text:
मुख्य Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol: Principles, Procedures & Practices
Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol: Principles, Procedures & Practices
John R. Wood, Jean Serres (auth.)
प्रकाशक: Palgrave Macmillan UK
पन्ने: 385
diplomatic738
organisations393
precedence360
organisation342
immunities296
missions244
consular205
privileges199
international organisations198
diplomats170
representatives167
diplomatic missions146
consuls143
corps131
delegations130
correspondence127
privileges and immunities122
ministers110
delegation109
headquarters108
immunity101
international officials101
vienna convention100
ambassador91
para85
ministry84
diplomatic corps81
inter81
treaties80
ceremonies78
premises77
diplomacy76
diplomatic mission76
secretariat72
ceremonial71
delegates70
flag68
customs66
inviolability65
receptions64
honour62
conventions62
paras59
accredited58
honours57
ministry for foreign55
nationals55
credentials53
Laissez-faire and State Intervention in Nineteenth-century Britain
Arthur J. Taylor (auth.)
Bernard Bergonzi (eds.)
Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol
Cerem.onial and Protocol
PRINCIPLES, PROCEDURES & PRACTICES
IIIIIIIIUIIIIGDIIIIIIIIH IIIII
JOHN R. WOOD
JEAN SERRES
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00658-8
©john R. Wood and the Estate of the late M. Jean Serres 1970
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1970
All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, without permission.
Reprinted 1971
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And to the memory of
FRIEND AND CO-AUTHOR
Preface by the Hon. Robert D. M-.trphy
Introtluttion by tbe Hon. An&ier Biddle Duke
Xlll
Ceremonial and Diplomtu:y
General character of diplomatic actions - Diplomacy: ancient and
modem- The diplomatic profession - The role of ceremonial and
protocol in international relations
Diplomt~ts
Diplomatic agents - Categories of heads of diplomatic missions High Commissioners - Vatican diplomacy - The diplomatic
corps - Diplomatic missions - Staff of diplomatic missioas Presentation and visits - Duties of diplomatic agents - Members
of a diplomat's family - Relations of missions with the Ministries
for Foreign Affairs and foreign administrations - Extraordinuy
Be&innin& and termination
of a diplomatic mission
Acceptance (.,.mrmt) of heads of mission- Arrival of a new head
of mission - Presentation of aedentials - Arrival visits - End of
a diplomatic mission
Diplommic privile&e~ t~nd itnmUnities
Fundamentals of diplomatic immunities - Inviolability - Jurisdictional immunities - Courtesy prerogatives - Time of war Diplomatic passports
5 Cmuuu
Categories of consuls - General character of consular functions Appointment of consuls - Exercise of consular functions by a
diplomatic mission - Privileges and immunities (career consuls,
honorary consuls and consular agents)- Arrival visia- Absence of
consul- Termination of consular missior.
DIPLOMATIC PROTOCOL AND THE
RULES OF COURTESY
6 Honours and o.JJicial precedence
Participation of the diplomatic corps in ceremonies, processions
and official visits - Civil honours - Military honours - Naval
honours - Religious ceremonies- Funeral ceremonies- Precedence
in the diplomatic corps - Precedence in the consular corps
7 Rules of precedence in certain states
United Kingdom- United States of America- France- Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics
Ceremonies, foreign national and national holidays
Foreign national Bag - Foreign national holidays - National
holidays- Official mourning- Official registry
Receptions- Titles- Visiting Cards
Nature of official and unofficial reception~ - Day receptions Table receptions - Reception of a foreign head of state at an
Embassy- Punctuality- Titles- Visiting cards
Ceremonial dress and decorations
Ceremonial dress- Forms of decoration- Wearing of d~corations
Exchange of and proposals for decorations
DIPLOMATIC ACTION
Conference negotiation
Prior contactS between Ministry for Foreign Affairs and diplomatic mission- Composition of delegations - Liaison- Prec~dence
among delegations and delegates - Privileges and immunities Welcoming of delegates- Material facilities foo: each delegationVisits after arrival- Conference seating- Conference procedurePress relations - Delegation reports - Receptions - Departure of
Diplomatic correspondence
General terminology - Official correspondence - Semi-official
(informal) correspondence - Private correspondence
2 Io
Basic definition of an agreement - Treaties and conventions Inter-government agreements - Agreements by exchange of notes
or letters - Technical conference protocols - Declarations or
Communiqu&: 'Gentlemen's Agreements'- Inter-agency agreements - Administrative commission agreements - Drawing up
of agreements - Full powers - Ratification - Entty into force:
publication - Application - Termination - Special features of
multilatetal agreements
PART FOUR INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
AND INTERNATIONAL OFFICIALS
14 International organisations
World organisation - Regional organisations - General character
of international organisations - Inter-governmental organisations Non-governmental (autonomous) organisations- Precedence among
international organisations - Internal precedence of individual
ZJ International officials
Specific character of international public functions - Status of
international officials - Privileges and immunities - Precedence
z6 Legislative status of international organisations in certain countries:
Internal structure of specific organisations
United States of America- United Kingdom- France- Switzerland - United Nations - North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Council of Europe - European Communities - Organisation of
American States
I The United States of America
II Protocol Precedence in England
III Protocol Order in France
IV Protocol Order practised in the Union of Soviet Socialist
V National Holidays of various States
Notes on the authors
Intlex
The termination of the Second World War set in motion the most
spectacular evolution of nations which the world has ever witnessed. It
brought with it radical changes in the political structure of states, in
theit relations with one another, in the sudden mass creation of independent entities, and a flood of personalities new to world diplomacy.
We live in a streamlined world community with ever-increasing tempo,
tensions and fast communications. Perhaps there never has been a time,
certainly not since the Congress of Vienna, when a serious work providing practical guidance to diplomatic and consular officers, whatever
theit nationality, is more needed and appropriate.
Throughout most of the years of my own experience in the diplomatic and consular fields there was a comparative paucity of helpful
reference works. Of course we were fortunate to have always the good
old standby Guide to Diplomatic Practice by the Right Honourable
Sit Ernest Satow, even though I fear we did not consult it as often as
we should. More recently competent practitioners in the diplomatic
art, such as Jules Cambon and Harold Nicolson, have made invaluable
contributions.
The present work Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol is the fruit of the
lengthy and varied experience of its two authors, one of whom, Jean
Serres, enjoyed a distinguished career in the French diplomatic service.
His associate, John R. Wood, has been able to contribute an equally
comprehensive store of knowledge and experience gained over the years
in the American Foreign Service with emphasis on consular activity.
Thus the book is a happy compendium of useful information and
guidance for both branches of the Foreign Service. The work, of course,
reflects theit essentially European experience and background.
The authors have not ignored some of the flavour of our times, and
have noted, not without regret, the contempt manifested by certain
revolutionary regimes for the amenities and tact so necessary in international relations. The authors inspire the reader's confidence in the
way that only technicians can who have to theit credit a wealth of
practical experience.
Thus, whether in a busy Embassy in an important world centre, or
Priface
far-flung consular posts exposed to the crises and shifting trends of
more remote, developing countries, Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol
can provide a reassuring and authoritative word of advice on the many
problems diplomatic and consular officers must face, often with little
warnmg.
But apart from diplomats this book should prove of interest and
value to many who are involved or even just interested in international
affairs. The authors deserve great credit for their skill in presenting
what to the layman must be a complicated and often obscure subject.
Their quotation of the maxim ' Courtesy is the most precious of
jewels' could well be taken to heart by all of us living in this hurried
twentieth century.
ROBERT D. MURPHY
former Under-Secretary of State, U.S.A.
• Protocol' comes from a word the Greeks used to identify documen:s.
But it now represents, in the complexity and change of the ~entieth
century, a body of social discipline without which the encounter of
princes and presidents would have little relevance. For protocol brings
to the meetings of world leaders a mixture of good manners and common sense which make effective communication possible.
The book which former French Ambassador Jean Serres and former
American Consul-General John R. Wood have written comes at a
fortunate moment. The emergence of many new nations to roles of
responsibility in world affairs, and the growth of multilateral diplomacy
through such institutions as the United Nations, have inevitably resulted in a proliferation of diplomatic contact. This not only highlights the importance of protocol but should also remind us that
arrangements for visitors on state or official business are no less a
science than an art - a science in that the refinements of protocol are
at once subtle and exact; an art in that the test of protocol is that it
should always be distinguished by the personal touch.
We are indeed fortunate that the distinguished authors of this book
have made such constructive use of their time. It should serve as a
point of ready reference for many diplomats and officials engaged in
imernational affairs. My hope is that it will help to prevent misqn Jerstandings from reaching crisis proportions and build confidence
between men and nations.
ANGIER BIDDLE DUKE
former Chief of Protocol of tbe United States
Ceremonial is the close observance of certain formalities. It immediately brings to mind the grandiose ceremonies publicised by the Press,
radio and television; whether it be the crowning of a monarch or a
pope, the inauguration of a president or the sumptuous ceremonies of
oriental courts, one visualises ceremonial dress, feathered hats, braided
uniforms or picturesque parades in majestic splendour. And yet there
is much more to ceremonial than fanfare.
Protocol is a form of hierarchical order, the expression of good
manners among nations, and just as politeness is one of the basic
rules for everyday life, so protocol is the set of rules of conduct for
governments and their representatives on official and on private
occasions.
Hierarchy exists in all organised society. In advanced human groups,
the complexities of social contacts impose respect for certain rules of
behaviour; without them life could not be harmonious. In more primitive groups, as soon as the family stage is passed, a sort of hierarchical
order is found which is often based on ceremonies traditionally performed by a closed caste. Hierarchy is found even among animals, as is
illustrated by the social organisation of bees and termites, and the
nuptial ceremonies of certain birds.
In everyday life, one of the basic principles is to maintain peaceful
relations between individuals and to avoid offence. This rule is even
more necessary in international relations, as the consideration and
respect due to independent states and their representatives come into
play. It is by acting correctly and especially by expressing oneself in a
polite manner that one gains attention and respect. The late John F.
Kennedy, at a time when bad manners formed a part of the diplomatic
arsenal of some governments, emphasised in his inaugural address that
' politeness is not weakness'. Bismarck recalled that 'even in a declaration of war, the rules of courtesy are respected'. Jules Cambon wrote
that 'in treaties of peace there is no distinction between victor and
vanquished', while Khrushchev stated publicly in his own country that
' it is not with insults that we will conquer capitalism'.
The abandonment or relaxation of ceremonial or protocol is often an
expression of a desire to please. It is well known that the Vatican,
which is probably the oldest court in Europe, is justly reputed for the
refinement of its protocol observance. Notwithstanding, it is related
that when Mrs John F. Kennedy was to visit the Vatican, the Pope
informed himself as to how he might address her. He was given the
choice of 'Madame la Presidente ', ' Madam' or ' Mrs Kennedy'. When
the door opened to his chambers the Pope, with outstretched arms,
exclaimed 'Oh, Jacqueline'.
Extra-protocolar attention can also come from heads of state and
other important dignitaries. It is related that the head of an African
state visited the museum city of' Colonial Williamsburg' at Williamsburg, Virginia. After being shovtn round one of the museums hereturned to his automobile, suddenly to realise that he had not thanked
his hostess. So he immediately descended from his automobile, returned to the museum, thanked his hostess and offered her the
souvenir he had brought. Tflese examples of consideration for others
ought to be sufficient to show that protocol is not as inhuman as one is
tempted to believe, and that persons subject to its demands know how
and when to free themselves from these strict obligations when they
desire to show warm, human feelings for persons whom they receive.
In writing Diplomatic Ceremonial and Protocol, the authors had no idea
of writing a diplomatic treatise. For that, there are Sir Ernest Satow
and other well-known practitioners in the field of diplomacy. It was
written to serve as a reliable reference work, in matters of ceremonial and
protocol, in the fields of foreign service as well as in home service, for
individuals as well as for institutional use.
During their long and varied careers in the diplomatic and consular
services of their countries the authors observed, often regretfully, the
lack or inadequacy of such reliable and practical reference works of a
nature suitable for diplomats, consuls and other officials in government
service at home and abroad. They also observed that many highranking diplomats or other officials who w:ote successful records of
their official experiences or achievements, while endeavouring to leave in
their works marks or trace of their actions, too seldom left behind any
record of their experiences in methcds of dealing with administrative
affairs, especially in matters of ceremonial and protocol observance.
When the authors entered the foreign service, and throughout their
careers, they keenly felt the existing gap and it was as a contribution to-
xvu
wards filling it that they attempted, in writing Diplomatic Ceremonial and
Protocol, to place in the hands of their colleagues and readers the guide
which they themselves would have liked to possess, a guide that they
hope and believe will be useful both to the professional and nonprofessional, trained or untrained diplomat and consul as well as to
international officials of whatever nationality, and to the student
interested in foreign affairs. They also hope that it will assist those
called on regularly or occasionally to maintain official or private relations with political, administrative and social affairs; as background
information, so to speak, that will usefully serve newly independent
nations whose individual or diplomatic language may be English but
whose national traditions in diplomacy, administration and ceremonial
are still in the stage of development or evolution; that it will draw the
attention of public servants to what diplomats should know and what
they are entitled to ask. and be a constant reminder of their obligations
respecting reciprocal, professional practice, and so on.
The first part of the book is devoted to Diplomats and to their status;
the second part to Ojjitial Protccol and to the rules of courtesy; the third
part to Diplomatic Action in its various forms; and the fourth and last
part to International Organisations and to their officials.
The authors present a short list of books, which far from exhausts
the subject, which have been found of particular interest to COO$Ult or
the reading of which they have greatly enjoyed.
While Diplomati: Ceremonial and Protocol has been written with the
assistance of official services, the authors wish it to be tmderstood that the
views expressed therein are not necessarily those of their governments.
Inasmuch as the authors wished to preserve the practical character
of the book, it has been written broadly on the basis of their more than
four decades of professional experience and that of their colleagues.
They hope that readers who do not find in the following pages a
solution to problems which preoccupy them, will not hesitate to make
known to the authors the difficulties which have not been covered.
The authors acknowledge with appreciation the assistance which
they received from numerous colleagues and friends who co-operated
and assisted in the preparation of the material for this book. They do
not attempt to cite them all for fear that some might be omitted. They
are especially indebted to the Honourable Robert D. Murphy, for
writing the Preface and to the Honourable Angier Biddle Duke, for the
Fortword
Introduction. They also acknowledge with appreciation the assistance
rendered by the Department of State, through the heads of the appropriate services of the division of Protocol, the Legal Adviser's Office,
the Magazine and Special Services division, Office of Media Services
for Public Affairs which was especially co-operative and helpful, the
Information Center Service of the United States Information Agency
and others; by the Protocol Departments of the British Forei,gn Office,
at London; by the French Ministry for Foreign Affairs, at Paris; by the
Chiefs of Protocol of the United Nations Secretariat at New York and
Geneva; the European Economic Community; the European Coal and
Steel Community; the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation; and
Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe. The valuable assistance
afforded by these distinguished sources contributed to a very considerable
degree to the accuracy and reliability of the material in this book.
J. R. W.
J. s.
The purpose of Part One of this book is to examine the protocolar status of
diplomats and consuls; their privileges and immunities; the ceremonial
which accompanies the assumption of functions by heads of diplomatic
missions, and the relations between diplomatic missions and the ministries
with which they are called upon to deal.
CEREMONIAL AND DIPLOMACY
General character of diplomatic actions - Diplomacy: ancient
and modern - The diplomatic profession - The role of ceremonial and protocol in international relations
Ceremonial is the smoke of friendship.
1111111.11((1
* 1111111111
GENERAL CHARACTER OF DIPLOMATIC ACTIONS
Diplomacy is the art of resolving international difficulties peacefully. It is also the technique or skill which reigns over the development,
in a harmonious manner, of international relations. Art and technique
obey conventions and rules. The ritualistic aspects of diplomatic
activities have always been striking. Whereas states, governments and
international organisations frequently find their interests clashing in
the course of international events, their representatives, the diplomats,
making use of traditional methods, apply their instructions without
passion and together seek harmonious solutions to various interests even, should the occasion arise, to pride as well.
z. The traditional rules of the diplomatic profession are, at times,
considered a little old-fashioned. But is this not true of proper and
well-established social customs to which all must submit, by choice or
by force? 'In fact,' wrote Jules Cambon, 'all is not devoid of sense in
these solemn frivolities. Foreign agents represent something higher than
themselves. The honours given them are in reality addressed to the
person they represent. Protocol knows neither victor nor vanquished
and imposes on nations, even enemies, reciprocal respect without regard
to their relative force. • * Thus the fact that protocol respects •the dignity
and independence 'of weak nations, is something, after all'. f Guaranteeing to the representatives of states the immunities and precedence
• Jules Cambon, Le aiplomate, Paris, Hachette, 1926.
f Ibid.
which are indispensable to them has a daily influence on their lives and
their activities.
J· All too many people think that diplomats pursue the objectives
of their governments by subtle device and with refined concealment,
misleading their interlocutors, heads of government, ministers and
colleagues. Moreover, too many people willingly repeat- with feigned
belief in an old quip which cost its author dearly- that a diplomat is •an
honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country'.* This was
indeed the case in the period of the Renaissance. But in modern times,
one of the most honourable characteristics of the diplomatic profession is that the word of an ambassador, who is expected to gain and
to preserve the confidence of a foreign government, is worth more
than his writings in which a quibbling and cavilling person can always
find grounds for dispute. Numerous authors have disposed of such
misconceptions, but the legend dies hard. They insist very firmly on the
necessity for a diplomat never to tell an untruth. By profession, diplomats should know how and when to change a conversation if they see it
moving towards a delicate phase of a subject. Moreover, when a diplomat is asked an insidious question, he can always decline or side-step
an answer to it. What he should not do is to make false statements,
whether on his own initiative or on orders from his government.
As an ambassador who makes a false statement is unequivocally thrown
into disrepute, is that not the best reason for his government to have
the courage and the dignity to assume full responsibility for such
statements? It is more likely to be in time of war, when the national
interests or those of allies are at stake, that the withholding of the truth
may be deemed necessary and practised.
DIPLOMACY: ANCIENT AND MODERN
4· We believe that it would be of interest to readers for us to compare ancient and modern diplomacy. We will therefore dwell briefly
upon this subject.
5· The diplomatic profession is very old. Records of peace treaties
and alliances are found among the most ancient historic monuments
and inscriptions. Nevertheless, for a long time the relations between
• Sir Henry Wotton (xs68-J6~9)·
tribes and, later, feudal groups which took on a progressively national
character, were only episodic. Missions concluded alliances, treaties of
commerce, even marriages, and then returned home without leaving
behind any sort of a permanent official representation. Moreover, in
those days, governments did not wish to see foreign spies or agitators
established permanently in their countries, whether they were friends
or rivals.
6. A revolution in the relations between states took place when
governments decided to maintain permanent missions in foreign
capitals. This practice, which was initiated in the fifteenth century,
gradually came into force as powerful and unified nations replaced
feudal sovereignty. It was generalised in Europe during the seventeenth
century when, following the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, the
development of peaceful relations multiplied the problems to be
resolved. Cardinal Richelieu was, in his Testament politique, the great
theorist of 'permanent negotiations', and therein is found the birth of
modern diplomacy.
7· The world has changed markedly since that period, particularly
in the last century. It is well known that until 1914 Europe pursued,
practically alone, the game of international politics. And this was
largely the politics of royal courts. It should be remembered that in
1900 there were still only three republics in Europe, namely France,
Switzerland and San Marino. Personal relations between sovereigns
exercised a powerful influence on international relations. Some among
them, more or less autocratic, were at times ·guided by dynastic considerations or by feelings of friendship or of antagonism towards other
sovereigns or other regimes, and they deliberately pursued, side by side
with the constitutional and official politics of their own governments,
intrigues and manreuvres which were later revealed by the publication
of official records. Government circles dealing with foreign relations
were circumscribed, and secrecy was the rule. Negotiations were conducted through diplomatic missions. Ambassadors received general
instructions which gave them full scope for obtaining the greatest
possible success. Governments took as much time as they needed to
judge events. It was rarely that a Prime Minister or a Minister for
Foreign Affairs travelled to foreign countries to conduct negotiations.
Such journeys, which always pursued an exceptional political objective,
were prepared well in advance, and the results of the interviews which
were to be sought and then made public, had generally been decided
before departure. Thus, governments could, by discreet negotiations, save
face and reconcile conflicting interests, and prepare public opinion already irritated by some particular incident - to accept an honourable compromise settlement. In fact, from 1878 to 1914, the 'European Concert' settled peacefully most of the great difficulties and,
when necessary, unified European powers in the face of a common
danger.
8. The First World War upset the established balance of power in
Europe. The principal semi-autocratic European monarchies, whose
rival ambitions had provoked defeat and ruin, were replaced by an
upsurge of republics; while, by the use of war propaganda, the extension of the conflict introduced into stable continents new ideas which
too often proved indigestible. The enlightened classes, like the mass of
the people whose sufferings from the war had made them more alert,
became aware of the tragic consequences to which ill-advised foreign
policies would lead them. ThP. general spread of parliamentary r~gimes,
which resulted in the 'Balkanisation' of Central Europe, and the excessive nationalist passions which resulted, brought international problems to the public rostrum. The League of Nations gave the world a
tribunal where such problems were raised. In succession to Carlsbad
and Baden, Geneva permitted heads of new states to meet politicians
with long service and to benefit from their experience. But the atmosphere in which world relations unfolded had changed. The public
negotiation of treaties, unthinkably advocated by President Woodrow
Wilson, promptly revealed its impracticability, and its author was the
first to renounce it on his own account. Moreover, the solution to
international problems was not facilitated by the public exposure of
national claims. Opposing arguments, skilfully exaggerated, fed Press
polemics, while territorial demands and the uneven distribution of
national resources and manpower which secret understandings or
family alliances had been able to adjust or conceal up to that time, were
ruthlessly revealed. Governments found these conditions a convenient
source of easy but short-lived internal success, or the grounds for
higher demand for demagogy, which the Press accentuated. Dictators
too often practised 'diplomacy by insult', to no one's advantage.*
• Sir Harold Nicolson, Diplomaty, Oxford University Press, London, 194S· Also
of Diplomatic Metbols, Constable, London, 1954.
Tbe Evolution
The task of negotiators, instructed to find peaceful and equitable solutions to grave differences, was singularly difficult and complicated.
There was little real relaxation between 1919 and !939·
9· As if the seriousness of the disease had been its own cure governments, under the influence of the League of Nations, and later the
United Nations, delegated much of their foreign affairs to international organisations of an administrative, cultural or humanitarian
character, in the development of which professional diplomats took
little or no interest. Thus arose, side by side with states that were
becoming more and more nationalistic in outlook, a multitude of
organisations in which governments, administrations or national
groups of specialists of all kinds joined in seeking the solution to
grave problems, sometimes of great importance to mankind. As a
result, a growing number of people outside the diplomatic service
became involved in international life. Nevertheless, contacts originated
in this manner were frequently as fruitful for international understanding as the work of professional diplomats who were too often
held in check by governments which appealed to p<'pular agitation and
the spirit of aggression.
zo. The events which led to the war of 1939-45 opened the eyes of
the major powers, particularly the United States, which had not wished
to become associated with the old League of Nations. As soon as the
conflict had ended, America set itself to the task of trying to consolidate the peace by international co-operation. It cannot be said with
satisfaction that the organisations set up for this purpose have, as yet,
had the desired results. Like the League of Nations, the United
Nations provided a platform widely open to all governments. But the
instantaneous broadcasting of debates, sometimes entire and unmonitored, facilitated by the practice of simultaneous translations, disseminated all sorts of opinio~s and arguments, even the most debatable.
Representatives of too many states have taken advantage of that forum
as a medium for political propaganda purposes rather than as an instrument of peace and goodwill. Certain delegations have rejected the
diplomatic tradition of moderate language in pleading their cases. As
long as governments do not appreciate the potency of moderation, as
long as feelings of consideration by each state towards the community
of nations do not prevail over the spirit of rivalry and dissension, the
use of this public forum, so valuable on so many occasions, will all too
often serve only to reinforce tensions and accentuate discord. However, constructive work is being done in New York through the
channels of conversation, of unpublicised meetings and of private
interviews where negotiators can calmly seek solutions to problems
which public debate often aggravated.
z l. Juridical equality between states, which lays down rules of
mutual regard and consideration, is not sufficient to give them parity
of power and responsibilities. Moreover, despite this 'equality'
situations have already arisen where the relative strength of states has
had to be taken into account. In their internal proceedings, certain
international organisations have already found a way of allowing for
the relative importance of their members. This has undoubtedly
brought about a balance of power.
12. On the other hand, thanks to rapid means of communication,
heads of government and their foreign ministers do not hesitate to
travel to distant parts of the world to conduct negotiations considered of major importance. This procedure is doubtless required
because, at present, events sometimes move faster and farther than
could be foreseen by the statesmen who initiated them. It has proved
useful, but it deprives governments of that precious screen provided by
diplomats who, working secretly, have more liberty of thought and
discussion and who can, if needed, be reoriented, indeed disavowed.
Finally, and this is by no means the least inconvenience of such
practices, ministers lose contact with current affairs.
lJ. When considering how much international affairs are conducted
in the public eye, some people may be tempted to conclude that the
role of the professional diplomat has come to an end. That is going
much too far. First of all, it must be remembered that international
conferences are of interest only to some of the large capital cities. In
the majority of diplomatic posts such meetings are never held. On the
other hand, even in cities where conferences are held on the highest
level, such meetings take first place for only a few days. During that
time heads of mission naturally move to the background. However,
they play beforehand an important role in the preparation of the meetings; assisting the ministers in debate and frequently being charged
with final details and with controlling the execution of the agreements
decided upon in principle. These conferences, far from reducing the
role of the mission, actually increase its work and responsibilities.
Ceremonial and JtplomtUJ
THB DIPLOMATIC PROFESSION
l 4-
It is opportune to examine a little more closely the diplomatic
profession and its particular exigencies. The object of diplomacy is to
make use of peaceful and practical methods of conciliation. to tighten
the bonds of friendship with allied governments. to develop friendly
relations with neutral countries. and to command the respect of hostile
governments. In this immense task of consolidating peace the function
of heads of diplomatic missions may be classified under four terms :
representation. information. negotiation and protection.
15. The notion of representation constitutes the primary element. An
ambassador represents the government of his country in relation to the
authorities of the country in which he resides. He is vested with the
necessary authority to speak in the name of his government. He is
qualified to receive as well as to send communications exchanged between the two governments. He is the permanent intermediary for the
relations between both states. He is recognised as the official source of
information about his own country. This notion of representation was
pushed very far during the existence of absolute monarchies. Ambassadors were considered the personal representatives of their sovereigns. and from this conception derived the outstanding degree of
immunity everywhere conceded to heads of diplomatic missions. The
general development of parliamentary regimes deprived sovereigns of
all political prerogative and put an end to this situation. But in some
countries where the head of the executive power has a strong personality
it may still be found. Diplomats are usually. to the people of the
country of their residence. the image of the conntry they represent.
Public behaviour. like the private life of an ambassador and of the
members of his mission. should therefore be beyond reproach. The
moral worth of diplomatic agents should constitute an essential
criterion in their selection and assignment. A state which knowingly
appoints as its representative a man who does not merit respect. does
not respect itself.
t6. Each government should accord its official representatives
abroad the means necessary to give the best possible impression of their
country and to enable them to lead a life which conforms with this
impression. Ambassadors must be able to entertain generously when the
circumstances require it. To receive at the right time is as important as
to receive often. It is easy for diplomats to see the central authorities of
the country of their residence, and their foreign colleagues, but they
should also get in touch with and cultivate unofficial personalities who
play an important role or exercise influence in the country of residence,
in appropriate circles both in the capital and elsewhere, even though
they may be reticent and difficult to meet. It is equally important for
the ambassador and his staff to promote and maintain contact with the
lower as well as with the top levels of government and society. This
requires shrewdness and tact. The personal contacts made on such
occasions will always be valuable in the extension of friendly and
advantageous relations between the two governments for which the
ambassador is responsible. Likewise, they should not fish in troubled
waters among agitators in social life nor in politics.
17. Another necessary element of the ambassador's activity is information. This essential work is continuous, direct and bilateral. The
exchange of diplomatic missions indicates that states wish to maintain
peaceful relations under the rules of international law and within the
framework of that particular international society which they form.
The ambassador should make the general policy of his country known,
understood and, if possible, accepted by the government to which he is
accredited. Likewise he should, to enable his own government to form
its judgement, advise it on what takes place in the country of his
residence, especially as regards schemes put forward by the authorities,
as well as developments in neighbouring countries when such developments have a direct bearing on his country of residence, and should
submit his comments on what he sees and foresees. The seeking of information is pursued by all legitimate means, such as by reading the
Press, by interviewing colleagues, foreign office officials and persons of
distinction with whom the Embassy is in continual or occasional contact, and by observations made in the course of visits by the ambassador
and by members of the mission. Except for reasons of national security,
the government of the country of residence should do nothing to restrict diplomats from circulating and receiving freely. This rule is not
always followed in certain countries with police regimes, and in such
cases the diplomatic agent or consul should learn the value of 'silent
observation'. He will gather more and better information in the course
of his travels, during which he will not open his mouth, than from
interviews with doubtful or frightened persons. All members of the
mission should be associated in this work, but in these countries, and
for the best reasons even in the others, diplomats are forbidden, in
view of the generous hospitality they receive and the privileges and
immunities granted them, to speak against or criticise the local government in an injurious manper, or to prejudice the interests of the
country which receives them.
Diplomatic agents and consuls are not, in the traditional nature of
their duties, spies. All action tending to influence by indirect means
the internal politics of the country, such as seeking secret information,
may be considered a grave dereliction of duty. The government of the
country of residence has the right to insist on the recall of diplomats
who behave in this manner. The list of countries whose diplomats
have been the subject of such measures is long enough to indicate that
the proprieties are not always faithfully observed.
z8. In the course of his interviews, the ambassador is constantly
called upon to endeavour to adjust the views of his government to
those of the country to which he is accredited. That is the work of
negotiation, which is the search for solutions by way of peaceful and
concerted agreements.
19. Negotiation is defined as 'the art of the possible'. In fact,
negotiation usually takes place when a reciprocal desire to maintain
peaceful and friendly relations exists on a general level. There must also
be some matter to negotiate, that is, the points of view of the two
governments on the question at issue should be sufficiently defined for
an adjustment to be foreseen or anticipated. Finally, there should be a
willingness to negotiate, to find an agreed solution, failing which
success cannot be achieved. This implies that both sides in the negotiation are willing to make concessions. While a reciprocal approach may
not be applicable to extended negotiations between certain powers,
nevertheless, even in such cases it is well to show by moderation a
willingness to continue negotiations at a later date. When a head of
mission detects discords he should first single out the points on which
adjustment is required and the conditions under which they may be
resolved, and then try to put his views across in a courteous and temperate discussion. To do this he must apply the methods of conciliation, and endeavour to find an honourable agreement satisfactory to
both parties.
z.o. Negotiating is always individual and subjective. This is one of
the most fascinating tasks, and also one of the most disappointing,
of the diplomatic profession. It is in negotiating that the personality
and the temperament of the negotiator, the sympathy that he has
gained and the confidence that he has won, will pay off. It is there also
that he can prove the flexibility of his intelligence, his sense of situation
and opportunity, and his professional experience, for in his earlier
career he should have acquired practice in methods of conciliation in
the search for honourable and equitable transactions. The acquiring of
information plays a part here. The mission should know the motives
which impel its own government to act, the optimum result that it
desires to obtain and the maximum that it can concede; the mission
should also be apprised in advance of the views of the foreign government, its potentialities and the limit to which it wishes to and can go.
This knowledge is complemented by a sense of opportunity; the moment
when the negotiations can be embarked upon and at what point it
would be best to suspend them or even break them off, always leaving
an honourable exit which will permit the resumption of the task at a
later date. It is in negotiation that the professional value of diplomats is
measured, as well as the art with which they manifest it.
21. In all circumstances, a diplomat's duty is to be of good faith. He
will be listened to, he will be followed, he will achieve sound t:esults if
his negotiators or those with whom he confers know that he is a man
who does indeed speak for his government, who knows where he is
going and how far he can go, who gives good reasons for the attitudes
that he adopts, and who is sincerely desirous of finding a reasonable and
satisfactory solution to the problem which he is charged to discuss and
resolve. If his professional authority or his moral worth is doubted, the
mental reservations of the opposing spokesmen will preclude a fair and
workable solution of the negotiations; if he is caught in the act of
telling a falsehood (flagrant dllit de mensonge), he may be definitely discredited. The degree of success which can be obtained by a head of
mission in his negotiations will depend largely on the view taken of
public and private conduct, the friendly relations that he will have
known how to promote and the authority that he will acquire in everyday dealings with men and affairs. He should never forget that discretion is necessary, and that modesty should be his virtue, as diplomatic triumphs, if conspicuous, usually lead to feelings of humiliation
and a desire for revenge, which will impair their efficacy. In this part
of his fWlctions the head of mission should show both perception and
insight. To this he will do well to add. in his relations with the administration and the notables of the coWltry of his residence, the essential
graciousness which alone enables him to put at ease reserved, even
reticent, conversationalists, the flexibility of mind necessary to adapt
his argwnents to theirs, and the power of persuasion that results from a
soWld knowledge of the problem and an ability to present facts clearly
and rationally.
22. Finally. an essential duty of an ambassador is the protection of his
nationals a..'1d of the commerce and shipping of his COWltry. The
vigilance, as well as the inspiration, of a head of mission should be
exercised to ensure not only that his fellow countrymen, ships flying the
flag of his COWltry, and their commercial relations are dealt with in
accordance with treaties or agreements in force, but also that persons
Wlder his jurisdiction are not victims of discriminatory practices. He
should seek to improve the status of his colony. increase commercial
traffic and tighten the bonds of common intellectual and cultural interests- all essential elements in the development of good relations and
peaceful exchange between the two countries. Objective consideration
of business affairs, like moderation in language, is absolutely indispensable in these matters.
23. The complexity of the role just described requires, on the part of
the men to whom governments confide it, a temperament and qualities
which develop a particular personality. An ambassador should be objective and have a cool and sure judgement. He should be able to sum up a
situation and have the necessary general knowledge to guide his
reactions. He also should have an extensive knowledge of economic
affairs without necessarily being a specialist. Furthermore, the important responsibilities with which he is charged impose upon him an
alert mind and a prudent and reserved character. He should be disciplined always to use moderate language and should have learned to
orient his intellect and understanding, not towards polemic debates
(polemics are an Wldesirable habit and their prolongation never constructive) but towards the achievement of equitable and peaceful
settlements.
24. The diplomat should be a linguist. ' Foreign languages can be
learned by persons with average ability if they consider the effort
worth the trouble. No one should choose a diplomatic career if he does
Dipl001acy and dipl001ats
not feel capable of making that so simple and essential effort.'* The
diplomat should possess a cosmopolitan outlook, that is, he capable of
taking a sympathetic and objective interest in the men and affairs of
foreign countries, even if they are totally different from his own. He
should show neither impassioned sympathy nor violent antipathy,
which might prejudice the full exercise of his judgement. He should also
have a balanced character and a strong dose of patience and indulgence;
his wife should possess similar qualities. He should, moreover, have an
inquiring mind. He who does not interest himself in the characteristics
of the country where he resides, and of neighbouring states, or who
does not visit them, cannot perform well the duties of his office.
2.5. No less essential a quality in a diplomat is sociability. Diplomatic society is a limited circle, well chosen, even closed, subjected to
strict though unwritten rules of courtesy and of professional correctitude, which express and confirm the mutual rights and duties of its
members. Diplomats must always he affable and, most important,
approachable, equable, courteous and friendly. Those who rub shoulders
in diplomatic posts may, and often do, meet again in the course of their
careers. The good or bad behaviour which marked their former meetings will have repercussions on their relations and may influence the
outcome of national interests entrusted to them.
But sociability is not all. 'What is of paramount necessity for a
diplomat,' wrote Martens, 'is tact. Tact requires the respect of form
that a mediocre mind alone despises. The more society is civilised, the
more form is respected as a wholesome harrier to the inevitable
antagonisms to which incompatibility of character and of principle
give birth. Politeness is not an untruth. It merely reminds us of the
justice and inner moderation which ought to guide us. It is only in bad
company that we have to scream to make ourselves heard.'f
2.6. Some people will think that these various qualifications take so
long to acquire that a good diplomat will not succeed until the end of
his career. Obviously one needs to have a certain dedication for the
diplomatic career, whose attractions are doubtless counterbalanced and broadly counterbalanced - by the numerous constraints of a life
spent abroad in a setting very different from that of a national administrative career. A considerable effort at adaptation is accordingly
• Henry M. Wriston, Diplomacy in a Democracy, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1956.
t Ch. de Martens, Cuitle Diplomatique, Brockhaus, Leipzig, 1866.
imposed on the novice. Generally, the innate and indispensable diplomatic temperament develops by experience and study in the subordinate
positions which usually mark the beginning of his career. It is in the
course of his daily tasks that the young diplomat will acquire the
essentials of his profession; an understanding of foreigners, which is
increased by using their language; clear thinking, inculcated by
practice in drafting in a lucid and comprehensive manner, in learning
how to take in his stride tours of duty which give time for reflection,
in turning over problems in his mind, consulting with colleagues and
avoiding hasty commitments. Routine assignments should also teach
him what he should do, and what he should avoid being constrained
to do. An ambassador plays an important role as teacher.
27. Faced with the complex problems which arise nowadays, it is
more than ever necessary that the ambassador be at all times accurately
informed. We know the numerical importance of diplomatic missions,
most of which now include many technical attaches and other specialists. But this collaboration is effective only if the entire team is imbued
with the confidence which stems from a real community of interests.
An ambassador should have a staff which will assist him with diligence
and devotion. On this staff should be officers of superior rank with
broad experience and objective minds who will not hesitate to express
their views frankly to their chief, even though they may differ from
those of the head of mission. He should avoid surrounding himself
with •yes men'. The ambassador who takes the trouble to set up a team
which is attached to him and which will co-operate in the general tasks
of his mission will soon reap the benefits, because the loyalty of all staff
members to their duties and to their chief plays a fundamental, and
frequently unrecognised, role in the performance and efficiency of a
28. As now practised, the traditional role of the diplomatic profession has not been appreciably modified since permanent diplomatic
missions appeared in the course of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
The progress of communications, the multiplicity of contacts between nations and the broadcasting of news by radio, television and the
Press, keep diplomatic missions more fully informed than in the past
and allow them to adapt their actions more promptly and more
accurately to the changing circumstances of international politics.
But diplomatic action remains the same. The development of science
and the increase of international contacts have not appreciably modified
either man's essential characteristics or the distinctive traits of national
temperament. Contacts between ordinary people often prove to be
more difficult than those formerly established between members of the
elite. Whatever may be the circumstances he is called upon to face, the
volume or the complexity of the problems to which he is exposed, the
ambassador should preserve the same clarity of mind, exercise the same
ingenuity, and possess the same gift to convince as in times gone by.
He must always know how to gain and keep the confidence of those
with whom he is in contact or conversation. The diplomatic profession,
whose effectiveness is founded on personal contacts always requiring
qualities of intelligence, tact, character and mind, was never better
described than by Fran~ois de Callieres, for all that he wrote at the end
of the seventeenth century. Such are the reasons which lead us to feel
that, even though the setting of the diplomatic profession continues to
evolve, the basic requirements for the professional diplomat remain
29. What we have described in the preceding pages is the traditional
work accomplished by diplomatic missions and consulates, which are
responsible for official political, economic and cultural relations between governments as well as the protection of their nationals. This
work constitutes the normal occupation and routine of representatives
of 126 independent states spread over the universe.
But, as pointed out in para. 9• there exist other forms of international
co-operation. First, numerous organisations have been commissioned,
often under the aegis of the United Nations, to act by international
conventions on behalf of all or a large number of governments, on
political, military, administrative, economic or social questions of
general interest. On the other hand, certain great powers, having a
special sense of responsibility in view of their political and economic
capacity and positions of leadership, have assumed a directing or
managerial role in the work of peaceful world co-operation sponsored
by the United Nations. They participate in accordance with the forms
of their national governments and traditions, with more or less extended participation to diplomatic personnel. The United States,
which plays a major role in these matters, has been led to create alongside its diplomatic and consular services, traditionally directed by the
Department of State, such important organisations as the United
States Information Agency (U.S.I.A.), and the Agency for International
Development (A.I.D.), which concentrate on and share, in co-operation
with the Department of State, in the activities pursued by the American
government, as much in matters of information as of economic assistance to underdeveloped countries. The activities of these organisations
have an administrative and financial character and also, often, political
consequences.
JO. The work of such organisations is parallel to that of diplomatic
missions. Their local agents are not subordinate to the heads of diplomatic missions, although they work within the general framework of
international politics pursued by their country. They are not members
of the diplomatic and consular staff. They work in the interest of international co-operation, and may be posted as well in their own country
as abroad. Those who are required to live in foreign countries or to
work with foreign officials should perform their duties in ways similar
to those of diplomatic and consular personnel. Although they remain
officials of their national administrations they resemble, in many
respects, international officials and are under the moral obligations
described in Chapter Fifteen, para. I Ioo. In limiting ourselves to
pointing out the above situation we refer to Chapter Fifteen, especially
paras IIoo, II03, I 104, I 107 and I 109, which gives the particular
obligations of international officials and foreign counsellors.
THE ROLE OF CEREMONIAL AND PROTOCOL IN
3 1. There is no society without hierarchy and no civilisation without
ceremonial. It is everywhere observable that some sort of order and
discipline are required when a community comes into being. Social
life imposes respect for certain rules without which communal life
would not be possible, and for lack of which anarchy and chaos would
certainly result. The leaders of each community evolved a hierarchy to
maintain order and stabilise the structure of society. In this way each
state built up a comprehensive set of practices which secure for those in
official, political and administrative positions the prerogatives, privileges
and immunities which they require for the full and productive exercise
of their functions.
Hierarchical rules vary, at times appreciably, from one state to another. Chapter Seven gives examples of the political and administrative
hierarchy of certain states with different regimes.
The situation is different in international relations. The basic
principles of independence and equality of states are now universally
admitted and, in practice, respected. Relations between states are no
longer dominated, at least outwardly, by the sole criterion of their
respective strengths. As a result, states endeavour more and more to
reach or enforce peaceful settlement of international conflicts without
resorting to force.
The ceremonial which governs international events is of the greatest
importance. Based on tradition and national temperament, it creates
in each state the right setting and material conditions, so that the relations between the governments of each sovereign state and all ranks of
officials, foreign and national, may develop fully in a peaceful and
harmonious environment and atmosphere.
We know the care with which governments prepare for important
international meetings or gatherings, and to what extent the pomp
which accompanies them affects their success or, if mismanaged, sometimes even leads to failure. The attention that any two governments
give to the visit of a head of state, minister or ambassador, a warship or
a delegation, the signing of a treaty or the celebration of an event of
common interest, shows the degree to which they desire to manifest the
state of their relations, the direction in which they wish to see them progress and the improvements they also wish to bring to them. The solemn
ceremonies, the unstinted hospitality, the speech-making, the liberal
exchange of gifts and the decorations awarded by some states on such
occasions, indicate the degree to which both governments desire to
make known their sympathy, their friendship and their collaboration.
J2. Protocol codifies and puts into practice the rules of ceremonial
and supervises their application. Etymologically, • protocol' designated,
in Byzantine diplomacy, the first part of the solemn written documents wherein the participants were enumerated. It now means the
rules according to which the principles of ceremonial in each country
are applied by the official authorities. Protocol is employed in working
out the multiple details of extraordinary ceremonies as well as those of
the daily life of diplomatic missions. It governs both negotiation and
settlement, and activates international contracts, enhancing, by a display of pomp and splendour, the value attached to them and the respect
due their special provisions.
Protocol allots to each his proper place in the political and administrative structure;. guarantees to those in official positions the exercise of
their rights; regulates conflicts of precedence which concern them, as
well as disputes relating to the exercise of their privileges and the
enjoyment of their immunities. It required centuries of effort to put
an end to the conflicts of pride in which Courts and Chancelleries too
often indulged in the past.
Protocol allows freedom of action to everyone in his day-to-day
affairs and regulates the activities of the national authorities (government, parliaments and administrations), as well as of foreign authorities
in official positions attached to governments (diplomats, consuls,
international officials and foreign missions, temporary or permanent),
and private persons not belonging to these various categories. Protocol
also inculcates method, restraint, poise and decorum for, in addition
to ordering the conduct of public ceremonies, it lays down rules for
the exchange of official and private correspondence, manner of dress;
everything, in fact, to ensure that each person receives the position and
respect to which his office entitles him and which are recognised by
other political and administrative authorities and by society itself.
Those with no official position on any specific occasion can be allotted
a place in the order of precedence according to age, rank and position.
33· The rules of diplomatic protocol are intended to uphold the
civilities between states and their officials. By the rules a participant at
an official meeting is entitled to a position according to his rank, and of
which other delegates may be unaware. These rules are stictly interpreted
and they should be closely observed. One should not depart from them
without good reason. Even then it is at times difficult to avoid incidents
because the authority that does not respect them marks a deliberate
refusal and denial of obligations agreed upon in the general interest.
Such a deliberate breach of etiquette is always interpreted as a calculated manifestation of distrust in the diplomat who is the victim of
it, and never fails to affect the relations between the two governments
concerned. Any violation of these rules will provoke difficulties for its
author, who should apologise and find ways of correcting the mistake.
It would be well to bear in mind that women are more sensitive to
such affronts than men, who will more readily accept apologies and
explanations. Still, not many men are capable of replying as Comte
Boni de Castellane did to a hostess who apologised for not being able
to give him the seat corresponding to his social position: ' Madame,
my place is always the best.'
The rules of protocol are not sacrosanct and ceremonial should not
be compared with religious rites whose violation can provoke the
vengeance of an angry god. They are closely allied to the desire both to
accord to the persons concerned the treatment due them and to the
necessity of avoiding friction with others. They evolve with due regard to tradition and local custom and are meant not to upset established situations but to consolidate that which has received the general
consent. They can be adapted if necessary to other situations, after
study and in agreement with interested persons.
Specifically, protocol helps create a pleasant atmosphere at meetings
or gatherings, thus promoting an absence of strain and the reciprocal
goodwill which is most likely to contribute to the results which are
expected from such meetings.
Recorded violations or laxities of observance of protocol practices remind us that there is scope for personal feelings in these solemn obligations to which important men subscribe. The following is an example:
The Sultan of Turkey did not wish to recognise the division of
Poland between Russia, Austria and Prussia. Consequently at receptions of the diplomatic corps, when the heads of mission were called,
one by one, to come to the Sultan and present their compliments,
after the Polish ambassador was called and no one came forward
(although he was present), the Chamberlain turned to the Sultan and
said: 'The Ambassador is travelling and has been delayed by the
snow.' And this statement was repeated irrespective of the season.
Rules applicable to diplomatic and consular officers
34· Diplomatic and consular officers should give careful attention to
the general rules of protocol which apply to them, as well as to the dis-
criminations by which they may be either favoured or victimised.
Nevertheless, they should not treat these questions with excessive
concern or undue sensitivity.
35· While incidents of protocol order and the manner in which they
are commented upon may, at times, be outward signs of a change in
international feeling, the diplomatic or consular agent should not
foresee in the events which arise in the course of daily relations between a diplomatic mission or a consulate and the authorities of the
country of residence, more than actually exists. An anomaly can often
be the result of negligence or inexperience, and it will be the more
promptly and easily corrected if pointed out with tact and moderation. It is only in the presence of a systematic desire to displease,
emanating from a qualified authority, that heads of diplomatic missions or consular posts should consider it necessary to protest and,
eventually, invoke retaliatory measures. Finally, it is in the settlement
of questions that the real proof of the good- or ill-will of one government towards another is to be found. This situation will also reveal
the influence that an ambassador or a consul has managed to acquire.
36. Such, in short, are the essential reasons for which ceremonial
and protocol appear to us closely bound to the free and harmonious
development of international life.
Attacks against foreign states and their representatives
37. A government should not allow inconsiderate attacks against
foreign states or permit their representatives to be molested. In these
days of political agitation it too often happens that countries allow
political parties to organise 'spontaneous' street manifestations against
the embassy or consulate of a country with whose policies they may not
agree. In doing so, the authorities assume greater responsibilities than
the Press, which is allowed to excite crowds that may, and often do,
break out of control. As a result, they promptly reap the bitter reward
of this policy because, when incidents do occur, the authorities find
themselves in the humiliating position, often keenly felt - as governments generally are very touchy in matters of pride - of having to
apologise and make amends for the insults. Moreover, such action is
now a direct violation of the provisions of the Vienna Convention of
1961 on diplomatic relations (see para. 38).
on diplomatic relations
]8. As long ago as 1949, the International Law Commission, an
organ of the United Nations, had selected the subject of diplomatic
intercourse and immunities as one of the topics whose codification was
both desired and feasible. After thorough preparation by the Commission, the Secretary-General of the United Nations convened the
Vienna Conference which, in the spring of 1961, drafted a convention
which became the Vienna Convention of 18 April 1961 on diplomatic
relations, which a number of powers signed immediately and which
others are preparing to adopt. As of January 1969, 63 countries had
signed this convention, while 45 had ratified it, among which are the
Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics and the United Kingdom. This convention entered into
force on 24 April 1964 in accordance with Article 51.
Article 22 of the Vienna Convention declares that 'the receiving
State is under a special duty to take all appropriate steps to protect the
premises of the mission (diplomatic) against any intrusion or damage
and to prevent any disturbance of the peace of the mission or impairment of its dignity'.
39· American legislation offers a good model of the kind needed to
protect embassies and consulates from insulting mobs (see para. 396).
The government of the United States of America seems to be more and
more concerned by the necessity of providing protection not only to
American diplomatic, consular and other missions but also to American
citizens and American property interests abroad, against acts deliberately designed to injure them. It is singularly significant that President
Lyndon B. Johnson deemed it desirable recently to remind a foreign
ambassador when presenting his credentials, that 'I shall look to your
government to accord the same co-operation and amenities to the
American Embassy as your embassy is given by my government.'
This could be a warning on good manners in diplomatic relations and
may be considered as a firm indication in favour of a necessary return
to diplomatic propriety.
Diplomatic agents- Categories of heads of diplomatic missions
- High Commissioners - Vatican diplomacy - The diplomatic
corps - Diplomatic missions - Staff of diplomatic missions Presentation and visits - Duties of diplomatic agents Members of a diplomat's family - Relations of missions
with the Ministries for Foreign Affairs and foreign administrations - Extraordinary missions
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
40. The purpose of this chapter is to set forth the characteristics of
the condition of members of diplomatic missions.
41. The rules followed by states as regards diplomatic relations, as
well as the recognised privileges and immunities of diplomats, were
built up empirically in the course of centuries and have been strengthened by reciprocal practice. In Ig6I (see para. 38), following a resolution adopted in I952 by the General Assembly of the United Nations,
the Vienna Conference studied the problem of diplomatic intercourse
and privileges and approved the text of a convention which represents
the contractual basis of diplomatic relations between states which are
parties to the convention. The Vienna Convention on diplomatic
relations, together with various other conventions and resolutions, was
opened for signature on I 8 April I g6 I. It is likely that this document
will in future govern relations between all states even though they may
not all be signatories to it.
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS
41.. Heads of governments cannot deal directly with one another on
all questions of interest in international relations. They therefore need
to maintain representatives charged to negotiate in their names. These
representatives were traditionally called 'diplomatic agents'. The
Vienna Convention (art. 1) designates them as' Heads of Mission', the
expression 'diplomatic agents' now covering both the head of mission
and the diplomatic staff attached thereto. The head of mission is
charged, first of all, to make understood his government's policy and,
if possible, obtain its acceptance by the state where he resides, thus
ensuring the maintenance of friendly relations between the two
countries. In the mutual exchange of political views and good offices,
he wards off differences which could cause conflict between the two
states, watches over and safeguards the person and the interests of his
nationals, and encourages commerce and shipping.
43· The Vienna Convention (art. 2) declares that the establishment
of diplomatic relations between states and the exchange of permanent
diplomatic missions will be effected by mutual consent of the countries
concerned. According to article 5 any government may accredit a
single head of mission to represent it before several states on condition
that the states in question are agreeable. Similarly, according to article 6,
several states can agree between themselves to be represented by only
one head of mission, again on condition that the consent (agrement) of
the receiving state is given.
44· No country is obliged to receive diplomatic representatives of
foreign states. However, as a refusal would serve to place it outside
the international community, practically all really independent states
do receive the diplomatic missions of all other states, while at the same
time sending their own representatives in exchange.
45· A state is not obliged, however, to accept just any diplomatic
agent; the agent appointed, to be able to fulfil his mission effectively,
should inspire confidence. It is therefore customary for a foreign
ministry, before naming a representative, to find out if the proposed
agent will be persona grata in the country to which he is to be appointed.
It is only after approval has been obtained that the nomination is
officially announced (see para. 121). The reasons for refusal of consent
do not have to be given (Vienna Convention, art. 4, para. 2). Indiscretions by a government requesting consent, whether committed
deliberately or unintentionally, have hampered, sometimes even prevented, the acceptance of a head of mission. Such indiscretions are
considered very improper.
46. These rules apply only in the relations between states which are
recognised de jure.
47· States which are recognised de facto may exchange only unofficial agents, who are consequently not on the same footing as
official diplomatic representatives.
48. Finally, certain countries continue to recognise the legal existence
of states which have disappeared, or whose governments have moved to
another country. The status of such representatives is established by
courtesy only.
CATEGORIES OF HEADS OF DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS
49· Heads of mission are divided into various categories.
JO. It is fitting first to distinguish between agents charged with a
permanent mission and those who, charged with an extraordinary,
temporary mission, go abroad only to participate in a predetermined
international activity or to attend an exceptional protocolar ceremony.
jl. Article 14 of the Vienna Convention established a hierarchy
among diplomatic representatives which is divided into three categories
(i) ambassadors, papal nuncios and other heads of mission with
equivalent rank accredited to heads of state;
(ii) envoys, ministers and internuncios accredited to heads of
state; and
(iii) charges d'affaires received by Ministers for Foreign Affairs.
52. Article 16 specifies that heads of mission take precedence in
each category according to the date and hour at which they assumed
their functions. This means, in the case of ambassadors, papal nuncios,
envoys, ministers, etc., as of the date and hour of presenting their
credentials to the head of the receiving state or, in some countries, the
copie d'usage to the Minister for Foreign Affairs (Great Britain); in the
case of charges d'affaires with letters, as of the date on which they
presented to the Minister for Foreign Affairs the dated copy of their
credentials, or in some capitals, the date on which they effectively took
charge. These operations are normally effected in the order of arrival
of heads of mission.
53· The third paragraph of article 16 states that the custom
accepted by the receiving state as regards the precedence of the representative of the Holy See is maintained. In practice, the preferential
treatment which recognises, in certain capitals, the deanship of the
papal nuncio, is never extended to other representatives of the Holy
S~e, who take rank as of the date of presentation of their credeptials.
54· Article 19 of the Vienna Convention states the conditions
under which interim missions can be ensured by a charg~ d'affaires
ad interim. The name of the charge d'affaires is notified to the Ministry
for Foreign Affairs either by the head of mission who is about to absent
himself or, if he is unable to do so, by the Ministry for Foreign
Affairs of the sending state. The same article prescribes the status of
charges d'affaires ad interim who do not belong to diplomatic staff.
HIGH COMMISSIONERS
55· Diplomatic relations between members of the British Commonwealth are exercised through a special body of diplomats - the High
Commissioners. Originally, this title was given to representatives
exchanged between the governments of London and of the British
Dominions, who were accredited by ' Letters of Commission' addressed
from Prime Minister to Prime Minister. This appellation and situation
was maintained after the Statute of Westminster recognised (in I 9 3 I) to
Dominions the right of legation, both active and passive, as the British
sovereign could not address to himself letters accrediting ambassadors.
56. After the 1939-45 war a number of territories of the British
Empire became independent. Some continued to recognise the sovereign
of Great Britain as head of state, e.g. Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
Ceylon, the Federation of Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Jamaica, Trinidad,
Tobago and Uganda; others became completely independent, but
remain in the Commonwealth and recognise the sovereign of Great
Britain as 'Head of the Commonwealth', e.g. India, Pakistan, Ghana,
the Federation of Malaysia, Cyprus and Tanzania.
57. High Commissioners exchanged between Commonwealth countries of whom the Queen is head of state are the representatives of their
respective governments and not of the Queen. They are not accredited
to or ~y the Queen, and their appointment does not require the
Queen's approval. They are supplied with a letter of introduction from
Prime Minister to Prime Minister.
;8. High Commissioners exchanged between Commonwealth countries of whom the Queen is head of state and those of whom she is not,
are accredited by the Queen and the appropriate head of state to one
another. The name of a new High Commissioner of a monarchical
Commonwealth country appointed to a republican Commonwealth
country is first submitted for Her Majesty's approval, and afterwards he
is furnished with letters of commission signed by the Queen. These
are similar to an ambassador's letters of credence.
59· Since 1948, the Court of StJames's has carried the names of the
High Commissioners on the diplomatic list as of the date of the
presentation of their letters of commission. However, except as stated
in para. 6o, High Commissioners cannot be the Deans (Doyen) of the
diplomatic corps.
6o. In the following Commonwealth countries High Commissioners can be Deans (Doyen) of the diplomatic corps: Australia,
Canada, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.
6z. High Commissioners, their career staff, their families and their
servants enjoy the same immunities as ambassadors. These immunities
do not derive from the law of nations but from special legislation enacted by the respective parliaments of the members of the Commonwealth.
62. Special Representatives-Hauls Reprlsentants- exchanged between
the French Republic and member states of the Communautl, enjoy a
status similar to that of Commonwealth High Commissioners.
VATICAN DIPLOMACY
63. Vatican diplomacy presents particular characteristics. In fact,
whereas the Vatican is an independent state enjoying the right of active
and passive legation, the Holy See exercises spiritual direction over
Roman Catholics scattered throughout the entire world, and this
requires that it remain. on the ecclesiastical plane. in touch with the
local clergy. There exist three categories of mission: (i) extraordinary
diplomatic missions; (ii) permanent diplomatic missions dependent on
or responsible to the Council for Public Affairs, presided over by the
Secretary of State; and (iii) missions dependent on or responsible to
propaganda. consistorial or oriental congregations.
Extraordinary diplomatic missions
64. Extraordinary missions of a diplomatic character can be entrusted to legates a latere or to ablegates. The legate a latere is a cardinal
charged with a special mission of a religious or political character in
the course of which he represents the person of the Holy Father. The
legate is entitled to sovereign honours in the country where he goes and
in those countries through which he travels to reach his destination, if
his visit is announced in advance.
The other categories of legate-nati or missi-have no diplomatic status.
65· Ablegates are prelates charged with a temporary and extraordinary diplomatic mission not of a spiritual character.
Permanent diplomatic missions dependent on or responsible to the
Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs
66. The diplomatic relations of the Holy See with foreign states,
concerning the status of the Roman Church or treaties which concern
it, and which are traditionally called 'Concordats', are the responsibility of the Secretary of State, who presides over the Council for
Public Affairs, and are exercised through the intermediary of permanent missions, the chiefs of which perform both diplomatic functions and those of the Apostolic delegate. The papal 'brief' by which
they are named can delegate to them certain powers of a spiritual order.
67. Diplomatic representatives of the Holy See hold the title of
nuncio or internuncio.
68. Canon rules of the Church prescribe that nuncios and internuncios should encourage good relations between the Holy See and the
government to which they are accredited and watch over the position
of the Church.
69. They have precedence over all the Ordinaries (diocesan bishops)
except cardinals. If they have episcopal capacity, they can perform all
religious ceremonies without authorisation of the Ordinary and are
entitled to religious honours in churches.
70. A nuncio has the rank of ambassador. He is generally a titular
archbishop and does not belong to the Catholic hierarchy of the
country of his residence. He can, however, as far as the Church hierarchy
is concerned, be delegated certain powers of a spiritual character. In
certain countries the nuncio has, by tradition, precedence over ambassadors and is the Dean (Doyen) of the diplomatic corps. This
custom was recognised by article 16, para. 3 of the Vienna Convention
(see paras 53 and 78).
71. From the moment the cardinal's hat* is sent to him from Rome
by the Holy Father to the time when he himself leaves his diplomatic
post for Rome, where he will be made a cardinal, the nuncio takes the
title of pronuncio and is given cardinal honours.
72. The internuncio holds the rank of minister plenipotentiary. He is
a permanent representative of the Holy See and is not included in the
Catholic hierarchy of the state of his residence. He has no special
precedence over other agents of the same diplomatic rank but takes
regular precedence as of the date of the delivery of his credentials.
73· The staff of diplomatic missions of the Vatican is composed of
counsellors, auditors, secretaries and attaches.
74· In certain large states where the Catholic element is important,
such as the United States (although President Franklin D. Roosevelt
appointed Mr Myron T. Taylor his personal representative to Pope
Pius XII, and the United States was represented at the Vatican between 1848 and 1869 by a charge d'affaires or Minister Resident), the
United Kingdom and Canada, no diplomatic missions are exchanged with
the Vatican, even though non-Christian states may be represented there.
Missions dependent on or responsible to propaganda, consistorial or oriental
75· To the states with which it maintains no diplomatic contact, the
Holy See sends prelates charged with securing its relations with the
local Catholic hierarchy. These prelates are called apostolic delegates.
They have no diplomatic status and only represent the Holy See in its contacts with the ecclesiastical authorities of the country of their residence.
THE DIPLOMATIC CORPS
76. Together, the heads of mission accredited to the same government form the diplomatic corps. This corps assures, collectively, the
protection of its members and the defence of its privileges.
• Abolished by article 9• Papal pronouncement on Vatican dress and protocol,
6 April 1969.
77· The diplomatic corps constitutes a unity, and governments are
not supposed to divide it into several groups according to their qualifications as diplomatic representatives.
78. At the head of the diplomatic corps is a Dean (Doyen) who, in
principle, is the highest-ranking head of mission who delivered his
credentials on the earliest date. In certain Catholic countries, however, the
nuncio is traditionally charged with the deanship (see paras 53 and 70).
79· The Dean (Doyen) is the recognised intermediary between the
diplomatic corps and the government to which he is accredited. He can,
spontaneously or at the request of his colleagues, take any steps to
ensure the protection, collectively or individually, of the members of the
corps and the respect of their prerogatives, privileges and immunities.
8o. Communications of a collective character which the Ministry
for Foreign Affairs wishes to send to heads of mission are addressed
either through the intermediary of the Dean of the diplomatic corps,
who undertakes to inform his colleagues, or by the protocol service
direct to each head of mission.
81 • The Dean should also ensure the cohesion of the diplomatic
corps and the maintenance of proper and cordial relations between its
members, especially in the case of new arrivals. There are some Deans
who make it a point of honour to receive new arrivals at their homes
within eight days of the delivery of their credentials.
82. The wife of the Dean of the diplomatic corps has her particular
obligations as regards the wives of heads of mission, namely their
presentation to the wife of the head of state. When the Dean is a
bachelor, the wife of the head of mission next on the diplomatic list
after the Dean assumes these obligations.
8]. Article 14 of the Vienna Convention of 1961 provides that the
precedence to be followed in the reception of heads of mission is to be
uniform as regards each class. Furthermore, article 14, in emphasising
that no difference should be shown - except as it affects precedence
and etiquette - between heads of mission by virtue of their class, confirms the traditional rule of unity of the diplomatic corps.
84. This unity can be affected by international events to which the
countries of residence of diplomats are not party, for example: if an
ambassador represents a government which is not recognised by other
states whose ambassadors are present in the same capital; if a government officially receives the head of a state which is not recognised by all
the powers represented in the capital; if the rupture of diplomatic
relations or a state of war causes the representatives of two camps and
their respective missions to cease official and private relations. In such
circumstances, the Dean of the diplomatic corps must act in concert
with the protocol service of the country of residence to avoid the
creation of embarrassing situations. It is generally the policy of professional diplomats to avoid such situations, as they are well aware that
the circumstances which impose them are of a temporary character and
must not be allowed to compromise unnecessarily the return to normal
relations.
85· Heads of diplomatic missions are accompanied by the official
staff which composes their mission. This staff includes counsellors,
secretaries of embassy, embassy attaches, secretaries, interpreters and
couriers. Numerous diplomatic missions include military, naval and
air attaches as well. Frequently, commercial, financial, cultural, press,
agricultural and labour attaches are also attached to diplomatic
mtsstons.
86. Article 1 of the Vienna Convention makes the following distinctions between personnel:
(i) members of the mission- includes the head of mission and the
members of the mission staff;
(ii) members of the staff of the mission - includes diplomatic,
administrative, technical and service staff;
(iii) members of the diplomatic staff- includes members of the
mission having diplomatic rank;
(iv) diplomatic 'agent- designates either the head of mission or
members of the diplomatic staff.
STAFF OF DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS
87. Article
of the Vienna Convention specifies that the receiving
state may require the size of a mission to be kept within the limits considered by it to be reasonable and normal, having regard to the circumstances and conditions in the host country and the needs of the particular
mission concerned.
Dipl()tnacy and diplomats
88. Paragraph 2 of the same article specifies that the receiving state
may also, within similar bounds and on a non-discriminatory basis,
refuse to accept officials of a particular category.
89. Finally, article 7, while granting that the sending state may
freely appoint the members of the staff of a mission, provides that, in
the case of military, naval or air attaches, the receiving state may
require that their names be submitted in advance for approval.
PRESENTATION AND VISITS
90. Article 10 of the Vienna Convention requires that the Minister
for Foreign Affairs be notified of:
(i) the appointment of members of the mission, their arrival and
their final departure on the termination of their functions with the
mission; and
(ii) the arrival and final departure of persons belonging to the
family of a member of the mission.
This measure is required to ensure that the appropriate names will
appear on the diplomatic list, to guarantee to the persons concerned the
privileges and immunities to which they are entitled and, in particular,
to enable them to receive the special type identification card issued by
the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the diplomatic registration plates
for use on their motor cars:
(i) the British government does not issue diplomatic passports
to its own diplomats (para. ro8);
(ii) it issues diplomatic cards of identification to foreign agents;
(iii) it does not issue diplomatic plates for motor cars.
These arrangements ensure them correct treatment by the police
authorities.
9l • The head of mission submits a list of his staff to the Ministry
for Foreign Affairs. It is he who fixes the order of precedence among
them (Vienna Convention, art. 17).
92.. When advance notification has been given of the arrival of career
officials attached to diplomatic missions, special attention is paid to
them by all authorities of the country in which they are to exercise
their functions.
93· There is no fixed rule, in principle, for the presentation of newlyarrived agents to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. However, it is
customary for newly-arrived members of the diplomatic staff to be
presented to the chief or the assistant chief of protocol, to the director
of political affairs and to the interested technical services or heads of
departments with whom they are likely to deal.
94· The presentation of military, naval or air attaches to the
Ministry to which they are accredited usually takes place at a private
ceremony, at which the newly-arrived officers should wear full-dress
95· The presentation of other technical attaches is effected by the
head of mission or by his counsellor in accordance with the rules
established in each capital.
96. Members of the diplomatic mission should, as soon as they
arrive, send their visiting cards, together with those of the head of
mission, on which are written the initials 'pp' (pour prEsentation) to
the officials of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs with whom they may
have official contact and to all members of the diplomatic corps.
Agents who are married should add a card bearing their and their
wife's name (Mr and Mrs X).
97· It is permissible for visiting cards intended for various members
of a diplomatic mission to be dispatched in a single envelope. In this
case, the name of the recipient is written in pencil on each card.
98. The sending, in response, of visiting cards should be done immediately. At posts where the diplomatic personnel is numerous,
missions send out a note announcing the arrival of the new agent; this
dispenses with the necessity of sending calling cards.
99· When the newly-arrived agent is a woman she follows the same
course as a man, that is to say, she sends two cards to a married couple
(see para. 6o3).
roo. Diplomats who are transferred to another post should send
their cards, with the initials 'ppc' (pour prendre congl) to all members of
the diplomatic corps whom they know personally and to a certain
number of officials of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. This action
does not require the sending of cards in return by the recipient.
zo z. It is customary for the wife of the head of mission to present
personally the wives of newly-arrived members of the mission to the
wives of her husband's colleagues.
l 0.2. The Vienna Convention extended the expression 'members of
the mission' to all administrative and technical staff of the mission,
whether or not of the nationality of the sending state. The consent of
the receiving state is required for the appointment of one of its
nationals as a member of the diplomatic staff. Such a state can
reserve the same right as regards the nationals of a third state. The
status of domestic staff is provided for and defined in the Vienna Convention. It is stipulated that notice of the arrival and final departure of
private domestic servants employed by members of a mission be sent
to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, as well as notice of the employment and discharge of persons resident in the receiving state, who are
members of the mission or employed as private domestic servants and
entitled to privileges and immunities. Local custom determines their
status, which will be examined in detail in paras 189-92. In order to
guarantee the benefits of this status to the members of their staff,
missions should provide each person with an identification document
bearing his photograph and the date and place of his birth. They should
be careful to withdraw these cards from the holders when they leave
the service of the mission. To avoid annoyance it is well for the card
to show the date (generally the end of the year) beyond which it will
no longer be valid.
DUTIES OF DIPLOMATIC AGENTS
Heads of diplomatic missions are responsible to the government which appoints them. They are entrusted with the observation
of events in the territory of the state to which they are accredited so
as to permit their government to make a reasoned judgement of the
situation and to act accordingly, if required. They should make their
government's foreign policy known and understood, and should strive
to win its acceptance by means of negotiation and by reconciling the
rights of the country they represent with the exigencies of the local
situation. It is their duty to protect their nationals and their national
trade and shipping, to support consuls who are charged with this
mission, and to intervene when necessary for that purpose with the
local Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
104. Heads of mission should behave honourably, acknowledge the
proper authorities, laws and regulations; abstain from unwarranted
interference or involvement in the political or internal administration
of the country of their residence; respect its usages, local customs
and, if need be, popular prejudices. In a word, they should avoid
everything of a nature to injure, or that would be detrimental to, the
country which grants them its hospitality (Vienna Convention, art. 41).
lOJ. Article 9 of the Vienna Convention specifies that the receiving
state may at any time demand the recall of a head of mission or other
diplomat by notifying the government of the sending state that the
person in question has become persona non grata. The sending state
must then recall the agent involved or, in the case of a person locally
employed, remove him from office. The same article states that a
diplomat may be declared persona non grata before arriving on the territory of the receiving state. Paragraph 2 of that article points out that
if the sending state refuses or fails to carry out its obligations or does
not execute the order of recall of the agent within a reasonable delay,
the receiving state may refuse to recognise the person any longer as a
member of the mission, thus depriving him of his diplomatic immunities. On the other hand, the Vienna Convention specifies that the
receiving state should grant full facilities for the performance of
mission functions (art. 2 5) and should assure freedom of movement and
travel on its territory to all members of a mission (art. 26).
MEMBERS OF A DIPLOMAT'S FAMILY
1o6.
The Vienna Convention was drafted to cover in broad terms the
social and family customs of all states. It is generally admitted that
all persons over whom the diplomat, as head of family, exercises legal
authority, should participate in the immunities granted to diplomats.
107. The diplomatic list mentions the names of all members of the
family of a foreign diplomat required to conform to the obligations of
etiquette. This list always includes the wife and the daughters who have
already been presented in society. In special circumstances, at the discretion of the receiving state, and this is, for instance, the case in the
United Kingdom, it may include the names of widowed mothers living
with their children, and even of other close relatives deemed essential to
the proper discharge of a diplomatic mission, e.g. sister of a bachelor.
Other members of the diplomat's family, although not mentioned
in the diplomatic list, also enjoy diplomatic immunities. Such is the
case in the United States and in the United Kingdom, where minor
sons are never listed, although they can enjoy immunity.
108. In most countries members of a diplomat's family are provided
by their government with diplomatic passports. The British government does not issue such passports.
RELATIONS OF MISSIONS WITH THE MINISTRIES FOR
FOREIGN AFFAIRS AND FOREIGN ADMINISTRATIONS
109. As a rule the members of diplomatic missions maintain official
relations with government departments of the country of residence only
through the intermediary of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. If they
desire to deal directly with another department, they should previously
receive authorisation from the Ministry for Foreign Affairs; in Britain
it is very freely given. This authorisation, however, is considered as
granted for dealings between technical attaches and the ministry corresponding to their speciality (Vienna Convention, art. 41, para. 2).
1 1 o. Diplomatic missions are competent to perform consular functions. Article 3, para. 3 of the Vienna Convention of 1961 on diplomatic relations expressly guarantees this competence. Moreover, the
Vienna Convention of 1963, on consular relations (art. 70) provides for
this contingency (see paras 241 and 242). However, only missions
which have communicated to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs the extent
of their consular district and the names of their agents in charge of
consular affairs may communicate with the local authorities.
111. Ministers for Foreign Affairs hold themselves, in principle,
constantly at the disposal of heads of mission who need to discuss any
questions with them, and appointments for this purpose can be made
by telephone.
1 12. In the case of the absence or inability of a head of a mission his
Counsellors or Secretaries are competent to deal with the Ministries for
Foreign Affairs.
113. When a head of mission is obliged to absent himself he
formally so advises the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and other heads
of diplomatic missions, indicating the name of the charge d'affaires
who will replace him. If this official is not personally known at the
Ministry he should be introduced. He takes the title of charge d'affaires
ad interim (A.I.).
114. The head of mtsston should invariably take leave of the
Minister for Foreign Affairs.
115. If the head of mission dies at his post the capacity of charge
d'affaires ad interim is automatically recognised to the highest ranking
agent at the mission. It is customary for the agent who assumes temporarily the direction of a mission as charge d'affaires ad interim to pay a
personal call on all ambassadors and to send cards to the other heads of
mtss10n.
EXTRAORDINARY MISSIONS
Countries frequently entrust either a member of their government, a high-ranking official (who may or may not belong to the
diplomatic service) or an important person with an extraordinary mission
to a foreign government.
117. As these missions always correspond to exceptional circumstances, the ceremonial is subject to special study by the local protocol
service and the diplomatic mission. The problems of precedence are
resolved in each particular case.
118. Extraordinary missions, which are not covered in the Vienna
Convention, cannot enjoy regular precedence with respect to permanent,
accredited missions to a receiving state. In the event of an extraordinary mission appearing at the same reception as permanent diplomatic missions the local protocol service must confer with the Dean of
the diplomatic corps in case he considers it desirable, on the basis of
exceptional circumstances, to give precedence to the visiting mission
over the regular, accredited heads of mission. In this event, the
diplomatic corps yields precedence to the extraordinary mission, but
this gesture of courtesy in no way detracts from the privileges it holds
under the law of nations.
119. Protocol relations between the accredited heads of diplomatic
missions and the heads of extraordinary missions are, at times, more
delicate to regulate. If a member of the government (Minister or
Secretary of State) has unquestioned precedence over an ambassador,
the question can become controversial when the head of an extraordinary mission has a hierarchical rank inferior to that of the head of
mission at the post. In this case, the regular head of mission should
inform the national authorities of the position he wishes the extraordinary envoy to be given.
120. Among the most important of the extraordinary missions are
the delegations sent by the sovereign pontiff to foreign countries on the
occasion of religious events of an exceptional character. The highest
rank belongs to the papal legates, who are always cardinals and considered as the personal representatives of the Pope. By tradition they
are given sovereign honours. When the visit is announced in advance,
similar honours are granted by countries through which the legate
travels. In all circumstances, extraordinary missions whose passage
through the country of a third state has been announced in advance have
a right to special consideration by all authorities.
BEGINNING AND TERMINATION OF
Acceptance (agrEment) of heads of mission- Arrival of a new
head of mission- Presentation of credentials - Arrival visits
- End of a diplomatic mission
ACCEPTANCE (AGREMENT) OF HEADS OF MISSION
l 2l. In view of the importance of the position, official as well as
personal, of the head of a diplomatic missi