, affected the climate substantially, subsequently global temperatures decreased by about 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) for up to three years. Thus, the cooling over large parts of the Earth reduced surface temperatures in 1991-93, the equivalent to a reduction in net radiation of 4 watts per square meter. The Mount Tambora eruption in 1815 caused the Year Without a Summer. Much larger eruptions, known as large igneous provinces, occur only a few times every fifty – hundred million years – through flood basalt, and caused in Earth past global warming and mass extinctions.
Small eruptions, with injections of less than 0.1 Mt of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere, impact the atmosphere only subtly, as temperature changes are comparable with natural variability. However, because smaller eruptions occur at a much higher frequency, they too have a significant impact on Earth's atmosphere.
Seismic monitoring maps current and future trends in volcanic activities, and tries to develop early warning systems. In climate modelling the aim is to study the physical mechanisms and feedbacks of volcanic forcing.
Volcanoes are also part of the extended carbon cycle. Over very long (geological) time periods, they release carbon dioxide from the Earth's crust and mantle, counteracting the uptake by sedimentary rocks and other geological carbon dioxide sinks. The US Geological Survey estimates are that volcanic emissions are at a much lower level than the effects of current human activities, which generate 100-300 times the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by volcanoes.[49] A review of published studies indicates that annual volcanic emissions of carbon dioxide, including amounts released from mid-ocean ridges, volcanic arcs, and hot spot volcanoes, are only the equivalent of 3 to 5 days of human caused output. The annual amount put out by human activities may be greater than the amount released by supererruptions, the most recent of which was the Toba eruption in Indonesia 74,000 years ago.
Although volcanoes are technically part of the lithosphere, which itself is part of the climate system, the IPCC explicitly defines volcanism as an external forcing agent.
Over the course of millions of years, the motion of tectonic plates reconfigures global land and ocean areas and generates topography. This can affect both global and local patterns of climate and atmosphere-ocean circulation.
The position of the continents determines the geometry of the oceans and therefore influences patterns of ocean circulation. The locations of the seas are important in controlling the transfer of heat and moisture across the globe, and therefore, in determining global climate. A recent example of tectonic control on ocean circulation is the formation of the Isthmus of Panama about 5 million years ago, which shut off direct mixing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This strongly affected the ocean dynamics of what is now the Gulf Stream and may have led to Northern Hemisphere ice cover. During the Carboniferous period, about 300 to 360 million years ago, plate tectonics may have triggered large-scale storage of carbon and increased glaciation. Geologic evidence points to a "megamonsoonal" circulation pattern during the time of the supercontinent Pangaea, and climate modeling suggests that the existence of the supercontinent was conducive to the establishment of monsoons.
The size of continents is also important. Because of the stabilizing effect of the oceans on temperature, yearly temperature variations are generally lower in coastal areas than they are inland. A larger supercontinent will therefore have more area in which climate is strongly seasonal than will several smaller continents or islands.
Human influences
In the context of climate variation, anthropogenic factors are human activities which affect the climate. The scientific consensus on climate change is "that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities," and it "is largely irreversible."
Of most concern in these anthropogenic factors is the increase in CO2 levels due to emissions from fossil fuel combustion, followed by aerosols (particulate matter in the atmosphere) and the CO2 released by cement manufacture. Other factors, including land use, ozone depletion, animal agriculture[59] and deforestation, are also of concern in the roles they play – both separately and in conjunction with other factors – in affecting climate, microclimate, and measures of climate variables.
How to recognize the Climate Change
Evidence for climatic change is taken from a variety of sources that can be used to reconstruct past climates. Reasonably complete global records of surface temperature are available beginning from the mid-late 19th century. For earlier periods, most of the evidence is indirect—climatic changes are inferred from changes in proxies, indicators that reflect climate, such as vegetation, ice cores,[60] dendrochronology, sea level change, and glacial geology.
Temperature measurements and proxies
The instrumental temperature record from surface stations was supplemented by radiosonde balloons, extensive atmospheric monitoring by the mid-20th century, and, from the 1970s on, with global satellite data as well. The 18O/16O ratio in calcite and ice core samples used to deduce ocean temperature in the distant past is an example of a temperature proxy method, as are other climate metrics noted in subsequent categories.
Historical and archaeological evidence
Climate change in the recent past may be detected by corresponding changes in settlement and agricultural patterns. Archaeological evidence, oral history and historical documents can offer insights into past changes in the climate. Climate change effects have been linked to the collapse of various civilizations.
Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change. Their size is determined by a mass balance between snow input and melt output. As temperatures warm, glaciers retreat unless snow precipitation increases to make up for the additional melt; the converse is also true.
Glaciers grow and shrink due both to natural variability and external forcings. Variability in temperature, precipitation, and englacial and subglacial hydrology can strongly determine the evolution of a glacier in a particular season. Therefore, one must average over a decadal or longer time-scale and/or over a many individual glaciers to smooth out the local short-term variability and obtain a glacier history that is related to climate.
A world glacier inventory has been compiled since the 1970s, initially based mainly on aerial photographs and maps but now relying more on satellites. This compilation tracks more than 100,000 glaciers covering a total area of approximately 240,000 km2, and preliminary estimates indicate that the remaining ice cover is around 445,000 km2. The World Glacier Monitoring Service collects data annually on glacier retreat and glacier mass balance. From this data, glaciers worldwide have been found to be shrinking significantly, with strong glacier retreats in the 1940s, stable or growing conditions during the 1920s and 1970s, and again retreating from the mid-1980s to present.
The most significant climate processes since the middle to late Pliocene (approximately 3 million years ago) are the glacial and interglacial cycles. The present interglacial period (the Holocene) has lasted about 11,700 years. Shaped by orbital variations, responses such as the rise and fall of continental ice sheets and significant sea-level changes helped create the climate. Other changes, including Heinrich events, Dansgaard–Oeschger events and the Younger Dryas, however, illustrate how glacial variations may also influence climate without the orbital forcing.
Glaciers leave behind moraines that contain a wealth of material—including organic matter, quartz, and potassium that may be dated—recording the periods in which a glacier advanced and retreated. Similarly, by tephrochronological techniques, the lack of glacier cover can be identified by the presence of soil or volcanic tephra horizons whose date of deposit may also be ascertained.
Arctic sea ice loss
The decline in Arctic sea ice, both in extent and thickness, over the last several decades is further evidence for rapid climate change. Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. It covers millions of square miles in the polar regions, varying with the seasons. In the Arctic, some sea ice remains year after year, whereas almost all Southern Ocean or Antarctic sea ice melts away and reforms annually. Satellite observations show that Arctic sea ice is now declining at a rate of 11.5 percent per decade, relative to the 1979 to 2000 average.
A change in the type, distribution and coverage of vegetation may occur given a change in the climate. Some changes in climate may result in increased precipitation and warmth, resulting in improved plant growth and the subsequent sequestration of airborne CO2. A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead to earlier flowering and fruiting times, driving a change in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms. Conversely, cold will cause plant bio-cycles to lag. Larger, faster or more radical changes, however, may result in vegetation stress, rapid plant loss and desertification in certain circumstances.[68][69] An example of this occurred during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC), an extinction event 300 million years ago. At this time vast rainforests covered the equatorial region of Europe and America. Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests, abruptly fragmenting the habitat into isolated 'islands' and causing the extinction of many plant and animal species.
Satellite data available in recent decades indicates that global terrestrial net primary production increased by 6% from 1982 to 1999, with the largest portion of that increase in tropical ecosystems, then decreased by 1% from 2000 to 2009.
Palynology is the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including pollen. Palynology is used to infer the geographical distribution of plant species, which vary under different climate conditions. Different groups of plants have pollen with distinctive shapes and surface textures, and since the outer surface of pollen is composed of a very resilient material, they resist decay. Changes in the type of pollen found in different layers of sediment in lakes, bogs, or river deltas indicate changes in plant communities. These changes are often a sign of a changing climate. As an example, palynological studies have been used to track changing vegetation patterns throughout the Quaternary glaciations and especially since the last glacial maximum.
Past precipitation can be estimated in the modern era with the global network of precipitation gauges. Surface coverage over oceans and remote areas is relatively sparse, but, reducing reliance on interpolation, satellite data has been available since the 1970s. Quantification of climatological variation of precipitation in prior centuries and epochs is less complete but approximated using proxies such as marine sediments, ice cores, cave stalagmites, and tree rings.
Climatological temperatures substantially affect precipitation. For instance, during the Last Glacial Maximum of 18,000 years ago, thermal-driven evaporation from the oceans onto continental landmasses was low, causing large areas of extreme desert, including polar deserts (cold but with low rates of precipitation). In contrast, the world's climate was wetter than today near the start of the warm Atlantic Period of 8000 years ago.
Estimated global land precipitation increased by approximately 2% over the course of the 20th century, though the calculated trend varies if different time endpoints are chosen, complicated by ENSO and other oscillations, including greater global land precipitation in the 1950s and 1970s than the later 1980s and 1990s despite the positive trend over the century overall. Similar slight overall increase in global river runoff and in average soil moisture has been perceived.
Dendroclimatology
Dendroclimatology is the analysis of tree ring growth patterns to determine past climate variations. Wide and thick rings indicate a fertile, well-watered growing period, whilst thin, narrow rings indicate a time of lower rainfall and less-than-ideal growing conditions.
Ice cores
Analysis of ice in a core drilled from an ice sheet such as the Antarctic ice sheet, can be used to show a link between temperature and global sea level variations. The air trapped in bubbles in the ice can also reveal the CO2 variations of the atmosphere from the distant past, well before modern environmental influences. The study of these ice cores has been a significant indicator of the changes in CO2 over many millennia, and continues to provide valuable information about the differences between ancient and modern atmospheric conditions.
Remains of beetles are common in freshwater and land sediments. Different species of beetles tend to be found under different climatic conditions. Given the extensive lineage of beetles whose genetic makeup has not altered significantly over the millennia, knowledge of the present climatic range of the different species, and the age of the sediments in which remains are found, past climatic conditions may be inferred.
Similarly, the historical abundance of various fish species has been found to have a substantial relationship with observed climatic conditions. Changes in the primary productivity of autotrophs in the oceans can affect marine food webs.
Sea level change
Global sea level change for much of the last century has generally been estimated using tide gauge measurements collated over long periods of time to give a long-term average. More recently, altimeter measurements — in combination with accurately determined satellite orbits — have provided an improved measurement of global sea level change. To measure sea levels prior to instrumental measurements, scientists have dated coral reefs that grow near the surface of the ocean, coastal sediments, marine terraces, ooids in limestones, and nearshore archaeological remains. The predominant dating methods used are uranium series and radiocarbon, with cosmogenic radionuclides being sometimes used to date terraces that have experienced relative sea level fall. In the early Pliocene, global temperatures were 1–2˚C warmer than the present temperature, yet sea level was 15–25 meters higher than today.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change
Tags: carbon dioxide, Climate change
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Home » Browse » Academic journals » Library and Information Science Journals » Library Philosophy and Practice » Article details, "Library and Information Networks in India"
* A library network is broadly described as a group of libraries coming together with some agreement of understanding to help each other with a view to satisfying the information needs of their clientele.
operations to offer better services to the users.
exchange, through communications for some functional purpose.
* To promote and support adoption of standards in library operations.
* The National Policy on Library & Information systems document (1986) accepted by the ministry of HRD, Government of India.
A network may fail in the early stages if there is not proper planning or if adequate funds are not available. Moreover, a common memorandum of agreement signed by the participating libraries at the institutional level is essential for the success of a network venture. On a more practical level, catalog data must be in a standard, machine readable form for it to be shared and exchanged. And, finally, a continuous flow of external assistance is crucial for the network's survival.
A LAN is a number of related computers and electronic devices that share information over a transmission media.
A typical use of LAN is to tie together personal computers in an office so that they can all use a single printer and a file server. The LAN can be within a building or a campus wide network.
Attempts are being made to develop this type of network in metropolitan areas such Delhi, Calcutta, Bangalore, Madras, etc.


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Housing chiefs to visit Calderdale to help kickstart building projects
Ian Hirst
Communities facing a chronic shortage of homes will be visited by housing chiefs as part of a national scheme to help kickstart building projects.
The National Housing Federation (NHF), which represents housing associations, will be in Hebden Bridge and Dewsbury this week to hear from tenants in the two towns.
The visits are part of the NHF's Great Places programme, launched to learn lessons from past regeneration projects and find out how to meet rising demand for new homes.
Mark Henderson, NHF board member and chief executive of the housing association Home Group, will be visiting West Yorkshire on Tuesday and Wednesday.
He said: "We'll be meeting tenants and residents, running community workshops and bringing real people in to talk about their experiences. What are the lessons? What can be done better or differently?"
Figures reveal in Calderdale, around 2,900 fewer new homes than were needed were built between 2012 and 2016. The average monthly rent in the district is £514, swallowing up 25 per cent of private renters' income, the NHF said. In Dewsbury, there was a shortfall of around 5,520 newly-built homes between 2012 and 2016.
Mr Henderson said: "We are simply building too few houses for all the people who want houses, irrespective of tenure.
"We need 250,000 houses a year to meet current demand.
"As a country we are building less than 200,000 a year. That's a crisis. I think the Government is pretty sincere about this. It's clearly a priority for Government.
"We just need a long term strategy that's agreed by all parties."
The NHF said it was interested in hearing from people in smaller industrial towns after carrying out its last Great Places visit to Liverpool.
The organisation has argued that along with a lack of housing supply, parts of the country are having problems with low-quality homes, unemployment and poor transport links.
Calderdale Council said it was planning to publish details of how to deliver 840 new homes annually for 15 years as part of its Local Plan.
The authority also launched the Calderdale Together Housing Investment Partnership. It is expected to see the council and Together Housing Group build up to 650 homes, both for purchase and affordable rent.
Heidi Wilson, Calderdale Council's Strategic Housing Delivery Manager, said: "We are committed to supporting house building across Calderdale, providing affordable and high-quality homes.
"Working with a range of housing partners we want to increase the number of homes for rent and affordable purchase and help regenerate our local areas.
"The next chapter for Calderdale sees £150m of investment into the borough to improve our transport, public spaces and business premises, building on our heritage, our fine architecture, our vibrant business sector and our strong communities."
Together Housing Group's Dave Procter will also take part in next week's visit in his role as a Great Places Commissioner.
He said: "Hebden Bridge is a great place to get honest answers to questions about community housing need so I'm really looking forward to the visit."


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Q: Multiple edmx in one project I have a project with one edmx file. Test class works correctly.when i add the edmx with a different name and namespace, but connect to a similar base structure ,After the addition, before acting classes stops working and I get the message:
 Mapping and metadata information could not be found for EntityType
 (InvalidOperationException)

Once i delete the added edmx, the project is working properly.Is there a possibility of adding two edmx files to a single project, so as not to appear to be erroneous references to the metadata?
Currently I use this connection string:
<add name="MSSQLEntities" connectionString="metadata=res://*/RiskEntityModel.csdl|res://*/RiskModelLibrary.Lib.RiskEntityModel.MSSQL.ssdl|res://*/RiskEntityModel.msl;provider=System.Data.SqlClient;provider connection string="Data Source=_DBSERVERNAME_;User ID=_DBUSERNAME_;Password=_DBPASSWORD_;Initial Catalog=_DBPATH_;Trusted_Connection=False;MultipleActiveResultSets=True"" providerName="System.Data.EntityClient" />

A: You've got to construct EntityConnectionDescription manually and pass it to your custom implementation of ObjectContext.
So basically instead of standard EF context-buildup functionality (which reads from app config) you create your own.

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