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Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
(Redirected from Coptic Church)
"Coptic Church" redirects here. For the architectural style, see Coptic architecture. For church buildings, see List of Coptic churches.
The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (Coptic: Ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ̀ⲛⲣⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ, romanized: ti.eklyseya en.remenkimi en.orthodoxos, lit. 'The Egyptian Orthodox Church') is an Oriental Orthodox Christian church based in Egypt, Africa and the Middle East. The head of the Church and the See of Alexandria is the Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy See of Saint Mark, who also carries the title of Coptic Pope. The See of Alexandria is titular, and today the Coptic Pope presides from Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in the Abbassia District in Cairo. The church follows the Alexandrian Rite for its liturgy, prayer and devotional patrimony. With 18–22 million members worldwide, whereof about 15 to 20 million are in Egypt,[1] it is the country's largest Christian church.
Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria
Ϯⲉⲕ̀ⲕⲗⲏⲥⲓⲁ ̀ⲛⲣⲉⲙ̀ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ⲛⲟⲣⲑⲟⲇⲟⲝⲟⲥ
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Cairo, Egypt
Miaphysitism
Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church
Pope Tawadros II
Egypt, Libya, Sudan, South Sudan, Middle East, and diaspora
Alexandrian Rite
St Mark the Evangelist (Traditional)
British Orthodox Church (2015)
~ 18–22 million total: About 20 million in Egypt,1,000,000 in Sudan, 100,000 Libya, 1–2 million in diaspora.
This article contains Coptic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Coptic letters.
According to its tradition, the Coptic Church was established by Saint Mark, an apostle and evangelist, during the middle of the 1st century (c. AD 42).[2] Due to disputes concerning the nature of Christ, it split from the rest of the Christendom after the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, resulting in a rivalry with the Byzantine Orthodox Church. In the 4–7th centuries the Coptic Church gradually expanded due to the Christianization of the Aksumite empire and of two of the three Nubian kingdoms, Nobatia and Alodia, while the third Nubian kingdom, Makuria, recognized the Coptic patriarch after initially being aligned to the Byzantine Orthodox Church.
After AD 639 Egypt was ruled by its Islamic conquerors from Arabia, and the treatment of the Coptic Christians ranged from tolerance to open persecution. In the 12th century, the church relocated its seat from Alexandria to Cairo. The same century also saw the Copts become a religious minority. During the 14th and 15th centuries, Nubian Christianity was supplanted by Islam.
In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly or independence. This was extended to the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1998 following the successful Eritrean War of Independence from Ethiopia.
Since the Arab Spring in 2011, the Copts have been suffering increased religious discrimination and violence.[3]
1.1 Apostolic foundation
1.2 Coptic Language in the Church
1.3 Contributions to Christianity
1.3.1 Catechetical School of Alexandria
1.3.2 Cradle of monasticism and its missionary work
1.4 Role and participation in the Ecumenical Councils
1.4.1 Council of Nicaea
1.4.2 Council of Constantinople
1.4.3 Council of Ephesus
1.4.4 Council of Chalcedon
1.5 From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt
1.6 Muslim conquest of Egypt
1.7 Under Islamic rule (640–1800)
1.8 From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution
2 Present day
4 Persecution
5 Jurisdiction outside Egypt
5.1 Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
5.2 Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
5.3 Around the world
6 Official titles of the Patriarch of Alexandria
6.1 Episcopal titles
6.2 Honorary titles
6.3 Historical evolution of the ecclesiastical title
8 Cathedrals
9 Monasteries
12 Bibliography
Apostolic foundationEdit
The Egyptian Church is traditionally believed to be founded by St Mark at around AD 42,[2] and regards itself as the subject of many prophecies in the Old Testament. Isaiah the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says "In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border". The first Christians in Egypt were common people who spoke Egyptian Coptic.[4] There were also Alexandrian Jewish people such as Theophilus, whom Saint Luke the Evangelist addresses in the introductory chapter of his gospel. When the church was founded by Saint Mark during the reign of the Roman emperor Nero, a great multitude of native Egyptians (as opposed to Greeks or Jews) embraced the Christian faith.[4][5]
Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear from the New Testament writings found in Bahnasa, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year AD 200, and a fragment of the Gospel of John, written in Coptic, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local languages, namely Coptic.
Coptic Language in the ChurchEdit
The Coptic language is a universal language used in Coptic churches in every country. It is derived from ancient Egyptian and uses Greek letters. Many of the hymns in the liturgy are in Coptic and have been passed down for several thousand years. The language is used to preserve Egypt's original language, which was banned by the Arab invaders, who ordered Arabic to be used instead.[6] Some examples of these hymns are Coptic: Ⲡⲟⳙⲣⲟ, romanized: ep.ouro, lit. 'The King',Coptic: Ⲉⲕⲥⲙⲁⲣⲱⲟⲩⲧ, romanized: ek.esmaro'oot, lit. '(Thou) Blessed', Coptic: Ⲧⲁⲓϣⲟⲩⲣⲏ, romanized: tai.shouri, lit. 'This Censer', and many more.
Contributions to ChristianityEdit
Catechetical School of AlexandriaEdit
The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. St. Jerome records that the Christian School of Alexandria was founded by Saint Mark himself.[7] Around AD 190, under the leadership of the scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and the native Egyptian Origen, who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies.
Many scholars such as Jerome visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.
The Theological college of the catechetical school was re-established in 1893. The new school currently has campuses in Ireland, Cairo, New Jersey, and Los Angeles, where Coptic priests-to-be and other qualified men and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, the Coptic language and art – including chanting, music, iconography, and tapestry.
Cradle of monasticism and its missionary workEdit
Main article: Coptic monasticism
Many Egyptian Christians went to the desert during the 3rd century, and remained there to pray and work and dedicate their lives to seclusion and worship of God. This was the beginning of the monastic movement, which was organized by Anthony the Great, Saint Paul of Thebes, the world's first anchorite, Saint Macarius the Great and Saint Pachomius the Cenobite in the 4th century.
Christian monasticism was born in Egypt and was instrumental in the formation of the Coptic Orthodox Church character of submission, simplicity and humility, thanks to the teachings and writings of the Great Fathers of Egypt's Deserts. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. A great number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations to this day.
All Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example: Saint Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea of Cappadocia, founder and organizer of the monastic movement in Asia Minor, visited Egypt around AD 357 and his rule is followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches; Saint Jerome who translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt, while en route to Jerusalem, around AD 400 and left details of his experiences in his letters; Benedict founded the Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius, but in a stricter form. Countless pilgrims have visited the "Desert Fathers" to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives.
Role and participation in the Ecumenical CouncilsEdit
Council of NicaeaEdit
Main article: First Council of Nicaea
In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism. The Ecumenical Council of Nicea AD 325 was convened by Constantine after the Pope Alexander I of Alexandria requested to hold a Council to respond to heresies,[8] under the presidency of Saint Hosius of Cordova to resolve the dispute. This eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the Nicene Creed.[9] The Creed, which is now recited throughout the Christian world, was based largely on the teaching put forth by a man who eventually would become Pope Saint Athanasius of Alexandria, the chief opponent of Arius.
Council of ConstantinopleEdit
Main article: First Council of Constantinople
In the year AD 381, Pope Timothy I of Alexandria presided over the second ecumenical council known as the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, to judge Macedonius, who denied the Divinity of the Holy Spirit. This council completed the Nicene Creed with this confirmation of the divinity of the Holy Spirit:
We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father through the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen.
Council of EphesusEdit
Main article: Council of Ephesus
Coptic Icon in the Coptic Altar of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem
Another theological dispute in the 5th century occurred over the teachings of Nestorius, the Patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not hypostatically joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) to the Virgin Mary, declaring her instead to be "Mother of Christ" Christotokos.
When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark, Pope Saint Cyril I of Alexandria acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, requesting that Nestorius repent. When he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope Cyril I of Alexandria, supported by the entire See, sent a letter to Nestorius known as "The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius." This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy: "The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril." In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius. For example, "Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title Theotokos is Anathema!" Nestorius however, still would not repent and so this led to the convening of the First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus (AD 431), over which Cyril presided.
The Council confirmed the teachings of Saint Athanasius and confirmed the title of Mary as "Mother of God". It also clearly stated that anyone who separated Christ into two hypostases was anathema, as Cyril had said that there is "One Nature [and One Hypostasis] for God the Word Incarnate" (Mia Physis tou Theou Logou Sesarkōmenē). Also, the introduction to the creed was formulated as follows:
We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God (Theotokos) for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firmness of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen. [not dissimilar to the "Axion Estin" Chant still used in Orthodoxy]
Council of ChalcedonEdit
Main article: Council of Chalcedon
St. Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria
When in AD 451 Emperor Marcian attempted to heal divisions in the Church, the response of Pope Dioscorus – the Pope of Alexandria who was later exiled – was that the emperor should not intervene in the affairs of the Church. It was at Chalcedon that the emperor, through the Imperial delegates, enforced harsh disciplinary measures against Pope Dioscorus in response to his boldness. In AD 449, Pope Dioscorus headed the 2nd Council of Ephesus, called the "Robber Council" by Chalcedonian historians. It held to the Miaphysite formula which upheld the Christology of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" (Greek: μία φύσις Θεοῦ Λόγου σεσαρκωμένη (mia physis Theou Logou sesarkōmenē)),[10] and upheld the heretic Eutyches claiming he was orthodox.
The Council of Chalcedon summoned Dioscorus three times to appear at the council, after which he was deposed. The Council of Chalcedon further deposed him for his support of Eutyches, but not necessarily for Eutychian Monophysitism. Dioscorus appealed to the conciliar fathers to allow for a more Miaphysite interpretation of Christology at the council, but was denied. Following his being deposed, the Coptic Church and its faithful felt unfairly underrepresented at the council and oppressed politically by the Byzantine Empire. After the Byzantines appointed Proterius of Alexandria as Patriarch to represent the Chalcedonian Church, the Coptic Church appointed their own Patriarch Timothy Aelurus and broke from the Chalcedonian communion.
The Council of Chalcedon, from the perspective of the Alexandrine Christology, has deviated from the approved Cyrillian terminology and declared that Christ was one hypostasis in two natures. However, in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, "Christ was conceived of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary," thus the foundation of the definition according to the Non-Chalcedonian adherents, according to the Christology of Cyril of Alexandria is valid. There is a change in the Non-Chalcedonian definition here, as the Nicene creed clearly uses the terms "of", rather than "in."
In terms of Christology, the Oriental Orthodox (Non-Chalcedonians) understanding is that Christ is "One Nature—the Logos Incarnate," of the full humanity and full divinity. The Chalcedonians' understanding is that Christ is recognized in two natures, full humanity and full divinity. Oriental Orthodoxy contends that such a formulation is no different from what the Nestorians teach.[11] This is the doctrinal perception that makes the apparent difference which separated the Oriental Orthodox from the Eastern Orthodox.
The Council's findings were rejected by many of the Christians on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire, including Egyptians, Syriacs, Armenians, and others.
From that point onward, Alexandria would have two patriarchs: the non-Chalcedonian native Egyptian one, now known as the Coptic Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa on the Holy Apostolic See of St. Mark, and the Melkite or Imperial Patriarch, now known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria.[12]
Almost the entire Egyptian population rejected the terms of the Council of Chalcedon and remained faithful to the native Egyptian Church (now known as the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria).[13] Those who supported the Chalcedonian definition remained in communion with the other leading imperial churches of Rome and Constantinople. The non-Chalcedonian party became what is today called the Oriental Orthodox Church.
The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria regards itself as having been misunderstood at the Council of Chalcedon. There was an opinion in the Church that viewed that perhaps the Council understood the Church of Alexandria correctly, but wanted to curtail the existing power of the Alexandrine Hierarch, especially after the events that happened several years before at Constantinople from Pope Theophilus of Alexandria towards Patriarch John Chrysostom and the unfortunate turnouts of the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449, where Eutychus misled Pope Dioscorus and the Council in confessing the Orthodox Faith in writing and then renouncing it after the Council, which in turn, had upset Rome, especially that the Tome which was sent was not read during the Council sessions.
To make things even worse, the Tome of Pope Leo of Rome was, according to the Alexandria School of Theology, particularly in regards to the definition of Christology, considered influenced by Nestorian heretical teachings. So, due to the above-mentioned, especially in the consecutive sequences of events, the Hierarchs of Alexandria were considered holding too much of power from one hand, and on the other hand, due to the conflict of the Schools of Theology, there would be an impasse and a scapegoat, i.e. Pope Dioscorus. The Tome of Leo has been widely criticized (surprisingly by Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox scholars) in the past 50 years as a much less than perfect orthodox theological doctrine. By anathematizing Pope Leo because of the tone and content of his tome, as per Alexandrine Theology perception, Pope Dioscorus was found guilty of doing so without due process; in other words, the Tome of Leo was not a subject of heresy in the first place, but it was a question of questioning the reasons behind not having it either acknowledged or read at the Second Council of Ephesus in AD 449. Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the Pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council from which he was ousted, apparently the result of a conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates.[14]
Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians "Monophysites", though the Coptic Orthodox Church in reality regards Monophysitism as a heresy. The Chalcedonian doctrine in turn came to be known as "Dyophysite".
A term that comes closer to Coptic Orthodoxy is Miaphysite, which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria believes that Christ is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called "the nature of the incarnate word", which was reiterated by Saint Cyril of Alexandria.
Copts, thus, believe in two natures "human" and "divine" that are united in one hypostasis "without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration". These two natures "did not separate for a moment or the twinkling of an eye" (Coptic Liturgy of Saint Basil of Caesarea).
From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of EgyptEdit
Prior to Chalcedon, the Imperial Church's main division stemmed from Nestorianism, eventually leading the Church of the East to declare its independence in AD 424. After the Council of Chalcedon in AD 451, the Coptic Church and its hierarchy felt suspicious of what they believed were Nestorian elements within the Chalcedonian Church. As a result, the anti-Chalcedon partisan, Timotheos Aelurus, consigned himself to depose the Chalcedonian Pope of Alexandria, Proterius of Alexandria, and to set himself up as the Pope of Alexandria in opposition to the Chalcedonian Church. Copts suffered under the rule of the Byzantine Empire. The Melkite Patriarchs, appointed by the emperors as both spiritual leaders and civil governors, massacred those Egyptians they considered heretics. Many were tortured and martyred in attempts to force their acceptance of the Chalcedonian terms, but the Egyptians remained loyal to the Cyrillian Miaphysitism. One of the most renowned Egyptian saints of the period is Saint Samuel the Confessor.
Muslim conquest of EgyptEdit
Makurian wall painting depicting a Nubian bishop and Virgin Mary (11th century)
The Muslim invasion of Egypt took place in AD 639. Despite the political upheaval, the Egyptian population remained mainly Christian. However, gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries had changed Egypt from a Christian to a largely Muslim country by the end of the 12th century.[15] Another scholar writes that a combination of "repression of Coptic revolts", Arab-Muslim immigration, and Coptic conversion to Islam resulted in the demographic decline of the Copts.[16] Egypt's Umayyad rulers taxed Christians at a higher rate than Muslims, driving merchants towards Islam and undermining the economic base of the Coptic Church.[17] Although the Coptic Church did not disappear, the Umayyad tax policies made it difficult for the church to retain the Egyptian elites.[18]
Under Islamic rule (640–1800)Edit
The Church suffered greatly under the many regimes of Islamic rule. Sometime during the 2nd millennium AD, the leadership of the Church, including the Pope, moved from Alexandria to Cairo.[citation needed] In 1798, the French invade Egypt unsuccessfully and the British help the Turks regain power over Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty.[19]
From the 19th century to the 1952 revolutionEdit
The position of Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit. In 1855 the jizya tax was abolished by Sa'id Pasha.[20] Shortly thereafter, the Copts started to serve in the Egyptian army.[21]
Coptic monks, between 1898 and 1914
Towards the end of the 19th century, the Coptic Church underwent phases of new development. In 1853, Pope Cyril IV established the first modern Coptic schools, including the first Egyptian school for girls. He also founded a printing press, which was only the second national press in the country. The Pope established very friendly relations with other denominations, to the extent that when the Greek Patriarch in Egypt had to absent himself from the country for a long period of time, he left his Church under the guidance of the Coptic Patriarch.[21]
The Theological College of the School of Alexandria was reestablished in 1893. It began its new history with five students, one of whom was later to become its dean. Today it has campuses in Alexandria and Cairo, and in various dioceses throughout Egypt, as well as outside Egypt. It has campuses in New Jersey, Los Angeles, Sydney, Melbourne, and London, where potential clergymen and other qualified men and women study many subjects, including theology, church history, missionary studies, and the Coptic language.[21]
Present dayEdit
A modern Coptic cathedral in Aswan.
In 1959, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted its first own Patriarch by Pope Cyril VI. Furthermore, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church similarly became independent of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in 1994, when four bishops were consecrated by Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria to form the basis of a local Holy Synod of the Eritrean Church. In 1998, the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church gained its autocephaly from the Coptic Orthodox Church when its first Patriarch was enthroned by Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria.
These three churches remain in full communion with each other and with the other Oriental Orthodox churches. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church do acknowledge the Honorary Supremacy of the Coptic Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, since the Church of Alexandria is technically their Mother Church. Upon their selection, both Patriarchs (Ethiopian & Eritrean) must receive the approval and communion from the Holy Synod of the Apostolic See of Alexandria before their enthronement.
Since the 1980s theologians from the Oriental (non-Chalcedonian) Orthodox and Eastern (Chalcedonian) Orthodox churches have been meeting in a bid to resolve theological differences, and have concluded that many of the differences are caused by the two groups using different terminology to describe the same thing (see Agreed Official Statements on Christology with the Eastern Orthodox Churches).
In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria agreed to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making re-baptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other.[22] Previously, if a Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox wanted to get married, the marriage had to be performed twice, once in each church, for it to be recognized by both. Now it can be done in only one church and be recognized by both.
According to Christian Tradition and Canon Law, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria only ordains men to the priesthood and episcopate, and if they wish to be married, they must be married before they are ordained. In this respect they follow the same practices as all other Oriental Orthodox Churches, as well as all of Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Traditionally, the Coptic language was used in church services, and the scriptures were written in the Coptic alphabet. However, due to the Arabisation of Egypt, service in churches started to witness increased use of Arabic, while preaching is done entirely in Arabic. Native languages are used, in conjunction with Coptic, during services outside Egypt.
The liturgical calendar of the Coptic Orthodox Church is the Coptic calendar (also called the Alexandrian Calendar). This calendar is based on the Egyptian calendar of Ancient Egypt. Coptic Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on 29 Koiak, which corresponds to 7 January in the Gregorian Calendar and 25 December in the Julian Calendar. Coptic Christmas was adopted as an official national holiday in Egypt in 2002.
In Tahrir Square, Cairo, on Wednesday 2 February 2011, Coptic Christians joined hands to provide a protective cordon around their Muslim neighbors during salat (prayers) in the midst of the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.[23]
On 17 March 2012, the Coptic Orthodox Pope, Pope Shenouda III died, leaving many Copts mourning and worrying as tensions rose with Muslims. Pope Shenouda III constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to create peace. Many were worried about Muslims controlling Egypt as the Muslim Brotherhood won 70% of the parliamentary elections.[24][25]
On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the 118th Pope. In a ritual filled with prayer, chants and incense at Abbasiya cathedral in Cairo, the 60-year-old bishop's name was picked by a blindfolded child from a glass bowl in which the names of two other candidates had also been placed. The enthronement was scheduled on 18 November 2012.
DemographicsEdit
Pope Tawadros II of Alexandria of the Coptic Orthodox Church revived Ignatius Aphrem II Patriarch of Antioch and All East of the Syriac Orthodox Church Aram I Catholicose of Cilicia of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church in Lebanon.
There are about 30 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in the world.[26] Between 23 and 25 million of them are found in Egypt under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.[27][28][29][30] Since Egypt does not have an official government census on religion, estimates of the size of Egypt's Christian population vary from the estimated low previous government figures of 6 to 7 million to the 12 million reported by some Christian leaders in 2008. The actual numbers may be in the 23 to 25 million range, out of an Egyptian population of more than 90 million.[31][32][33][34][35][26][31] In 2017 government owned news Al Ahram estimated the percentage of Copts at 10 to 15%.[36][31][32][37]
There are also significant numbers in the diaspora outside Africa in countries such as the United States, Canada, Australia, France, and Germany. The number of Egyptian born Coptic Orthodox Christians in the diaspora is roughly 2 million from Egypt.[38]
In addition, there are between 350,000 and 400,000 native African adherents in East, Central and South Africa, most in Sudan, whose population is less than 200,000.[39][40] Although under the jurisdiction of the Coptic Orthodox Church, these adherents are not considered Copts, since they are not ethnic Egyptians.
Some accounts regard members of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (roughly 45 million),[41] the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church (roughly 2.5 million), as members of the Coptic Orthodox Church. This is however a misnomer, since both the Ethiopian and the Eritrean Churches, although daughter churches of the Church of Alexandria, are currently autocephalous churches.
PersecutionEdit
Main article: Persecution of Copts
While Copts have cited instances of persecution throughout their history, Human Rights Watch has noted "growing religious intolerance" and sectarian violence against Coptic Christians in recent years, and a failure by the Egyptian government to effectively investigate properly and prosecute those responsible.[42][43] Over a hundred Egyptian copts have been killed in sectarian clashes from 2011 to 2017, and many homes and businesses destroyed. In just one province (Minya), 77 cases of sectarian attacks on Copts between 2011 and 2016 have been documented by the Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights.[44] The abduction and disappearance of Coptic Christian women and girls also remains a serious ongoing problem.[45][46]
Jurisdiction outside EgyptEdit
Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon
Besides Egypt, the Church of Alexandria has jurisdiction over all of Africa.
In addition, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church are daughter churches of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. Both the Patriarchate of Addis Ababa and all Ethiopia and the Patriarchate of Asmara and all Eritrea acknowledge the supremacy of honor and dignity of the Pope of Alexandria on the basis that both patriarchates were established by the Throne of Alexandria and that they have their roots in the Apostolic Church of Alexandria, and acknowledge that Saint Mark the Apostle is the founder of their Churches through the heritage and Apostolic evangelization of the Fathers of Alexandria.
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo ChurchEdit
Main article: Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Ethiopia received Christianity next to Jerusalem, through Jesus's own apostle, only a year after Jesus was crucified (Acts 8: 26–39). Christianity became a national religion of Ethiopia, under the dominion of the Church of Alexandria, in the 4th century. The first bishop of Ethiopia, Saint Frumentius, was consecrated as Bishop of Axum by Pope Athanasius of Alexandria in AD 328. From then on, until 1959, the Pope of Alexandria, as Patriarch of All Africa, always named an Egyptian (a Copt) to be the Archbishop of the Ethiopian Church. On 13 July 1948, the Coptic Church of Alexandria and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church reached an agreement concerning the relationship between the two churches. In 1950, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church was granted autocephaly by Pope Joseph II of Alexandria, head of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Five Ethiopian bishops were immediately consecrated by the Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa, and were empowered to elect a new Patriarch for their church. This promotion was completed when Joseph II consecrated the first Ethiopian-born Archbishop, Abuna Basilios, as head of the Ethiopian Church on 14 January 1951. In 1959, Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria crowned Abuna Basilios as the first Patriarch of Ethiopia.
Patriarch Basilios died in 1971, and was succeeded on the same year by Abuna Theophilos. With the fall of Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia in 1974, the new Marxist government arrested Abuna Theophilos and secretly executed him in 1979. The Ethiopian government then ordered the Ethiopian Church to elect Abuna Takla Haymanot as Patriarch of Ethiopia. The Coptic Orthodox Church refused to recognize the election and enthronement of Abuna Takla Haymanot on the grounds that the Synod of the Ethiopian Church had not removed Abuna Theophilos, and that the Ethiopian government had not publicly acknowledged his death, and he was thus still legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the two churches were halted, although they remained in communion with each other.
After the death of Abuna Takla Haymanot in 1988, Abune Merkorios who had close ties to the Derg (Communist) government was elected Patriarch of Ethiopia. Following the fall of the Derg regime in 1991, Abune Merkorios abdicated under public and governmental pressure and went to exile in the United States. The newly elected Patriarch, Abune Paulos was officially recognized by the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria in 1992 as the legitimate Patriarch of Ethiopia. Formal relations between the Coptic Church of Alexandria and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church were resumed on 13 July 2007. Abune Paulos died in August 2012.
Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo ChurchEdit
Main article: Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church
Following the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia in 1993, the newly independent Eritrean government appealed to Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria for Eritrean Orthodox autocephaly. In 1994, Pope Shenouda ordained Abune Phillipos as first Archbishop of Eritrea. The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church obtained autocephaly on 7 May 1998, and Abune Phillipos was subsequently consecrated as first Patriarch of Eritrea. The two churches remain in full communion with each other and with the other Oriental Orthodox Churches, although the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, along with the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church does not recognize the deposition of the third Patriarch of Eritrea, Abune Antonios.
Around the worldEdit
St. Mark Coptic Orthodox Church in Bellaire, Texas
St Mark's Coptic Orthodox Church in London, England.
The Coptic Orthodox Church has a presence in many countries outside Egypt, including:
France (autonomous church)
Official titles of the Patriarch of AlexandriaEdit
Episcopal titlesEdit
Pope Shenouda III, the 117th Patriarch of Alexandria on the Holy Apostolic See of Saint Mark the Evangelist (1971–2012).
Main article: Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
The leader of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria is known as Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of all Africa on the Holy See of St. Mark the Apostle.
His full title is Patriarch and Lord Archbishop of the Great City of Alexandria on the Holy Orthodox and Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist and Holy Apostle that is, in Egypt, Pentapolis, Libya, Nubia, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and all Africa.
The Successor of St. Mark the Evangelist, Holy Apostle and Martyr, on the Holy Apostolic Throne of the Great City of Alexandria.
Pope of Alexandria, being the Diocesan Bishop of the Great and Ancient Metropolis of Alexandria, that is in Alexandria and the metropolitan province of Greater Cairo.
Elder Metropolitan Archbishop of the Egyptian Province.
Primate of Egypt, Pentapolis, Libya, Nubia and Sudan.
Father of Fathers.
Shepherd of Shepherds.
Hierarch of all Hierarchs.
Honorary titlesEdit
The Dean of the Great Catechetical School of Theology of Alexandria.
The Ecumenical (Universal) Judge (Arbitrator) of the Holy Apostolic and Catholic (Universal) Church.
The 13th among the Holy Apostles.
The Pillar and Defender of the Holy, Catholic (Universal), Apostolic Church and of the Orthodox Doctrine.
Historical evolution of the ecclesiastical titleEdit
The patriarch of Alexandria was originally known merely as bishop of Alexandria. However, this title continued to evolve as the Church grew under Theophilus and his nephew and successor Cyril (AD 376–444), and especially in the 5th century when the Church developed its hierarchy.
The bishop of Alexandria, being the successor of the first bishop in Roman Egypt consecrated by Saint Mark, was honored by the other bishops as first among equals primus inter pares. Under the sixth canon of the Council of Nicaea, Cyril was raised to prelate or chief bishop at the head of the episcopates of Egypt, Libya, and the Pentapolis without the existence of intermediate archbishops as existed in other ecclesiastic provinces.[47] He had the privilege of choosing and consecrating bishops.[47]
The title of "pope" has been attributed to the Patriarch of Alexandria since the episcopate of Heraclas, the 13th Patriarch of Alexandria. All the clergy of Alexandria and Lower Egypt honored him with the title papas, which means "father" as the archbishop and metropolitan having authority over all bishops, within the Egyptian province, who are under his jurisdiction. Alexandria, while the ecclesiastical and provincial capital, also had the distinction as being the place where Saint Mark was martyred.
The title "Patriarch" originally referred to a clan leader or head of a familial lineage. Ecclesiastically it means a bishop of high rank and was originally used as a title for the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. For the Coptic patriarch, this title was "Patriarch of Alexandria and all Africa on the Holy Apostolic Throne of Saint Mark the Evangelist," that is "of Egypt". The title of "Patriarch" was first used around the time of the Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus, convened in AD 431, and ratified at Chalcedon in AD 451.
Only the Patriarch of Alexandria has the double title of "Pope" and "Patriarch" among the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox ecumenical church heads.
AdministrationEdit
Coptic icon of Saint Mark the Evangelist, the apostolic founder of the Church of Alexandria
Main article: The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria
The Coptic Orthodox patriarchate of Alexandria is governed by its Holy Synod, which is headed by the Patriarch of Alexandria. Under his authority are the metropolitan archbishops, metropolitan bishops, diocesan bishops, patriarchal exarchs, missionary bishops, auxiliary bishops, suffragan bishops, assistant bishops, chorbishops and the patriarchal vicars for the Church of Alexandria. They are organized as follows:
16 metropolitanates, out of which 12 metropolitanates are in Egypt, one metropolitanate in the Near East, one in Europe, one in the US and one in Africa; served by two metropolitan archbishops and 14 metropolitan bishops; out of the 16 hierarchs, one metropolitan archbishop is in the Near East, one metropolitan archbishop in Egypt, while 11 metropolitan bishops are in Egypt, one metropolitan bishop in Europe, one metropolitan bishop in the US and one metropolitan bishop in Africa.
67 dioceses with 41 diocesan bishops are in Egypt, 13 diocesan bishops are in Europe, 7 diocesan bishops are in North America, two diocesan bishops are in South America, two diocesan bishops are in Sudan, and finally two diocesan bishops are in Australia.
one suffragan dioceses, with one suffragan bishop in North America.
six auxiliary bishops, with two auxiliary bishops for dioceses in Egypt and four auxiliary bishops in North America.
12 assistant bishops in Egypt for 12 suffragan dioceses within an archdiocese under the Patriarch's jurisdiction;
five patriarchal exarchates, with one patriarchal exarch in Africa, one patriarchal exarch in North America and three patriarchal exarchs in Egypt.
14 bishop abbots for 12 patriarchal monasteries in Egypt, one patriarchal monastery in Australia and one patriarchal monastery in Germany
two general bishops, patriarchal emissary at large in Egypt and abroad.
five general bishops, administrators of patriarchal institutions in Egypt.
one hegumen in the capacity of grand economos, patriarchal vicar for Alexandria.
one hegumen as administrative patriarchal vicar for Cairo.
CathedralsEdit
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Alexandria
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Abbassia, Cairo
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Azbakeya, Cairo
Cathedral of the Nativity in Cairo
Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, Markham, Ontario, Canada
MonasteriesEdit
Monastery of Saint Anthony (Red Sea)
Monastery of Saint Paul the Anchorite (Red Sea)
Monastery of Saint Fana
Monastery of Saint Macarius the Great
Monastery of the Martyrs
Monastery of Saint Matthew the Potter
Monastery of Saint Mina
Paromeos Monastery
Monastery of Saint Pishoy
Red Monastery
Syrian Monastery
White Monastery
Monastery of Saint Antony (California)[48]
Egypt portal
Pope of Alexandria
Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria
List of Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria
Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria
Patriarch of Alexandria
The Holy Synod of the Coptic Orthodox Church
Coptic Orthodox Church in Africa
Coptic Orthodox Church in Australia
Coptic Orthodox Church in North America
Coptic Orthodox Church in the United States
Coptic Orthodox Church in Canada
Coptic Orthodox Church in Mexico
Coptic Orthodox Church in Europe
Coptic Orthodox Church in South America
General Congregation Council
Copts
Coptic atheists
Coptic saints
The Catechetical School of Alexandria
Coptic Orthodox churches
Institute of Coptic Studies
Coptic Orphans
Oriental Orthodoxy
Holy Family in Egypt
Zabbaleen
2011 Alexandria bombing
^ "New Egyptian Constitution Holds Promise for Copts". National Catholic Register. Retrieved 19 March 2019.
^ a b Eusebius of Caesarea, the author of Ecclesiastical History in the 4th century, states that Saint Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. AD 41 or 43 Otto Friedrich August Meinardus (2002). Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity. American Univ in Cairo Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-977-424-757-6.
^ Matt Rehbein. "Who are Egypt's Coptic Christians?". CNN.
^ a b "Early church missionary". Archived from the original on 22 April 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2009.
^ "The Church of Alexandria". New Advent. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
^ "الأقباط متحدون - اللغة القبطية".
^ "The School of Alexandria – Part I – An Introduction to the School of Alexandria". Copticchurch.net. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
^ "مجمع نيقية المقدس 325 م. | St-Takla.org". st-takla.org.
^ Carroll 1987, p. 11
^ Apollinaris of Laodicea (1904). "Πρὸς Ἰοβιανόν". In Lietzmann, Hans (ed.). Apollinaris von Laodicea und seine Schule: Texte und Untersuchungen (in German and Greek). Mohr Siebeck Verlag. p. 251.
^ "Split of the Byzantine and Oriental Churches". Webcitation.org. Archived from the original on 24 October 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
^ Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria.
^ "Egypt". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 20 December 2011. Retrieved 14 December 2011. See drop-down essay on "Islamic Conquest and the Ottoman Empire"
^ Romanides, John S. Leo of Rome's Support of Theodoret.
^ Kamil, Jill (1997). Coptic Egypt: History and Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo.
^ O'Sullivan, Shaun (2006). "Coptic Conversion and the Islamization of Egypt" (PDF). Mamluk Studies Review: 65–79.
^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.
^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Encounters and Exchanges in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 93.
^ Partrick, Theodore Hall (1996). Traditional Egyptian Christianity: History of the Coptic Orthodox Church. North Carolina: Fisher Park Press.
^ Rowberry, Ryan; Khalil, John (2010). "A Brief History of Coptic Personal Status Law". Berkeley Journal of Middle Eastern and Islamic Law. 3: 81–139.
^ a b c "Saint George Coptic Church". Suscopts.org. Retrieved 3 April 2014.
^ "Pastoral Agreement between the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria". Orthodox Unity (Orthodox Joint Commission). 2001. Retrieved 14 March 2019.
^ Christians protect Muslims during prayer in Cairo's dangerous Tahrir square, Nevine Zaki, 3 February 2011, accessed 9 February 2011
^ Fahim, Kareem (20 March 2012). "Coptic Pope Shenouda III's Death Adds to Fears in Egypt". The New York Times.
^ "Muslim Brotherhood Sweeps Up Over One-Third Of Votes In Egyptian Elections". Huffington Post. 4 December 2011.
^ a b "Twenty-Three Million Coptic Christians in Egypt, Says Authority". Raymond Ibrahim. 11 December 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
^ "Egypt". The World Factbook. American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 30 March 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ Abaza, Khairi; Nakhla, Mark (25 October 2005). "The Copts and Their Political Implications in Egypt". Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ Morrow, Adam (24 April 2006). "Egypt: Attacks Raise Fear of Religious Discord". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ "Egypt's Coptic Bishop Morcos: We need to build 4,000 churches in next 10 years". english.alarabiya.net. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
^ a b c Youssef, Abdel Rahman (30 September 2012). "Egyptian Copts: It's All in the Number". Al-Akhbar English. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ a b "Egyptian Copts reject population estimate". Ahram Online. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ "The Coptic Orthodox Church in action – Al-Ahram Weekly". weekly.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
^ Cairo, Jared Malsin in (20 February 2015). "'We want our sons back': fears grow for Egyptians missing in Libya". the Guardian. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
^ "Egypt must help its poor in response to Libya beheadings, economists say". america.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
^ "Egypt's Sisi meets world Evangelical churches delegation in Cairo – Politics – Egypt – Ahram Online". english.ahram.org.eg. Retrieved 26 December 2017.
^ "What is the Coptic Church?". BBC Religion & Ethics. 2 November 2012. Retrieved 8 May 2018.
^ El-Hennawy, Noha (24 June 2008). "EGYPT: Coptic diaspora spreads the word". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ Hassan, Abdel Salaam (1995). "The Copts" (PDF). In Verney, Peter (ed.). Sudan: Conflict and minorities. Minority Rights Group International. p. 26. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ "The Copts: Passive Survivors under Threat" (PDF). Africa Watch. 5 (3): 1. 10 February 1993. Retrieved 5 April 2016.
^ WCC official visit to Ethiopia Archived 10 November 2005 at the Wayback Machine World Council of Churches – News Release. 21 September 2005. Retrieved 25 November 2006.
^ Egypt and Libya: A Year of Serious Abuses, hrw.org, January 24, 2010
^ Zaki, Moheb (18 May 2010). "Egypt's Persecuted Christians". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
^ Eltahawy, Mona (22 December 2016). "Egypt's Cruelty to Christians". New York Times. Retrieved 22 December 2016.
^ United States. Congress. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe (18 July 2012). Escalating Violence Against Coptic Women and Girls: Will the New Egypt be More Dangerous than the Old? : Hearing before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, One Hundred Twelfth Congress, Second Session, July 18, 2012. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Retrieved 8 March 2015.
^ "Masress : Sectarian tensions rise in wake of crime boss death". Masress. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
^ a b Cannuyer, 2001, p. 40.
^ "Saint Antony Coptic Orthodox Monastery". www.stantonymonastery.org. Retrieved 6 September 2015.
Betts, Robert B. (1978). Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study (2nd rev. ed.). Athens: Lycabettus Press. ISBN 978-0-8042-0796-6.
Carroll, Warren (1 March 1987), The Building of Christendom, Front Royal: Christendom College Press, ISBN 978-0-931888-24-3, retrieved 30 May 2018
Christian Cannuyer, Coptic Egypt: The Christians of the Nile, "Abrams Discoveries" series, trans. Sophie Hawkes. NY: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 2001.
Charles, Robert H. (2007) [1916]. The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9.
Meinardus, Otto (1 October 2002). Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-977-424-757-6. Archived from the original on 20 May 2008.
Meyendorff, John (1989). Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. The Church in history. 2. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-055-6.
Morgan, Robert (2016). History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Church of Egypt. FriesnPress. ISBN 1-4602-8027-X.
Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Partrick, Theodore (June 1996). Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Greensboro, NC: Fisher Park Press. ISBN 978-0-9652396-0-8.
Butcher, E. L. (1897). Story of the Church of Egypt (in Arabic) (text file ed.). London: Smith, Elder & Co. ISBN 978-0-8370-7610-2.
Iskandar, Adel; Hakem Rustom (January 2006). "From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated". The Ambassadors Online Magazine. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
Wolfgang Kosack, Novum Testamentum Coptice. Neues Testament, Bohairisch, ediert von Wolfgang Kosack. Novum Testamentum, Bohairice, curavit Wolfgang Kosack. / Wolfgang Kosack. neue Ausgabe, Christoph Brunner, Basel 2014. ISBN 978-3-906206-04-2.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Coptic Orthodox Church.
Coptic Orthodox Electronic Publishing, has various e-books and resources covering many areas and topics
An overview of Coptic Orthodoxy
Video archive of Coptic Hymns for Learning
More Information on the Coptic Church, its Beliefs, Practices, and Liturgical Life
Downloadable Coptic hymns, chants, songs, liturgies, live webcasts, and forum
HisVine – Coptic Orthodox Church Directory for Australia
St. Mina (Menas) Coptic Orthodox Monastery in Mariut, near Alexandria, Egypt
Coptic Church History at www.St-Takla.org
CoptNet – The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt
History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria – to 849 A.D.
Agpeya: Coptic Book of Hours – also see Canonical hours
Severus of Al'Ashmunein (=Hermopolis), History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic church of Alexandria
Article on Coptic Orthodox Church by Ronald Roberson on CNEWA website
(in French) Coptipedia.com
(in French) France-copte.net
Common Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Pope Alexandria Shenouda III, 1973
European Centre for Law and Justice (2011): The Persecution of Oriental Christians, what answer from Europe?
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coptic_Orthodox_Church_of_Alexandria&oldid=935693470"


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Founded in 1908 by stationer Claus-Johannes Voss, banker Alfred Nehemias and engineer August Eberstein, the company started out as the Simplo Filler Pen company. Making upscale pens in Hamburg, a pen produced in 1910 would later give the company its new name: the Montblanc. The company's signature "White Star" shape which adorns its products first appeared in 1913, and was inspired by the peak of Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps. The company's first fountain pen gained notoriety for the company was a fountain pen) known as the Meisterstück ("Masterpiece"), first produced in 1924 and still manufactured today. The success of the Meisterstück allowed for international expansion and export of the company's goods. The figure "4810" (the height of Mont Blanc) was engraved on the nibs of all Meisterstück pens starting in 1929. In 1934 the company changed its name to Montblanc-Simplo GmbH, and introduced its first piston pen filler.
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text:
The Expanse Goes Out on a Strong, But Shortened Note in Its Series Finale
The cult sci-fi series ends with a bang, but has to rush to get there
The Expanse (Amazon Prime Video)
Clint Worthington Follow
January 14, 2022 | 10:00am ET
[Editor's note: The following contains spoilers through the Season 6 finale of The Expanse, "Babylon's Ashes."]
Years on, it still feels like a miracle that The Expanse managed to live long enough to end on its own terms. The cult hit sci-fi show, which enjoyed critical acclaim (if not exactly high ratings) during its first three years on Syfy before being unceremoniously canceled, was the beneficiary of a staggering, ambitious fan campaign that was just as notable for its scope (fans sent a model of the show's hero ship, the Rocinante, into space!) as its success.
Now we're here, three Amazon-funded seasons later, with the finale of a shortened sixth and final season of the show that had a lot to wrap up in just six short episodes. And short they were, the show rushing to close as many loose ends in the plot as it could, while curiously opening up new ones from the James S.A. Corey-penned source material, threads they couldn't hope to tie up in time.
But even inside that shortened runtime, and with the commensurate flattening of character and momentum that entails, The Expanse ends the only way it could have: a hail Mary play for hope and unity, amidst the dark forces of hatred and division.
By the end of Season 5, The Expanse had a lot of ground to cover for its remaining hours. Most immediately, of course, was the war with Marco Inaros (Keon Alexander), the Free Navy Belter who kickstarted an all-out war with the Inners by chucking a huge asteroid at Earth; in the short time between seasons, he's thrown even more rocks at the planet, pummeling the biosphere and essentially fast-tracking a total ecological collapse.
When we're reintroduced to Shohreh Aghdashloo's Secretary-General Avasarala, all the piss-and-vinegar bio we associate with her vanishes as she looks over the desolate wasteland where a thriving agricultural center used to be. She's in mourning, not just for a slowly-dying Earth, but for the woman she used to be — the kind of person who likely provoked such animus against Earth from the Belt in the first place.
Chrisjen isn't the kind of person who would hang a Belter up by hooks to torture them in Earth's gravity anymore; she's grown wiser as a leader, more diplomatic. This season saw her struggle to reconcile those two halves of her personality.
That sense of entropy and loss pervades the season, particularly its first episode, "Strange Dogs." Even the victorious Belters of the Free Navy are running into issues of long-term survival: There is simply not enough food and resources to go around, decimated by both the war with Earth and the Belters' own infighting. Then there's the crew of the Rocinante, still mourning the loss of Martian pilot Alex Kamal last season (actor Cas Anvar's alleged sexual misconduct led to a last-minute stroke for the Roci's moral center).
The vibes, as they say, are off on our favorite piece of Martian salvage: James Holden (Steven Strait) does his best to fill the pilot's seat, while Naomi Nagata (Dominique Tipper) wrestles with the guilt of Alex dying to rescue her and her PTSD from her dangerous ship-to-ship EVA without a suit last season. As for Amos Burton (Wes Chatham), he's his usual unflappable self, though he struggles to help Season 3 villain-turned-repentant new recruit Clarissa Mao (Nadine Nicole) find a place on the ship. As Kurt Russell once opined in The Thing, they're all tired, and nobody trusts each other.
Existential crises don't just extend to the Roci or their nemeses, either. Belter rebel Camina Drummer (Cara Gee), trying desperately to hold onto the remnants of her polygamous family of space pirates, forges an uneasy alliance with other Belters who have yet to be squashed under Marco's bootheel. She's lost so much at this point in the series: Fred Johnson, Anderson Dawes, Klaes Ashford, even Naomi Nagata in a way.
And with every heavily-mascaraed stare or growled outburst, Gee signposts all of Drummer's brittle fragility. She's tough, but so much of her power comes from the white-hot fire of revenge. "The universe has no place for me," she spits at Naomi late in the series. What little justice she'll get for her people, and humanity as a whole, comes from the momentum of all of that loss. It's probably the thing that she and Avasarala have most in common, which is what gets them to finally break bread, shake hands, and unite Earth and the Belt.
That pervading sense of hope against all odds becomes The Expanse's broader thematic thrust in its final episodes. Just as all seems lost, hope springs from a few unexpected places: Clarissa's open-hearted quest to earn her place on the ship; Bobbie Draper's (Frankie Adams) full integration into a member of the Roci's crew (finally!); Filip (Jasai Chase-Owens) hitting rock-bottom and finally starting to question the radicalism and ego of his father's crusade. Slowly but surely, the tide begins to turn due to a few vital battles, lovingly rendered with all the teeth-clenching tension and high-G maneuvers the series has perfected at this point.
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We have been hearing about a new MacBook Air model for a while now. Many similar rumors have proved false in the past but now, multiple indicators hint that a new 13.3-inch Air model is fairly imminent. That is because the MacBook Air stock with most online retailers has vanished.
Normally, online retailers do away with the previous stock in anticipation of the arrival of a new model. Although MacBook Air is currently available with Best Buy, it is the only retailer that is still selling the machine.
Given these developments, many analysts have opined that we may finally see a new MacBook Air model, probably by next month. Rumors have it that Apple may decide to include Retina display in the new model for the 13.3-inch machine but so far, nothing credible has been cited to support these rumors.
What is known, nearly for sure, is that the new model will pack the next-generation Intel chip, Haswell, as well as better graphics. Intel had formerly announced that the chip line-up will arrive in June. It is possible that alongside the official debut, the chip also arrives under the hood of the new MacBook Air.


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The Indiana University Libraries Moving Image Archive (IULMIA) is a major repository for nontheatrical film, video, and related archival materials located in Bloomington, Indiana.

History
Founded in 2009, the archive's initial holdings consisted of over 100,000 educational, documentary, and other unique films that were either created or distributed by Indiana University. Many of these were acquired from the Indiana University Audio-Visual Center, which rented the films and videos out across the United States for the latter half of the 20th century until its closure in 2006.

As of 2012, the Moving Image Archive was accepted as a member of the International Federation of Film Archives.

In 2016, a dedicated space was opened on the ground floor of Herman B. Wells Library for Media Services, the Moving Image Archive, and the Black Film Collection and Archives. A screening room opened adjacent to the Moving Image Archive in 2017 capable of high-quality film and video screenings for university classes and members of the general public.

Collections
The Moving Image Archive holds a wide variety of audiovisual materials spanning over 80 years of audiovisual history. As of 2017, its holdings were estimated at over 120,000 items, making it one of the largest and most comprehensive collections currently held by an academic library in the United States. The archive has collaborated with numerous agencies worldwide, including the Library of Congress and Visible Evidence, the international conference on documentary film and media.

Alan Lewis Small Gauge Camera and Projector Collection
In 2017, film archivist Alan Lewis donated his collection of approximately 200 small gauge cameras and 50 projectors to the Moving Image Archive. The dates on the equipment range from World War II-era machines to cameras and projectors used throughout the second half of the 20th century. Manufacturers featured include Bell & Howell, Kodak, Bolex, Wittnauer, Canon, and Yashica.

Clio Awards Collection
In 2017, the archive acquired the Clio Awards Collection from the London International Awards, the organization that purchased the collection from its creator, the Clio Awards, in 1992. The collection contains thousands of reels of 16mm and 35mm film, with entries and winners from the Clio Awards from the 1960s through the 1990s across a wide array of categories. International submissions are also included in the collection.

Educational Film Collection
Part of the Moving Image Archive's initial holdings, the Educational Film Collection was created before World War II as an outreach service provided by the Indiana University Extension Office. In 1945, its holdings consisted of almost 500 films that were distributed to various organizations - schools, public libraries, clubs and organizations - across the United States for low rates.

Throughout the 20th century, the Educational Film Collection continued to grow. Under the management of the Indiana University Audio-Visual Center, it expanded to include videocassettes (U-Matic and 1/2" VHS) in the 1970s.

Upon its acquisition by the Indiana University Library System in 2006, the collection contained approximately 50,000 reels of 16mm film and 7,000 videos, including around 1,000 films that were produced by the Indiana University Audio-Visual Center's staff.

Edward and Naomi Feil Collection
In 2016, the archive acquired the Edward and Naomi Feil Collection. The collection contains the life's work of husband and wife filmmakers Edward and Naomi Feil, whose 1968 film The Inner World of Aphasia was added to the National Film Registry in 2015. In addition to production elements from their films, the collection contains many of their home movies showing their travels to various destinations around the world in the latter half of the 20th century.

References

External links

Film archives in the United States

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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سندھی
Todays Pics
Nawaz Sharif supported Kashmiris undeterred in all tenures
ISLAMABAD (Pakistan Point News - APP - 20th july, 2016) : Prime Minister Muhammad Nawaz Sharif had extended continued and unflinching support to Kashmiri people for their right to self-determination and raised the issue at all international forums during his three tenures in the government. Whether it was United Nations General Assembly, Organization of Islamic Cooperation or any other regional or international forum, the Prime Minister had been pleading the just cause of Kashmiri people for cessation of Indian brutalities and giving them the right to decide their future.
There are glaring examples of commitment and dedication manifested through the words of the Prime Minister who have always been persuading the international community to resolve the Kashmir issue and fulfill their commitment for implementation of the UN resolutions. Like his past two tenures as Prime Minister, in his present tenure he also tried to jolt the international conscience when he stated at United Nations, "more than six decades ago the UN passed resolutions to hold plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir and the people of Jammu and Kashmir are still waiting the fulfillment of that promise.
Many generations of Kashmiris have lived their lives under Indian occupation accompanied by violence and abuse of their fundamental rights. Kashmiri women in particular have suffered immensely." He said that for decades attempts have been made under the UN auspices and bilaterally in the spirit of Lahore Declaration to resolve this dispute. The core issue of Jammu and Kashmir has to be resolved and it is responsibility of the international community.
"We cannot draw a veil on the Kashmir issue unless it is resolved according to wishes of Kashmiri people." On another occasion, the Prime Minister had said, India has occupied the Kashmir with use of force and Pakistan will continue moral, diplomatic and political support of their struggle for right to self-determination. "We believe it is indigenous struggle but India wants to crush it with force. Hurryet leadership and Pakistan condemn their brutalities as India is targeting the innocent people who cannot be declared extremists.
" He said India had deployed over 700,000 armed forces in the valley to crush the movement and it is obligatory on us to stand by Kashmiri bothers. "For the last 60 years, Kashmiris are waging struggle for their just right despite Indian atrocities. Their courage and determination manifest that their destination is not far off." During his second tenure in the government, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had stated, "We believe that a just settlement of Jammu and Kashmir issue will usher a new era of amity and progress in South Asia.
I offer to open negotiations on a treaty of non- aggression between India and Pakistan." On another occasion, he said, Pakistan is sincere to resolve disputes with India including the core issue of Jammu and Kashmir and the United Nations must fulfill its responsibility to the Kashmir dispute to defuse tension and bring an end to the arms race in the region. The Prime Minister had stated that unfortunately true peace has been a stranger to South Asia because the root cause of Kashmir is still unresolved.
"We have initiated the dialogue process with India and we hope India will respond positively." He had stated that human rights are universal and they cannot be applied selectively. "We are asking for nothing more than right to self-determination to Kashmiri people. They have been victim to appalling repression and being denied to the right committed to them by Pakistan, India and the United Nations." Speaking at another forum, the Prime Minister had stated that unfortunately the security environment in South Asia had been precarious because of the tension emanating from Jammu and Kashmir.
"I regret to say that in this age when nations recognize right to self-determination, Indian forces are killing Kashmiri people." He had stated, "Pakistan will never abandon the cause of Kashmir and continue their support in order to redeem their right to self-determination. I have invited the Indian Prime Minister to restore the stalled dialogue for resolving outstanding issue including Kashmir. Speaking on another occasion, the Prime Minister had said, Pakistan always tried to tell India that regional peace and progress could only be achieved by settling the outstanding issue.
"Pakistan repeatedly told India to the voice of Kashmiris because they are peaceful people and if they are waging a struggle it is due to denial of their just right." Nawaz Sharif had also invited the attention of international community by saying that India was hoodwinking them through malicious propaganda but it could enslave Kashmiris for long with their genocide and use of force. "India should end brutalities in Kashmir and hold dialogue.
But, holding dialogue does not mean that on one side they engage in talks and on the other hand continue genocide of innocent Kashmiris." Addressing a gathering on another time, the Prime Minister had stated that Kashmiris are close to his heart and he loves them like he loves Pakistani people. "India is responsible for arms race in South Asia and Pakistan had to compete for its self- defense. I have urged the UNSG to ask India why they were refusing to implement the UN resolutions.
On contrary, Pakistan always honored the United Nations." During his first tenure also, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif had been persuading India to halt hostilities in Kashmir and instead fulfill its commitments to the United Nations to give Kashmiris their right to self-determination. "With the resolution of these issues between the two countries, people on both sides of the border will have better opportunities to lead a prosperous life." He had also been rejecting the Indian allegation of interference and said, Pakistan was only extending them political, moral and diplomatic support that is their right for a just cause.
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Home>Prince George's County>ALC Panel Targets Domestic Violence
Prince George's CountyWilliam J. Ford
ALC Panel Targets Domestic Violence
Survivors Share Harrowing Tales
The Rev. Janelle Johnson (left) moderates a discussion on domestic violence at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation's Annual Legislative Conference at the Walter E. Washington Convention Center in Northwest on Sept. 13. (Anthony Tilghman/The Washington Informer)
The Rev. Linda Thomas recalled when she delivered her baby with a black eye.
The Rev. Janelle Johnson recalled what her ex-husband said to her while she was pregnant.
"I know what it is to be told to take a hanger, shove it up my p-word and kill that baby," she said.
These two faith leaders from Prince George's County churches summarized their domestic violence experiences Friday, Sept. 13 at the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation's Annual Legislative Conference at the Walter E. Washington Convention Center in Northwest.
"I know what it is to be held up against the wall by the man who told me he loved me forever," said Johnson, author of the book "Is He Spiritual?" and a member of Reid Temple AME Church in Glenn Dale. "I know what it is to be pushed down so violently that you have to be rushed to a hospital. But there is always hope."
Johnson moderated a discussion to not only express optimism for survivors, but also provide advice for those still involved in a violent relationship.
On a national level, the Allstate Foundation Purple Purse program says 99 percent of all domestic violence cases deal with financial abuse.
That's why tennis star Serena Williams starred in a public service announcement released last month to explain in a video called "Signs," which shows her walking through a maze with her voice-over explaining signs of abusive conduct and language.
They "take your paycheck and chose how to spend it … They demand receipts on every little thing you buy. These are signs of financial abuse," Williams said in the video.
Domestic violence statistics vary from state to state. The Maryland Network Against Domestic Violence said the state ranked 10th in the country in female homicide by men in single offender incidents with a rate of nearly two homicides per 100,000 women.
Prince George's County led the state for several years in domestic violence homicide rates, but County Executive Angela Alsobrooks said it's decreased by 20 percent in the past year.
She credits partnerships with the health department and other government agencies and nonprofit organizations.
One main improvement comes from the county's Family Justice Center in Upper Marlboro, which provides various services such as legal and housing assistance, crisis invention and protection orders.
"The [county] police department has done a yeoman's job of investigating and making sure that we bring to justice individuals who committed acts of domestic violence," Alsobrooks said. "Those are things the county has had responsibility for to stop this."
At the convention center Friday, Thomas, who leads the domestic violence ministry at First Baptist Church of Glenarden, shared information on what the faith community can do for victims. She provided a tip sheet for what people can say to someone involved in a volatile relationship.
"Say, 'If you need, I am here,'" Thomas said. "Be patient — [a] victim may waver, leave and come back many times, and it is important that the victim makes the decision themselves to gain self-confidence."
County Councilman Mel Franklin (D-At-Large) of Upper Marlboro, the only man on the panel, said he first experienced domestic violence when he heard a couple fighting next door while enrolled in law school at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina.
Although never involved in a domestic violence situation himself, he offered strong advice for men.
"We need to change the culture so that it's not acceptable to be a man who put his hands on a woman," said Franklin, who plans to hold a domestic violence town hall next month in connection with his "Fathers Stand Up" initiative. "We can't be boys if you're going to do that."
2019 ALC Angela Alsobrooks Annual Legislative Conference CBC CBCF Congressional Black Caucus Congressional Black Caucus Foundation domestic violence Mel Franklin Prince George's County Rev. Janelle Johnson Rev. Linda Thomas William J. Ford
Juanita Abernathy, a Formidable Force for Civil Rights, Dead at 88
LETTERS TO THE EDITOR: The Real Mugabe
Thousands Converge on D.C. for Annual MLK Parade
PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY EDUCATION BRIEFS: New Board of Education Member
CBCF Honors MLK Day, Pays Tribute to Civil Rights Icon


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Q: Manage a for loop in sql related to the change in c#? there are more than 4 modifier that we need to add to our list I have C# and SQL code that work together. Issue was I need to add more than 4 modifier in my list but it was not possible, so I change the c# code and related to that I need to change my SQL code. I do not know how may I put for loop in SQL. Help me please.
I have a table that I need to add "n" modifier on it.
Here is the c# code that I changed:
int n = updatedStudy.Modifiers.Count;

for (int i = 1; i < n; i++)
{
    string @pu_examCodeModifier = "@pu_examCodeModifier" + i;
    sqlParm.Add(@pu_examCodeModifier, updatedStudy.Modifiers[i - 1].Key, SQLEnumerations.SQLDataTypes.UNIQUEIDENTIFIER, 0);
}

and here is SQL code that I need to change :
CREATE PROCEDURE [v0000].[apUpdateOrder] (
    @pu_fillerOrderKey UNIQUEIDENTIFIER,
    @pu_examCodeKey UNIQUEIDENTIFIER,
    @pu_examCodeModifier1 UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = NULL ,
    @pu_examCodeModifier2 UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = NULL,
    @pu_examCodeModifier3 UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = NULL,
    @pu_examCodeModifier4 UNIQUEIDENTIFIER = NULL,
    @ps_fillerOrderStatusCd VARCHAR(1),
    @ps_priorityCd VARCHAR(10),
    @pb_exam_stat_flag BIT)
AS
BEGIN
    --exam code modifiers
    IF (@pb_updateStudyModifiers IS NOT NULL)
    BEGIN
        DELETE FROM dbo.mapProcedureStepExamCodeModifier
        WHERE procedureStepKey = @lu_procedureStepKey

        IF (@pu_examCodeModifier1 IS NOT NULL)
           INSERT INTO dbo.mapProcedureStepExamCodeModifier (procedureStepKey, examCodeModifierKey)
           VALUES (@lu_procedureStepKey, @pu_examCodeModifier1)

        IF (@pu_examCodeModifier2 IS NOT NULL)
           INSERT INTO dbo.mapProcedureStepExamCodeModifier (procedureStepKey, examCodeModifierKey)
           VALUES (@lu_procedureStepKey, @pu_examCodeModifier2)

        IF (@pu_examCodeModifier3 IS NOT NULL)
           INSERT INTO dbo.mapProcedureStepExamCodeModifier (procedureStepKey, examCodeModifierKey)
           VALUES (@lu_procedureStepKey, @pu_examCodeModifier3)

        IF (@pu_examCodeModifier4 IS NOT NULL)
           INSERT INTO dbo.mapProcedureStepExamCodeModifier (procedureStepKey, examCodeModifierKey)
           VALUES (@lu_procedureStepKey, @pu_examCodeModifier4)
   END

A: Putting loops onto the DB side is generally adviseable. Putting this kind of work onto the Client Side is only slower and prone to race conditions.
As I read it, you want to react on the previous values of that row when deleting it. There are several ways to go about this:
Delete Trigger. Especially if this is more then a one time re-stucturing and the table will stay around, I would go for DML triggers. It is still part of the Original DML Orders Transaction and Lockout, so it is has little danger of race conditions.
OUTPUT Syntax. There is often a need to get data from rows you just inserted, Updated or Deleted. The OUTPUT clause is there for you. Once again, this is part of the Original DML's Transaction. Plus it can access auto values that were literally just created (like Primary Keys).
The core Loop of SQL is the more generic while. The trick is to make a Stored Procedure that takes a Table Valued Paramter basically an array, where you hand in stuff like Primary. Or extracts the Primary keys into a local variable itself.
If you need a index or any other temporary variable, just make one yourself. That is what DECLARE is there for.
One thing about loop modification worth considering is the transactions and lockouts. By default every single DML statemetn will be wrapped into a seperate Transaction and aquire seperate lockout. That can add a ton of overhead. So it can be beneficial to do the transaction and lock creation yourself - just keep in mind to lock all tables you may need instantly.

A: Regarding the example you have provided, there are a couple of problems in there, like where @pb_updateStudyModifiers and @lu_procedureStepKey come from.
Regarding the specific question of how to loop in SQL, the answer is:
-If you already know the values, and they are numeric, use a while:
DECLARE @ID INT = 0

WHILE @ID < 3
BEGIN
    SELECT @ID = @ID + 1
    SELECT 'The current ID is: ' + CAST(@ID AS VARCHAR)
END

-If you need to loop through other value types, you will need an auxiliary table and a CURSOR. This is an example of how to loop through a table ( doing the same thing I did above using just the INT variable ):
DECLARE @EXAMPLE_IDS TABLE (
    ID INT
)
-- POPULATE THE EXAMPLE TABLE
INSERT INTO @EXAMPLE_IDS VALUES ( 1 )
INSERT INTO @EXAMPLE_IDS VALUES ( 2 )
INSERT INTO @EXAMPLE_IDS VALUES ( 3 )

DECLARE EXAMPLE_CURSOR CURSOR FOR SELECT ID FROM @EXAMPLE_IDS

DECLARE @CURRENT_ID INT

OPEN EXAMPLE_CURSOR

-- GET FIRST ELEMENT
FETCH NEXT FROM EXAMPLE_CURSOR INTO @CURRENT_ID

-- THIS IS YOUR LOOP
WHILE @@FETCH_STATUS = 0
BEGIN
    -- DO YOUR STUFF HERE
    SELECT 'The current ID is: ' + CAST(@CURRENT_ID AS VARCHAR)
    -- GET NEXT ID
    FETCH NEXT FROM EXAMPLE_CURSOR INTO @CURRENT_ID
END

CLOSE EXAMPLE_CURSOR
DEALLOCATE EXAMPLE_CURSOR

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Our horizontal directional drill is designed to drill underground holes for convenient pipeline and cable laying. It comes with advanced design and international level key components, and offers high working efficiency and comfortable operation environment. The drilling equipment is commonly used in water supply, coal gas supply, power supply, telecommunications, heating supply, and petroleum industries.
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5. Single lever operation ensures accurate, simple and comfortable control of various functions such as drill head feeding, retracting, and rotation.
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Our company is a professional horizontal directional drills supplier in China. We offer a wide range of products, including backhoe loader, gas and oil forklift truck, light duty truck, motor grader and more.


Ikpeazu gave the charge when he swore in Wamah as the sixth HoS of the state and three new permanent secretaries.
He said that no government could accelerate the development of any state on all frontiers without the contributions of the civil service.
The governor said that it was imperative for the civil service to initiate programmes that would enable the state government to achieve its developmental agenda.
"The Head of Service has the responsibility of galvanising the civil service toward supporting the policies of this government to continue to deliver the dividends of democracy to the people.
"My special interest is in the fact that the civil service is the engine room that runs the government and everything that is achieved by the government takes its root from the civil service.
"This challenge to make the civil service more proactive and geared toward creating better life for our people is on your shoulders," Ikpeazu said.
The governor also urged the newly sworn in permanent secretaries to make tangible contributions that would enable the state to become socio-economically developed.
Responding, Wamah thanked the state government for the opportunity to serve, and promised to live up to expectations.


Breathing, yes of course we do it, if not we'd be dead, obvious isn't it. But in the far east Breathing techniques have been used for thousands of years. Not only as a means of improving the health and vitality of both the body and mind, but also as a means of connecting to the Higher Spiritual Realms. In the far east the practice is called Pranayama and is an integral part of Hatha Yoga.
There must be a word of warning, to the uninitiated, using Pranayama techniques too vigorously or forcibly can cause damage to the heart, lungs or even mind. It is always best to practice these techniques gently, don't be in a rush, the benefits can last the whole of your life. And for your purposes, it is only the basic techniques that are needed to accumulate Qi (chee or chi) in the body for use by your Inner-Self to help manifest your desired reality. If over time you feel the benefit of these gentle exercises, then that is the time to explore this area in greater detail and to seek adequate instruction.
The Indians developed the idea of Prana, a semi-mystical life force that pervades the body, which is responsible for life, health and transcendence. The Chinese developed the idea of life force being Qi, a force that helps maintain end extend life. The Chinese concept is not as mystical as the Indian, but both arrived at a system that could benefit the body and mind using similar techniques.
1. By inhaling and exhaling rapidly, taking shallow breaths.
2. By inhaling and exhaling slowly, taking long or deep breaths.
3. By stopping the act of breathing altogether.
We are primarily concerned with No 2. This type of breath control will allow us to create the necessary extra Qi(chee) our bodies need to increase fitness levels and a clearer mind.
The original Prana breathing methods were part of the ancient Indian Vedas some 1200 to 1500 BC. The most sacred Indian text of the second century BC the 'Bhagavadgita' mentions Pranayama as a means of spiritual enlightenment. Although the process of spiritual enlightenment is far less easy to quantify, the use of Pranayama as a means of strengthening the health is well documented.
Pranayama breathing techniques are often used as a precursor to meditation.
Qi Qong, is similar to Pranayama in that Qi (chee) means breath or breath of life and 'Qong' means mental control over the body. It is believed that Qi Qong is even older than Pranayama and early breath control practices became an important part of Chinese medicine. When you next yawn, which might be now, seeing how we have mentioned it. Observe how you feel when the yawn has finished, your body will be relaxed, if you had any pain or discomfort, this would be alleviated for a few seconds. This is an example of how the changing of your normal breathing pattern can bring a change to your body conditions. The Chinese believe it is the disruption of the flow of Qi within the body that causes many diseases and the re-establishment of the Qi (energy) flows that can bring about an upturn in our well being. Using these practices on a daily basis can give us a good platform for strengthening our immune systems.
A word of caution, be very mindful when performing this Pranayama (Yoga Breathing Exercise), and return to normal breathing if you feel light-headed, dizzy, or faint. Remember we only need the basic breath control here, if you think Pranayama can bring you more benefits then look for one of the many good books available or better still join a class.
There are several postures recommended for Pranayama breathing exercises, most include the type of sitting with crossed legs that can be seen in many books or TV programs. Not many people have the time to spend learning how to achieve these postures, although they can prove beneficial. But to start your basic breathing exercise there is only one rule, 'NO slouching'. If you prefer to sit, keep a straight back, this will allow for the free passage of air between the throat, lungs and abdomen. Keeping a straight back will also keep your mind more alert. Although you can lie down if necessary, it is more difficult to do deep breathing while on your back, initially anyway. If you wish to learn about the other postures recommended, there are many good books available on Hatha Yoga.
Unless stated all inhalations and exhalations should be through your nostrils, this allows the body greater control over respiration.
To do yoga belly breathing properly you should allow your lungs to fill from the bottom up, this will assure you of maximum air penetration and absorption. The lungs lay just behind the rib cage and are attached to the ribs, they are therefore pulled open and closed by them. If you are breathing only with the top half of the chest, the top of your lungs will open first so that the air fills them only up at the very top. If on the other hand you push your belly out as you inhale you will expand your diaphragm first. The lower ribs will then push out and open the lower portion of the lung first. The air will then rush down into them to fill the vacuum there and so fills your whole lung chamber from the bottom to the top. When you exhale, you are in effect reversing the process, by pulling the belly in at the end of the exhalation. This last movement pushes the air complexly out of the lower portion of your lungs and so pushes all the toxins of the used air out of your lungs.
Don't worry if takes you a little time to practice and feel right when using this breathing method.
Deeper, steady breathing can increase the amount of oxygen the body can use to burn out disease.
The use of Pranayama increase the amount of 'chi' the body can use, for health and spiritual matters.
'Chi' can be used by the Inner and Higher-Self to help manifest your desires.
Start to breathe deeper when relaxing during the day and see what a difference it can make to how you feel.
Gerard Bulger is an IT Consultant who has been studying the Esoteric Sciences for many years, his latest ebook is http://www.magic-mind-method.co.uk.


text:
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Loving County is a county in the U.S. state of Texas. As of the 2010 census, the population was 82, making it the least populous county in the United States. Owing partly to its small and dispersed population, it also has the highest median per capita and household income of any county in Texas. Loving County has no incorporated communities; its county seat and only town is Mentone.
Part of the Haley Ranch, founded by the father of Texas historian J. Evetts Haley, is in Loving County, with another portion in neighboring Winkler County. Prehistorically, the area had many springs with potable water that supported wildlife and nomadic hunters. Antonio de Espejo visited the area in 1583 and crossed the Pecos River. Having surveyed the area in 1854 for a railroad company, John Pope returned in 1855 to start a camp in northwestern Loving County and established artesian wells in the area, but the venture was unsuccessful and was abandoned in 1861. From 1837 to 1874, the area of modern Loving County was part of the Bexar land district. In 1874, it was separated from Bexar County, becoming a part of Tom Green County.
Loving County is named for Oliver Loving, a cattle rancher and pioneer of the cattle drive. He was wounded by the Comanches while on a cattle drive in 1867 in the vicinity of the County.
Loving is the only county in Texas to be incorporated twice, first in 1887 and again in 1931. Its initial organization was affected by a canal company founded in Denver, Colorado, and appears to have been based upon fraud and willful misrepresentations made by the founders to state officials. After a local landowner hired a New York firm to investigate alleged improprieties in county government, the company's organizers fled, taking with them all the county records. The state legislature subsequently disincorporated Loving in 1897, attaching it to Reeves County.
Oil was discovered in 1921, leading to a population increase in Loving County. By 1930, there were 195 residents, mostly living in what would become the town of Mentone, which became the county seat when Loving was reconstituted in 1931. By 1933, the population had peaked at 600, only to begin a steady decline which continues to the present day.
Loving County was the home of the first elected female sheriff in Texas, Edna Reed Clayton Dewees. Dewees was appointed to the job in January 1945, then won an election to continue in the office through 1947. She never carried a firearm, and reported only two arrests during her entire term. Later she would return as a county district clerk, a job she held from 1965 to 1986. After retirement she lived on a ranch near Mentone until January 22, 2009 when she died in Del Rio, Texas.
Sheriffs' Association of Texas
Texas Association of Counties
Winkler & Loving County 4-H


text:
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Metastastic breast cancer MCB; also known as advanced, secondary, generalized or stage IV) occurs when cancer cells in the breast spread to other parts of the body. Unfortunately, there is still no cure for this cancer, and most people who are diagnosed undergo continuous treatment to limit the disease's progression and mitigate side effects.
Aware of this community's specific needs and of the lack in Quebec of adapted services, the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation has developed a program dedicated exclusively to providing support tailored to the reality of people affected by metastatic breast cancer.
At the Foundation, we feel it's important to involve affected persons in the development of new services and resources. The Stage 4 Club arose out of several needs in the community and facts documented nationally and internationally. People shared their experiences of MBC, bringing their perspective to the discussion. Joining in the decision-making process, they validate the relevance of our actions.
Our unique program is based on four pillars:
Implement interventions in Quebec that improve the quality of life of people affected by MBC and their caregivers.
Fund "hope-based" research and provide information on scientific advances in MBC.
Raise public awareness and educate patients about MBC, the resources available and the management of side effects.
Defend the rights of people with MBC and represent them at various levels of decision-making.
It can be very beneficial for people experiencing similar situations to help each other. Such support alleviates isolation and so improves quality of life. Surrounding ourselves with people who understand our reality, and thus gathering advice and information from peers, develops our personal resources for better coping with the challenges of daily life.
Chit-chat Club
Once a month, the Foundation hosts a peer support group so people can meet up and share a friendly moment with others who know what it is like to live with metastatic breast cancer.
Coordinated by trained patient-partners and supported by the expertise of a social worker, our self-help groups take place in a respectful, non-judgmental and completely confidential setting. Our distinctive approach? The health professional does not intervene in the discussion. Instead, the facilitator is there at the beginning of the session for the introductions, but then withdraws to a separate room to allow the participants to discuss freely.
How do I register? Simply fill out the registration form below. One of our patient-partners will contact you to confirm your registration and provide you with a schedule of upcoming meetings.
The main language of communication in the self-help groups is French.
https://fr.surveymonkey.com/r/clubjasette.
Please contact us for more information:
stade4@rubanrose.org
1-877-990-7171, ext. 250
Walking Club
The Foundation organizes walking clubs for people living with metastatic breast cancer. Their outings are organized by patient-partners and take place in Laval, Longueuil, Repentigny and Québec City.
These walks are easy, not physically demanding. All you need is a pair of comfortable shoes and clothing adapted to the season. In poor weather, your club coordinator will provide information about an indoor location.
For more information on upcoming outings or if you would like to organize a club in your area, please contact us at stade4@rubanrose.org or 1-877-990-7171, ext. 250.
The Foundation provides financial assistance of up to $2,000 per year to people diagnosed with metastatic (stage 4) breast cancer. Contact us to learn the eligibility criteria and submit an application.
rubanrose.org/support-resources/financial-assistance-program
aidefinanciere@rubanrose.org
Psychosocial support and family counselling
To support you through the many emotional ups and downs of breast cancer, you can get free psychosocial support from our social worker to help you strike a balance in your daily life. We offer individual or family meetings, held in person, by telephone or via videoconference.
Make an appointment by emailing us at: soutien@rubanrose.org
Information group
This private Facebook group is a way to stay informed about the Stage 4 Club's activities and recent news about metastatic breast cancer. Join the Club: https://www.facebook.com/groups/383171419022017/
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