text:
from datetime import datetime as dt
import os
import sys
import numpy
from osgeo import gdal
from osgeo.gdalconst import *
from core import gdalProperties
from imageFunctions import openImage, read_image_into_array, copySchemaToNewImage

OTHER_VALUE = 0

def classify_and_assess_accuracy(outputdir, cropimgpath, searchstringsvals, filevalist, nodata, thresholdsandlength,
                                 classifiedimagename=None, numberofprocesses=4):
    """
    """
    #TODO Docstring

    #from multiprocessing import Pool
    #pool = Pool(numberofprocesses)

    if classifiedimagename is None:
        today = dt.now()
        classifiedimagename = today.strftime("%Y-%m-%d_%H%M_") + os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(cropimgpath))[0]

    classificationimage = os.path.join(outputdir, classifiedimagename + ".tif")
    accuracyimage = os.path.join(outputdir, classifiedimagename + "_accuracy.tif")
    accuracyreport = os.path.join(outputdir, classifiedimagename + ".txt")

    #np.set_printoptions(threshold=np.nan)  # For debug: Makes numpy print whole contents of an array.
    #Crop image is constant for all iterations
    cropimg = openImage(cropimgpath)
    cropimgproperties = gdalProperties(cropimg)
    croparray = read_image_into_array(cropimg)
    cropimg = None

    arraylist = [(read_image_into_array(openImage(f[0])), f[1]) for f in filevalist]  # fit images with crop vals

    writestring = "The fit rasters and truth values used for this classification process are:\n"
    for f in filevalist:
        writestring = writestring + "\t{0}\t{1}\n".format(f[0], f[1])

    writestring = writestring + "\n"

    bestacc = 0
    bestthresh = None

    thresholdlist, lengthofthresholdlist = thresholdsandlength

    try:
        if lengthofthresholdlist == 1:
            writestring = writestring + "\n\n**Only using a single threshold value--not iterating.**\n\n"
            bestthresh = thresholdlist[0]
        else:

            #TODO: Refactor to allow use of multiprocessing.Pool.map -- need to reason about the output/logging
            for thresh in thresholdlist:
                start = dt.now()
                accuracy, classification, outstring = classify_with_threshold(croparray, arraylist, searchstringsvals,
                                                                              thresh, nodata, cropimgproperties.nodata)
                writestring = writestring + outstring

                if accuracy > bestacc:
                    bestacc = accuracy
                    bestthresh = thresh

                elapsed = dt.now() - start
                toprint = [thresh, "{}:{}".format(elapsed.seconds, str(elapsed.microseconds).zfill(6)), accuracy, bestacc, bestthresh]
                width = (6 * len(arraylist))
                sys.stdout.write("Thresh: {: <{width}}   Time: {}   Acc: {: <14}   Best: {: <14} at {}\r".format(*toprint, width=width))
                sys.stdout.flush()

    except Exception as e:
        import traceback
        exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback = sys.exc_info()
        print e
        traceback.print_exception(exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, limit=2, file=sys.stdout)

    finally:
        accuracy, classificationarray, outstring = classify_with_threshold(croparray, arraylist, searchstringsvals,
                                                                           bestthresh, nodata, cropimgproperties.nodata)

        writestring = writestring + outstring

        accuracyarray = find_correct_incorrect_array(croparray, classificationarray, ndvalue=nodata,
                                                     truthndvalue=cropimgproperties.nodata)

        with open(accuracyreport, 'w') as text:
            text.write("Classification using fit images from {0}\n\n".format(os.path.dirname(filevalist[0][0])))
            text.write("{0}\nBest:\n{1} {2}".format(writestring, bestthresh, accuracy))

        print("\n{0}, {1}".format(bestthresh, accuracy))

        driver = gdal.GetDriverByName("ENVI")
        driver.Register()

        write_output_image(cropimgproperties, classificationimage, classificationarray, nodata)
        write_output_image(cropimgproperties, accuracyimage, accuracyarray, nodata)

        print("outputted")

        return 0

def classify_with_threshold(croparray, arraylist, searchstringsvals, thresh, nodata, cropnodata):
    """
    """
    #TODO DOCSTRING
    #TODO test to ensure thresh length is equal to the number of image files?
    #TODO REFACTOR INTO SMALLER, MORE-TESTABLE FUNCTIONS!!!!

    arrays = []

    for i, arrayval in enumerate(arraylist):
        array = numpy.copy(arrayval[0])  # Not sure if I need to cpy, but believe the array is passed to the func by ref
        #TODO: Test to see if arrays are passed by reference
        array[array > thresh[i]] = 10000  # Make all values in the array greater than the thresh equal 10000
        arrays.append((array, arrayval[1]))  # Copy the array into a list

    count = 0
    finals = []

    for array, cropval in arrays:
        ltarrays = []
        nodataarrays = []  #TODO the location of this doesn't seem quite right...shouldn't it be outside the for loop?
        for i in range(len(arrays)):
            if not i == count:
                # This bit finds the lowest value for each pixel, and something else I can't quite ascertain with the nodata
                lt = array.__lt__(arrays[i][0])
                ltarrays.append(numpy.copy(lt))
                ndarray = numpy.copy(array)
                ndarray[ndarray != nodata] = 0
                ndarray = numpy.rint(ndarray)
                ndarray = ndarray.astype(int)
                nodataarrays.append(ndarray)
        count += 1

        allpxbestfit = None
        for i in range(len(ltarrays)):
            if i == 0:
                allpxbestfit = numpy.copy(ltarrays[i])
            else:
                allpxbestfit = allpxbestfit.__and__(ltarrays[i])
        finals.append(cropval * allpxbestfit)

    nodataarray = ""
    for ndarray in nodataarrays:
        if nodataarray == "":
            nodataarray = numpy.copy(ndarray)
        else:
            nodataarray = nodataarray.__and__(ndarray)  # Merge all nodata pixels from each fit image into one array

    classification = ""
    for final in finals:
        if classification == "":
            classification = numpy.copy(final)
        else:
            classification = classification.__or__(final)
    classification = classification.__or__(nodataarray)

    #Accuracy Assessment
    # accuracyarray = find_correct_incorrect_array(croparray, classification, ndvalue=nodata)
    # correctarray = accuracyarray.__mul__(classification)
    # incorrectarray = (1 - accuracyarray).__mul__(classification)

    results = {}
    for string, val in searchstringsvals:
        searchdict = {}
        temparray = numpy.copy(classification)
        tempcroparray = numpy.copy(croparray)
        temparray[temparray != val] = 0
        correct = temparray.__eq__(tempcroparray)
        #tempcroparray[tempcroparray == cropnodata] = 0
        incorrect = temparray.__ne__(tempcroparray)
        temparray[temparray == val] = 1
        incorrectvals = incorrect.__mul__(croparray).__mul__(temparray)
        for string2, val2 in searchstringsvals:
            temparray2 = numpy.copy(incorrectvals)
            temparray2[temparray2 != val2] = 0
            searchdict[string2] = temparray2.sum() / val2

        searchdict[string] = correct.sum()
        searchdict["other"] = len(
            [x for y in incorrectvals for x in y if not x in zip(*searchstringsvals)[1] and x != 0 and x != cropnodata])
        results[string] = searchdict.copy()

    searchdict = {}
    temparray = numpy.copy(classification)
    temparray[classification == 0] = 1
    temparray[classification != 0] = 0
    incorrectvals = temparray.__mul__(croparray)

    for string2, val2 in searchstringsvals:
        temparray2 = numpy.copy(incorrectvals)
        temparray2[temparray2 != val2] = 0
        searchdict[string2] = temparray2.sum() / val2

    searchdict["other"] = len(
        [x for y in incorrectvals for x in y if not x in zip(*searchstringsvals)[1] and x != 0 and x != cropnodata])
    results["other"] = searchdict.copy()

    numpx = 0
    for key, val in results.items():
        for k, v in val.items():
            numpx += v

    printstring = ""
    correct = 0
    croporder = []
    h = 0
    for crop, values in results.items():
        total = 0
        vals = []
        for crop2, pxcount in values.items():
            total = total + pxcount
            if not crop2 in croporder:
                croporder.append(crop2)
            if crop2 == crop:
                correct += pxcount
            vals.append(pxcount)
        printstring = printstring + "{0}\t\t{1}\t{2}\n".format(crop, vals, total)
        h += total
    accuracy = correct / (h * 1.0)

    outstring = ("{0}\n\t\t{1}\trow total\n{2}\n{3}\n\n\n".format(thresh, croporder, printstring, accuracy))

    return accuracy, classification, outstring

def find_correct_incorrect_array(trutharray, classificationarray, ndvalue=-3000, truthndvalue=None):
    uniquevals = set(numpy.unique(classificationarray))

    if OTHER_VALUE in uniquevals:
        uniquevals.remove(OTHER_VALUE)

    if truthndvalue in uniquevals:
        uniquevals.remove(ndvalue)

    accuracyarray = numpy.array(classificationarray.__eq__(trutharray), dtype=numpy.int_)  # sets acc array to 1 where equal, 0 where not

    otherarray = numpy.zeros_like(accuracyarray)
    otherarray[classificationarray == OTHER_VALUE] = 1
    for value in uniquevals:
        otherarray[trutharray == value] = 0

    accuracyarray[otherarray == 1] = 1   # where classified is other and truth is other, set to correct (1)

    accuracyarray[classificationarray == ndvalue] = ndvalue  # where classification contains nodata, set acc to nodata

    if truthndvalue:
        accuracyarray[trutharray == truthndvalue] = ndvalue  # where trutharray contains nodata, set acc to nodata

    return accuracyarray

def chunks(iterable, size=10):
    from itertools import chain, islice
    iterator = iter(iterable)
    for first in iterator:
        yield chain([first], islice(iterator, size - 1))

def generate_thresholds(start, step, numberofsteps, lengthofelement):
    #TODO Docstring

    from itertools import product

    end = numberofsteps * step + start
    thresholdvals = range(start, end, step)
    thresholdlists = []
    for i in range(0, lengthofelement):
        thresholdlists.append(thresholdvals)
    for i in product(*thresholdlists):
        yield i

def get_fit_rasters(searchdir, searchstringsvals):
    #Find fit images and open as arrays, building a list of tuples of the array and crop value
    files = os.listdir(searchdir)
    filevallist = [(os.path.join(searchdir, f), val) for string, val in searchstringsvals
                for f in files if f.endswith(".tif") and string in f]
    return filevallist

def write_output_image(propertiestocopy, outname, data, nodata):
    raster = copySchemaToNewImage(propertiestocopy, outname, datatype=GDT_Int16)
    raster_band = raster.GetRasterBand(1)
    raster_band.WriteArray(data, 0, 0)
    raster_band.SetNoDataValue(nodata)
    raster_band.FlushCache()
    raster_band = None
    raster = None

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


It's tough to travel anywhere in New Jersey, without hopping on the New Jersey Turnpike, the Garden State Parkway or any other number of major highways. While NJ's complex roadway system can make getting from place to place faster and easier, it also exposes New Jersey drivers to many dangers. An accident on the highway can have serious consequences for both drivers and passengers.
If you have been involved in a motor vehicle accident on the highway, an experienced attorney can ensure that the responsible parties are held accountable. At Bramnick, Rodriguez, Grabas, Arnold & Mangan, LLC, we know that a serious accident can result in both physical and emotional trauma for everyone involved. We invite you to rely on our experienced highway accident lawyers can help to alleviate some of the associated stress.
When cars, trucks, tractor-trailers, motorcycles and vehicles carrying wide loads have to share very busy roads in NJ, accidents happen.
Speed: The speed limit on most NJ highways is higher than the speed limits of other roadways. In addition, drivers will often exceed the posted speed limit in order to keep up with the flow of traffic. At high speeds, a small error can result in a serious accident, and even a minor collision can be deadly.
Construction: It seems there is always work happening on the state's roadways. Lanes are often closed or narrowed to accommodate construction equipment, forcing cars to drive closer to one another and increasing the likelihood of an accident.
Road Surface Issues: Due to soil composition and weather conditions in most of the state, New Jersey has some of the worst roads in the country. Because of our sandy soil and high underground water content, road surfaces easily become pitted and sunken. Road surfacing materials do not hold up well to New Jersey's hot summers and frigid winters, and potholes develop faster than road crews can fill them. Any of these inconsistencies in road surfacing can lead to accidents.
Overloaded Cargo: New Jersey is located near a number of major cities; Baltimore and Washington, D.C. to the south, Philadelphia to the west and New York City to the north. As a result, the state's highways serve as a popular shipping route for cargo and equipment. The huge trucks that carry these loads are often filled beyond capacity or loaded improperly, creating a danger for the cars sharing the highway.
Tired Drivers: Due to strict delivery deadlines, truckers drive for hours at a time – causing undue driver fatigue. A large truck with a driver who is drifting off represents a serious danger for highway travellers. Other drivers can fall asleep too, and the repetitive scenery on New Jersey's highways can be a big contributing factor.
Whether your accident was caused as a result of one of a highway danger, a poorly maintained commercial vehicle or a fatigued driver, the personal injury lawyers at Bramnick, Rodriguez, Grabas, Arnold & Mangan, LLC will work to investigate what happened. We've successfully represented clients in Scotch Plains, Newark, Cherry Hill and throughout New Jersey who have been injured or killed in highway accidents.
By expertly recreating the circumstances of an accident with experienced forensic investigators, our legal team will get the facts straight and determine who is at fault.
Then, we will work fiercely on your family's behalf to win the compensation you deserve. Contact our offices today to request your free consultation with a knowledgeable, compassionate lawyer who will put your rights first.


text:
Herts Advertiser > Sport
Three points always the most important thing but Brad Sach still gets thrill from scoring
Neil Metcalfe
Brad Sach says the three points for Potters Bar Town at Wingate & Finchley were the most important despite his late winner. Picture: DANNY LOO - Credit: Danny Loo/TGS Photo
Brad Sach may be playing in a different role for Potters Bar Town this season but he still has the hunger for goals.
He struck three minutes from time on Saturday to ensure a 2-1 win for the Scholars at Wingate & Finchley and end a run of five games without a goal.
But that was a sequence that didn't bother him as he knows chances are harder to come by now he is employed in a number 10-type position behind striker Josh Hutchinson.
He said: "I've had a few games now without a goal but I'm playing in a slightly deeper role where it's not as easy to get goals.
"I do like it as I get the ball a lot more. My main thing is scoring goals but if dropping deeper helps the team then so be it.
"I still get chances. I had one chance against Wingate but I took it.
"I felt a bit leggy as I did a lot of running but I took it well."
1 City centre Poundland store could be demolished and rebuilt
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3 Ricky Gervais' Netflix series After Life filmed in Hertfordshire
4 10 filming locations of new Netflix series Stay Close
5 Green light given for St Albans City to hit the transfer market but patience is key says Allinson
6 'Visually striking' Chaos Dancing Cosmos installation at St Albans Museum + Gallery
7 Obituary: Don Francis, former St Albans City and St Albans Sunday League star
8 Allinson happy with the reaction from St Albans City in the draw at Chelmsford
9 St Albans hockey player still going strong at 80
10 The latest court results for the St Albans area
His work rate was just about to see him pulled from the field of play when he scored according to manager Lee O'Leary.
But the boss was also delighted with his contribution elsewhere while the player himself said the win trumps any personal satisfaction he felt from the clash at Summers Lane.
"Three points are always more important," said Sach with a smile. "That's all that matters.
"Don't get me wrong, scoring is unbelievable but the pitch was heavy and it was tough.
"But we pushed on. The gaffer is always talking about desire, that's what he asks for. We don't give up and there have been other occasions this season where we've been losing and we've got the win.
"We were 1-0 down early on but we've turned it around."
It lifts them into the relative comfort of mid-table in the Isthmian Premier Division but the games continue to come thick and fast with Kingstonian at home on Saturday next up after the Christmas festivities.
And Sach is happy that the squad can take that particular issue in their stride.
"We spoke afterwards and we've got to look after ourselves," he said.
"We'll enjoy Christmas Day and eat and drink what we want then but for the rest of the week we'll keep in shape.
"We're a professional team and I'm sure we'll go on and end the year properly."

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


T8 is a bold, dynamic work that punctuates the urban street corner as traffic flows east along Locust Street. This monumental piece has consistently drawn critical acclaim, confronting audiences with a vivid orange-red color and mesmerizing even the casual passer-by with subtle energy and intricate proportion.The artist draws inspiration from many sources including mathematics, physics, music, poetry and astronomy. From one vantage point, the "T8" steel crossed I-beams and circular center visually suggests a sunburst, clock or wheel form. In anatomy, the term "T8" generally refers to a mixed spinal nerve, which carries motor, sensory, and autonomic signals between the spinal cord and the body. However, walking around "T8" produces constantly changing views, and moving under it creates yet another experience of the sculpture and its space. Historically, sculpture was an object to be looked at, usually on a pedestal, not something one viewed from underneath. "T8", by contrast, offers a totally new visual and physiological experience.


text:
An Interview With The CEO Of Radio Ambulante
We spoke with Carolina Guerrero about the importance of Spanish-language storytelling in the United States and the rest of the Americas.
Half the Radio Ambulante team gathered in Colombia. Left to Right: engagement editor Jorge Caraballo, editorial intern Maytik Avirama, CEO Carolina Guerrero, senior editor Camila Segura and producer David Trujillo.
It is a very good time to work in podcasting. Since the success of Serial, podcasts have gone from being a vague mystery to the general public to a near obsession among many people. Unfortunately, though, this medium is very monolingual (in the United States, at least). There's only one non-English show that has really managed to become a success: Radio Ambulante.
While it may not have as large an audience as shows like Radiolab and This American Life, Radio Ambulante has managed to create a platform for long-form, emotional journalism for Latin Americans. Hosted by Daniel Alarcón, the show is based in New York City and has producers and journalists spread throughout North and South America. The show won the prestigious Gabriel García Márquez Prize for Innovation in Journalism in 2014, and it was acquired by NPR in 2016, which has been a boon to its visibility in the United States. Topics covered range from the underground punk and metal scene of Cuba in the 1980s and '90s to a terror-filled story of a massacre in a Venezuelan prison.
Though the show is very Spanish-language focused, Radio Ambulante offers tools for those learning the language, including transcripts in both Spanish and English. They also provide resources for teachers use the show in the classroom.
Babbel sat down with Radio Ambulante CEO Carolina Guerrero to talk about the creation of the show, the relationship between English and Spanish, and the importance of telling Latin American stories in their native language.
BABBEL: First, what do you do as CEO of Radio Ambulante?
GUERRERO: I run basically all the operations, sustainability of the project, finances, management. I've been doing this since we started Radio Ambulante six years ago.
BABBEL: Why did you start the podcast?
GUERRERO: I think it was a frustration, and a need. It was kind of a spark. Daniel and I are married, but we were dating at the time, and we used to talk about radio shows. This American Life and Radiolab, all those types of shows. We were listening to an episode and were like, "Oh, yes, this is great." And then we talked about how frustrating it was that there was nothing like that talking about stories from Latin America. So Daniel would say, "Oh, I always wanted to do This American Life in Spanish for Latin America, but I'm a novelist, I don't have time for it."
A couple of years later, in 2011, I was looking to start a project that related to storytelling. I was convinced that I was doing something related to commentaries, or like, journalism, journalists, females. I don't know, I had a couple of ideas, and he came to me and said, "No, why don't we do this thing on the radio." And I knew what he was talking about, and we were having coffee in San Francisco before picking up our son at school, and he said, "OK, you do the interpreting, and I'll do the narrative part," and I said, "Yes." That night we sent the signal to many journalist friends in Latin America, and the next morning we had our inbox full of story ideas.
BABBEL: How do you cover so much of Latin America while being based in the United States?
GUERRERO: I supervise everything from here, but Radio Ambulante exists because technology exists. We have a senior editor in Colombia, another editor in London, because she continues to move around the world. When she started working with us five years ago, she was in Santiago, and now she's in London. We have one reporter in Puerto Rico, one new editor in Costa Rica, and we have grown the operation in Colombia. I don't know why, because it wasn't intentional. Now we have an engagement editor in Medellín, and another reporter in Bogotá, and we continue to work with freelance collaborators around the continent.
The Radio Ambulante team is scattered around the world, but every Monday they hold a meeting on Zoom. From the left, starting at the top: senior editor Camila Segura, CEO Carolina Guerrero and executive producer Daniel Alarcón, editorial assistant Luis Fernando Vargas Vega, editor Silvia Viñas, producer Luis Trelles, engagement editor Jorge Caraballo, program coordinator Andrea Betanzos, reporter David Trujillo Patiño, and editorial intern Maytik Avirama.
BABBEL: Since you started Radio Ambulante six years ago, do you think the situation of Spanish-language media has improved?
GUERRERO: We hope so. When we created Radio Ambulante, we established as a nonprofit organization because we thought it was the easiest thing to do, and we didn't know what we were getting into. And I'm so glad, because otherwise we wouldn't have done it. It has been too much work, so we wanted to make sure that we could raise grants and all that, because we were bringing these voices to the airwaves and finding new talent in Latinoamérica. But also, we wanted to see Radio Ambulante replicated soon, and we were expecting that to happen, and this is not happening.
BABBEL: Turning to more recent events, do you think the treatment of Puerto Rico following Hurricane Maria has anything to do with the perceived language divide?
GUERRERO: I think, I'm gonna say it like this, but I think some ignorance. Learning that many Americans don't know yet that Puerto Rico is part of the United States. But OK, you can't know, but I think there is definitely a generalized racism lately, and I think that is a rejection of certain communities. A journalist once told me that people consider Puerto Rico "the bastard colonies of the United States," and I think what is happening now is showing that disdain for that island.
Anyone who has met a Puerto Rican has seen that Puerto Ricans are the nicest people on Earth. They are so great, and half of the population is within the continental United States. I'm very surprised by the government, but I'm also glad that there are many people fundraising for Puerto Rico. I'm not sure if it's a Spanish-language problem. You go there and everyone speaks English, and they consider themselves Americans. They are just mostly Democrats. So, I don't think in this case it's a language barrier, I think it's just simply some people in this country don't want any Latinos, period.
"I think when people speak about Latin America, they think it's just one whole thing, but we are so many different cultures and people. I think this is the beautiful part of Ambulante."
BABBEL: There does seem to be some sort of language divide. For example, recently President Trump decided to imitate a Latino accent when saying "Puerto Rico."
GUERRERO: When we were raised in Latin America we had to always consume media in English. Even if you had voiceovers on TV, you needed at some point to study English. We were forced to learn a language. I can't understand why they are so afraid of learning other languages, and of other culture. I speak four languages. With my charm, and my accent. But I really regret that I didn't take time before my kids and my marriage and my work to learn more languages and travel more. And here is this president that goes on TV, and he does that, and it's so shameful, because it shows how narrow he is.
For people like us who wanted to learn about the world, for someone to make fun of trying to pronounce a language properly is very small. And I understand so many people didn't have opportunities to learn languages, but it shows a lack of respect for humanity and a lack of celebration of life. I don't know. I have two kids here who are completely bilingual, because they're grown in the United States. They correct my accent in English constantly. I can't deny that sometimes I feel if I take the car and I travel with them and we're speaking in Spanish at the diner, I'm sure people will start saying things to me, and I don't know what I'm going to respond to them.
BABBEL: How do people respond to your use of Spanish to tell the stories on Radio Ambulante?
GUERRERO: We receive a lot of comments that we don't speak proper Spanish. Not many, but some from teachers. Many Americans who teach Spanish as a second language say, "Oh, you have an accent." One thing that is beautiful about Radio Ambulante is that we take advantage of the common language that is spoken by many people, and we identify ourselves as an American podcast that happens to be in Spanish, or a Latin American podcast that is based in New York. We use this to connect people and understand and learn what we have in common and what makes us different. I think when people speak about Latin America, they think it's just one whole thing, but we are so many different cultures and people. I think this is the beautiful part of Ambulante. We tell the stories of Latinoamérica, and we consider the United States a Latinoamericano country because there are more than 50 million people who speak or understand Spanish.
I think language can break these physical barriers, and these cultural barriers are very permeable, and this is what a language does.The language is what makes Radio Ambulante come to life. We keep original accents. We embrace the accents of people who grew up here and don't speak Spanish perfectly. Sometimes people think the host is forcing the "b" and the "v," and we're like "No! It's just in Chile they talk like that." In the United States, yeah, some people can't write Spanish perfectly, but they are bilingual. We appreciate the language and how people use it.
This interview has been edited for length and clarity.
Learn so you can listen along.
Thomas Moore Devlin
Thomas grew up in suburban Massachusetts, and moved to New York City for college. He studied English literature and linguistics at New York University, but spent most of his time in college working for the student paper. Because of this, he has really hard opinions about AP Style. In his spare time, he enjoys reading and getting angry about things on Twitter. He's spent a lot of time trying to learn Spanish, and has learned a little German.
An Interview With The Founder Of Bookselling Without Borders
Michael Reynolds, the editor-in-chief of Europa Editions, is on a mission to bring more translated literature to the United States.
7 Podcasts To Listen To If You're Learning Spanish
Foreign language podcasts can be a great supplement to your language learning. Check out our list of the six best Spanish language pods!
How Many People Speak Spanish, And Where Is It Spoken?
You might know Spanish, but do you KNOW Spanish?


text:
2Cannabinoid receptors
2.1Cannabinoid receptor type 1
3Phytocannabinoids
3.1Well known cannabinoids
3.1.1Tetrahydrocannabinol
3.1.2Cannabidiol
3.1.3Cannabinol
3.2Biosynthesis
3.3Double bond position
3.4Length
3.5Cannabinoids in other plants
3.6Cannabis plant profile
3.7Pharmacology
3.7.1Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals
3.8Separation
3.9History
4Endocannabinoids
4.1Types of endocannabinoid ligands
4.1.1Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA)
4.1.22-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)
4.1.32-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether)
4.1.4N-Arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA)
4.1.5Virodhamine (OAE)
4.1.6Lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI)
4.2Function
4.2.1Retrograde signal
4.2.2"Runner's high"
5Synthetic cannabinoids
(Redirected from Endocannabinoid)
Compounds found in cannabis
Magu (deity)
Latter-day Saints
Stoner film
Cannabinoid receptors
Cannabinoid receptor type 1
2-AGE, Noladin ether
Virodhamine
CP-55940
Dimethylheptylpyran
HU-210
Levonantradol
SR144528
Adult lifetime cannabis use by country
Annual cannabis use by country
Grow house
Marijuana vending machine
Effects of legalized cannabis
Gateway drug theory
Long term effects
Time perception
Charas
Flower essential oil
Thai stick
Legality of cannabis
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Cannabinoids (/kəˈnæbənɔɪdzˌ ˈkænəbənɔɪdz/) are several structural classes of compounds found in the cannabis plant primarily and most animal organisms (although insects lack such receptors) or as synthetic compounds.[1][2] The most notable cannabinoid is the phytocannabinoid tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (delta-9-THC), the primary intoxicating compound in cannabis.[3][4] Cannabidiol (CBD) is a major constituent of temperate Cannabis plants and a minor constituent in tropical varieties.[5] At least 113 distinct phytocannabinoids have been isolated from cannabis, although only four (i.e., THCA, CBDA, CBCA and their common precursor CBGA) have been demonstrated to have a biogenetic origin.[6] It was reported in 2020 that phytocannabinoids can be found in other plants such as rhododendron, licorice and liverwort,[7] and earlier in Echinacea.
Phytocannabinoids are multi-ring phenolic compounds structurally related to THC,[8] but endocannabinoids are fatty acid derivatives. Nonclassical synthetic cannabinoids (cannabimimetics) include aminoalkylindoles, 1,5-diarylpyrazoles, quinolines, and arylsulfonamides as well as eicosanoids related to endocannabinoids.[3]
Medical uses include the treatment of nausea due to chemotherapy, spasticity, and possibly neuropathic pain.[9] Common side effects include dizziness, sedation, confusion, dissociation, and "feeling high".[9]
Cannabinoid receptors[edit]
Before the 1980s, cannabinoids were speculated to produce their physiological and behavioral effects via nonspecific interaction with cell membranes, instead of interacting with specific membrane-bound receptors. The discovery of the first cannabinoid receptors in the 1980s helped to resolve this debate.[10] These receptors are common in animals. Two known cannabinoid receptors are termed CB1 and CB2,[11] with mounting evidence of more.[12] The human brain has more cannabinoid receptors than any other G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) type.[13]
The Endocannabinoid System (ECS) regulates many functions of the human body. The ECS plays an important role in multiple aspects of neural functions, including the control of movement and motor coordination, learning and memory, emotion and motivation, addictive-like behavior and pain modulation, among others.[14]
Cannabinoid receptor type 1[edit]
Main article: Cannabinoid receptor type 1
CB1 receptors are found primarily in the brain, more specifically in the basal ganglia and in the limbic system, including the hippocampus[11] and the striatum. They are also found in the cerebellum and in both male and female reproductive systems. CB1 receptors are absent in the medulla oblongata, the part of the brain stem responsible for respiratory and cardiovascular functions. CB1 is also found in the human anterior eye and retina.[15]
CB2 receptors are predominantly found in the immune system, or immune-derived cells[16][17][18][19] with varying expression patterns. While found only in the peripheral nervous system, a report does indicate that CB2 is expressed by a subpopulation of microglia in the human cerebellum.[20] CB2 receptors appear to be responsible for immunomodulatory[19] and possibly other therapeutic effects of cannabinoid as seen in vitro and in animal models.[18]
Phytocannabinoids[edit]
See also: Comparison of phytocannabinoids
The bracts surrounding a cluster of Cannabis sativa flowers are coated with cannabinoid-laden trichomes.
Cannabis indica plant
The classical cannabinoids are concentrated in a viscous resin produced in structures known as glandular trichomes. At least 113 different cannabinoids have been isolated from the Cannabis plant.[6] To the right, the main classes of cannabinoids from Cannabis are shown.[citation needed]
All classes derive from cannabigerol-type (CBG) compounds and differ mainly in the way this precursor is cyclized.[21] The classical cannabinoids are derived from their respective 2-carboxylic acids (2-COOH) by decarboxylation (catalyzed by heat, light, or alkaline conditions).[citation needed]
Well known cannabinoids[edit]
The best studied cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD) and cannabinol (CBN).
Tetrahydrocannabinol[edit]
Main article: Tetrahydrocannabinol
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive component of the Cannabis plant. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC, THC) and Delta-8-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), through intracellular CB1 activation, induce anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis produced naturally in the body and brain[citation needed][dubious – discuss]. These cannabinoids produce the effects associated with cannabis by binding to the CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[22]
Cannabidiol[edit]
Main article: Cannabidiol
Cannabidiol (CBD) is mildly psychotropic. Evidence shows that the compound counteracts cognitive impairment associated with the use of cannabis.[23] Cannabidiol has little affinity for CB1 and CB2 receptors but acts as an indirect antagonist of cannabinoid agonists.[24] It was found to be an antagonist at the putative new cannabinoid receptor, GPR55, a GPCR expressed in the caudate nucleus and putamen.[25] Cannabidiol has also been shown to act as a 5-HT1A receptor agonist.[26] CBD can interfere with the uptake of adenosine, which plays an important role in biochemical processes, such as energy transfer. It may play a role in promoting sleep and suppressing arousal.[27]
CBD shares a precursor with THC and is the main cannabinoid in CBD-dominant Cannabis strains. CBD has been shown to play a role in preventing the short-term memory loss associated with THC.[28]
There is tentative evidence that CBD has an anti-psychotic effect, but research in this area is limited.[29][23]
Cannabinol[edit]
Main article: Cannabinol
Cannabinol (CBN) is a mildly psychoactive cannabinoid that acts as a low affinity partial agonist at both CB1 and CB2 receptors.[30][31][32] Through its mechanism of partial agonism at the CB1R, CBN is thought to interact with other kinds of neurotransmission (e.g., dopaminergic, serotonergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic).
CBN was the first cannabis compound to be isolated from cannabis extract in the late 1800s. Its structure and chemical synthesis were achieved by 1940[33], followed by some of the first pre-clinical research studies to determine the effects of individual cannabis-derived compounds in vivo.[34] Although CBN shares the same mechanism of action as other more well-known phytocannabinoids (e.g., delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol or D9THC), it has a lower affinity for CB1 receptors, meaning that much higher doses of CBN are required in order to experience physiologic effects (e.g., mild sedation) associated with CB1R agonism.[35][34] Although scientific reports are conflicting, the majority of findings suggest that CBN has a slightly higher affinity for CB2 as compared to CB1. Although CBN has been marketed as a sleep aid in recent years, there is a lack of scientific evidence to support these claims, warranting skepticism on the part of consumers.[35]
Biosynthesis[edit]
Cannabinoid production starts when an enzyme causes geranyl pyrophosphate and olivetolic acid to combine and form CBGA. Next, CBGA is independently converted to either CBG, THCA, CBDA or CBCA by four separate synthase, FAD-dependent dehydrogenase enzymes. There is no evidence for enzymatic conversion of CBDA or CBD to THCA or THC. For the propyl homologues (THCVA, CBDVA and CBCVA), there is an analogous pathway that is based on CBGVA from divarinolic acid instead of olivetolic acid.
Double bond position[edit]
In addition, each of the compounds above may be in different forms depending on the position of the double bond in the alicyclic carbon ring. There is potential for confusion because there are different numbering systems used to describe the position of this double bond. Under the dibenzopyran numbering system widely used today, the major form of THC is called Δ9-THC, while the minor form is called Δ8-THC. Under the alternate terpene numbering system, these same compounds are called Δ1-THC and Δ6-THC, respectively.
Length[edit]
Most classical cannabinoids are 21-carbon compounds. However, some do not follow this rule, primarily because of variation in the length of the side-chain attached to the aromatic ring. In THC, CBD, and CBN, this side-chain is a pentyl (5-carbon) chain. In the most common homologue, the pentyl chain is replaced with a propyl (3-carbon) chain. Cannabinoids with the propyl side chain are named using the suffix varin and are designated THCV, CBDV, or CBNV, while those with the heptyl side chain are named using the suffix phorol and are designated THCP and CBDP.
Cannabinoids in other plants[edit]
Phytocannabinoids are known to occur in several plant species besides cannabis. These include Echinacea purpurea, Echinacea angustifolia, Acmella oleracea, Helichrysum umbraculigerum, and Radula marginata.[36] The best-known cannabinoids that are not derived from Cannabis are the lipophilic alkamides (alkylamides) from Echinacea species, most notably the cis/trans isomers dodeca-2E,4E,8Z,10E/Z-tetraenoic-acid-isobutylamide.[36] At least 25 different alkylamides have been identified, and some of them have shown affinities to the CB2-receptor.[37][38] In some Echinacea species, cannabinoids are found throughout the plant structure, but are most concentrated in the roots and flowers.[39][40] Yangonin found in the Kava plant has significant affinity to the CB1 receptor.[41] Tea (Camellia sinensis) catechins have an affinity for human cannabinoid receptors.[42] A widespread dietary terpene, beta-caryophyllene, a component from the essential oil of cannabis and other medicinal plants, has also been identified as a selective agonist of peripheral CB2-receptors, in vivo.[43] Black truffles contain anandamide.[44] Perrottetinene, a moderately psychoactive cannabinoid,[45] has been isolated from different Radula varieties.
Most of the phytocannabinoids are nearly insoluble in water but are soluble in lipids, alcohols, and other non-polar organic solvents.
Cannabis plant profile[edit]
Cannabis plants can exhibit wide variation in the quantity and type of cannabinoids they produce. The mixture of cannabinoids produced by a plant is known as the plant's cannabinoid profile. Selective breeding has been used to control the genetics of plants and modify the cannabinoid profile. For example, strains that are used as fiber (commonly called hemp) are bred such that they are low in psychoactive chemicals like THC. Strains used in medicine are often bred for high CBD content, and strains used for recreational purposes are usually bred for high THC content or for a specific chemical balance.
Quantitative analysis of a plant's cannabinoid profile is often determined by gas chromatography (GC), or more reliably by gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Liquid chromatography (LC) techniques are also possible and, unlike GC methods, can differentiate between the acid and neutral forms of the cannabinoids. There have been systematic attempts to monitor the cannabinoid profile of cannabis over time, but their accuracy is impeded by the illegal status of the plant in many countries.
Pharmacology[edit]
Cannabinoids can be administered by smoking, vaporizing, oral ingestion, transdermal patch, intravenous injection, sublingual absorption, or rectal suppository. Once in the body, most cannabinoids are metabolized in the liver, especially by cytochrome P450 mixed-function oxidases, mainly CYP 2C9.[46] Thus supplementing with CYP 2C9 inhibitors leads to extended intoxication.[46]
Some is also stored in fat in addition to being metabolized in the liver. Δ9-THC is metabolized to 11-hydroxy-Δ9-THC, which is then metabolized to 9-carboxy-THC.[47] Some cannabis metabolites can be detected in the body several weeks after administration. These metabolites are the chemicals recognized by common antibody-based "drug tests"; in the case of THC or others, these loads do not represent intoxication (compare to ethanol breath tests that measure instantaneous blood alcohol levels), but an integration of past consumption over an approximately month-long window. This is because they are fat-soluble, lipophilic molecules that accumulate in fatty tissues.[48]
Research shows the effect of cannabinoids might be modulated by aromatic compounds produced by the cannabis plant, called terpenes. This interaction would lead to the entourage effect.[49]
Cannabinoid-based pharmaceuticals[edit]
Nabiximols (brand name Sativex) is an aerosolized mist for oral administration containing a near 1:1 ratio of CBD and THC.[50] Also included are minor cannabinoids and terpenoids, ethanol and propylene glycol excipients, and peppermint flavoring.[51] The drug, made by GW Pharmaceuticals, was first approved by Canadian authorities in 2005 to alleviate pain associated with multiple sclerosis, making it the first cannabis-based medicine. It is marketed by Bayer in Canada.[52] Sativex has been approved in 25 countries; clinical trials are underway in the United States to gain FDA approval.[53] In 2007, it was approved for treatment of cancer pain.[51] In Phase III trials, the most common adverse effects were dizziness, drowsiness and disorientation; 12% of subjects stopped taking the drug because of the side effects.[54]
Dronabinol (brand name Marinol) is a THC drug used to treat poor appetite, nausea, and sleep apnea.[55] It is approved by the FDA for treating HIV/AIDS induced anorexia and chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting.[56][57][58]
The CBD drug Epidiolex has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treatment of two rare and severe forms of epilepsy,[59] Dravet and Lennox-Gastaut syndromes.[60]
Separation[edit]
Cannabinoids can be separated from the plant by extraction with organic solvents. Hydrocarbons and alcohols are often used as solvents. However, these solvents are flammable and many are toxic.[61] Butane may be used, which evaporates extremely quickly. Supercritical solvent extraction with carbon dioxide is an alternative technique. Once extracted, isolated components can be separated using wiped film vacuum distillation or other distillation techniques.[62] Also, techniques such as SPE or SPME are found useful in the extraction of these compounds.[63]
The first discovery of an individual cannabinoid was made, when British chemist Robert S. Cahn reported the partial structure of Cannabinol (CBN), which he later identified as fully formed in 1940.
Two years later, in 1942,[64] American chemist, Roger Adams, made history when he discovered Cannabidiol (CBD).[65] Progressing from Adams research, in 1963[66] Israeli professor Raphael Mechoulam[67] later identified the stereochemistry of CBD. The following year, in 1964,[66] Mechoulam and his team identified the stereochemistry of Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).[citation needed]
Due to molecular similarity and ease of synthetic conversion, CBD was originally believed to be a natural precursor to THC. However, it is now known that CBD and THC are produced independently in the Cannabis plant from the precursor CBG.[citation needed]
Endocannabinoids[edit]
Further information on the functions and regulation of the endocannabinoids: Endocannabinoid system
Anandamide, an endogenous ligand of CB1 and CB2
Endocannabinoids are substances produced from within the body that activate cannabinoid receptors. After the discovery of the first cannabinoid receptor in 1988, scientists began searching for endogenous ligand for the receptors.[10][68]
Types of endocannabinoid ligands[edit]
Arachidonoylethanolamine (Anandamide or AEA)[edit]
Main article: Arachidonoylethanolamine
Anandamide was the first such compound identified as arachidonoyl ethanolamine. The name is derived from the Sanskrit word for bliss and -amide. It has a pharmacology similar to THC, although its structure is quite different. Anandamide binds to the central (CB1) and, to a lesser extent, peripheral (CB2) cannabinoid receptors, where it acts as a partial agonist. Anandamide is about as potent as THC at the CB1 receptor.[69] Anandamide is found in nearly all tissues in a wide range of animals.[70] Anandamide has also been found in plants, including small amounts in chocolate.[71]
Two analogs of anandamide, 7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoylethanolamide and homo-γ-linolenoylethanolamine, have similar pharmacology. All of these compounds are members of a family of signalling lipids called N-acylethanolamines, which also includes the noncannabimimetic palmitoylethanolamide and oleoylethanolamide, which possess anti-inflammatory and anorexigenic effects, respectively. Many N-acylethanolamines have also been identified in plant seeds[72] and in molluscs.[73]
2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)[edit]
Main article: 2-Arachidonoylglycerol
Another endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonoylglycerol, binds to both the CB1 and CB2 receptors with similar affinity, acting as a full agonist at both.[69] 2-AG is present at significantly higher concentrations in the brain than anandamide,[74] and there is some controversy over whether 2-AG rather than anandamide is chiefly responsible for endocannabinoid signalling in vivo.[11] In particular, one in vitro study suggests that 2-AG is capable of stimulating higher G-protein activation than anandamide, although the physiological implications of this finding are not yet known.[75]
2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether)[edit]
Main article: 2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether
In 2001, a third, ether-type endocannabinoid, 2-arachidonyl glyceryl ether (noladin ether), was isolated from porcine brain.[76] Prior to this discovery, it had been synthesized as a stable analog of 2-AG; indeed, some controversy remains over its classification as an endocannabinoid, as another group failed to detect the substance at "any appreciable amount" in the brains of several different mammalian species.[77] It binds to the CB1 cannabinoid receptor (Ki = 21.2 nmol/L) and causes sedation, hypothermia, intestinal immobility, and mild antinociception in mice. It binds primarily to the CB1 receptor, and only weakly to the CB2 receptor.[69]
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA)[edit]
Main article: N-Arachidonoyl dopamine
Discovered in 2000, NADA preferentially binds to the CB1 receptor.[78] Like anandamide, NADA is also an agonist for the vanilloid receptor subtype 1 (TRPV1), a member of the vanilloid receptor family.[79][80]
Virodhamine (OAE)[edit]
Main article: Virodhamine
A fifth endocannabinoid, virodhamine, or O-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (OAE), was discovered in June 2002. Although it is a full agonist at CB2 and a partial agonist at CB1, it behaves as a CB1 antagonist in vivo. In rats, virodhamine was found to be present at comparable or slightly lower concentrations than anandamide in the brain, but 2- to 9-fold higher concentrations peripherally.[81]
Lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI)[edit]
Lysophosphatidylinositol is the endogenous ligand to novel endocannabinoid receptor GPR55, making it a strong contender as the sixth endocannabinoid.[82]
Function[edit]
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Endocannabinoids serve as intercellular 'lipid messengers',[83] signaling molecules that are released from one cell and activating the cannabinoid receptors present on other nearby cells. Although in this intercellular signaling role they are similar to the well-known monoamine neurotransmitters such as dopamine, endocannabinoids differ in numerous ways from them. For instance, they are used in retrograde signaling between neurons.[84] Furthermore, endocannabinoids are lipophilic molecules that are not very soluble in water. They are not stored in vesicles and exist as integral constituents of the membrane bilayers that make up cells. They are believed to be synthesized 'on-demand' rather than made and stored for later use.
As hydrophobic molecules, endocannabinoids cannot travel unaided for long distances in the aqueous medium surrounding the cells from which they are released and therefore act locally on nearby target cells. Hence, although emanating diffusely from their source cells, they have much more restricted spheres of influence than do hormones, which can affect cells throughout the body.
The mechanisms and enzymes underlying the biosynthesis of endocannabinoids remain elusive and continue to be an area of active research.
The endocannabinoid 2-AG has been found in bovine and human maternal milk.[85]
A review by Matties et al. (1994) summed up the phenomenon of gustatory enhancement by certain cannabinoids.[86] The sweet receptor (Tlc1) is stimulated by indirectly increasing its expression and suppressing the activity of leptin, the Tlc1 antagonist. It is proposed that the competition of leptin and cannabinoids for Tlc1 is implicated in energy homeostasis.[87]
Retrograde signal[edit]
Conventional neurotransmitters are released from a 'presynaptic' cell and activate appropriate receptors on a 'postsynaptic' cell, where presynaptic and postsynaptic designate the sending and receiving sides of a synapse, respectively. Endocannabinoids, on the other hand, are described as retrograde transmitters because they most commonly travel 'backward' against the usual synaptic transmitter flow. They are, in effect, released from the postsynaptic cell and act on the presynaptic cell, where the target receptors are densely concentrated on axonal terminals in the zones from which conventional neurotransmitters are released. Activation of cannabinoid receptors temporarily reduces the amount of conventional neurotransmitter released. This endocannabinoid-mediated system permits the postsynaptic cell to control its own incoming synaptic traffic. The ultimate effect on the endocannabinoid-releasing cell depends on the nature of the conventional transmitter being controlled. For instance, when the release of the inhibitory transmitter GABA is reduced, the net effect is an increase in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell. On the converse, when release of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate is reduced, the net effect is a decrease in the excitability of the endocannabinoid-releasing cell.[88][citation needed]
"Runner's high"[edit]
The runner's high, the feeling of euphoria that sometimes accompanies aerobic exercise, has often been attributed to the release of endorphins, but newer research suggests that it might be due to endocannabinoids instead.[89]
Synthetic cannabinoids[edit]
Main article: Synthetic cannabinoid
Historically, laboratory synthesis of cannabinoids was often based on the structure of herbal cannabinoids, and a large number of analogs have been produced and tested, especially in a group led by Roger Adams as early as 1941 and later in a group led by Raphael Mechoulam.[90] Newer compounds are no longer related to natural cannabinoids or are based on the structure of the endogenous cannabinoids.[91]
Synthetic cannabinoids are particularly useful in experiments to determine the relationship between the structure and activity of cannabinoid compounds, by making systematic, incremental modifications of cannabinoid molecules.[92]
When synthetic cannabinoids are used recreationally, they present significant health dangers to users.[93] In the period of 2012 through 2014, over 10,000 contacts to poison control centers in the United States were related to use of synthetic cannabinoids.[93]
Medications containing natural or synthetic cannabinoids or cannabinoid analogs:
Dronabinol (Marinol), is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), used as an appetite stimulant, anti-emetic, and analgesic
Nabilone (Cesamet, Canemes), a synthetic cannabinoid and an analog of Marinol. It is Schedule II unlike Marinol, which is Schedule III
Rimonabant (SR141716), a selective cannabinoid (CB1) receptor inverse agonist once used as an anti-obesity drug under the proprietary name Acomplia. It was also used for smoking cessation
Other notable synthetic cannabinoids include:
JWH-018, a potent synthetic cannabinoid agonist discovered by John W. Huffman at Clemson University. It was often sold in legal smoke blends collectively known as "spice". Several countries and states have moved to ban it legally.
CP-55940, produced in 1974, this synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist is many times more potent than THC.
HU-210, about 100 times as potent as THC[94]
HU-211, a synthetic cannabinoid derived drug that acts on NMDA instead of endocannabinoid system
HU-331 a potential anti-cancer drug derived from cannabidiol that specifically inhibits topoisomerase II.
SR144528, a CB2 receptor antagonist/ inverse agonist[95]
WIN 55,212-2, a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist
JWH-133, a potent selective CB2 receptor agonist
Levonantradol (Nantrodolum), an anti-emetic and analgesic but not currently in use in medicine
AM-2201, a potent cannabinoid receptor agonist
Recently, the term "neocannabinoid" has been introduced to distinguish these designer drugs from synthetic phytocannabinoids (THC or CBD obtained by chemical synthesis) or synthetic endocannabinoids.[96]
Cancer and nausea § Cannabinoid
Cannabinoid receptor antagonist
Endocannabinoid enhancer
Endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitor
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Media related to Cannabinoids at Wikimedia Commons
(comparison)
Cannabibutols
Cannabichromenes
CBCA
CBCA-A
CBCB
CBCBA
CBCP
CBCPA
CBCV
CBCVA
CBCQ
Cannabicyclols
CBLA
CBLB
CBLP
CBLPA
CBLV
CBLVA
Cannabidiols
CBD-C1
CBDB
CBDBA
CBDD
CBDPA
CBDM
CBDMA
CBDVA
CBDQ
Cannabielsoins
CBEA
CBEA-A
CBEA-B
CBEB
CBEP
CBEPA
CBEV
Cannabigerols
CBGBA
CBGM
CBGAM
CBGP
CBGPA
CBNR
CBNRA
CBNRA-A
CBGV
CBGVA
CBGVA-A
CBGQ
Cannabiphorols
Cannabinols
CBNA
CBN-C1
CBNM
CBND
CBNDA
CBNP
CBNPA
CBVD
CBVDA
Cannabitriols
CBTB
CBTV
CBTVA
CBTP
CBTPA
Cannabivarins
CBVA
Delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinols
Delta-8-THCA
Delta-8-THCA-A
Delta-8-THCB
Delta-8-THCP
Delta-8-THCV
Delta-9-THC (THC)
THCMA
THCA-A
THCA-B
THCBA
THCA-C4
THCC
THCA-A-C1
THCA-B-C1
THCB
THCH
THCPA
THCVA
THCQ
Delta-10-Tetrahydrocannabinols
Miscellaneous cannabinoids
Δ8-iso-THC
Δ4(8)-iso-THC
7,8-Dihydrocannabinol
8,9-Dihydrocannabidiol
CBCF
Cannabicitran
Cannabiglendol
CBRPA
DCBF
Alkylamides
Epigallocatechin gallate
Gallocatechol
Hexahydrocannabinol (HHC)
Perrottetinene
Serinolamide A
Yangonin
Active metabolites
3'-OH-THC
7-OH-CBD
8,11-DiOH-THC
11-COOH-THC
11-OH-CBN
11-OH-HHC
11-OH-Δ8-THC
Arachidonoyl ethanolamide (AEA; anandamide)
2-Arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)
2-Arachidonyl glyceryl ether (2-AGE; noladin ether)
2-Oleoylglycerol (2-OG)
N-Arachidonoyl dopamine (NADA)
N-Arachidonylglycine (NAGly)
2-Arachidonoyl lysophosphatidylinositol (2-ALPI)
N-Arachidonoyl serotonin (AA-5-HT)
Docosatetraenoylethanolamide (DEA)
Lysophosphatidylinositol (LPI)
Oleamide
Oleoylethanolamide (OEA)
RVD-Hpα
Stearoylethanolamide (SEA)
O-Arachidonoyl ethanolamine (O-AEA; virodhamine)
agonists /
neocannabinoids
Classical cannabinoids
(dibenzopyrans)
9-OH-HHC
9-Nor-9β-HHC
Ajulemic acid
AM-087
AMG-1
AMG-36
Dexanabinol (HU-211)
DMHP
KM-233
Levonantradol (CP 50,5561)
Menabitan
Nabazenil
Nabidrox (Canbisol)
Nabilone
Nabitan
Naboctate
Parahexyl
Pirnabine
THC hemisuccinate
THC-O-acetate
THC-O-phosphate
Non-classical
Cannabinor
CBD-DMH
CP 47,497
(C6)-CP 47,497
Delta-6-Cannabidiol
HUF-101
Nonabine
Tinabinol
Adamantoylindoles
5F-AKB-48
AZ-11713908
AZD-1940
BIM-018
FUBIMINA
MCHB-1
Benzoylindoles
1-Butyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole
1-Pentyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole
GW-405,833 (L-768,242)
Pravadoline
RCS-4
WIN 54,461
Cyclohexylphenols
CP-47,947
Eicosanoids
Methanandamide (AM-356)
Indazole carboxamides
AB-PINACA
AB-FUBINACA
Indazole-3-
carboxamides
4F-MDMB-BINACA
4'Cl-CUMYL-PINACA
4'F-CUMYL-5F-PINACA
5Cl-APINACA
5F-ADB
5F-ADB-PINACA
5F-AMB
5F-APINACA
5F-CUMYL-PINACA
5F-EDMB-PINACA
5F-EMB-PINACA
AB-CHMINACA
AB-FUBINACA 2-fluorobenzyl isomer
ADB-BINACA
ADB-CHMINACA
ADB-HEXINACA
ADB-FUBINACA
ADB-PINACA
ADB-4en-PINACA
Adamantyl-THPINACA
ADSB-FUB-187
AMB-CHMINACA
AMB-FUBINACA
APINACA (AKB48)
APP-FUBINACA
CUMYL-CBMINACA
CUMYL-FUBINACA
CUMYL-NBMINACA
CUMYL-PINACA
CUMYL-THPINACA
CUMYL-TSINACA
EMB-FUBINACA
FUB-APINACA
MDMB-4en-PINACA
MDMB-5Br-INACA
MDMB-FUBINACA
MDMB-CHMINACA
PX-2
Indole-3-carboxamides
4'F-CUMYL-5F-PICA
5F-ADBICA
5F-EDMB-PICA
5F-MDMB-PICA
5F-NNE1
5F-PCN
5F-SDB-006
AB-FUBICA
AB-PICA
ADBICA
ADB-FUBICA
BMS-F
CUMYL-BICA
CUMYL-CBMICA
CUMYL-CHMICA
CUMYL-NBMICA
CUMYL-PICA
CUMYL-5F-PICA
FDU-NNE1
MDMB-CHMICA
MMB-CHMICA
MMB-2201
MN-25 (UR-12)
NNE1
Org 28312
Indole-3-carboxylates
5F-PB-22
FDU-PB-22
FUB-PB-22
QUCHIC (BB-22)
QUPIC (PB-22)
NM-2201
Naphthoylindazoles
THJ-018
Naphthoylindoles
5F-JWH-398
CHM-081
EAM-2201
FUB-JWH-018
MAM-1220
NE-CHMIMO
Naphthoylpyrroles
Naphthylmethylindenes
Naphthylmethylindoles
Phenylacetylindoles
Cannabipiperidiethanone
Pyrazolecarboxamides
5F-AB-FUPPYCA
5F-AMPPPCA
AB-CHFUPYCA
Pyrrolobenzoxazines
Quinolinyl esters
Tetramethylcyclo-
propanoylindazoles
propanoylindoles
5Br-UR-144
5Cl-UR-144
A-796,260
FUB-144
UR-144
XLR-11
propylindoles
2F-QMPSB
4-HTMPIPO
4CN-CUMYL-BUT7AICA
5F-PY-PICA
5F-PY-PINACA
5F-3-pyridinoylindole
5F-ADB-P7AICA
5F-CUMYL-P7AICA
5F-CUMYL-PEGACLONE
Abnormal cannabidiol
ADB-FUBIATA
ADB-P7AICA
BzODZ-EPyr
CBS-0550
CUMYL-4CN-B7AICA
CUMYL-CB-MEGACLONE
CUMYL-CH-MEGACLONE
CUMYL-PEGACLONE
EG-018
GSK-554,418A
GW-842,166X
JTE 7-31
LASSBio-881
LBP-1
Leelamine
MDA-7
MDA-19
MEPIRAPIM
NESS-040C5
NMP-7
Olorinab
PSB-SB-1202
PTI-1
QMPSB
S-444,823
SER-601
Tedalinab
URB-447
VSN-16
Allosteric CBR ligands
RTI-371
(inactivation inhibitors)
4-Nonylphenylboronic acid
Arachidonoyl serotonin
Arvanil
BIA 10-2474
Biochanin A
CAY-10401
Guineesine
IDFP
JNJ 1661010
JZL184
Kaempferol
LY-2183240
Olvanil
PF-622
PHOP
VDM-11
Anticannabinoids
(antagonists/inverse
agonists/antibodies)
BML-190
Brizantin (Бризантин)
Dietressa (Диетресса)
Drinabant (AVE1625)
Hemopressin
Ibipinabant (SLV319)
JTE-907
LY-320,135
NESS-0327
NIDA-41020
Otenabant (CP-945,598)
PipISB
PSB-SB-487
Rimonabant (SR141716)
Rosonabant (E-6776)
SR-144,528
Surinabant (SR147778)
Taranabant (MK-0364)
TM-38837
VCHSR
See also: Cannabinoid receptor modulators (cannabinoids by pharmacology)
List of: AM cannabinoids
JWH cannabinoids
Designer drugs § Synthetic cannabimimetics
Cannabinoid receptor modulators
(ligands)
Agonists (abridged; see here for more): 2-AG
2-AGE (noladin ether)
α-Amyrin · β-Amyrin
Epicatechin
Gallocatechol (gallocatechin)
Honokiol
Kavain
THC (dronabinol)
Antagonists: AM-251
Drinabant
Falcarinol (carotatoxin)
Ibipinabant
Otenabant
Rimonabant
Rosonabant
Surinabant
Taranabant
Antibodies: Brizantin (Бризантин)
Unknown/unsorted: MAFP
Agonists: 2-AG
3,3'-Diindolylmethane
4-O-Methylhonokiol
JWH-73
Lenabasum (anabasum)
Magnolol
Olorinab (APD-371)
Tetrahydromagnolol
Antagonists: 4-O-Methylhonokiol
NAGly
(GPR18)
Agonists: Abnormal cannabidiol
NADGly
Antagonists: PSB-CB5
Agonists: 2-AGE (noladin ether)
2-ALPI
CID1011163
GSK-494581A
ML-184
Oleoylethanolamide
Palmitoylethanolamide
Antagonists: Cannabidiol
CID-16020046
Agonists: 2-Oleoylglycerol
APD668
AR-231,453
AS-1269574
MBX-2982
PSN-375,963
Agonists: Revosimeline
(modulators)
eCBTs
Inhibitors: 5'-DMH-CBD
Guineensine
OMDM-2
SB-FI-26
UCM-707
WOBE490
Inhibitors: 4-Nonylphenylboronic acid
AACOCF3
JNJ-1661010
JZL-195
MAFP
Palmitoylisopropylamide
SA-47
TAK 21d
TC-F 2
UCM710
Activators: PDP-EA
MAGL
Inhibitors: ABX-1431
JJKK 048
JZP-361
KML 29
MJN110
Pristimerin
ABHD6
Inhibitors: JZP-169
KT182
LEI-106
WWL-70
ABHD12
Inhibitors: Betulinic acid
Maslinic acid
Oleanolic acid
Orlistat (tetrahydrolipstatin)
Ursolic acid
Precursors: Phosphatidylethanolamine
Others: 2-PG (directly potentiates activity of 2-AG at CB1 receptor)
ARN-272 (FAAH-like anandamide transporter inhibitor)
Receptor/signaling modulators
Cannabinoids (cannabinoids by structure)
Pharmacomodulation
♦ Enzyme: Inducer
Inhibitor
♦ Ion channel: Opener
♦ Receptor: Agonist
Partial agonist
Inverse agonist
Positive allosteric modulator (PAM)
Negative allosteric modulator (NAM)
♦ Transporter [Reuptake vs Efflux]: Enhancer (RE)
Inhibitor (RI)
Releaser (RA)
♦ Miscellaneous: Precursor
Cofactor
see Enzyme inhibition
See Ion channel modulators
Receptor &
BA/M
Adrenergic
Adrenergic receptor agonist (α
β (1
2))
Adrenergic receptor antagonist (α (1
β)
Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI)
Dopaminergic
Dopamine receptor agonist
Dopamine receptor antagonist
Dopamine reuptake inhibitor (DRI)
Histaminergic
Histamine receptor agonist
Histamine receptor antagonist (H1
H3)
Serotonergic
Serotonin receptor agonist
Serotonin receptor antagonist (5-HT3)
Serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI)
GABA receptor agonist
GABA receptor antagonist
GABA reuptake inhibitor (GRI)
Glutamatergic
Glutamate receptor agonist (AMPA)
Glutamate receptor antagonist (NMDA)
Glutamate reuptake inhibitor
Cholinergic
Acetylcholine receptor agonist (Muscarinic
Nicotinic)
Cholinesterase inhibitor
Acetylcholine receptor antagonist (Muscarinic
Nicotinic (Ganglionic
Muscular))
Cannabinoidergic
Cannabinoid receptor agonist
Endocannabinoid enhancer (eCBE)
Endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitor (eCBRI)
Opioidergic
Opioid modulator
Opioid receptor agonist
Opioid receptor antagonist
Enkephalinase inhibitor
Adenosine reuptake inhibitor (AdoRI)
Angiotensin II receptor antagonist
Endothelin receptor antagonist
NK1 receptor antagonist
Vasopressin receptor antagonist
Cofactor (see Enzyme cofactors)
Precursor (see Amino acids)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cannabinoid&oldid=1136360708#Endocannabinoids"
All accuracy disputes
Articles with disputed statements from July 2019
Articles with unsourced statements from December 2013


Educational technology has been a hotly-debated topic over the last decade or more. There seems to be consensus that it can be a useful tool to engage learners and to aid successful learning, but often it seems to be up to the individual teacher to use (or not to use) technology to aid their teaching. How can we promote learning by integrating technology use in the curriculum of Preparatory Programmes? What are the limitations and risks? What exactly are the advantages? Are we using it to best effect? Where should we start? Are we getting the blend right?
This FOCI will attempt to clarify the practical ways of systematically integrating technological tools into the delivery of the curriculum in such a way that will allow technology to be exploited in a pedagogically effective way in our classes.
Final wrap-up session video and the slides are below.
You may find the slides below.


text:
byJanet Leigh
Phillip B. Tursky
5.0 out of 5 starsBest Print Yet of Bye Bye Birdie
My 4k disc player recognized this disc as a 4k SDR disc. The color was vivid, and the lighting in several scenes revealed details I hadn't ever seen. I have watched this film around 200 times...
This pressing improves over the Twilight Time BD which was spectacular, albeit short lived.
Sony took some trouble with this disc, and I was impressed that I actually got rear effects during Honestly Sincere number, and Lotta Livin' number. I am pleased that everything is improved with this disc.
The Teaser Trailer, and Theatrical Trailer have both been remastered, and are impressively clean. Highly recommended if you are a collector into physical media.
Mitch - Palm Springs, CA
1.0 out of 5 starsMovie is Great - AMAZON PRIME IS HORRIBLE
Get this movie. Just don't RENT OR BUY it through Amazon Prime. Amazon prime streaming quality - for this movie is very poor. I purchased the HD version and the quality is so poor. I can see much better quality versions on Youtube for rent or for sale. It's impossible to talk with anybody from Amazon Prime Video for help or to cancel
5.0 out of 5 stars Best Print Yet of Bye Bye Birdie
E. Kakos
4.0 out of 5 stars Bye Bye Birdie finally back on Blu-ray.
It's nice to see this title available again on Blu-ray after a limited run about ten years ago from Twilight Time. Sony's new release is very nice, but is a bare bones release with only a couple of trailers as extras. No scene selections are on the menu, but major chapters are marked. The video image is very good for a film from 1963, but maybe a bit less saturated compared to the Twilight Time release, but a spotless presentation overall. Different audio options on the new release, no music only track, but an excellent 5.1 surround track is in DTS-HD Master Audio, identical to the earlier release. If you own the Twilight Time release, there's no reason to double dip, unless you just need everything available. Missing from the new package is the multi page color insert, but to get the original Blu-Ray, you'll need to lay down over a hundred dollars on eBay. Highly recommended re-release.
mrsammy
5.0 out of 5 stars ... one of those movies that you can't get enough of—a timeless classic.
It's really true, this is one of those movies that you can't get enough of—a timeless classic. The music is great, the dance scenes were extremely well done, the actors were very funny, so talented. Jesse Pearson, Paul Lynde, Janet Leigh, Dick Van Dyke, Bobby Rydell, and of course Ann Margaret all give masterful performances. A movie chock full of A+ performers who could act, do comedy, sing, and dance as if it were their primary art! I recommend it for the entire family (any age group), and even your pets!
Pontiac Guy
5.0 out of 5 stars Fun, Wholesome Entertainment
My daughter helped with her high school production of Bye Bye Birdie and she really wanted to see the movie so we rented it. Based on the title, I thought it would be lame, but it turned out to be quite fun, funny, and entertaining. The music was great too! Now I wish we had bought it instead.
1.0 out of 5 stars Movie is Great - AMAZON PRIME IS HORRIBLE
4.0 out of 5 stars An Entertaining Delight Based On the Tony Winning Broadway Musical
The film that marked Dick Van Dyke's film debut, reprising his Tony Winning Role and Ann-Margret a star.
The film about a town which is in a frenzy over Conrad Birdie who was drafted to enlist in the Army played by Jesse Pearson who could have become a star with that role and sadly, died from cancer early on in 1979, who's part as an Elvis Presley type idol of the female teenagers and the envy of the male teenagers. The film features such memorable songs as the title song, Put on A Happy Face and I Love You, Conrad. This film version received two Oscar nominations. Also with Janet Leigh, Paul Lynde (like Van Dyke reprised his stage role, Maureen Stapleton and Bobby Rydell.
Scotlandfog
5.0 out of 5 stars Ann Margaret and Dick Van Dyke star in this fun movie
I saw this movie for the first time when I was about 12 and I loved it so much I stayed at the movie theater and watched it again the same day! It's a fun movie about young love and not so young love. Of course I didn't realize that back then! I just saw the sexy guy in the gold jumpsuit! LOL! I still watch it to this day and still enjoy it!
Retired Soldier/Sailor.
TOP 1000 REVIEWER
4.0 out of 5 stars Entertaining comedy of its day.
A few songs you've heard sung by familiar faces. Light-hearted musical-comedy hits on 7 of the eight cylinders.
Of interest, mostly, because of the stars.
I always enjoy watching Paul Lynde play a married-man. THAT, alone, makes me giggle!
And, God bless Dick Van Dyke; he must be nearing 100, now. I'd guess 97. Hope he lives to be 100 like
George Burns; Bob Hope; and Hal Roach [who out-lived MOST of his Little Rascals].
Worth a look 'n' a laugh!
Nicole.L.
4.0 out of 5 stars Not Disappointed
When I bought this movie, I expected it to be beached theme. Imagine my surprise to find out there wasn't a single beach in it! Although supposed, I was not dissapointed. Throughout the movie there was comedy and romance and some great dance numbers too! I would reccomend for those who like Grease but want more comedy and those who enjoy a good musical.
David Rizzo
4.0 out of 5 stars Totally enjoyabe
A corny period piece right out of the very early sixties. Horrible choreography. A few good songs. The plot makes no sense at all. But you have to watch it, if only for Ann-Margaret. Her opening and closing cameos are worth the price of admission alone. The only reason they didn't cast Elvis for the role of Conrad Birdie, is because his manager (Col. Tom Parker) was afraid Ann-Margaret would still the show. He was wise to be afraid.
‹ See all details for Bye Bye Birdie


There are many options available for closely-held businesses seeking to increase their capital, such as: grants, invoice financing, lines of credit, loans and merchant cash advances. Qualifiers and risks vary for each choice. Join Breanna Caldwell (Eastman & Smith, LTD), Meagan Hardcastle (Harmon Partners, LLC) and Richardo Kilpatrick (Kilpatrick & Associates, PC) as they review these alternative financing options and their respective pros and cons.


text:
Facebook use still works to build client relationships
Premium content from Sacramento Business Journal by Debi Hammond
Date: Friday, June 8, 2012, 3:00am PDT
As shown by Facebook's lackluster stock performance, many companies are questioning whether the popular site is an effective marketing tool. General Motors, which recently cancelled a $10 million campaign on the site, said Facebook advertising had little effect on car purchases.
That may be true for GM — but Facebook does have real value to promote your brand. Business professionals and marketers simply need to know what they are trying to accomplish with it and other social media tools.
Social media cannot be used and measured in the same ways as traditional media. Quite frankly, it's not surprising that GM cars weren't flying out of the auto malls; advertising on Facebook is not like running a Super Bowl spot.
Social media sites are not right for the "hard sell." They're about conversation and engagement. They're about creating a more personal connection with your target audience. They're about building relationships. And authentic relationships can be undermined by a traditional advertising approach.
A mistake that companies commonly make when jumping into social media is to use the sites as they use traditional advertising tools like a full-page print ad, a television spot or direct mailer. Simply put, a company cannot advertise its way to success on Facebook.
What a company can do with social media is create amazing content that brings your brand closer to your target audience in a meaningful way. Great content can be anything that benefits, entertains or teaches your target audience, including images, videos, recipes and tips. A combination of advertising and great content can work quite well, but you have to be clear on what it is you are trying to accomplish with your social media program.
One of the great benefits of social media for small businesses is the low cost of entry. Unlike traditional media, where huge outlays of cash are required, social media requires more in authenticity, consistency, and engagement. But don't be beguiled into thinking it's free. The investment with social media is longer term and requires a consistent financial investment.
Although GM pulled its $10 million advertising budget from Facebook, the company continues to invest heavily in content development — close to $30 million a year. This is not to say that small businesses need $30 million marketing budgets for content, but it is to illustrate that social media — whether advertising in it or not — requires a meaningful investment.
Whether a company chooses to use Facebook as an advertising platform, a pure social-media platform or a combination of the two, with more than 900 million people now using the tool, Facebook is still one of the best places for your brand.
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MM Team