text:
\section{Introduction}
Polarization of the cosmic microwave background (CMB)
provides a critical test for models of inflation.
The primary signature is is a parity-odd curl component
in the polarization on angular scales of a few degrees
or larger
\citep{kamionkowski/etal:1997,
seljak/zaldarriaga:1997}.
The amplitude of this ``B-mode'' signal
depends on the inflationary potential
\begin{equation}
V^{1/4} = 1.06 \times 10^{16} ~{\rm GeV}
\left(
\frac{r}{0.01}
\right)^{1/4}
\label{potential_eq}
\end{equation}
where
$r$ is the power ratio of the tensor (gravitational) perturbations
to scalar (density) fluctuations
\citep{turner/white:1996}.
If inflation results from Grand Unified Theory physics
(energy $\sim 10^{16}$ GeV),
the B-mode amplitude should be in the range 1 to 100 nK.
Signals at this amplitude
could be detected by  a dedicated polarimeter,
providing a critical test of a central component of modern cosmology.

Detecting the inflationary signal will be challenging.
A primary concern is
confusion from astrophysical foregrounds.
We view the CMB through a screen of diffuse Galactic emission
originating within different components of the interstellar medium.
Figure \ref{foreground_fig}
compares the inflationary B-mode signal to polarized Galactic foregrounds.
Synchrotron emission from relativistic cosmic ray electrons
accelerated in the Galactic magnetic field
dominates the diffuse radio continuum
at low frequencies.
For a power-law distribution of cosmic ray energy
$N(E) \sim E^{-p}$,
the synchrotron intensity is also a power law,
\begin{equation}
I_s(\nu) = A_s \left(\frac{\nu}{\nu_s} \right)^{\beta_s},
\label{synch_power_law}
\end{equation}
\noindent
where
$\nu$ is the observing frequency,
$\beta_s = (1-p)/2$
is the spectral index, and
$A_s$
is the amplitude
defined relative to reference frequency~$\nu_s$
\citep{rybicki/lightman:1979}.
The measured values
$2.6 < p < 3.2$
for the cosmic ray energy spectrum
correspond to synchrotron spectral index
$-1.1 < \beta_s < -0.8$,
in reasonable agreement with radio data
\citep{strong/etal:2007,
jaffe/etal:2011,
kogut:2012,
bennett/etal:2013,
planck:2015:10}.
The synchrotron spectrum may contain additional features
(curvature, spectral break),
but evidence for such features is restricted to frequencies below 20 GHz
and is not considered here.

Dust is the dominant foreground at high frequencies.
Dust grains in the interstellar medium
absorb optical and UV photons
and re-radiate the energy in the far-infrared.
The resulting spectrum is often
empirically modeled
as a sum of modified blackbodies with power-law emissivities,
\begin{equation}
I_d(\nu) = \sum_i \epsilon_i B_\nu(T_i)
\left( \frac{\nu}{\nu_d} \right)^{\beta_{d\,i}}
\label{dust_greybody_eq}
\end{equation}
where
$B_\nu(T)$ is the Planck intensity at temperature $T$,
and
the emissivity $\epsilon$
and spectral index $\beta_d$
are defined at reference frequency $\nu_d$.
Fitting the high-latitude dust cirrus to a single modified blackbody
returns values
$T_d~=~20$ K
and
$\beta_d = 1.6$
\citep{planck:2015:22}.

The B-mode signal is fainter than the Galactic foregrounds
at all frequencies.
Current measurements limit primordial B-modes to amplitude
$r < 0.07$ at 95\% confidence
\citep{bicep/planck:2015}.
Distinguishing primordial B-modes from Galactic foregrounds
at this level
requires subtracting the foregrounds to few percent accuracy or better.
The next generation of CMB polarimeters
anticipates sensitivities $r < 0.001$.
Measurements at this level
require foreground subtraction
with sub-percent accuracy.

Despite their importance,
diffuse Galactic foregrounds at millimeter wavelengths
are poorly constrained.
The observed dust emission depends on a number of factors
including the
grain size distribution,
chemical and physical composition of the dust grains,
competing emission mechanisms within a grain,
and the three-dimensional distribution
of the dust population
irradiated by the stellar UV/optical field.
None of these are known in detail.
Lacking a detailed physical model,
CMB analyses typically use a
purely phenomenological model for the dust,
treating it as the sum of one or two modified blackbody components
along each line of sight.
In this paper,
we use simple extensions
to commonly used models of far-IR dust emission
to estimate the systematic error (bias)
in the B-mode amplitude $r$
due to the use of such phenomenological models.

\begin{figure}[t]
\vspace{-2mm}
\includegraphics[width=2.6in, angle=90]{pol_foregrounds_apj_2015.eps}
\caption{Frequency spectra of the CMB and polarized foregrounds.
The grey band shows 0.01$<$$r$$<$0.1
for the primordial inflation signal.
Colored bands show the synchrotron and dust foregrounds
for the cleanest 50\% and 75\% of the sky.
The inflationary signal is fainter than Galactic foregrounds
at all frequencies,
requiring accurate models for foreground subtraction.
}
\label{foreground_fig}
\end{figure}

\section{Dust Emission Models}
A common approximation
treats far-IR dust emission as a modified blackbody
at a single well-defined temperature $T_d$
(Eq. \ref{dust_greybody_eq}).
Applied to the Planck polarization data,
the single-temperature model
yields dust temperature $19.6 \pm 0.8$ K
with spectral index $1.59 \pm 0.02$
\citep{planck:2015:22}.
However, data at higher frequencies
show that roughly 4\% of the far-IR power
resides in a component
consistent with a colder temperature near 10 K
\citep{wright/etal:1991,
reach/etal:1995,
dwek/etal:1997,
finkbeiner/etal:1999,
meisner/finkbeiner:2015}.
The origin of this component is unknown.
The sum of two blackbodies
can not be modeled to arbitrary precision
as a third blackbody:
the single-temperature model is at best an approximation
to the underlying dust spectrum.

The two-component modified blackbody model fits the far-IR dust intensity
along each line of sight
to the superposition of emission
from components at two discrete temperatures.
This, too, can only approximate the underlying spectrum.
The dust emission spectrum represents a balance
between optical/UV power absorbed by each grain
and subsequently re-radiated in the far-infrared.
It thus depends on both the absorption and emission properties
of individual dust grains
as well as the grain size and
the stellar radiation field illuminating each grain.
All of these will vary within the interstellar medium.
The stellar radiation field {\it must} vary
as individual dust grains lie at different distances
from individual stellar sources.
Differences in the physical properties of dust grains
yield additional temperature differences,
with carbonaceous grains systematically colder than silicates
(see, e.g.,
\citet{zubko/etal:2004,
draine/li:2007,
draine/fraisse:2009}).
Transient heating of small grains
drives further temperature variation,
even within a homogeneous dust population
illuminated by a uniform stellar radiation field.

\begin{figure}[b]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=3.2in]{show_dust_tau_apj_v2.eps}
}
\caption{Far-IR dust opacity vs temperature
for several toy models of far-IR dust emission.
(Top) Two-component modified blackbody emission
for which the dust opacity is non-zero
at exactly two temperatures.
(Middle) A broader distribution
with two peaks smoothed by a Gaussian distribution.
(Bottom) Distribution with a single low-temperature peak
and an extended ``tail'' toward higher temperatures,
approximating a population with transient heating.
}
\label{tau_vs_temp}
\end{figure}

Systematic differences
between the spectrum of the diffuse dust cirrus
and the parametric models
used to describe this emission
will bias foreground subtraction for CMB observations.
Models of foreground emission
sufficient for E-mode or unpolarized analyses
can prove inadequate at the higher accuracy
required for B-mode analysis.
We quantify the
extent to which specific choices for the dust parameterization
bias the fitted CMB terms
using toy models of dust emission.
We begin with simple models
of far-IR emission
that have been used for CMB fitting
(Rayleigh-Jeans approximation,
one- and two-component modified blackbodies),
then
extend the  parameterization
to include a distribution in dust temperature
(Figure \ref{tau_vs_temp}).
The simplest extension beyond the two-temperature model
retains two temperature peaks,
but broadens the distribution
using a Gaussian smoothing
to include emission at intermediate temperatures as well.
We additionally consider a model
with a single peak at low temperatures
plus an extended ``tail'' to higher temperatures
to approximate the effect of transient heating.
For both the Gaussian and transient models,
we adjust the relative amplitudes of the warm and cold components
so that emission from the cold component
remains at the observed 3.7\% of the power
from the warm component
while forcing the combined dust emission
to match the intensity of Planck polarized dust model at 353 GHz.
Finally, we consider a model in which the
dust spectral index varies with frequency,
flattening the spectrum at lower frequencies.
Such ``running'' of the spectral index
is an expected characteristic of
two-level emission in disordered dust grains
\citep{meny/etal:2007,
paradis/etal:2011}.

Although not intended to represent in detail
any specific physical model of far-IR dust emission,
the toy models used here
capture sufficient features
of leading models
to examine the implications for
simple parametric dust models.
Other forms for the dust emission are possible.
So-called ``anomalous microwave emission''
is a significant contribution to the
unpolarized intensity at frequencies below 90 GHz
\citep{kogut/etal:1996,
gold/etal:2011,
planck.2011.20,
genova-santos/etal:2015}
and is thought to result from a population
of small, spinning dust grains
\citep{draine/lazarian:1998,
ali-hamoud/etal:2009,
hoang/etal:2010}.
Anomalous microwave emission
is not known to be polarized,
with upper limits
to the fractional polarization
at the sub-percent level
\citep{genova-santos/etal:2015}.
Dust containing magnetic material
could also emit through thermal fluctuations of the grain magnetization,
which would have comparable polarization
to thermal dust emission but
would differ significantly from a power-law emissivity
\citep{draine/hensley.2012}.

\section{Simulations}
Several authors have estimated the
sensitivity and possible systematic bias in $r$
resulting from foreground contamination of CMB observations
\citep{fantaye/etal:2011,
remazeilles/etal.2016}.
These analyses
only examine simple single-temperature dust models
and are limited
to choices of observing frequencies and instrumental sensitivity
matched to specific CMB missions.
Here we focus on the bias
resulting from the unknown dust spectra,
with a broader range of plausible dust emission models
not limited to instrument-specific observing frequencies.

We evaluate the CMB and foreground emission
using noiseless simulations.
All simulations adopt a power-law model (Eq. \ref{synch_power_law})
with $\beta_s = -1.05$
for the synchrotron spectral dependence\footnote{
Recall that the synchrotron spectral index
$\beta_s$ is specified
in units of intensity, not antenna temperature.}
but use different toy models for the dust.
Rather than simulate a specific instrument configuration,
we evaluate the simulations
using frequency channels spaced every 10 GHz
starting at 30 GHz
and extending to some maximum frequency
(typically 500 GHz).
The number of frequency channels is thus much larger
than the number of fitted parameters
so that the results do not depend on details of the frequency basis.
We normalize the foreground emission
in Stokes $Q$ and $U$
to match the Planck polarized foreground maps
at 30 GHz for synchrotron emission
and 353 GHz for dust
\citep{planck:2015:10}.
The dust normalization is thus fixed by observation
and does not depend on assumptions for the fractional polarization
of the dust emission.
We degrade the maps
to a common {\tt HEALPIX} resolution {\tt NSIDE}=256
\citep{gorski/etal:2005}
and fit the superposed emission
in each pixel outside the Planck HFI polarization mask
to combination of CMB, synchrotron, and dust emission
where the parametric form of the fitted dust model
now differs from the input.
The fit minimizes the weighted sky residual
\begin{equation}
\Gamma^2 =   \sum_i
\left(
\frac
{ I_{\rm fit} - I_{\rm input} }
{W}
\right)^2_i .
\label{resid_eq}
\end{equation}
Although the input model has no noise contribution,
we weight each frequency channel
by the inverse of the combined input sky intensity,
$ W = I_{\rm input}$,
so that the fit is not dominated
by channels where the foregrounds are much brighter than the CMB.
This approximates common practice for CMB observations,
where the sensitivity in each channel
is chosen
to produce equal signal-to-noise ratio
at all frequencies.
Other choices for channel weights are possible
(for instance, uniform weight at all frequencies).
The results do not depend sensitively upon the choice of weights.
The fitted $Q$ and $U$ amplitudes
for the CMB component in each pixel
are then used
in a spherical harmonic analysis
to determine
the amplitude of the B-mode signal,
which we compare to the simulation input
to determine the bias in $r$.
Note that this automatically includes
the typical 2:1 ratio of E-mode to B-mode power
observed for the polarized dust foreground.

\begin{figure}[t]
\includegraphics[width=2.6in, angle=90]{show_rj_approx_apj.eps}
\caption{Intensity ratio of power-law dust emission
normalized to a single-temperature modified blackbody
with $T_d = 20$K (see text).
The Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
fails at the few-percent level
for frequencies above 20 GHz
and dust temperatures
appropriate for the diffuse dust cirrus.
}
\label{rj_curvature}
\end{figure}

\vspace{15mm}

\section{CMB Bias from Parametric Dust Models}
A commonly used technique for foreground identification
and subtraction is parametric modeling,
in which measurements of the sky intensity
in multiple frequency channels
are modeled as the sum of CMB and foreground components
specified by their frequency dependence.
We evaluate noiseless simulations
using different parametric forms
for the fitted dust model
to quantify the dependence of CMB residuals
on the choice of input versus fitted dust models.

\subsection{Rayleigh-Jeans Approximation}
At sufficiently low frequencies,
dust emission may be approximated
as a power law in intensity,
\begin{equation}
I_d(\nu) = a_d \left( \frac{\nu}{\nu_d} \right)^{2 + \beta_{d}} ~.
\label{rj_approx}
\end{equation}
This Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
has seen considerable use
for modeling the dust contribution to CMB measurements
at frequencies from 22 GHz to 410 GHz
\citep{kogut/etal:1996,
masi/etal:2001,
ponthieu/etal:2005,
paladini/etal:2007,
dupac:2009,
bennett/etal:2013}.
Although appropriate for the sensitivity levels of these analyses,
reliance on the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
will in general bias both the fitted dust parameters
and the estimated CMB amplitudes.
The Rayleigh-Jeans approximation is valid
in the limit
$x~=~h \nu / k T_d \ll~1$
where
$h$ is Planck's constant,
$k$ is Boltzmann's constant,
and $T_d$ is the dust temperature.
For dust at temperature $T_d = 20$ K,
$x=0.24$ at 100 GHz
and does not fall below 0.05 until $\nu < 21$ GHz.
At the frequencies $\nu > 20$ GHz
used by most CMB missions,
the spectral curvature of the Planck function $B_\nu(T)$
can not be approximated by a power-law
to percent-level accuracy.
Figure \ref{rj_curvature} compares dust emission
from a single modified blackbody (Eq. \ref{dust_greybody_eq})
with $T_d = 20$ K and $\beta_d = 1.6$
to the best-fit Rayleigh-Jeans approximation.
The curvature of the modified blackbody
relative to a power-law fit
is apparent at the few-percent level.

Use of the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
in multi-component foreground estimation
will bias estimates of the individual components.
Figure \ref{rj_fit} compares
the input and fitted sky models
for noiseless simulations ($\S$3)
where the input dust
consists of a modified blackbody with $T_d = 19.6$ K and $\beta_d = 1.59$.
Fitting the simulated sky
over the frequency range 30--140 GHz
using the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
for the dust component
matches the superposed input spectra
to precision $\Delta I / I < 0.04$\%,
but biases both the fitted dust and CMB components.
The differential curvature of the
modified blackbody dust input
compared to the power-law output model
over-estimates the dust emission by 15\%
at frequencies near the foreground minimum at 70 GHz.
The best-fit spectral indices are displaced from the input values,
with fitted values
$\beta_s = -1.04$ for synchrotron
and
$\beta_d = 1.33$ for dust.
The shift in dust spectral index
produced by the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation at low frequencies
mimics the flattening seen in the two-level-system model
although in this case it is entirely an artifact of the approximation.
The fitted model returns a false CMB term
with (negative) amplitude 80 nK,
comparable to a B-mode signal at level $r = 0.03$
for the multipole range
$50 < \ell < 200$
targeting the ``recombination bump.''

\begin{figure}[t]
\includegraphics[width=3.2in]{fit_sky_power_law_apj.eps}
\vspace{-5mm}
\caption{Input spectra
compared to best-fit model
when the input dust consists of a single modified blackbody
but the fitted model assumes
the power-law Rayleigh-Jeans approximation.
(Top) Input spectra (solid lines)
and best-fit model (dashed lines).
The input has synchrotron and dust but no CMB,
with foreground amplitudes
at the median brightness of the polarized Planck foreground model.
(Bottom) Fractional residual
$\Delta I / I$ for the combined spectra.
Although the multi-component fit
matches the combined sky spectrum
to sub-percent precision,
the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
biases the recovered amplitudes and spectral index values,
generating a false CMB term at level $r \sim 0.03$.
}
\label{rj_fit}
\end{figure}

\subsection{One-component Modified Blackbody}
The simplest model beyond the Rayleigh-Jeans approximation
treats the dust spectrum as modified blackbody
at a single temperature
with power-law emissivity.
A single-temperature model
allows fits across a wide frequency range
but can yield biased results
if the far-IR dust emission differs systematically
from the model.

One such effect,
present even if the dust were dominated by just one temperature component,
results from errors in the dust temperature.
Measurements at millimeter wavelengths
may lack either the frequency coverage
or sensitivity
for direct estimation of the dust temperature in each pixel,
relying instead on measurements
at higher frequencies near the peak dust intensity
or on spatial averaging across larger regions on the sky.
Data from the FIRAS, DIRBE, and {\it Planck} missions
show spatial variation of 3.5 K in the dust temperature across the sky
\citep{finkbeiner/etal:1999,
planck:2015:10}.
Substituting a mean dust temperature
into multi-frequency foreground models
will bias the fitted components
if the dust temperature within any pixel
differs from the supplied mean value.
Figure \ref{grebody_vs_dt} illustrates the effect.
As before,
we fit a noiseless superposition
of synchrotron and dust emission with no CMB term,
evaluated at frequencies 30--500 GHz
using a model consisting of synchrotron, dust, and CMB.
The input dust model consists of
a single modified blackbody
with $T_d = 19.6$K and $\beta_d = 1.59$.
The fitted dust model
uses the same modifed blackbody parameterization
as the input,
but with dust temperature $T_d$
offset by $\Delta T$
with respect to the input model.
The fitted parameters are thus
the synchrotron amplitude and spectral index,
the dust amplitude and spectral index,
and the CMB amplitude.
Differences between the true dust temperature
and the temperature assumed for the model
result in a biased CMB component,
with a 1K dust temperature offset
corresponding to a CMB amplitude of 20 nK.
Parametric fits that use an externally supplied value
for the dust temperature
generate a bias in the
fitted CMB amplitude
if the assumed dust temperature in each pixel
differs from the true value.
Keeping this term
below the 3 nK amplitude corresponding to $r = 0.001$
requires knowledge of the dust temperature
in each pixel accurate to 0.15 K or better.

\begin{figure}[t]
\includegraphics[width=2.7in,angle=90]{fit_single_greybody_dt_apj.eps}
\caption{Bias in fitted CMB component
when both the input dust and the fitted model
follow a single-temperature modified blackbody parameterization,
but the fitted dust temperature
differs from the true dust temperature.
}
\label{grebody_vs_dt}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Two-Component Modified Blackbody}
Data at THz frequencies where dust emission peaks
show that
3.7\% of the far-IR dust power
is contained in a second, colder component
at temperature 8--12 K
\citep{reach/etal:1995,
finkbeiner/etal:1999,
meisner/finkbeiner:2015}.
The superposition of two blackbodies at different temperatures
cannot be modeled to arbitrary accuracy
as a single blackbody at a third temperature.
The existence of a cold component
in the interstellar dust cirrus
will necessarily bias CMB fits
that ignore this component.

We evaluate the effect by fitting a simulated sky spectrum
over the frequency range 30 -- 500 GHz
using a superposition of synchrotron and dust emission
with no CMB term.
The dust emission in each pixel
is a superposition of two modified blackbody components:
a warm component with temperature $T_d \sim 16$ K
and spectral index $\beta_d = 2.70$,
plus a cold component with
$T_d \sim 9$ K and $\beta_d = 1.67$.
The spectral index of each component is held constant
over the entire sky,
but the temperatures and relative amplitudes
are derived for each pixel following
\cite{finkbeiner/etal:1999}.
The overall normalization of the combined dust emission
in Stokes $Q$ and $U$
is set to match the Planck polarized dust model at 353 GHz.
The fitted model assumes a superposition of
synchrotron, dust, and CMB emission
using a single modified blackbody
(Eq. \ref{dust_greybody_eq}) for the dust,
for a total of 9 free parameters in each pixel
(Stokes $Q$ and $U$ amplitudes
for the CMB, synchrotron, and dust
plus the
synchrotron spectral index,
dust spectral index,
and dust temperature).
Figure \ref{2_greybody_cl}
shows the B-mode power spectrum
for the fitted CMB component.
Fitting two-component dust to a single dust component
creates CMB residuals
with amplitude comparable to the inflationary B-modes
$r = 0.003$ at the recombination bump
and
$r = 0.006$ at the reionization bump.

\subsection{Multi-component Modified Blackbody}
Section $\S$4.3 demonstrates
that fitting two-temperature dust
using a single-temperature model
results in a bias $\Delta r > 0.003$.
Extending the fitted dust model to include a second component
reduces this bias.
As before, we quantify the bias
using an input sky
with power-law synchrotron
plus dust emission derived
from one of the toy models in Figure \ref{tau_vs_temp},
fitting the simulated sky
to a model with
CMB, synchrotron, and modified blackbody dust with two temperature components.
The model now has a total of 13 free parameters in each pixel:
8 parameters for the
Stokes $Q$ and $U$ amplitudes
of the
CMB, synchrotron, warm dust, and cold dust components,
plus an additional 5 free parameters
(synchrotron spectral index,
warm dust temperature and spectral index,
cold dust temperature and spectral index)
to determine the foreground spectra,
which are assumed to be identical for Stokes $Q$ and $U$.
The resulting model
fits the two-component input exactly,
and reduces the bias in the CMB solution
for both the Gaussian and transient toy models.
The biases depend somewhat
on the detailed temperature distribution,
but are typically of order
0.3 nK ($\Delta r \sim 1 \times 10^{-4}$)
for the two-Gaussian toy model
and
2 nK ($\Delta r \sim 8 \times 10^{-4}$)
for the transient heating model.

\begin{figure}[t]
\includegraphics[width=2.7in,angle=90]{show_greybody_resid_cl_apj_v2.eps}
\caption{Power spectrum of CMB residuals
created when a sky with modified blackbody dust
with two temperature components
is fit using a single-temperature modifed blackbody model.
The thin dashed lines show inflationary models
with $r=0.01$ and $r=0.001$
while the thin dotted line shows the lensing signal.
Fitting two-tempeature dust with a single-temperature model
creates CMB residuals large compared to $r=0.001$.
}
\label{2_greybody_cl}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Two-Level Systems and Running Spectral Index}
The models in $\S$4.2 -- 4.4
treat the far-IR dust spectrum as
a superposition of modified blackbody emission
from components at different physical temperatures.
The far-IR emission of interstellar dust grains
is not well understood
and could plausibly utilize different physical mechanisms.
One example is the two-level system (TLS) emission model
developed by
\citet{phillips:1972},
\citet{anderson/etal:1972},
and
\cite{bosch:1978}
and later extended to interstellar dust
\citep{
agladze/etal:1996,
meny/etal:2007,
paradis/etal:2011}.
Emission in this model is dominated by
acoustic oscillations in a disordered charge medium
and by
hopping relaxation
in a distribution of two-level tunneling states.
The temperature-independent acoustic oscillations
are the principal emission component at THz frequencies,
while hopping relaxation
adds an additional temperature-dependent component
to flatten the spectrum at millimeter wavelengths.

The TLS model has several attractive features.
It invokes solid-state physics
to reproduce the observed anti-correlation
between the dust temperature and spectral index
derived from modified blackbody fits to the far-IR dust spectra
\citep{dupac/etal:2003,
desert/etal:2008,
bracco/etal:2011,
planck:2014:11}.
Emission from the tunneling component
reproduces the excess emission observed at millimeter wavelengths
without requiring a cold dust component.
Spectral fits
using COBE/FIRAS data
show the TLS model to be a viable description of
far-IR emission from interstellar dust
\citep{paradis/etal:2011,odegard/etal:2016}.

A key feature of the TLS model
is the progressive flattening of the spectrum
toward lower frequencies.
It may be approximated as a
temperature-dependent ``running'' of the spectral index,
$\beta_d = \beta_d(T, \nu)$.
At dust temperatures $T_d = 20$ K
typical for the diffuse interstellar cirrus,
the spectral index flattens from
$\beta_d = 2$ at THz frequencies
to $\beta_d \sim 1$ at 30 GHz
(see, e.g., Figure 6 of \citet{paradis/etal:2011}).

The spectral flattening at frequencies below 500 GHz
where CMB emission peaks
can bias multi-component fits
relying on simpler models of the far-IR dust emission.
We quantify the bias in $r$
using a toy model of TLS dust.
The toy model approximates the TLS emission
using a running spectral index,
\begin{equation}
I_d(\nu) = \epsilon(\nu_d) B_\nu(T)
\left( \frac{\nu}{\nu_d} \right)^{\beta_{d}(T, \nu)} .
\label{tls_approx}
\end{equation}
We adopt the input dust temperature
for each sky pixel
using the Planck single-temperature modified blackbody model,
and interpolate $\beta_{d}(T, \nu)$
in frequency
using data from \citet{paradis/etal:2011}
appropriate for the dust temperature at that pixel.
The resulting spectrum is then normalized
to the Planck polarized dust model at 353 GHz.
We fit the superposed synchrotron and dust emission
to a model with CMB, synchrotron, and dust
using the same two-component modified blackbody
as $\S$4.4
and evaluate the resulting CMB component
to derive the bias in $r$.
The two-component modified blackbody model
reproduces the combined input sky well,
with fractional residuals
$\Delta I/I < 10^{-6}$
for all frequencies between 30 GHz and 500 GHz.
However, the best-fit sky includes a
biased CMB component with typical bias
$\Delta r = 6 \times 10^{-3}$.

Note that the noiseless simulations
fit the foreground spectra independently for each pixel.
Actual observations include instrument noise
and typically fit some foreground parameters
(temperature, amplitude)
within each pixel
while fitting others
(spectral index)
over larger regions of the sky.
The biases above thus represent an optimistic limiting case
where the signal to noise ratio allows
fitting 13 free parameters within each pixel.
Even for this optimistic case,
biases can be present at amplitudes
large compared to projected instrument sensitivities.

\section{Discussion}
Parametric modeling of the diffuse dust foreground
can bias estimates of CMB polarization
if the chosen dust model
cannot adequately represent the true emission spectrum.
For the commonly used one- or two-component modified blackbody models,
the bias can exceed levels
$\Delta r \sim {\rm few} \times 10^{-3}$,
large compared to the sensitivities
anticipated for the next generation of CMB instrumentation
\citep{
kogut/etal:2011,
matsumura/etal:2014,
delabrouille:2015,
abazajian/etal:2015}.
Foreground bias at this level
would represent a statistically significant error
in derived cosmological parameters
and (depending on the cosmology)
could induce a false detection of the inflationary signal.

Several techniques may be employed to reduce this bias.
One method is to restrict the observing bands
to frequencies
30 GHz $< \nu  <$ 250 GHz
where the CMB is brightest
compared to the combined synchrotron and dust foregrounds,
thereby reducing the precision
to which the foreground emission must be modeled.
Parametric fitting over a restricted  frequency range
also reduces the effect of un-modeled spectral curvature
present when the fitted spectral model
differs from the true foreground spectra.
However, the smaller foreground amplitudes
within the restricted frequency range
require correspondingly better sensitivity
in foreground-dominated channels
to identify and remove the foreground emission.

\begin{figure}[t]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=3.2in]{show_dust_resid_vs_freq_apj.eps}
}
\caption{Effect of restricted observing frequencies
for parametric dust models.
(Top) Bias $\Delta r$
caused by fitting
a single-temperature modified blackbody dust model to a sky containing
dust emission from the
two-temperature, two-Gaussian, or transient heating
toy models (see text).
The best-fit value for $r$
changes sign when fitting the transient heating input.
(Bottom)
Residual between the input sky and best-fit model,
evaluated at the highest observed frequency.
}
\label{bias_vs_freq}
\end{figure}

We quantify this trade
by fitting simulated skies
while varying the frequency range
over which the fit is performed.
The input sky consists of power-law synchrotron
with spectral index $-1.05$
plus dust specified by either the
two-temperature, two-Gaussian, or transient
toy models from $\S$4.4.
The fitted model includes CMB, synchrotron,
and single-temperature modified blackbody dust
for a total of 9 free parameters.
We fit the simulated sky
using 10 observing channels
spaced logarithmically in frequency
starting at 30 GHz,
and vary the highest observed frequency
from 150 GHz to 950 GHz
to show the effect of
extending observations into the brighter dust foreground
at higher frequencies.

Figure \ref{bias_vs_freq} shows the results.
For the two-temperature and two-Gaussian input models,
the simulations show the expected pattern
with the bias $\Delta r$
monotonically decreasing
as the frequency range is restricted.
Fitting a single modified blackbody to a toy model
with a high-temperature tail
shows a different pattern.
When the fit is restricted to frequencies below 400 GHz,
the single-component model under-estimates the dust emission
and over-estimates the CMB.
When the frequency range is extended to the higher frequencies
where the warmer components dominate,
the single-component model over-estimates the dust emission
and under-estimates the CMB.
The residual CMB term thus changes sign,
creating a null for the special case
where the frequency coverage extends just high enough
that the dust residuals cancel.
Note that,
for the transient heating toy model,
restricting the frequency coverage
below 400 GHz actually
{\it increases} the bias in $r$.

A second consideration for restricted frequency coverage
is sensitivity.
As the frequency coverage is restricted,
the parametric models better reconstruct
the superposed emission from the CMB and combined foregrounds.
This is not the same as accurately reconstructing
the CMB signal itself.
For the noiseless simulations in this paper,
we define a goodness-of-fit statistic $\Gamma$
using the rms difference between the
intensities of the input sky and the best-fit model,
summed over observing channels
(Eq. \ref{resid_eq}).
This fractional residual
varies from
$\Gamma = 10^{-5}$
for fits restricted to frequencies $\nu < 200$ GHz
to
$\Gamma = 10^{-3}$
for fits extending to $\nu < 950$ GHz
and is nearly identical for all three toy models considered.

The toy models evaluated above
yield non-trivial bias in $r$
despite fitting the combined sky emission to sub-percent precision.
Since the functional form of far-IR dust emission
is not known {\it a priori},
distinguishing between biased and unbiased fits
requires channel sensitivities
comparable to the residuals
derived from plausible models of dust emission.
The design of CMB missions
typically includes one or more
``guard channels''
at higher frequencies where dust emission dominates.
The bottom panel of Figure \ref{bias_vs_freq}
shows the guard channel sensitivity
required to distinguish
these toy models,
\begin{equation}
\delta S = \Gamma ~I_{\rm input} \vert_{\nu = \nu_{\rm max}} ,
\label{sensitivity_def}
\end{equation}
evaluated as a function of the highest observing frequency.
Since the highest observing frequency may extend
to frequencies beyond the Wien cutoff in the CMB intensity,
we present the sensitivity $\delta S$
in units of Rayleigh-Jeans temperature,
\begin{equation}
\delta T_{\rm RJ} = \delta S ~\frac{\lambda^2}{2k}
\label{rj_def}
\end{equation}
where
$k$ is Boltzmann's constant and
$\lambda$ is the observing wavelength.

Figure \ref{bias_vs_freq} illustrates the challenges
for observations with restricted frequency coverage.
A nine-parameter fit
limited to observations at frequencies $\nu < 250$ GHz
most accessible to ground-based observations
yields biases $\Delta r~>~10^{-3}$
despite fitting the combined sky emission
to precision $\Gamma \sim 10^{-5}$.
A statistical detection of this bias
would require sub-nK channel sensitivities.

At least two solutions are possible.
Fits with additional free parameters
can better model the (unknown) dust spectrum,
reducing the bias in the fitted CMB component.
A 13-parameter model reduces the bias substantially
($\S$4.4)
but would require at least 14 observing channels.
Fitting multiple temperature components
within a restricted frequency range
may additionally lead to parameter degeneracies.

An alternative is to include observations at higher frequencies.
Extending the observations to THz frequencies
where the dust emission peaks
provides discrimination among various dust models.
For example, extending observations to 3 THz
increases the residual between the input sky and best-fit model to
400 Jy sr$^{-1}$ for the TLS model
and
over 2000 Jy sr$^{-1}$ for the transient heating model.
Differences at this level
are readily detectable,
providing statistical evidence
for a poorly fitted model.

Observations at frequencies
at or above the peak of the dust spectrum
can additionally provide information
on the actual dust temperature distribution,
further discriminating between candidate dust models.
Emission from dust components at successively higher temperatures
will peak at successively higher frequencies
(the well-known Wien displacement law);
however,
the superposed emission from multiple temperature components
will typically show a single broad peak.
One indicator of the temperature information
within the superposed spectrum
may be shown by Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization.
We begin with a Planck spectrum
at some minimum temperature $T_{\rm min}$,
and
construct orthogonal linear combinations
from Planck spectra
at successively higher temperatures
to some maximum $T_{\rm max}$.
Figure \ref{orthogonal_spectra}
shows the resulting orthogonal components
for temperatures
8~K $< ~T ~ <$ 24 K,
evaluated at frequencies $\nu < 5$ THz.
There is relatively little spectral content
at frequencies below 800 GHz,
but well-separated peaks in the component spectra
at higher frequencies.

Another way to evaluate the ability of THz observations
to constrain the dust temperature distribution
is to note that
emission on the Rayleigh-Jeans side of the emission peak
shows flatter spectral dependence
compared to the exponential Wien cutoff at higher frequencies.
Dust at temperatures $T_d > 8$ K
will peak at frequencies above 800 GHz,
so it is not surprising to find most of the spectral content
at frequencies above 800 GHz.

\begin{figure}[t]
\centerline{
\includegraphics[width=2.7in,angle=90]{show_ortho_dust_spectra_apj.eps}
}
\caption{
Dust spectral components
corresponding to different physical temperatures,
derived from Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization
of the individual Planck spectra at each temperature.
The minimal spectral content at frequencies below 800 GHz
makes it difficult for observations at low frequencies
to distinguish multiple temperature components:
most of the spectral content lies at frequencies above 1 THz.
}
\label{orthogonal_spectra}
\end{figure}

\section{Summary}
Far-IR dust emission is complex.
Variation in the chemical or physical composition of the dust grains
or in the local stellar radiation field incident on each grain
will drive variation in the physical temperature of the grains.
Transient heating of individual grains
drives further temperature variation,
even for a homogeneous dust population
illuminated by a uniform radiation field.
Phenomenological models treating the far-IR emission spectrum
as modified blackbody emission
at one or two well-defined temperatures
can only approximate the dust spectrum.
Systematic differences between the actual emission spectrum
and the simpler parametric forms
used to model the emission
will then bias both the recovered CMB and dust parameters.

We use toy models of far-IR dust emission
to estimate the accuracy to which
the polarization of the cosmic microwave background
can be recovered
if the parametric form chosen for the dust component
of a multi-frequency fit
differs from the actual dust emission.
We generate noiseless simulations
combining power-law synchrotron emission
with toy models of dust emission,
evaluate the combined emission at a set of observing frequencies
spanning the minimum of the foreground spectra,
then fit the resulting multi-frequency spectra
to a superposition of synchrotron, dust, and CMB emission
to derive the bias in CMB polarization.
Differences between the input sky simulation
and the parametric models used to fit the dust component
yield CMB residuals comparable to or larger than
the sensitivities expected for the next generation of CMB missions,
despite fitting the combined sky emission
to a precision $\Delta I / I$ of $10^{-3}$ or better.

The amplitude of the CMB residual
depends on the complexity of the input dust model,
the number of parameters used by the output dust model,
and the frequency range over which the fit is performed.
Although dust at millimeter wavelengths is often modeled
as a modified blackbody at a single, well-defined temperature,
the spectrum is known to be more complex.
Observations at higher frequencies
show excess emission
with respect to the single-temperature modified blackbody dust model.
The excess is consistent
with emission from a second, colder dust component.
Simulations with input skies containing
either the two-component modified blackbody dust model
or
emission from extended temperature distributions
but fit to a nine-parameter model with
a single-temperature modified blackbody dust component
consistently yield CMB residuals $\Delta r > 0.003$
for the inflationary B-mode amplitude.
Restricting observations to frequencies
30 GHz $< ~\nu ~ <$ 250 GHz
where the CMB is brightest relative to the foregrounds
reduces the bias for some of the two-component input model,
but actually increases the bias
when the input model
assumes a continuous distribution of dust emissivity
extending to higher temperatures.

Adding additional free parameters to the output dust model
reduces the CMB bias in certain cases.
A 13-parameter output model fitting two modified blackbody dust components
reproduces the two-component input model exactly,
and reduces CMB bias by an order of magnitude
for input models with extended temperature distributions.
However, the 13-parameter model
fails when the input sky contains dust with a running spectral index.
Such a running index is consistent with observations
and is expected for dust emission originating from
two-level systems within the disordered medium of interstellar dust grains.
A 13-parameter fit to the TLS model
showed CMB residuals
$\Delta r = 6 \times 10^{-3}$
despite fitting the combined CMB$+$foreground emission
at frequencies $\nu < 500$ GHz
to precision $\Delta I / I < 10^{-6}$.

Observations at THz frequencies
surrounding the peak of dust emission
can mitigate these biases.
Extending parametric fits over a broader frequency range
increases the residuals
when the parametric form of the fitted model
poorly matches the actual sky.
At THz frequencies,
the output-input dust residual for the toy models
had readily detectable values 400--2000 Jy sr$^{-1}$,
allowing statistical detection
of poorly fitted models.
Observations at THz frequencies
would also allow direct determination
of the dust temperature profile,
informing fits at lower frequencies.

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Maa Taratarini temple located 30 KMs away from Berhampur city in the state of Orrisa is the manifestation of shakti goddess. The idols of two goddesses Tara and Tarini wearing gold and silver ornaments along with a chalanti pratima placed between the two deities. 8-9 lakh devotees come to this temple during festivities like chaitra prabha, chaitra mela and chaitra yatra. The temple is open for darshan from 1 am to 11 pm on all days.
Earlier a beliefs but now it has become a ritual to offer a newborns hair to the goddesses who would intern protect the children and keep them in good health. The ideal time to be in the shrine of Tatatarini is during mid-March to mid-April. While one is here make this a great opportunity to learn about the history, culture, traditions and beliefs associated with this temple and people living here. Enjoy the experience of being in a holy place.


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UWTSD Home/Enhancement Unit/Research and Scholarship /Wales Journal of Learning and Teaching in Higher Education
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Gastvorlesung: "Luther and the Gospel of John. A Wisdom of Surprise for our Time"
Am Mittwoch, den 12.07, wird Prof. Dr. David F. Ford von der Faculty of Divinity der University of Cambridge eine Gastvorlesung zum Thema "Luther and the Gospel of John. A Wisdom of Surprise for our Time" halten.


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Friends of Blaise
Conserving, Improving, Promoting
contact@friendsofblaise.co.uk
@Blaise
Activities @Blaise
Volunteering @Blaise
What's On @Blaise
Castle & Estate
Blaise Castle
Blaise Estate
Blaise Hamlet
Blaise House
Kings Weston
Stratford MIll
Blasie house Museum
the current blaise house dates from 1796-1798 and stands next to the site of the previous blaise house. the house is now owned by Bristol city council and is currently used as a museum and a wedding venue.
the picture room was added between 1832 and 1833 and has been restored to its former glory.
its walls are decorated with a sumtuous red flock paper and hung with pictures from the fine art collections from artists William James Muller, james curnock, charles branwhite, james baker pyne and henry hewitt.
Blaise Dairy
the dairy was built between 1803-1805 and is grade II* listed. it was designed by fashonable architect john nash, the cottage style is similar in style to the cottages in blaise hamlet also designed by nash. the dairy provided butter and possibly cheese for the house. cows and sheep were grazed on the estate and it's likely the milk of both was used in the dairy.
it's been suggested that the decorotive appearance of the dairy means that it was intended more as a fashionable amusement for it's wealthy owners than a working dairy.
however the building has many of the practical features which were recommended at the time for a dairy and in some respects was progessive.
Dairy Garden
the dairy garden was once the site of the original manor house. it was demolished after 1798 when blaise house was completed. the planting designs in the garden have evolved over time. what's here today includes plants and shrubs that would have been known and used at the time the house was built and the estate was landscaped.
The Amphitheatre which is used for outdoor events was created as part of a heritage lottery fund project in 1999 which saw many areas of the estate restored and redeveloped.
the orangery is located between the house and the dairy garden. it was built to a design by john nash in 1806 and is different to the deisgn orginally proposed by humphry repton. today it's filled with hothouse plants that were purchased by the friends of blaise.
Behind the orangery is a large laundry room and beyond that is the service wing for the house. the siting of the orangery was designed to hide the more modest parts of the house from view, so that the family and their guests could enjoy the gardens.
blaise house & Dairy
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The state owned Strongman Mine lies 11 kilometres north-east of Greymouth, and was New Zealand's largest underground coal mine. It had been open since 1939, and had an accident-free record.
On 19 January, 1967, just after 10:00 am, an explosion blew through the section of the mine known as Green's No 2 Rise.
In seconds the fireball from the explosion fired through the section, killing 19 of the 240 men who were working in the mine at the time.
An even bigger disaster was averted when just 140 metres from the point of explosion the fireball struck a wet patch in the tunnel where water was seeping through the walls. The fireball slowed, then went out, and in seconds the danger had passed.
Within four minutes other teams of miners had reached the tunnel leading to Green's section, but were driven back by poisonous gas and smoke.
A full evacuation of the mine was ordered, and by 10:20 am the police and medical teams had arrived.
The rescue team, equipped with breathing packs, worked for 14 hours finding the bodies of the dead miners and bringing them to the surface on rail trucks. Often they had to dig their way through falls of coal and rock. Fire-damp reached dangerous levels at times, increasing the risk of another explosion.
The first bodies were brought to the surface at about 1:00 pm. Thirteen hours later the rescue work was held up while the air cleared, and by then 15 bodies had been found.
After a delay of five hours the rescue work resumed but when the smouldering coal burst into flames, the section where the remaining four bodies were was sealed off.
Three weeks later two more bodies were brought out, but the last two could not be reached, and were permanently sealed off.
A mass funeral was held on January 22 at the Karoro Lawn Cemetery in Greymouth.
Five men were awarded British Empire Medals for their actions.
The report of the Commission of Inquiry stated that twenty-two of the mining regulations and provisions had been broken.
A shot hole for a charge had been fired in a way that was against the regulations, and had broken through the face to an area where fire-damp had built up in some abandoned workings, triggering the explosion.
The abandoned workings should have been checked for gas.


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News » News Features
What's Next for the Anti-Abortion Bill?
by Mary Tuma
Judge Edith Jones is one of several conservatives on the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals
Despite hours of testimony, days after days of relentless protesting by pro-choice advocates who came out by the thousands and overwhelming scientific consensus from major medical organizations, a draconian bill that would likely shut down all but five clinics in Texas passed through the state Legislature last week.
The omnibus legislation bans abortion at 20 weeks of pregnancy, requires hospital admitting privileges for abortion doctors, insists patients follow an arduous protocol when taking abortion-inducing drugs and compels abortion clinics to comply with the same standards as ambulatory surgical centers (ASCs)—37 of the state's 42 clinics would likely close upon enforcement due to expensive and unnecessary building facility upgrades.
While State Sen. Wendy Davis' (D-Fort Worth) now famous filibuster successfully stopped the bill in its tracks during the first round, Gov. Rick Perry—who earlier this year declared he would 'make abortion a thing of the past'—simply called up a second Legislative special session where Republican majorities in both chambers glided the legislation to victory.
Anti-choice bill authors refused to be slowed down by a flurry of amendments from Democratic lawmakers aimed at reducing unplanned pregnancies and thus, abortions—like promoting sexual education in public schools and infusing the depleted family planning funding stream—quickly fending off each and every one with little attempt at explanation, lending more credence to the notion that the measures are meant to reduce abortion access under the pretense of protecting women's health.
Now, the bill moves to Perry's desk for assured approval. But then what? Will the legislation take effect in 2014, as it's supposed to, or be met with a legal challenge?
To predict the outcome, look no further than other states where abortion restrictions have been enacted. In the national sweep to dismantle reproductive health, states adopted some 45 provisions to severely limit access to abortion during the first six months of this year alone—a figure that matches the total number of restrictions in all of 2012, according to the Guttmacher Institute. Since 2010, 180 pieces of abortion restrictive legislation have made it through 30 different statehouses.
However, not all of these laws survived—many have been tied up in litigation or struck down.
For instance, 20-week abortion bans met court challenges in Arizona, Idaho and Georgia, resulting in preliminary or permanent enjoinment, according to the Center for Reproductive Rights, a group that mounts some of the legal battles themselves. Similarly, restrictions on medication abortion were blocked in Oklahoma and temporarily halted in North Dakota. Hospital admitting privileges were challenged and temporarily stopped in Wisconsin, Mississippi and Alabama, where a federal judge concluded the measure would cause a "permanent destabilizing effect." The state-mandated transition to an ASC—which would shutter the majority of the Texas' clinics—was preliminarily struck down in Kansas in 2011.
In other words, the precedent is there—each of the four parts of Texas' all-in-one bill have been deemed unconstitutional by other courts. That being said, the legal landscape in Texas may make the climb a bit steeper.
The notoriously conservative U.S. Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals hasn't ruled favorably for reproductive rights advocates in Texas, instead the New Orleans-based appellate court is often seen as a green light for anti-choice activists.
For instance, after CRR challenged abortion restrictions in 2011, the Court upheld the law requiring women to hear the fetal heartbeat and view a sonogram image of the fetus before an abortion, striking down a lower district court's ruling of unconstitutionality. In a months-long volley, a three-judge panel of the Court also ruled Texas could exclude Planned Parenthood from the Women's Health Program, a Medicaid service for low-income women.
Blake Rocap, legislative counsel with NARAL Pro-Choice Texas, told the Current he expects the bill to be challenged in court. His sense is that the Fifth Circuit's decision is very much contingent upon which judges are assigned on the panel hearing the case.
For instance, one name that would ensure the law's passage is Judge Edith Jones, a stalwart of the anti-abortion right, who considered the sonogram law helpful to women. On that note, Jones is currently facing a possible judicial conduct investigation for allegedly making racist remarks, clouding the panel prediction for now.
Ultimately, Rocap says that given precedent and bill authors' inability to deliver scientific evidence to back up claims, the end result could mean a victory for pro-choice Texans.
"[C]onsidering prior rulings and the Texas Legislature's failure to provide any facts to show how these restrictions are related to any governmental interest, I wouldn't be surprised if they were all struck."
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Home > Images Dated > 2008 > June > 13 Jun 2008
Christmas Wall Art & Decor
Murphys Pub in Dingle, County Kerry, Munster, Republic of Ireland, Europe
Window with flowers, France, Europe
Black Rhino, East Africa, Africa
Albino anemone, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
School of fish formed into a heart shape, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
School of fish, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
Reef scene with vase sponge and school of fish, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
Carpet of anemones, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
Three golden rabbitfish (Siganus guttatus) feeding, Thailand, Southeast Asia, Asia
Corn fields with poppies and cornflowers, Normandy, France, Europe
Gallarus Oratory, an early Christian stone building, County Kerry, Munster
Templars house, Ambourville, Normandy, France, Europe
Gallarus Oratory, an early Christian stone building, County Kerry, Munster, Republic of Ireland, Europe
© Donald Nausbaum
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Aerial of river, Denali National Park, Alaska, United States of America, North America
Aerial of Denali Mountains, Alaska, United States of America, North America
Boy fishing
Buggy in front of the Duomo, Florence, UNESCO World Heritage Site, Tuscany, Italy, Europe
Tortoise, Galapagos Islands, Ecuador, South America
Giraffe feeding, Kenya, East Africa, Africa
Grizzly bear, Katmai, Alaska, United States of America, North America
Il Tempo Building, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, Europe
Sacre Coeur, Paris, France, Europe
Piazza Palimento, Florence, Tuscany, Italy, Europe
Evening view of The Manchester Wheel, Manchester, England, United Kingdom, Europe
The Spice Bazaar, Sultanhamet, Istanbul, Turkey, Europe
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Cargo on River Seine near Rouen, Normandy, France, Europe
Snails at the market in Trouville were they sell sea food, Normandy, France, Europe
Umhausen, Otztal valley, Tyrol, Austria, Europe
Stuibenfall, Tyrols highest waterfall, Otztal valley, Tyrol, Austria, Europe
Typical window box, Otztal valley, Tyrol, Austria, Europe
Vent, Venter Tal, Otztal valley, Tyrol, Austria, Europe
Haystacks, near Umhausen, Otztal valley, Tyrol, Austria, Europe
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A top menu trend is the evolution of Italian cuisine from delicate to robust. This earthy pasta from Acanto in Chicago combines chestnut-stuffed agnolotti with roasted sunchokes, chestnuts, huckleberries and a spiced sunchoke cream.
This is the second half of my report on the insights gained from the most recent round of live, street-level research which I conduct each year with my culinary team. This tour takes us to new restaurants in the three primary trend-driving cities of New York, Chicago and Los Angeles. It included visits to 108 venues where we sampled a total of 1,151 dishes. This annual work not only provides us with a real-world view of the evolution of foods and flavors in commercial restaurants, but also exposes us to an abundance of fresh ideas and innovative dishes from some of the country's most inspired chefs.
The rise of Italian cuisine in the fast-casual segment was among the 10 trends called out in the 2015 "Top 10 Trends" issue of Flavor & The Menu. Innovative new concepts on the full-service side were also easy to spot. Of the 108 restaurants we targeted in our 2015 research, 14 were full-service casual or casual-upscale Italian.
The common element the majority of these restaurants share is a movement toward rich, rustic and hearty dishes. Smooth tomato sauces and delicate creams have given way to thick, robust preparations teeming with chunks of tomato and vegetables, or emboldened with slowly braised meats, intense meat broths, and sharp aged cheeses. Pasta varieties overwhelmingly skew to the large side. Fillings for stuffed pastas are increasingly indulgent. Sandwiches are generously stacked with authentic Italian ingredients. And flavorful cooking methods such as wood-grilling and rotisserie-roasting have become commonplace.
That notion is not lost on New York City chefs Jody Williams and Rita Sodi, who refer to their new West Village spot Via Carota as a "gastroteca." In a dining room of exposed brick, rough-hewn wood and reclaimed furniture, the chefs serve a menu of rustic Italian specialties ranging from shareable bites such as pork sausage-stuffed fried olives and chicken liver crostini with lemon, to meat and fish dishes, including twice-cooked lamb ribs, which are braised and then grilled and served over bitter greens, and grilled tuna served on a bed of heirloom beans.
Williams and Sodi are also leaders of the "veg-centric" trend in New York, with a daily offering of 15 vegetable dishes, some braised until tender such as their fennel bulb confit with citrus, and others char-grilled, including grilled ramps with crispy pancetta and grilled radicchio with pine nuts, currants and goat cheese.
Atypically, only two pasta dishes are offered at Via Carota, but both are in keeping with the menu's rustic profile: a housemade tortelli stuffed with smoked ricotta, and thick pappardelle noodles smothered in a rich wild boar ragù.
Across our three research cities, oversized noodles topped with hefty sauces and pastas stuffed with creative fillings dominated the latest Italian menus. In New York, All'onde chef Chris Jaeckle tosses lumache gigante shells with grilled treviso and an aged duck ragù. At Contrada in the East Village, chef John Paidas tops giant paccheri tubes with an intense braised pork sugo di carne, and he stuffs agnolotti pockets with butternut squash before pan searing and tossing them with walnut pesto.
The signature pasta at Factory Kitchen in Los Angeles is mandilli, large squares of "handkerchief pasta" layered with an almond-basil pesto. The menu at chef Zach Pollack's Alimento in L.A.'s Silver Lake features the thick, long pasta bigoli, bathed in a tomato and pine nut sugo, and his now-famous tortelli in brodo, hand-pinched pasta pockets cleverly filled with a sharp Parmesan broth.
Chef Chris Gawronski of Chicago's Acanto serves black peppercorn rigatoni with a spiced lamb ragù and garlic breadcrumbs, and a show-stopping dish of chestnut-stuffed agnolotti sprinkled with roasted sunchokes, chestnuts and huckleberries in a pool of spiced sunchoke cream. The most indulgent of the "big pasta" dishes may be found at Formento's on Chicago's Randolph Street Restaurant Row, where the giant elbow pasta canestri is served with a Sunday gravy that combines braised pork neck, meatballs and housemade fennel sausage.
The sandwiches on many of these menus are increasingly rich and hearty, with the Italian cold cut mortadella taking center stage. At New York's Bar Primi, chef Andrew Carmellini's grilled mortadella panino layers a generous stack of the pistachio-studded meat with soft scrambled egg, Fontina cheese and hot peppers. The mortadella melt at Siena Tavern in Chicago also features Fontina, thickly layered and melted into a toasted brioche bun. The Italian-style muffuletta at Acanto stacks mortadella, prosciutto and salami with chopped olives, mozzarella and a giardiniera aïoli. Best in class is the pig in a blanket sandwich at Alimento, where a thick slab of mortadella is grilled, topped with melted stracchino cheese and pickled mustard seeds, and served between pieces of spelt puff pastry.
Italian remains the most popular global cuisine with dining consumers, and not just in Italian restaurants. The "Italian gastropub" presents significant potential for innovation in varied-menu restaurants as well. Ingredient selection is a key element, as well as a focus on combining comfort and craveability.
Is it a sugo, gravy or ragù? All of these terms roughly translate to "sauce," and their interchangeable use is largely menu marketing. The more significant term is "rustic." Sauces should be thick and rich, with generous chunks of meat, tomato and vegetables.
Go long. Thicker varieties of long pastas provide differentiation and flavor-carrying versatility. Many of these have a hollow center, such as bucatini, perciatelli and long ziti. Bigoli is simply extra-thick spaghetti. Fettucine has given way to the broader varieties of pappardelle, mafalda and tagliatelle.
Go big. The larger the shaped pasta, the better. Rigatoni is today's entry-level size, but extra-large varieties include garganelli, lumache and canestri, with gomiti and paccheri being the largest.
The original Bologna. Mortadella originated in the Italian city of Bologna, hence the name of the loosely related American cold cut. Chefs have proven its appeal and its potential for creating a variety of unique and highly flavorful sandwiches. It may be shaved and stacked, layered with other meats and cheeses, or cut thickly and grilled. Mortadella is delicious cold, but its flavor multiplies when warmed.
Pulling duck confit from the bone offers the chance for flavorful innovation. Faith & Flower in Los Angeles features the decadent duck confit in tacos along with pickled butternut squash and toasted pumpkin seeds.
In the ongoing effort to create menu differentiation and offer the dining public new flavors, chefs are increasingly placing duck on full-service casual and casual-upscale menus in a variety of creative ways.
Duck is proving to be an extremely versatile protein, ideal for creating leading-edge dishes throughout the menu parts and incorporating flavors from a wide array of global cuisines. Its rich flavor and high fat content not only lend a comfort aspect to dishes, but enable chefs to control plate cost, since a large portion of meat is not required to create a satisfying plate.
One of the major flavor revelations of this year's research was the considerable number of duck-based dishes we sampled that tasted far superior to any we had encountered in the past.
The reason is simple: Many chefs have begun aging duck, using techniques quite similar to that of aging beef. They have discovered that like with beef, aging the meat of the duck produces significant boosts in flavor, complexity and tenderness. In our assessment, the aging completely elevates and transforms the eating experience.
Our first taste of aged duck was at chef Andrew Carmellini's restaurant Little Park in New York, where chef de cuisine Min Kong dry-ages the breast for 14 days, then serves it pan-seared on a bed of red quinoa with roasted turnips and a bing cherry jus. The meat possessed the same kind of rich, funky and faintly blue-cheesy flavor of a dry-aged steak. The superiority of flavor was obvious—no side-by-side taste tests needed.
We then traveled across town to chef Rich Torrisi's Dirty French, where the signature dish is his dry-aged duck à l'orange. Torrisi had special reach-in coolers installed for his dry-aging that are set to specific temperature and humidity levels. He ages the ducks for 21 to 30 days and cooks them on a large rotisserie. The breast is served in two large wedges in a pool of intense orange reduction. While the flavor of the meat was not quite as potent as at Little Park, the extra aging made a clear difference in the texture, which was dense, exceedingly rich and silkily tender.
The same exceptional flavors and textures were found in each dry-aged duck dish we sampled. In Los Angeles, Redbird chef Neal Fraser dry-ages duck from a local farm and serves the breast medium-rare, accompanied by Hoppin' John and chorizo made from the leg meat. At Chicago's Oak & Char, chef Joseph Heppe serves his aged breast with a Concord grape saba and duck liver vinaigrette.
Other chefs without the equipment or inclination to dry-age their duck are intensifying the flavor of the meat via salt-curing. For his signature "Rotisserie Duck for 2," Kevin Hickey, chef/owner of The Duck Inn on Chicago's South Side, removes the breasts and then salt-cures the back half of the ducks for a day before roasting them on a rotisserie. The breast is pan-seared and plated with the legs and thighs, surrounded by potatoes roasted in the duck drippings, tossed greens and tangerine sauce.
At contemporary Mexican restaurant Cosme in New York, chef de cuisine Mariana Villegas cures the ducks for her wildly popular duck carnitas by heavily salting the birds inside and out, then hanging them with butcher's twine inside of speed racks fitted with pans to catch any drippings. The ducks cure a full 72 hours before they are roasted and then braised in a mixture of vegetables, chiles, citrus, condensed milk and Mexican Coke. The highly craveable pulled meat is served with housemade tortillas, onion, radishes and a trio of salsas.
One of the most common and effective techniques for maximizing the flavor and richness of duck is to prepare the leg and thigh confit style, cooking it slowly in duck fat and spices until the meat is fork tender.
We encountered many dishes where the confit leg was served bone-in, such as chef Josef Centeno's version at Ledlow in Los Angeles, topped with candied kumquats and surrounded with duck fat potatoes, or at Bobby Flay's Gato in New York, served on a bed of braised mustard greens and roasted squash with a pomegranate jus.
But the most inspired treatments incorporated confit pulled from the bone, such as: the duck confit empanadas with guava mojo at Chicago's Tippling Hall; the duck banh mi at New York's Black Tree, topped with pickled carrots, cilantro, spicy mayo and finished with a slather of duck liver mousse; and the duck confit tacos at Faith & Flower in Los Angeles, garnished with pickled butternut squash and toasted pumpkin seeds.
Chefs are becoming highly creative with duck, to the delight of dining consumers. Its versatility and bold flavor make it an ideal ingredient for producing exciting new menu items.
Dry-aging duck results in a transformation of flavor, but the technique is still quite new to commercial kitchens. As the trend progresses, we see an opportunity for producers to create value-added products by instituting dry-aging programs in their operations.
Salt-curing duck is easy to execute, and it serves to intensify the flavor of leg and thigh meat.
Duck confit has become a breakout ingredient on the newest restaurant menus. It is ideal for adding compelling new flavors to sandwiches, salads, pizza, flatbreads and pasta dishes.
Duck is an easy fit for creating innovative twists on global favorites such as tacos, banh mi sandwiches, spring rolls, soups and noodle bowls.
Heart-healthy acai bowls have taken Los Angeles by storm. The Super Protein Acai Bowl at Harvest Bar blends acai with peanut butter, banana, cacao nibs, hemp protein, dates and hemp milk, then tops it with a multitude of berries, nuts and seeds.
In our 2014 report in Flavor & The Menu, we called out a tiny 20-seat restaurant on the fringes of Manhattan's Chinatown as one of our top "flavor finds." Dimes, owned and operated by general manager Sabrina De Sousa and chef Alissa Wagner, features a menu of health-oriented dishes prepared with such intriguing ingredient combinations and complexly layered flavors that the "better-for-you" aspect of the food truly seems secondary.
One of our favorite dishes was a craveable breakfast bowl based on a semi-frozen pudding of acai berry purée, bananas and almond milk, topped with fresh fruit, bee pollen, hemp seeds and goji berries. When we asked Wagner about her inspiration for the dish, she pointed us to Los Angeles, where she had found "acai bowls" quickly becoming a menu darling in health-minded restaurants across the city.
The pudding is made by blending frozen acai purée with fresh fruit that has also been frozen, and thinning the mixture to a spoonable consistency with a nut- or seed-based milk. The bowl is finished with sprinkled toppings that include toasted seeds, dried berries and pieces of fresh fruit.
While the acai bowl originated in Brazil, Angelenos have adopted the dish as their own, drawn by the berry's purported antioxidant and heart-health benefits, the customizable aspect of having a wide variety of toppings and stir-ins to choose from, and the delicious flavor of the acai pudding itself.
So, during this year's research in Los Angeles, several of our days began by sampling acai bowls from a variety of venues. The four-unit Backyard Bowls chain offers eight bowls in innovative flavor combinations such as kale and ginger, peanut butter-banana, and avocado with coconut. Flake restaurant in Venice has a single acai bowl on the menu, but it is perfectly executed as an "acai sorbet" topped with hemp granola, bananas and berries. From a customization standpoint, The Harvest Bar trumps the competition with 12 blends and nearly as many topping choices. And Amazebowls, a food truck specializing in acai bowls, serves three varieties topped with an assortment of fresh fruit.
Along the way we discovered that most of the venues had expanded their offerings to include bowls based on pitaya, also known as dragon fruit. Pitaya enjoys the same "superfruit" status as the acai berry, with similar nutritional health claims. And while the mild flavor of pitaya is usually masked by the other fruit in the blend, its bright pink color makes for a dramatic presentation in the bowl.
Acai and pitaya bowls are as close to a "parlor treat" as one will find in the better-for-you arena. And although many of the pressed-juice shops in New York and Chicago have added acai bowls to their menus, much of the country has yet to discover them, providing opportunities to be first to market in many regions and foodservice segments.
The vast number of possible ingredient combinations simplifies the process of developing signature bowls.
The most popular fruit additions for the base pudding include bananas, strawberries and blueberries. Pineapple, peaches, apricots, mangoes and cherries could enliven the mix.
The semi-frozen pudding is thinned to the proper consistency with nut- or seed-based milks such as almond, cashew, hemp and coconut.
Aside from bits of fresh fruit, crunchy and colorful toppings include bee pollen, chia seeds, pumpkin seeds, goji berries, cacao nibs, shredded coconut and granola.
You don't miss the meat in the eggplant tonkatsu served at Chalk Point Kitchen in New York. Vegetable-based schnitzels provide ample heft and satisfaction.
Yet another breakout menu item our research uncovered was the schnitzel. And while we sampled several updated versions of the classic breaded and pan-fried veal cutlet, we found a surprising number of chefs who are taking the dish in inventive new directions.
At the epicenter of this trend is Schnitz in New York, the new brick-and-mortar outpost of a former food stall at the weekends-only Smorgasburg market. Eight crunchy cutlet sandwiches are offered, and the chalkboard menu expands the options with special plated entrées and waffle-based schnitzel dishes.
Each sandwich is distinguished by a combination of unique toppings and condiments. Chicken schnitzels highlight the menu, with standouts like The Bamberg, topped with pickled cucumber, daikon, ginger and caramelized onion mustard, and The Sweet Onion, layered with sliced jicama, radish, cilantro and roasted beet tzatziki.
Most creative are the Lt. Dan, a crispy shrimp patty topped with a crunchy jicama-fennel slaw and finished with a dollop of lemongrass mayo, and The Yonz, a unique meatless schnitzel of smashed butternut squash and corn, topped with jicama slaw and honey-Sriracha mayo.
Schnitzels made from unexpected meat, seafood and vegetable ingredients were found throughout the tour. Chef Joseph Heppe at Chicago's Oak & Char serves a deliciously intriguing schnitzel made from thin slices of skate wing, accompanied by a tart rémoulade sauce based on a purée of roasted cauliflower.
At nearby Tippling Hall, chef Guillermo Tellez thinly pounds a butterflied thick-cut pork chop to the size of a hubcap for his Southern-fried pork schnitzel, topped with black-eyed peas, braised collards and a sunny-side egg. Pork is also the ingredient of choice for the schnitzel salad at New York's hyper-seasonal Park Avenue Winter (the name changes each season), a thick, pan-fried cutlet topped with radicchio and frisée salad and drizzled with housemade pear mustard.
The Japanese version of the schnitzel is called tonkatsu, usually made from a thin cutlet of chicken or pork. Chef Joe Isidori of New York's Chalk Point Kitchen offers a meatless version with his eggplant tonkatsu, served in a pool of soy-chile broth with freshly sliced radish, pickled red onion, avocado and cilantro.
The most unique schnitzel we discovered was also meatless and also a team favorite. The celery root schnitzel sandwich at Little Park in New York is made from a thick slice of the root that is poached until tender, breaded and crisply fried and served on a seeded bun with Dijon aïoli and a crunchy apple slaw.
Numerous statistics confirm that dining consumers highly value restaurant dishes they cannot easily prepare at home, so the labor-intensive nature of preparing a schnitzel may contribute to its popularity on commercial menus.
From an ingredient standpoint, today's definition of a schnitzel includes much more than the traditional veal cutlet. Thin slices of chicken, pork loin, pork belly, turkey breast and even firm-fleshed fish are viable proteins.
A wide array of vegetables are suitable for creating meatless schnitzels, including eggplant, summer squash, roasted winter squashes, cauliflower, celery root and rutabaga.
Whether served as a salad, plated entrée or sandwich, signature schnitzel dishes require a thoughtful layering of flavorful toppings, garnishes and condiments.


Children Coloring – Children are fascinated with colors. Being that they are relatively new to this world, and so are exceedingly curious and perceptive, they consider each brand-new hue and color to be exquisite and excellent, unlike us, who've learned to consider all of the colors in the globe for granted, and do not even look twice at any new color as such, believing it to be just another portion of the surrounding environment.
Kids, however, witness and perceive everything, and so are always eager to let their understanding stream to others through various means, verbal and non-verbal. children coloring As the verbal means are also important, the non-verbal ones are a lot more fun-oriented. These include various kinds of coloring books and, talking about the new generation, free of charge printable coloring webpages from the internet.
Apart from giving your kids a creative way of remaining engaged and passing free time, these coloring webpages have a number of other advantages. They are, to begin with, free to download and print, therefore all you have to is a computer, an web connection, and a printer.
Children Coloring Other than this, once again, these printable coloring pages will help develop your son or daughter's finer motor skills, such as eye-hands coordination etc, and will also help develop their concentration and perseverance towards completing confirmed task in an adequately satisfactory way. They'll also learn a whole lot of ideas through the means of these printable coloring pages.
But the majority of all, you will provide your children with a fun-filled, colorful period of time, which they will love to the fullest level possible. It is possible to see the feeling of pride and accomplishment in their eyes, that they are bound to experience on the completion of each of these little projects. children coloring Coloring webpages are a total entertainment package for kids, particularly if you find ones which depict a common character, season or theme. Some situations are Pokemon coloring web pages and Disney coloring pages.
And lastly, aside from all the great deal of happiness, education and satisfaction these coloring pages will provide to your kids, you're sure to agree when I say that they can give you some period of time to lay back again and relax, instead of chasing your kid throughout the house for various reasons. children coloring They will also help maintain an excellent, friendly rapport between the two of you, and will be a fun activity altogether, whether on a person basis, or a collective one.
So go on and seek out various fun and enjoyable coloring pages for your little one, fill their lives with happiness, and splash them with loads of colors – shades of happiness, joy, creativity and learning. Allow these toddlers to explore the deepest sea of visual results and color-schemes, and witness your little Picasso grow into a smart, sharp, perceptive and of course, innovative individual, and a comprehensive package.


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Systems Analyst IV • Health and Human Services Commission
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Home Countries England England captain Root confirms Test debuts for duo against Ireland
England captain Root confirms Test debuts for duo against Ireland
England captain Joe Root has confirmed that Jason Roy and Olly Stone will make their debuts in the four-day Test against Ireland starting at Lord's on Wednesday.
Surrey batsman Roy earns his first cap off the back of fine form for England's white-ball team having been a key part of the squad that won the World Cup on July 14.
Stone makes his debut having recovered from a back injury that forced him to return home early from England's tour of the Caribbean earlier this year.
It means James Anderson, who has a right calf injury, and Somerset's Lewis Gregory, miss out from the Three Lions' 13-strong squad for the Test.
World Cup heroes Ben Stokes and Jos Buttler were rested, while injury ruled out Mark Wood and Jofra Archer.
England team v Ireland: Rory Burns, Jason Roy, Joe Denly, Joe Root (c), Jonny Bairstow (wk), Moeen Ali, Sam Curran, Chris Woakes, Stuart Broad, Olly Stone, Jack Leach.
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Celtic capture another player of Nigerian descent
in News, NewsNow, Nigeria
According to reports from Herald and Times sports, it is understood that Celtic have signed Nigeria-eligible midfielder Bosun Lawal. He is to be unveiled this week after putting pen to paper on a three-year deal worth £120,000.
Lawal is the second player of Nigerian descent to join the Scottish club this summer after Osaze Urhoghide.
Celtic fought off interests from Premier League clubs like Norwich, Fulham and Chelsea. With his talent, he even attracted offers from Serie A clubs.
The former Watford prodigy is 18 years of age, and it does look like a decent deal for both sides as Lawal is a robust midfielder who can also play at the heart of the defence.
It could be quite pivotal for them as they look to reclaim the Scottish League title, which they relinquished to Glasgow Rangers.
For Bosun, it's a great environment to grow as a young player as the pressure in Scotland is not as high as in England.
The Midfielder has been likened to Abdoulaye Doucoure. Bosun, who is of Nigerian descent, has played for the Ireland youth teams but hasn't featured in any senior team game.
Tags: Celtic