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Series: Extreme Precipitation And Wisconsin's Climate
Washed Away: Northwest Wisconsin Copes With The Costs Of A Changing Climate
Local Communities Find Themselves Stuck In A Cycle Of Rebuilding Infrastructure After Repeated Floods
Aug. 15, 2019 | 6 a.m.
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On the morning of July 12, 2016, Joan Elias awoke to discover she was stranded in her home. Elias, who lives on 21 mostly-wooded acres in rural Iron County, was cut off from the outside world by an unexpected — and unprecedented — deluge.

A powerful storm system rolled in the night before and stalled over northwestern Wisconsin. In many locations it delivered a torrent of rain measuring 10 or more inches — a typical summer's entire rainfall — in only 8 hours. Some locations in southern Ashland County received 14 inches of rain.

The landscape surrounding Elias' home, within the town of Gurney, is a patchwork of forests and hayfields growing on clay soils that predominate beneath a wide expanse of northern Wisconsin. Clay is slow draining, so much so that it's commonly used to line artificial ponds. The ground was already saturated by previous storms, meaning the clay had become a virtual region-wide plug for rain.

With nowhere else to drain, the rainfall choked streams and rivers with swirling runoff that resembled creamy tea, laden with the clay sediment and rich with red iron oxides. The water that rushed toward Lake Superior would reach volumes previously unheard of in many local riverbeds.

Notable among these waterways was the Bad River, which drains about 1,000 square miles of northern Wisconsin into Lake Superior. Between 8 p.m. on July 11, when the storm system moved in, and 11 a.m. the following morning, the volume of water flowing through the Bad River in Odanah skyrocketed from 300 to 40,000 cubic feet per second — a 130-fold increase.

The Bad River's watershed includes Vaughn Creek and another small creek near Elias' property in Gurney. By daybreak, those creeks, which are typically a lazy trickle in July, had swelled into sizable flows, making the roads surrounding her home impassable.

But it wasn't simply a temporary flood that separated Elias and her neighbors from the surrounding world. Over the course of the day it became clear that the churning waters had devastated the local road network, and the damage was spread well beyond Gurney. Hundreds of washouts on roads across northwestern Wisconsin had cut off thousands of residents and visitors from workplaces, grocery stores, emergency services and medical care, all during the height of the summer tourist season.

Saxon Harbor, a popular campground and marina on the south shore of Lake Superior about 10 miles north of Gurney, was destroyed. At the nearby reservation of the Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, including the community of Odanah near the mouth of the Bad River, the flooding also caused extensive damage to homes, businesses and infrastructure. Across the region, major highway closures made travel even for residents who could leave their homes extremely difficult. In all, four people lost their lives across the region due to the storm and resulting floods.

Flood damage to property, roads, bridges and other infrastructure stretched from Wisconsin's border with Michigan's Upper Peninsula westward across Iron, Ashland, Bayfield, Sawyer, Washburn, Douglas and Burnett counties, an area encompassing nearly 10,000 square miles. Wisconsin Emergency Management documented the widespread devastation near Lake Superior and areas farther inland with extensive aerial surveys.

A majority of the road washouts resulted from failed culverts, the concrete or steel pipes that route streams beneath roadways. Most of the culverts had been installed decades prior to the 2016 storm under engineering guidelines that had not considered the possibility of a deluge of this magnitude.

The culverts were too narrow to handle the vast volumes of water racing through the watershed. Many became clogged with debris. Where they failed, churning floodwaters backed up and ate away at the roadway above. In many townships few routes were spared.

More than a dozen of these washouts were in Gurney.

"We couldn't go anywhere," Elias said. "My neighbors and I were stuck."

One of those neighbors had lung cancer and badly needed oxygen.

"He was stranded," said Elias. "So some of our other neighbors took it upon themselves to get him out by blazing a trail through the woods and fields. We all used that path until we could get out by the road, which was a week."

Within that week, crews hastily repaired enough roadways throughout the region so that isolated residents like Elias and her neighbors could at least get to and from their homes. But the work was only beginning.

State and federal authorities declared the floods a major disaster, freeing up funds for rebuilding, and local officials quickly began making damage assessments and applying for grants to rebuild and replace washed out infrastructure. Major detours would linger, however, as state highways and other major connectors remained closed for weeks or months.

Over the subsequent weeks, months and years, communities across northwestern Wisconsin would continue the rebuilding process, though their efforts have often come up against practical, budgetary and bureaucratic barriers, including federal and state rules that can incentivize short-sighted planning by encouraging and even stipulating that infrastructure be rebuilt as it was prior to the disasters. This requirement in particular has been a source of frustration for communities in northwestern Wisconsin — and elsewhere — attempting to construct more resilient infrastructure, including roads that can withstand an uncertain but assuredly wetter future in the Midwestern United States.

The 2016 flood followed a similarly intense storm in June 2012 that caused heavy flood damage in northeastern Minnesota, but also affected northwestern Wisconsin, including in the city of Superior in Douglas County, as well as western Bayfield County. After another major flood hit the region in 2018 — a flood that damaged roads at many of the same locations that washed out in the 2016 disaster — the local search for solutions has taken on more urgency.

Warnings of repeat disasters

Chequamegon Bay is a large, shallow inlet on Lake Superior's southern shoreline. The bay is protected by the Apostle Islands archipelago and Chequamegon Point, and for centuries has been a center of settlement and commerce.

In the late 19th century, the cities of Ashland and Washburn sprang up along the bay's shores as local centers of northern Wisconsin's timber and mining industries. Today, the two cities are home to more than 10,000 people, and thousands more live and work in surrounding tourist, farming and Lake Superior Chippewa tribal communities. The region is also a gateway to the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, which in 2015 drew nearly a quarter-million tourists who spent $36 million in communities surrounding the park, according to the National Park Service.

The region largely developed before there was any scientific understanding of the interplay between weather, climate, ecosystems, land use and infrastructure. Settlers clearcut ancient forests and drained wetlands, both of which greatly reduce surface water runoff, to make way for farms and villages and a network of roads to connect them. In doing so, they at once built a local economy and set the stage for future problems.

In addition to its historic importance, Ashland is also home to Northland College, a small liberal arts school founded in 1892. Northland is part of an intercollegiate group of campuses that emphasize the environment called "EcoLeague," and the college prioritizes environmental sustainability, both in its academic programming and its operations. Northland faculty have helped lead the charge locally to address the region's vulnerability to climate change, and have at times offered blunt assessments of the problem.

"Chequamegon Bay is arguably the least-climate-adapted spot in the country from an infrastructure viewpoint," said Randy Lehr, a former Northland professor of sustainable development, in a 2014 interview with Wisconsin Sea Grant. Lehr is now dean of science and math at Sierra College in Rocklin, California.

Lehr went on to make a startling pronouncement: Precipitation estimates for the region, which engineers had for decades used to locate and size culverts, bridges and ditches, were woefully inadequate.

"As we've learned more about how weather patterns set up around here, we were way off — 40-50% off on precipitation estimates on the lower side," Lehr said at the time, adding that climate-change-driven extreme precipitation was likely to exacerbate the problem as the years unfold.

It wouldn't take long for Lehr's warnings to bear out.

Probability in action

The July 2016 flood caused more than $38 million in damage to local infrastructure, much of it due to inadequately sized culverts, according to local officials. In various places, the precipitation and resulting floods were deemed indicative of a "100-year," "500-year" or even "1,000-year" event, terms that can lead to confusion.

For instance, a similarly extreme storm in June 2018 wreaked havoc in many of the same locations, even as construction crews remained in the midst of repairing damage from 2016. The 2018 storm and floods were in some places considered a "1,000-year" event and caused an estimated $13 million in damage to infrastructure, prompting yet another federal disaster declaration.

The 2016 and 2018 storms themselves followed a "100- to 500-year" storm in 2012 that caused major flood damage in Douglas and Bayfield counties and parts of Minnesota. Some communities, such as the town of Maple in eastern Douglas County, faced damage to the exact same stretches of road after each successive storm in 2012, 2016 and 2018.

Now, residents and local leaders are left pondering how the region has been pummeled with so-called 100-year or larger storms three times in six years.

"I have personally seen four 100-year storms" since the 1980s, said Tom Innes, who has been chairman of the town of Gurney since 1990. "And whatever this last storm was called — some people call it a 500-year storm, some people call it a 1,000-year storm — I don't know what it is, but I'm not four or five hundred years old."

Part of the issue is that the terms "100-year flood" or "500-year storm," are colloquial and imprecise shorthand for probability calculations. A "100-year" storm or flood is one that, based upon historical precipitation or stream gage data for a given location, has a one in 100 (or 1%) chance of occurring in that location over a 24-hour period in any given year. Similarly, a 500-year storm or flood has a 0.2% probability of occurring in any year, while a 1,000-year storm has a 0.1% chance. Simply because such storms have a low probability of occurring in any single year does not keep them from occurring in quicker succession than their names suggest.

Moreover, the storms in 2012, 2016 and 2018 were geographically massive events with widely differing precipitation totals across northwestern Wisconsin. What may have qualified as a "1,000-year" storm in one location could have nearby amounted to a much lower precipitation total and not even qualify for the "100-year" label.

Confusing terminology aside, Randy Lehr pointed out in 2014 that the probability calculations for these low-frequency, high-intensity storms were significantly underestimated in the region for decades. Because these estimates are one of the variables engineers use to calculate culvert sizes, the underestimation had disastrous consequences.

Keeping pace with precipitation

Scientists in the region are helping local officials better understand how they can try to minimize the impacts of the next disaster. One of those scientists is Matt Hudson, associate director of the Mary Griggs Burke Center for Freshwater Innovation at Northland College, a role Lehr previously held.

Hudson and his students monitor streamflow and water quality in Chequamegon Bay tributaries, as well as water quality in the bay itself. They're building a long-term dataset that Hudson hopes will inform future decisions related to local infrastructure and land use. Concern about the bay's water quality has grown since the 2016 and 2018 floods filled it with huge volumes of sediment and wastewater.

"The big thing people notice after a flood event is all of a sudden the bay turns brown, and nobody wants to be out there fishing or swimming, and people become concerned about water quality issues," Hudson said.

Hudson has increasingly served as an unofficial advisor to local officials who are trying to rebuild and improve the regional infrastructure system so it better withstands major storms in the future. Any large storm will send runoff into Lake Superior, but preventing washouts can help minimize environmental damage, as well as the cost of rebuilding.

Hudson explained that roads in the region have long been built under "100-year" storm guidance first developed in the 1960s and '70s and based on historical data from the mid-20th century. Updated estimates, available via the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlas 14 precipitation tool, factor in precipitation records through October 2011.

In northern Wisconsin, the newer estimates significantly increase the precipitation associated with storms that have a 1% chance of happening each year. For instance, in Ashland the previous estimate for such a storm was 5.4 inches of rain in a 24-hour period. The new estimate puts the total at 7.33 inches, more than one-third additional rainfall.

"And that doesn't include data from 2012, 2016, and 2018, when we had these large events," Hudson said. "So that current guidance from Atlas 14 is probably already outdated."

Factor in ongoing climate change effects, and the problems of planning infrastructure for future conditions becomes all the more difficult.

"What do we build for? What do we expect in the future? It's really uncertain," Hudson said. "It makes it really difficult to provide guidance."

Hudson hopes long-term streamflow monitoring can help, as well as climate models that point to more frequent large-scale storms.

Local officials who are responsible for rebuilding roads, meanwhile, hope they're able to make enough improvements to withstand more big storms when they come. But for many it has been a struggle.

The difficulties of rebuilding

The seven counties in northwestern Wisconsin that have borne the brunt of the repeated storms and floods since 2012 are home to 124 townships and many more municipalities. Each of these townships, cities and villages is responsible for maintaining local roads within its borders. For the dozens that have recorded washouts and other damage due to flooding, a major challenge has been not only to repair the damage but to reinforce the roads so future floods aren't as destructive.

Funding is the largest barrier these communities face. In some circumstances, the damage from a single storm can exceed a township's entire annual revenue, as happened in Gurney following the 2016 flood, according to town chair Tom Innes. This isn't a difficult feat when most townships bring in a few hundred thousand dollars or less in annual tax revenue and the cost to repair a single washed out culvert can exceed $100,000. Even in places where damage is not so expensive, barriers abound to building more resilient roads.

For instance, most townships and smaller municipalities do not employ engineers with the technical skills required to plan major roads projects. One consequence of this: For decades, some townships installed culverts that were too small even under the old 100-year storm guidance, instead favoring less expensive options.

The problems that small culverts cause are two-fold. First, they are more likely to fail even after a smaller storm. Second, when they're replaced using federal cost-share programs like those through the Federal Emergency Management Agency, local officials often have no choice but to replace them as they were prior to the disaster, thanks to a FEMA rule that requires rebuilding damaged infrastructure to its previous specifications.

Following the 2016 and 2018 floods, Ashland County's Highway Commissioner Emmer Shields assisted local townships with their damage assessments and rebuilding plans. He described the frustration of encountering the same problem again and again: woefully undersized culverts that had failed and were replaced with culverts, also called pipes, of the same size.

"We were looking at these pipes and saying, 'Well, okay, no wonder it failed,'" Shields said. "'Even for a normal 100-year storm, or a 50-year storm, or a 25-year storm, this thing was way undersized, so it's pretty obvious why it failed. I'm surprised it lasted as long as it did.' But you go to FEMA, and they say 'Oh no, we only will pay for replacing it the way it is.' So if you've got a 24-inch pipe that's buried 20 feet down, you go to all that trouble of excavation and replacement and then put another 24-inch pipe in. It is just really ridiculous."

Shields is hardly alone in expressing these concerns. WisContext interviewed more than a dozen local and county officials in Douglas, Bayfield, Ashland, Iron and Sawyer counties in July 2019 about the constraints that keep them from building more resilient road infrastructure following washouts. All of them identified funding and the FEMA rule as two top barriers.

"It's basically a 'Band-Aid' that's just going to cause future problems that cost more money," said Martin Laasko, a supervisor for the town of Maple, about the FEMA rule.

But in most communities there is simply no viable alternative.

"We don't have the money," said Mark Liebaert, chair of the board of supervisors for Douglas County. Liebaert described FEMA funding as a sort of catch-22 for cash-strapped local governments that can't even keep up with basic road maintenance on their own, let alone repair and upgrade damaged infrastructure.

"Even if we're smart, which I assume sometimes we are smart enough to recognize that it might not be the best to keep putting back [the same infrastructure that was washed out], we don't have the money to do anything different," he said.

Liebaert blamed state-imposed levy freezes on county governments for part of the funding crunch, adding that the opioid epidemic has helped blow a gaping hole in Douglas County's annual budget in recent years. He said the county has had to transfer hundreds of thousands of dollars out of its highway budget to cover costs associated with the addiction crisis.

"We're decreasing the highway budget at a time when we need to increase the highway budget," he said.

To be sure, counties and townships are not alone. The state has stepped in to help rebuild after the successive floods. Wisconsin's Department of Transportation and Department of Natural Resources have provided technical assistance and grant funding to rebuild lost or damaged infrastructure, including a $1 million grant to help rebuild Saxon Harbor. The marina is scheduled to reopen in August 2019 after three years of rebuilding.

Still, the state has long dealt with its own transportation budget crunch and is hardly in a position to fund all of the upgrades that local officials say are necessary.

Meanwhile, county governments have expended considerable resources assisting townships and municipalities in a variety of ways related to the flooding disasters. County staff have been instrumental in documenting and organizing mountains of evidence related to damage and repairs, a FEMA requirement that can dissuade townships and villages from even applying for funds, as well as consulting on engineering and environmental questions.

That's not to mention the sums of money some counties have loaned to townships to repair damage since it can take years for FEMA funding to materialize.

The town of Gurney is one such loan recipient. Town chair Tom Innes said that if not for a county loan or another source, his township wouldn't have been able to make all of the repairs it did following the 2016 floods.

Innes has worked with FEMA four times over the course of about 30 years. He credits this experience with giving him a leg to stand on after the 2016 flood in negotiations with the federal agency, which ultimately relented and agreed to fund several upgrades that the state DOT and DNR agreed were necessary.

Still, Innes described his negotiations with FEMA as frustrating and contentious.

"You have to dance to their music," he said. "And they look for a lot of ways not to have to help you."

In an email, a FEMA spokesperson said the agency "does provide options that provide flexibility for [a funding applicant] to use funding differently than restoring the pre-disaster design and function of the facility," including its Improved Projects program. The spokesperson did not say how often FEMA approves such projects or respond to the specific concerns that Wisconsin officials described to WisContext.

Innes said he appreciates that FEMA is responsible for protecting against fraud and waste, but decried what he viewed as the agency's obstinance with regard to funding upgrades. Even after agreeing to one such upgrade — swapping a badly damaged culvert that had washed 300 yards down a streambed with a wider and longer replacement — Innes said the agency dragged its feet, and it took 16 months to receive reimbursement for the project. Without a loan from Iron County, he said the work could not have been completed.

Despite the frustrating process, Innes is confident that Gurney is now considerably more resilient to future floods.

"I think our town roads are in better shape than they ever were and probably able to withstand another crisis like [the 2016 flood], or at least have a fighting chance to," he said. "They're better than they were before the flood, no doubt."

Seeking greater resilience

Despite many obstacles, communities throughout northwestern Wisconsin are prioritizing flood mitigation strategies and working on creative solutions to minimize the impacts of future storms. Following the 2016 flood, the Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa established a tribal mitigation planning team, which is charged with assessing natural hazard risks and developing a strategic mitigation plan. Other communities are also becoming more clear-eyed about the threat of future floods. In 2019, Sawyer County named flooding its top emergency-planning priority. The county is home to Hayward, which a 2018 regional flood-risk study identified as the most vulnerable city in the region to a major flood.

That study was a product of the Northwest Regional Planning Commission, a planning consortium made up of 10 counties and five tribal nations in northern Wisconsin.

With the use of data from Lidar surveys, the commission modeled the flooding risk to communities in the seven-county region affected by the 2016 and 2018 storms. The idea was to give officials as much information as possible to prioritize future flood mitigation projects, according to the commission's deputy director, Jason Laumann.

The study modeled the effects of a 100-year storm and a 500-year storm across the entire region, and Laumann said the results were strikingly similar to the local effects recorded in the 2016 and 2018 floods. This modeling focused on risks to private property and public infrastructure, and gives communities a starting point to prioritize buyouts and make strategic investments in improving roadway stream crossings, he added.

"This is also a tool to leverage grant funding," Laumann said. "Looking for opportunities to get federal dollars [and] state dollars for projects, retrofitting, further flood studies and greater analysis."

Perhaps the only local government that has considerable funding of its own to put toward flood mitigation is the city of Superior, which experienced heavy flood damage primarily in 2012.

Superior's funding comes by way of Enbridge. The port city is a hub for its continental pipeline system that carries one-fifth of all U.S. daily crude oil imports, and a state oil terminal pipeline tax generates millions of dollars in revenue for the city annually. In 2018, tax revenue from the pipeline was equal to more than 20% of the city's $30 million operating budget, according to Mayor Jim Paine.

He said stormwater management is the city's most pressing climate-related infrastructure problem.

"It's ironic because obviously fossil fuel production and use is the main culprit for causing climate change," Paine said. "It's also, however, what we're using to build the resiliency that we need to meet the dangers of the climate crisis. So, I mean, maybe that's irony [or] maybe it's just a sort of perfect justice, but that's the money that we use."

Meanwhile, environment-focused nonprofits and research institutions are also getting involved. The Wisconsin Wetlands Association is promoting the re-establishment of wetlands, as well as reconnecting streams and rivers to wetlands where possible. It's part of a region-wide effort to "slow the flow" of runoff entering rivers and ultimately Lake Superior. Local governments are on board with the effort, seeing wetland reclamation as another tool for protecting infrastructure, but it is expensive.

The Lake Superior National Estuarine Research Reserve in Superior, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-affiliated research and outreach program of the University of Wisconsin System, also promotes wetlands as a means for flood control. The program is planning a partnership with The Nature Conservancy in Wisconsin to train people in local governments and others on the use of its "Wetlands by Design" tool, which assists in prioritizing sites for restoration based on outcomes like flood mitigation. The Reserve also works with the city of Superior to train contractors in the Twin Ports region about best practices for reducing erosion and surface runoff during storms and floods.

"Especially in the context of the predicted future of more extreme storms, and based on what we have anecdotally been experiencing over the last seven or eight years, this has really resonated with the local construction contractors," said Karina Heim, the Reserve's coastal training program coordinator.

Another nonprofit whose mission might not at first seem all that related to road infrastructure is the Superior Rivers Watershed Association. The organization works closely with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to improve habitat for native brook trout by expanding fish passage in Lake Superior tributaries. Since 2014, the group has used grant funding to replace culverts along Wisconsin's Lake Superior shoreline that were impeding the passage of fish, primarily brook trout, to upstream habitat.

The 24 culverts built so far are generally larger than the ones they've replaced and have shown much better resilience to flooding than older ones, said Kevin Brewster, who manages the program.

"At the time of the 2016 flood, the worst in the region, we had about 18 culverts in the ground and we lost two," Brewster said. "They did extremely well because they were designed right."

Brewster said the group, which also works with local tribes, the DNR and National Park Service, has plans to replace more culverts and continues to apply for more grant funding to fund this work.

At a legislative level, a new bipartisan effort in Congress may affect how federal agencies like FEMA prioritize funding for disaster relief. A bill introduced in the U.S. Senate, which is cosponsored by Sen. Tammy Baldwin, a Democrat from Wisconsin, would direct the Federal Highway Administration to factor in resiliency as it awards disaster recovery grants to local governments. The bill follows a 2018 audit of the highway administration's emergency relief program that highlighted problems with how the program awards and tracks funds for infrastructure resilience and upgrades.

The bill would also establish a formula and grant funding to support transportation projects that "improve the resiliency of roads and bridges to natural disasters and extreme weather events," according to a press release from Baldwin.

It is unclear exactly how the bill, which passed a Senate committee vote in July 2019, would affect how FEMA prioritizes disaster funding in the future were it to become law.

Bracing for what comes next

For many local officials and residents of northwestern Wisconsin, the hope is that funding can someday catch up with their monumental need to build climate resiliency into roads and other infrastructure, and that they won't have to continue to rebuild the same structures every time a big storm hits simply because of a lack of willpower to alter what they view as deeply problematic rules.

In northern Iron County, Joan Elias shared her deep interest in the natural resources surrounding her home. That passion has led her to volunteer in roles that let her be outside while providing a useful scientific service, roles such as stream monitoring near her home.

"There's a culvert crossing where I did volunteer water quality testing upstream of Vaughn Creek," Elias said, describing a moment after the 2016 storm. During the course of her water quality testing, she observed severe damage to this culvert — damage that had previously been overlooked and would in all likelihood cause problems during the next big flood. Her understanding was that FEMA had, in fact, declared the culvert to be fixed.

"The culvert looked fine from above, but I saw that the bottom edge of it was curled in like a lip and there were boulders in there," she said. "Our town chair really had to argue with FEMA around that one. It was because of my observation that FEMA believed him."

In the end, the agency funded the culvert's repair, Elias said, though she wished it had agreed to replace it with a larger one.

"Whatever we can do to keep floods from getting worse," she said.

Washed Away: Northwest Wisconsin Copes With The Costs Of A Changing Climate was originally published on WisContext which produced the article in a partnership between Wisconsin Public Radio and PBS Wisconsin.

Illustration by Will Cushman and Kristian Knutsen; images via Ashland County and National Weather Service
On the morning of July 12, 2016, Joan Elias awoke to discover she was stranded in her home. Elias, who lives on 21 mostly-wooded acres in rural Iron County, was cut off from the outside world by an unexpected — and unprecedented — deluge.
A powerful storm system rolled in the night before and stalled over northwestern Wisconsin. In many locations it delivered a torrent of rain measuring 10 or more inches — a typical summer's entire rainfall — in only 8 hours. Some locations in southern Ashland County received 14 inches of rain.
The landscape surrounding Elias' home, within the town of Gurney, is a patchwork of forests and hayfields growing on clay soils that predominate beneath a wide expanse of northern Wisconsin. Clay is slow draining, so much so that it's commonly used to line artificial ponds. The ground was already saturated by previous storms, meaning the clay had become a virtual region-wide plug for rain.
With nowhere else to drain, the rainfall choked streams and rivers with swirling runoff that resembled creamy tea, laden with the clay sediment and rich with red iron oxides. The water that rushed toward Lake Superior would reach volumes previously unheard of in many local riverbeds.
Notable among these waterways was the Bad River, which drains about 1,000 square miles of northern Wisconsin into Lake Superior. Between 8 p.m. on July 11, when the storm system moved in, and 11 a.m. the following morning, the volume of water flowing through the Bad River in Odanah skyrocketed from 300 to 40,000 cubic feet per second — a 130-fold increase.
The Bad River's watershed includes Vaughn Creek and another small creek near Elias' property in Gurney. By daybreak, those creeks, which are typically a lazy trickle in July, had swelled into sizable flows, making the roads surrounding her home impassable.
But it wasn't simply a temporary flood that separated Elias and her neighbors from the surrounding world. Over the course of the day it became clear that the churning waters had devastated the local road network, and the damage was spread well beyond Gurney. Hundreds of washouts on roads across northwestern Wisconsin had cut off thousands of residents and visitors from workplaces, grocery stores, emergency services and medical care, all during the height of the summer tourist season.
Saxon Harbor, a popular campground and marina on the south shore of Lake Superior about 10 miles north of Gurney, was destroyed. At the nearby reservation of the Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa, including the community of Odanah near the mouth of the Bad River, the flooding also caused extensive damage to homes, businesses and infrastructure. Across the region, major highway closures made travel even for residents who could leave their homes extremely difficult. In all, four people lost their lives across the region due to the storm and resulting floods.
A National Weather Service radar loop depicts precipitation over northeast Minnesota and northwest Wisconsin from about 2 a.m. on July 11, 2016 through 6 a.m. on July 12.
Flood damage to property, roads, bridges and other infrastructure stretched from Wisconsin's border with Michigan's Upper Peninsula westward across Iron, Ashland, Bayfield, Sawyer, Washburn, Douglas and Burnett counties, an area encompassing nearly 10,000 square miles. Wisconsin Emergency Management documented the widespread devastation near Lake Superior and areas farther inland with extensive aerial surveys.
A majority of the road washouts resulted from failed culverts, the concrete or steel pipes that route streams beneath roadways. Most of the culverts had been installed decades prior to the 2016 storm under engineering guidelines that had not considered the possibility of a deluge of this magnitude.
The culverts were too narrow to handle the vast volumes of water racing through the watershed. Many became clogged with debris. Where they failed, churning floodwaters backed up and ate away at the roadway above. In many townships few routes were spared.
More than a dozen of these washouts were in Gurney.
"We couldn't go anywhere," Elias said. "My neighbors and I were stuck."
One of those neighbors had lung cancer and badly needed oxygen.
"He was stranded," said Elias. "So some of our other neighbors took it upon themselves to get him out by blazing a trail through the woods and fields. We all used that path until we could get out by the road, which was a week."
Within that week, crews hastily repaired enough roadways throughout the region so that isolated residents like Elias and her neighbors could at least get to and from their homes. But the work was only beginning.
State and federal authorities declared the floods a major disaster, freeing up funds for rebuilding, and local officials quickly began making damage assessments and applying for grants to rebuild and replace washed out infrastructure. Major detours would linger, however, as state highways and other major connectors remained closed for weeks or months.
A map from a 2018 study about the flood impacts in northwest Wisconsin details fatalities, road closures and travel disruption experienced in seven counties following a major storm in July 2016.
Northwest Regional Planning Commission
A map from a 2018 study about the flood impacts in northwest Wisconsin details the different types of damage experienced in seven counties following a major storm in July 2016.
Over the subsequent weeks, months and years, communities across northwestern Wisconsin would continue the rebuilding process, though their efforts have often come up against practical, budgetary and bureaucratic barriers, including federal and state rules that can incentivize short-sighted planning by encouraging and even stipulating that infrastructure be rebuilt as it was prior to the disasters. This requirement in particular has been a source of frustration for communities in northwestern Wisconsin — and elsewhere — attempting to construct more resilient infrastructure, including roads that can withstand an uncertain but assuredly wetter future in the Midwestern United States.
The 2016 flood followed a similarly intense storm in June 2012 that caused heavy flood damage in northeastern Minnesota, but also affected northwestern Wisconsin, including in the city of Superior in Douglas County, as well as western Bayfield County. After another major flood hit the region in 2018 — a flood that damaged roads at many of the same locations that washed out in the 2016 disaster — the local search for solutions has taken on more urgency.
Warnings of repeat disasters
Chequamegon Bay is a large, shallow inlet on Lake Superior's southern shoreline. The bay is protected by the Apostle Islands archipelago and Chequamegon Point, and for centuries has been a center of settlement and commerce.
In the late 19th century, the cities of Ashland and Washburn sprang up along the bay's shores as local centers of northern Wisconsin's timber and mining industries. Today, the two cities are home to more than 10,000 people, and thousands more live and work in surrounding tourist, farming and Lake Superior Chippewa tribal communities. The region is also a gateway to the Apostle Islands National Lakeshore, which in 2015 drew nearly a quarter-million tourists who spent $36 million in communities surrounding the park, according to the National Park Service.
A June 2014 satellite image highlights northwest Wisconsin, northeast Minnesota and western Lake Superior, including Chequamegon Bay. Communities along Wisconsin's entire shoreline experienced major floods after extreme precipitation in 2012, 2016 and 2018.
The region largely developed before there was any scientific understanding of the interplay between weather, climate, ecosystems, land use and infrastructure. Settlers clearcut ancient forests and drained wetlands, both of which greatly reduce surface water runoff, to make way for farms and villages and a network of roads to connect them. In doing so, they at once built a local economy and set the stage for future problems.
In addition to its historic importance, Ashland is also home to Northland College, a small liberal arts school founded in 1892. Northland is part of an intercollegiate group of campuses that emphasize the environment called "EcoLeague," and the college prioritizes environmental sustainability, both in its academic programming and its operations. Northland faculty have helped lead the charge locally to address the region's vulnerability to climate change, and have at times offered blunt assessments of the problem.
"Chequamegon Bay is arguably the least-climate-adapted spot in the country from an infrastructure viewpoint," said Randy Lehr, a former Northland professor of sustainable development, in a 2014 interview with Wisconsin Sea Grant. Lehr is now dean of science and math at Sierra College in Rocklin, California.
The Bad River spills over a portion of Hwy 2 near Odanah in the reservation of the Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa in July 2016. A streamgage on the river rose from 300 to a record 40,000 cubic feet per second in 15 hours.
Ashland County
Lehr went on to make a startling pronouncement: Precipitation estimates for the region, which engineers had for decades used to locate and size culverts, bridges and ditches, were woefully inadequate.
"As we've learned more about how weather patterns set up around here, we were way off — 40-50% off on precipitation estimates on the lower side," Lehr said at the time, adding that climate-change-driven extreme precipitation was likely to exacerbate the problem as the years unfold.
It wouldn't take long for Lehr's warnings to bear out.
Probability in action
The July 2016 flood caused more than $38 million in damage to local infrastructure, much of it due to inadequately sized culverts, according to local officials. In various places, the precipitation and resulting floods were deemed indicative of a "100-year," "500-year" or even "1,000-year" event, terms that can lead to confusion.
For instance, a similarly extreme storm in June 2018 wreaked havoc in many of the same locations, even as construction crews remained in the midst of repairing damage from 2016. The 2018 storm and floods were in some places considered a "1,000-year" event and caused an estimated $13 million in damage to infrastructure, prompting yet another federal disaster declaration.
The 2016 and 2018 storms themselves followed a "100- to 500-year" storm in 2012 that caused major flood damage in Douglas and Bayfield counties and parts of Minnesota. Some communities, such as the town of Maple in eastern Douglas County, faced damage to the exact same stretches of road after each successive storm in 2012, 2016 and 2018.
Some communities in Douglas County have experienced repeated flood damage in 2012, 2016 and 2018, as shown in this map.
Now, residents and local leaders are left pondering how the region has been pummeled with so-called 100-year or larger storms three times in six years.
"I have personally seen four 100-year storms" since the 1980s, said Tom Innes, who has been chairman of the town of Gurney since 1990. "And whatever this last storm was called — some people call it a 500-year storm, some people call it a 1,000-year storm — I don't know what it is, but I'm not four or five hundred years old."
Part of the issue is that the terms "100-year flood" or "500-year storm," are colloquial and imprecise shorthand for probability calculations. A "100-year" storm or flood is one that, based upon historical precipitation or stream gage data for a given location, has a one in 100 (or 1%) chance of occurring in that location over a 24-hour period in any given year. Similarly, a 500-year storm or flood has a 0.2% probability of occurring in any year, while a 1,000-year storm has a 0.1% chance. Simply because such storms have a low probability of occurring in any single year does not keep them from occurring in quicker succession than their names suggest.
Moreover, the storms in 2012, 2016 and 2018 were geographically massive events with widely differing precipitation totals across northwestern Wisconsin. What may have qualified as a "1,000-year" storm in one location could have nearby amounted to a much lower precipitation total and not even qualify for the "100-year" label.
Rainfall totals from a June 2012 storm were much higher in northeastern Minnesota than in northwestern Wisconsin, where it still caused considerable damage, especially in Douglas County.
A July 2016 storm unleashed huge volumes of rainfall across east-central Minnesota and northwestern Wisconsin.
A June 2018 storm hit many of the same Wisconsin communities that flooded following extreme precipitation in previous years' storms.
Confusing terminology aside, Randy Lehr pointed out in 2014 that the probability calculations for these low-frequency, high-intensity storms were significantly underestimated in the region for decades. Because these estimates are one of the variables engineers use to calculate culvert sizes, the underestimation had disastrous consequences.
Keeping pace with precipitation
Scientists in the region are helping local officials better understand how they can try to minimize the impacts of the next disaster. One of those scientists is Matt Hudson, associate director of the Mary Griggs Burke Center for Freshwater Innovation at Northland College, a role Lehr previously held.
Hudson and his students monitor streamflow and water quality in Chequamegon Bay tributaries, as well as water quality in the bay itself. They're building a long-term dataset that Hudson hopes will inform future decisions related to local infrastructure and land use. Concern about the bay's water quality has grown since the 2016 and 2018 floods filled it with huge volumes of sediment and wastewater.
"The big thing people notice after a flood event is all of a sudden the bay turns brown, and nobody wants to be out there fishing or swimming, and people become concerned about water quality issues," Hudson said.
Hudson has increasingly served as an unofficial advisor to local officials who are trying to rebuild and improve the regional infrastructure system so it better withstands major storms in the future. Any large storm will send runoff into Lake Superior, but preventing washouts can help minimize environmental damage, as well as the cost of rebuilding.
Northland College professor Matt Hudson monitors stream flow and water quality in tributaries of Chequamegon Bay from his office on July 18, 2019. "The big thing people notice after a flood event is all of a sudden the bay turns brown," he said.
Hudson explained that roads in the region have long been built under "100-year" storm guidance first developed in the 1960s and '70s and based on historical data from the mid-20th century. Updated estimates, available via the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's Atlas 14 precipitation tool, factor in precipitation records through October 2011.
In northern Wisconsin, the newer estimates significantly increase the precipitation associated with storms that have a 1% chance of happening each year. For instance, in Ashland the previous estimate for such a storm was 5.4 inches of rain in a 24-hour period. The new estimate puts the total at 7.33 inches, more than one-third additional rainfall.
"And that doesn't include data from 2012, 2016, and 2018, when we had these large events," Hudson said. "So that current guidance from Atlas 14 is probably already outdated."
Factor in ongoing climate change effects, and the problems of planning infrastructure for future conditions becomes all the more difficult.
"What do we build for? What do we expect in the future? It's really uncertain," Hudson said. "It makes it really difficult to provide guidance."
Hudson hopes long-term streamflow monitoring can help, as well as climate models that point to more frequent large-scale storms.
Local officials who are responsible for rebuilding roads, meanwhile, hope they're able to make enough improvements to withstand more big storms when they come. But for many it has been a struggle.
The difficulties of rebuilding
The seven counties in northwestern Wisconsin that have borne the brunt of the repeated storms and floods since 2012 are home to 124 townships and many more municipalities. Each of these townships, cities and villages is responsible for maintaining local roads within its borders. For the dozens that have recorded washouts and other damage due to flooding, a major challenge has been not only to repair the damage but to reinforce the roads so future floods aren't as destructive.
Funding is the largest barrier these communities face. In some circumstances, the damage from a single storm can exceed a township's entire annual revenue, as happened in Gurney following the 2016 flood, according to town chair Tom Innes. This isn't a difficult feat when most townships bring in a few hundred thousand dollars or less in annual tax revenue and the cost to repair a single washed out culvert can exceed $100,000. Even in places where damage is not so expensive, barriers abound to building more resilient roads.
For instance, most townships and smaller municipalities do not employ engineers with the technical skills required to plan major roads projects. One consequence of this: For decades, some townships installed culverts that were too small even under the old 100-year storm guidance, instead favoring less expensive options.
The problems that small culverts cause are two-fold. First, they are more likely to fail even after a smaller storm. Second, when they're replaced using federal cost-share programs like those through the Federal Emergency Management Agency, local officials often have no choice but to replace them as they were prior to the disaster, thanks to a FEMA rule that requires rebuilding damaged infrastructure to its previous specifications.
A damaged culvert sits in the scoured bed of Troutmere Creek beneath a washed-out portion of Wildcat Road in Ashland County following the 2016 storm.
Following the 2016 and 2018 floods, Ashland County's Highway Commissioner Emmer Shields assisted local townships with their damage assessments and rebuilding plans. He described the frustration of encountering the same problem again and again: woefully undersized culverts that had failed and were replaced with culverts, also called pipes, of the same size.
"We were looking at these pipes and saying, 'Well, okay, no wonder it failed,'" Shields said. "'Even for a normal 100-year storm, or a 50-year storm, or a 25-year storm, this thing was way undersized, so it's pretty obvious why it failed. I'm surprised it lasted as long as it did.' But you go to FEMA, and they say 'Oh no, we only will pay for replacing it the way it is.' So if you've got a 24-inch pipe that's buried 20 feet down, you go to all that trouble of excavation and replacement and then put another 24-inch pipe in. It is just really ridiculous."
Shields is hardly alone in expressing these concerns. WisContext interviewed more than a dozen local and county officials in Douglas, Bayfield, Ashland, Iron and Sawyer counties in July 2019 about the constraints that keep them from building more resilient road infrastructure following washouts. All of them identified funding and the FEMA rule as two top barriers.
"It's basically a 'Band-Aid' that's just going to cause future problems that cost more money," said Martin Laasko, a supervisor for the town of Maple, about the FEMA rule.
But in most communities there is simply no viable alternative.
"We don't have the money," said Mark Liebaert, chair of the board of supervisors for Douglas County. Liebaert described FEMA funding as a sort of catch-22 for cash-strapped local governments that can't even keep up with basic road maintenance on their own, let alone repair and upgrade damaged infrastructure.
"Even if we're smart, which I assume sometimes we are smart enough to recognize that it might not be the best to keep putting back [the same infrastructure that was washed out], we don't have the money to do anything different," he said.
Mark Liebaert, chair of the Douglas County board of supervisors, and Ann Doucette, the county administrator, point out sites in the county where washouts have repeatedly damaged roads during floods in 2012, 2016 and 2018. Photo taken on July 16, 2019.
Liebaert blamed state-imposed levy freezes on county governments for part of the funding crunch, adding that the opioid epidemic has helped blow a gaping hole in Douglas County's annual budget in recent years. He said the county has had to transfer hundreds of thousands of dollars out of its highway budget to cover costs associated with the addiction crisis.
"We're decreasing the highway budget at a time when we need to increase the highway budget," he said.
To be sure, counties and townships are not alone. The state has stepped in to help rebuild after the successive floods. Wisconsin's Department of Transportation and Department of Natural Resources have provided technical assistance and grant funding to rebuild lost or damaged infrastructure, including a $1 million grant to help rebuild Saxon Harbor. The marina is scheduled to reopen in August 2019 after three years of rebuilding.
Diane Arendt, a maintenance coordinator for the Wisconsin Department of Transportation, and Mike Swartz, highway commissioner for Iron County, photograph upgraded culverts on State Hwy. 169 in Iron County on July 18, 2019.
Still, the state has long dealt with its own transportation budget crunch and is hardly in a position to fund all of the upgrades that local officials say are necessary.
Meanwhile, county governments have expended considerable resources assisting townships and municipalities in a variety of ways related to the flooding disasters. County staff have been instrumental in documenting and organizing mountains of evidence related to damage and repairs, a FEMA requirement that can dissuade townships and villages from even applying for funds, as well as consulting on engineering and environmental questions.
That's not to mention the sums of money some counties have loaned to townships to repair damage since it can take years for FEMA funding to materialize.
The town of Gurney is one such loan recipient. Town chair Tom Innes said that if not for a county loan or another source, his township wouldn't have been able to make all of the repairs it did following the 2016 floods.
Innes has worked with FEMA four times over the course of about 30 years. He credits this experience with giving him a leg to stand on after the 2016 flood in negotiations with the federal agency, which ultimately relented and agreed to fund several upgrades that the state DOT and DNR agreed were necessary.
Still, Innes described his negotiations with FEMA as frustrating and contentious.
"You have to dance to their music," he said. "And they look for a lot of ways not to have to help you."
In an email, a FEMA spokesperson said the agency "does provide options that provide flexibility for [a funding applicant] to use funding differently than restoring the pre-disaster design and function of the facility," including its Improved Projects program. The spokesperson did not say how often FEMA approves such projects or respond to the specific concerns that Wisconsin officials described to WisContext.
The Bad River in Odanah reached record stream flow in 15 hours following the immense July 2016 rainstorm. Upriver, a failed culvert contributed to a portion of State Hwy. 13 washing out in Ashland County.
Innes said he appreciates that FEMA is responsible for protecting against fraud and waste, but decried what he viewed as the agency's obstinance with regard to funding upgrades. Even after agreeing to one such upgrade — swapping a badly damaged culvert that had washed 300 yards down a streambed with a wider and longer replacement — Innes said the agency dragged its feet, and it took 16 months to receive reimbursement for the project. Without a loan from Iron County, he said the work could not have been completed.
Despite the frustrating process, Innes is confident that Gurney is now considerably more resilient to future floods.
"I think our town roads are in better shape than they ever were and probably able to withstand another crisis like [the 2016 flood], or at least have a fighting chance to," he said. "They're better than they were before the flood, no doubt."
Seeking greater resilience
Despite many obstacles, communities throughout northwestern Wisconsin are prioritizing flood mitigation strategies and working on creative solutions to minimize the impacts of future storms. Following the 2016 flood, the Bad River Band of Lake Superior Chippewa established a tribal mitigation planning team, which is charged with assessing natural hazard risks and developing a strategic mitigation plan. Other communities are also becoming more clear-eyed about the threat of future floods. In 2019, Sawyer County named flooding its top emergency-planning priority. The county is home to Hayward, which a 2018 regional flood-risk study identified as the most vulnerable city in the region to a major flood.
That study was a product of the Northwest Regional Planning Commission, a planning consortium made up of 10 counties and five tribal nations in northern Wisconsin.
With the use of data from Lidar surveys, the commission modeled the flooding risk to communities in the seven-county region affected by the 2016 and 2018 storms. The idea was to give officials as much information as possible to prioritize future flood mitigation projects, according to the commission's deputy director, Jason Laumann.
The study modeled the effects of a 100-year storm and a 500-year storm across the entire region, and Laumann said the results were strikingly similar to the local effects recorded in the 2016 and 2018 floods. This modeling focused on risks to private property and public infrastructure, and gives communities a starting point to prioritize buyouts and make strategic investments in improving roadway stream crossings, he added.
"This is also a tool to leverage grant funding," Laumann said. "Looking for opportunities to get federal dollars [and] state dollars for projects, retrofitting, further flood studies and greater analysis."
A flood-risk map for the town of Gurney in Iron County. The Northwest Regional Planning Commission produced flood-risk maps for all of northwestern Wisconsin in a 2018 study that identified buildings and roads to prioritize for mitigation projects.
Perhaps the only local government that has considerable funding of its own to put toward flood mitigation is the city of Superior, which experienced heavy flood damage primarily in 2012.
Superior's funding comes by way of Enbridge. The port city is a hub for its continental pipeline system that carries one-fifth of all U.S. daily crude oil imports, and a state oil terminal pipeline tax generates millions of dollars in revenue for the city annually. In 2018, tax revenue from the pipeline was equal to more than 20% of the city's $30 million operating budget, according to Mayor Jim Paine.
He said stormwater management is the city's most pressing climate-related infrastructure problem.
"It's ironic because obviously fossil fuel production and use is the main culprit for causing climate change," Paine said. "It's also, however, what we're using to build the resiliency that we need to meet the dangers of the climate crisis. So, I mean, maybe that's irony [or] maybe it's just a sort of perfect justice, but that's the money that we use."
Improving stormwater management in Superior is a top priority of Mayor Jim Paine, and the city is funding infrastructure upgrades with tax revenue from Enbridge. "Maybe that's irony [or] maybe it's just a sort of perfect justice," he said.
Courtesy of Jim Paine
Meanwhile, environment-focused nonprofits and research institutions are also getting involved. The Wisconsin Wetlands Association is promoting the re-establishment of wetlands, as well as reconnecting streams and rivers to wetlands where possible. It's part of a region-wide effort to "slow the flow" of runoff entering rivers and ultimately Lake Superior. Local governments are on board with the effort, seeing wetland reclamation as another tool for protecting infrastructure, but it is expensive.
The Lake Superior National Estuarine Research Reserve in Superior, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-affiliated research and outreach program of the University of Wisconsin System, also promotes wetlands as a means for flood control. The program is planning a partnership with The Nature Conservancy in Wisconsin to train people in local governments and others on the use of its "Wetlands by Design" tool, which assists in prioritizing sites for restoration based on outcomes like flood mitigation. The Reserve also works with the city of Superior to train contractors in the Twin Ports region about best practices for reducing erosion and surface runoff during storms and floods.
"Especially in the context of the predicted future of more extreme storms, and based on what we have anecdotally been experiencing over the last seven or eight years, this has really resonated with the local construction contractors," said Karina Heim, the Reserve's coastal training program coordinator.
Another nonprofit whose mission might not at first seem all that related to road infrastructure is the Superior Rivers Watershed Association. The organization works closely with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to improve habitat for native brook trout by expanding fish passage in Lake Superior tributaries. Since 2014, the group has used grant funding to replace culverts along Wisconsin's Lake Superior shoreline that were impeding the passage of fish, primarily brook trout, to upstream habitat.
The 24 culverts built so far are generally larger than the ones they've replaced and have shown much better resilience to flooding than older ones, said Kevin Brewster, who manages the program.
"At the time of the 2016 flood, the worst in the region, we had about 18 culverts in the ground and we lost two," Brewster said. "They did extremely well because they were designed right."
Brewster said the group, which also works with local tribes, the DNR and National Park Service, has plans to replace more culverts and continues to apply for more grant funding to fund this work.
The July 2016 rains were so intense that there were even failures among larger culverts, such as this washout of a section of Hwy. E in Bayfield County.
At a legislative level, a new bipartisan effort in Congress may affect how federal agencies like FEMA prioritize funding for disaster relief. A bill introduced in the U.S. Senate, which is cosponsored by Sen. Tammy Baldwin, a Democrat from Wisconsin, would direct the Federal Highway Administration to factor in resiliency as it awards disaster recovery grants to local governments. The bill follows a 2018 audit of the highway administration's emergency relief program that highlighted problems with how the program awards and tracks funds for infrastructure resilience and upgrades.
The bill would also establish a formula and grant funding to support transportation projects that "improve the resiliency of roads and bridges to natural disasters and extreme weather events," according to a press release from Baldwin.
It is unclear exactly how the bill, which passed a Senate committee vote in July 2019, would affect how FEMA prioritizes disaster funding in the future were it to become law.
Bracing for what comes next
For many local officials and residents of northwestern Wisconsin, the hope is that funding can someday catch up with their monumental need to build climate resiliency into roads and other infrastructure, and that they won't have to continue to rebuild the same structures every time a big storm hits simply because of a lack of willpower to alter what they view as deeply problematic rules.
In northern Iron County, Joan Elias shared her deep interest in the natural resources surrounding her home. That passion has led her to volunteer in roles that let her be outside while providing a useful scientific service, roles such as stream monitoring near her home.
"There's a culvert crossing where I did volunteer water quality testing upstream of Vaughn Creek," Elias said, describing a moment after the 2016 storm. During the course of her water quality testing, she observed severe damage to this culvert — damage that had previously been overlooked and would in all likelihood cause problems during the next big flood. Her understanding was that FEMA had, in fact, declared the culvert to be fixed.
"The culvert looked fine from above, but I saw that the bottom edge of it was curled in like a lip and there were boulders in there," she said. "Our town chair really had to argue with FEMA around that one. It was because of my observation that FEMA believed him."
In the end, the agency funded the culvert's repair, Elias said, though she wished it had agreed to replace it with a larger one.
"Whatever we can do to keep floods from getting worse," she said.
This report was produced in a partnership between PBS Wisconsin and Wisconsin Public Radio. © Copyright 2021, Wisconsin Educational Communications Board and the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Calculating Flood Risk In 'The Least-Climate-Adapted Spot In The Country'
The Costs Of Extreme Storms Come Into Focus Across Wisconsin, US
Hayward Weighs The Risks And Costs Of The Next Deluge
Bayfield County Pursues Flood Resiliency To Protect Its Economy
When Big Storms Inundate Wisconsin, How Could Wetlands 'Slow The Flow'?
Reengineering Infrastructure For A Wetter Wisconsin
Study Outlines Northern Wisconsin Areas At Risk During Extreme Floods
Northern Wisconsin Project Seeks To 'Slow The Flow' Of Stormwater
Once-In-A-Lifetime Rains Falling Frequently On Northern Wisconsin
The Hazard Of COVID-19 Heading Up North For Summer
The Pace Of A Pandemic Meets The Speed Of Science As Wisconsin Takes On COVID-19


I HAVE A 1999 CHRYSLER LHS THAT I HAVE BEEN TRYING TO GET THE A/C WORKING. I HAVE BEEN TO NUMEROUS SHOPS AND SPENT CLOSE TO A THOUSAND DOLLARS ON PARTS AND LABOR.
I FINALLY FOUND SOMEONE WHO KNOWS WHAT HE IS TALKING ABOUT AND SAYS HE FOUND A LEAK UNDER MY DASH.
HE HAS NO WAY TO DO THIS HIMSELF. HOW HARD OF A JOB IS THIS, AND HOW MUCH WILL IT COST.
If the freon leak is under the dash, then I would assume it is the evaporator core. This is a big job. To have the job done at a local shop will cost you about $900. Even more at the dealership.
The entire dash needs to come out of the car. This means all trim panels, steering column, radio, gauges cluster, A/C controls, wiring harnesses, brackets, seats, etc.
A mechanic who has done this repair several times may have some short cuts where he can get the dash out in one large piece without removing too much. This will cut down on his time, but the price would be about the same.
Expect your Chrysler to be down for at least 2 days. This is a very big repair. The car looks very nice from the picture you posted, so it is up to you if the rest of the car is worth putting the money into. Depending on where you are in the country, cooler weather is coming, so saving up for this may be an option.
If this is something you would like try yourself, get a repair manual and look through the procedure to replace the evaporator core and study it. taking pictures along the way will also be a big help.
2 Comments on "1999 Chrysler Freon Leak Repair Cost"
If your car is acting that way, it means your brake caliper is stuck. The piston in the caliper is not going back after you depress the brake. Remove the caliper and remove the piston. You will see a rust or corrosion on it.Clean it with a smooth sandpapper and refit it with an oil. Your problem is solve now.
i have a 2006 Chrysler Pacifica while driving the passenger side brake seems to be activating on its own and the releasing at that point the abs light comes on would that be a bad caliper or the abs system is bad.
ProTech: Usually that is the sign of an ABS system malfunction. This can occur when one or more wheel speed sensors is operating incorrectly or is broken. I'd recommend get the vehicle scanned for codes so you can see which wheel is causing the problem. Then I would go about replacing that particular hub bearing and wheel speed sensor assembly. That should take care of your problem.


In his first four seasons with the Pittsburgh Steelers, receiver Mike Wallace averaged 1010 yards and 17.2 yards per catch, a true symbol that defines his speed instead of his reported 4.33 40-yard dash. After coming off a slightly disappointing but productive 862-yard fifteen-game season in 2012, Wallace cashed in free agency with the Miami Dolphins before heading into a territory of uncertainty.
Quarterback Ryan Tannehill was a younger promising quarterback that came off a 12:13 touchdown-to-interception ratio rookie year where the Dolphins finished 7-9. Except, with an element of his game left uncorrected, Wallace was set to struggle.
Tannehill averaged just 6.8 yards per attempt and completed no passes over 40 yards in 2013. The two had some rocky times complemented with some highlights. But with Tannehill set to average the same yards per attempt for the next two years and conflicts occurring with then head coach Joe Philbin, the veteran receiver was finished in South Florida. He along with a seventh-round draft pick was traded to the Minnesota Vikings for a fifth-round pick. However, when you would think that the Vikings would learn history before repeating it, a carbon copy of Wallace's Dolphins career and more bleakness took place in the Twin Cities.
Similar to Tannehill, Teddy Bridgewater was coming off a rookie season where the Vikings finished 7-9 and had a 14:12 touchdown-to-interception ratio, but was flawed with downfield throws. He averaged just 7.3 yards per attempt and only completed one of ten passes for over 40 yards in 2014. With Wallace being used to Ben Roethlisberger completing 33.3 percent of the same passes in their last year together, Wallace's days in Pittsburgh look more like a distant memory.
From 2013 to 2015, he averaged just 12.7 yards per catch and 755 yards per season (896 with the Dolphins). His state of football hell was so bleak at one point in Minnesota, he not only failed to achieve 500 yards receiving (473 in 2015) but was only involved in the offense 7.5 percent of the time.
Once Blair Walsh ended the Vikings season with a 27-yard field goal miss, Wallace's career in Minnesota concluded too. He was left with little to no offers until the Baltimore Ravens came calling. Luckily for him, he was given a contract with a $3.5 million salary in 2016, and even luckier to have a union with a quarterback that could suit his strengths.
Known for having a big arm since his days at the University of Delaware, Ravens quarterback Joe Flacco has helped many of the league's fastest pass catchers become more visible in real time. Derrick Mason, Mark Clayton, Torrey Smith, Jacoby Jones, and even tight end Todd Heap have caught between 14 and 18 yards per catch, and with Flacco needing a deep threat after Breshad Perriman's health was left in question, Wallace has not only benefited but improved Flacco's vertical passing game.
Throughout his career, Flacco has never completed more than 31.3 percent of his passes for over 40 yards. With Wallace currently, he completing an unbelievable 42.9 percent of such passes and it helps that Wallace is tied for the second-most plays of at least 40 yards in the NFL, five.
With him being 16 yards away from reaching his first 1000-yard season in five years, it will be a special moment for someone whose potential was likely ruled out unfairly. But it will not be as special as it will be for a player that could be playing his final NFL game after being doubted his whole life and might be bound for the Hall of Fame, Wallace's running mate Steve Smith.


Fellowship Kids exists to support families in building right concepts about God in their children's minds and hearts.
Each week at FBC, we engage in this vital ministry: proclaiming the saving truth of the Gospel through the sustaining work of the Holy Spirit and God's Holy Word.
God's Word is full of examples of God's concern, care, and love for children. It teaches us that children have inherent value and have a God-given capacity for genuine faith. Our mission is near to God's own heart. Psalm 78:4 says We will not hide them from our children, but tell to the coming generation the glorious deeds of the Lord, and His might, and the wonders that He has done!
Parents: Here you can download the Old Testament and New Testament Bible Memory songs.
We believe that our childrens' role in the life of God's church is vital.


In any country, the only segment of the population that can bring about radical change is the middle class. The people at the top of the heap are too invested in the status quo and too comfortable where they are to risk upsetting the great deal they have by trying to change things. They correctly do not want to fix something that they don't believe is broken.
Those at the bottom of the heap, the unwashed huddled masses, are too busy keeping body and soul together. All their energies are focused on getting two meals a day.
That leaves only the middle class.
The reader-friendly version of the story, It's Up To Us Now – Part 12, is made available for your personal and non-commercial use only.


1.	German army made a major offensive campaign against our troops in the Ardennes. It was the weak point of our lines because the 3rd Army of Patton needed the troops for the attack on Francfort. Only 4 US divisions remained on a territory of 120km wide.
2.	Roads from the north were blocked by german paratroopers and some of them, wearing american uniform and speaking english, managed to throw into confusion our lines.
3. There was an heavy force against some points as Bastogne. On this place, our troops made a strong resistance which permit to build a counterattack.
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To purchase an optional buy, simply click on the Manage my pledge button in the top right hand corner of the Kickstarter page. On the next page, there will be a bar with your pledge total. Add the amount of the optional buy(s) to that sum and hit confirm near the bottom of the page. Please note there is no additional shipping cost for optional buys, you can add as many optional buys as you want, with no more shipping cost. TITLE= DPG Exclu, what is it ?
DPG Exclu, what is it ?
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OK, I tried my best to resist adding to my pledge, but this does it. MUST HAVE!


During the past two years I have not once looked at the Kurucz codes nor corresponded with Dr. Kurucz. At the time I last attended to them, the code translation strategies were already in need of revision. There has been significant subsequent evolution of the operating systems and compilers under which this code would now be run, and Kurucz has continued to evolve some of the codes themselves.
At present there seems little chance that I will be able to return my attention to these codes. I cannot offer any kind of support of them. Under these conditions I do not feel that I can distribute what I have.
My principal regret is that I am not distributing the documentation of the codes and their operation that was assembled with the assistance of Dr. Peterson (see below). I do not know how valuable this documentation is. If it is of particular value I might be persuaded to offer the as-is code for that purpose alone.
My suggestion to those who wish to make use of these codes is to contact Dr. Kurucz directly and enter into a relationship with him. He can provide a current list of the CDROMs containing the code and data.
During the interval that Dr. Ruth Peterson has been at UCO/Lick Observatory I have been working with the stellar atmosphere and spectrum synthesis codes written by Dr. R. Kurucz at Harvard/CfA. These codes are now ported to any generic Unix system and are producing results identical to those obtained by Kurucz on his VMS VAX and alpha systems. They also come with a great deal of documentation and several fully-worked example runs. These have been used successfully as a part of the homework for several graduate level courses in stellar atmospheres.
Others have also ported the Kurucz codes (e.g., see the CCP7 effort in England, and especially the work of Dr. M. Lemke. Also see John Lester). However, the manner in which I have ported these codes has been to create a set of programs and scripts which automatically run thru the Kurucz codes and rewrite sections of Fortran which do not conform to the ANSI standard. This means that I can trivially port any new releases of the code from Kurucz. This porting scheme is operating on Sun, SGI, and on my home Linux system. It should work with relatively little effort on anything else, too.
The main compressed tar file which includes 1991, 1993, and the CDROM 18 versions of the code along with the translators is 2.6Mbytes. (I carry it home on 2 floppies). Note that for full use, you will need to obtain the CDROMs with atmospheric and spectral line data from Dr. Kurucz.
With the approval of Dr. Kurucz I will provide these codes upon request (I need merely type 2 words). When they have been requested they appear on the UCO/Lick anonymous ftp server lick.ucsc.edu in the directory /pub/outgoing/sla as the files atlas.tar.Z and include.tar.Z. I do not provide them on a permanent automatic basis in order that I might inform Dr. Kurucz how widely they spread.
Of most importance to my thesis work has been the ability to generate synthetic spectra. Kurucz has recently been providing his code and data on CDROM. By keeping the bulk of the spectral line databases on CDROM, I can generate spectra on my home Linux box using only 10 Megabytes of hard disk.
Also see the WWW interface to the Kurucz line lists.


text:
Specifind
=========

[![Code Climate](https://codeclimate.com/github/maxwells/specifind.png)](https://codeclimate.com/github/maxwells/specifind)
[![Build Status](https://travis-ci.org/maxwells/specifind.png?branch=master)](https://travis-ci.org/maxwells/specifind)

Specifind offers advanced ActiveRecord dynamic find\_by_* methods that include comparators (like the grails ORM). Coupled with some questionable SQL injection mitigation through strict verification of type and string escaping, your find methods will be much more readable. If an object of the wrong type (based on the type of the corresponding column of the db) is passed into a finder, it will raise an exception. Ruby 1.9.2 and above are supported

#### Installation

Include specifind in your Rails Gemfile

	gem 'specifind'

and

	$ bundle

#### Comparators
1. in\_list (list)
2. less\_than (value)
3. less\_than\_equals (value)
4. greater\_than (value)
5. greater\_than\_equals (value)
6. like (String) - as you'd enter it as SQL (eg. 'alpha%' for items starting with alpha)
7. ilike (String) - case insensitive like
8. not\_equal (value)
9. between (lower value, upper value)
10. is\_not\_null
11. is\_null
12. equals (value) - shorthand is to leave comparator blank (eg. find\_by\_name would mean find\_by\_name\_equals)

#### Usage

Here is an example person class:

    class Person < ActiveRecord::Base
      attr_accessible :age, :birthday, :name
    end

Specifind is automatically included in ActiveRecord once it is added to your Gemfile. Given the three attributes above, here are some examples of methods you could use to slice your data:

`Person.find_by_age_greater_than_and_birthday_between 15, DateTime.new(1985, 1, 1), DateTime.new(1987,3,6)`

`Person.find_by_name_like '%a%'`

`Person.find_by_name_is_not_null`

#### Notes
1. Currently, the ilike comparator only works with mysql (to the best of my knowledge)
2. Unlike built in ActiveRecord methods, Specifind methods will always return a list, even if it only has one instance in it

### Todos
1. Implement boolean operator logic (eg. find\_by\_age\_greater\_than\_or\_name\_like)
2. Implement ability to use the same parameter multiple times (currently find_by_age_greater_than_and_age_less_than will choke)

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IMITATION is the greatest form of flattery and that certainly seems to be the mantra of the Aldi buying team.
The budget supermarket is famous for its copycat versions of luxury products, and a lamp from its new homeware range is no exception.
The Aldi Kirkton House wooden tripod floor light looks almost identical to an original version made by John Lewis.
The Aldi lamp costs £49.99 and comes in three colours - grey, white and washed effect.
The price tag is £70 cheaper than the John Lewis Jaques tripod floor lamp, which costs £120 and comes in two colours - brown and grey.
Costly vegetable shortage is still underway - so where can you buy your courgettes, lettuce and broccoli?
A smaller table version of the Aldi lamp will also be available for £24.99.
Shoppers are able to pre-order the lamps now and it will be available in stores and for delivery from 16th February.
As it's part of Aldi's "specialbuys" it means there is a limited amount of stock and once the item is sold out there's no guarantee it will come back into stores again.
The lamp is part of Aldi's spring homeware collection which includes a beechwood dining table costing £59.99, with a pair of matching chairs costing £39.99.
It follows the success of the Aldi's marble and copper-effect vintage floor lamp last year, which was praised by interior styling experts for their luxury appearance and low price tag.
The lamp which cost £39.99 for the floor version and £19.99 for the table version was quickly snapped up by shoppers.
It's not the first time Aldi has produced look-a-like versions of luxury products.
Just before Christmas Aldi launched a range of hampers which looked very similar to luxury retailer Fortnum & Mason - but with a price tag that was £126 cheaper.
While Aldi's LED Christmas advent calender cost just £8.99 and it looked very similar to a version from Harrods that cost £65.


text:
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