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Federalist Party
This article is about the late 18th- to early 19th-century American political party. For similarly named parties, see Federal Party.
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The Federalist Party was the first political party in the United States. Under Alexander Hamilton, it dominated the national government from 1789 to 1801. It became a minority party while keeping its stronghold in New England and made a brief resurgence by opposing the War of 1812. It then collapsed with its last presidential candidate in 1816. Remnants lasted in a few places for a few years. The party appealed to businesses and to conservatives who favored banks, national over state government, manufacturing, an army and navy, and in world affairs preferred Great Britain and opposed the French Revolution. The party favored centralization, federalism, modernization and protectionism.[3][8]
The Federalists called for a strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain in opposition to Revolutionary France. It controlled the federal government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by President Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party came into being between 1789 and 1790 as a national coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Hamilton's fiscal policies. These supporters worked in every state to build an organized party committed to a fiscally sound and nationalistic government. The only Federalist President was John Adams. George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, but he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency.[9]
Federalist policies called for a national bank, tariffs and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of the Constitution. Their political opponents, the Democratic-Republicans led by Jefferson, denounced most of the Federalist policies, especially the bank and implied powers; and vehemently attacked the Jay Treaty as a sell-out of republican values to the British monarchy. The Jay Treaty passed and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the nation's cities and in New England. They factionalized when President Adams secured peace with France, to the anger of Hamilton's larger faction. After the Jeffersonians, whose base was in the rural South and West, won the hard-fought presidential election of 1800, the Federalists never returned to power. They recovered some strength through their intense opposition to the War of 1812, but they practically vanished during the Era of Good Feelings that followed the end of the war in 1815.[10]
The Federalists left a lasting legacy in the form of a strong Federal government. After losing executive power, they decisively shaped Supreme Court policy for another three decades through Chief Justice John Marshall.[11]
On taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated his wartime chief of staff Alexander Hamilton to the new office of Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility. Hamilton proposed the ambitious Hamiltonian economic program that involved assumption of the state debts incurred during the American Revolution, creating a national debt and the means to pay it off and setting up a national bank, along with creating tariffs, with Madison playing major roles in the program. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism. No similar parties existed anywhere in the world.[12] By 1789, Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition. Realizing the need for vocal political support in the states, he formed connections with like-minded nationalists and used his network of treasury agents to link together friends of the government, especially merchants and bankers, in the new nation's dozen major cities. His attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a national faction and then as the new Federalist Party.[13] The Federalist Party supported Hamilton's vision of a strong centralized government and agreed with his proposals for a national bank and heavy government subsidies. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in the war between France and Great Britain.[14]
A portrait of Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, 1806
The majority of the Founding Fathers were originally Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison and many others can all be considered Federalists. These Federalists felt that the Articles of Confederation had been too weak to sustain a working government and had decided that a new form of government was needed. Hamilton was made Secretary of the Treasury and when he came up with the idea of funding the debt he created a split in the original Federalist group. Madison greatly disagreed with Hamilton not just on this issue, but on many others as well and he and John J. Beckley created the Anti-Federalist faction. These men would form the Republican Party under Thomas Jefferson.[15]
By the early 1790s, newspapers started calling Hamilton supporters "Federalists" and their opponents "Democrats", "Republicans", "Jeffersonians", or—much later—"Democratic-Republicans". Jefferson's supporters usually called themselves "Republicans" and their party the "Republican Party".[16] The Federalist Party became popular with businessmen and New Englanders as Republicans were mostly farmers who opposed a strong central government. Cities were usually Federalist strongholds whereas frontier regions were heavily Republican. However, these are generalizations as there are special cases such as the Presbyterians of upland North Carolina, who had immigrated just before the Revolution and often been Tories, became Federalists.[17] The Congregationalists of New England and the Episcopalians in the larger cities supported the Federalists while other minority denominations tended toward the Republican camp. Catholics in Maryland were generally Federalists.[18]
The state networks of both parties began to operate in 1794 or 1795. Patronage now became a factor. The winner-takes-all election system opened a wide gap between winners, who got all the patronage; and losers, who got none. Hamilton had many lucrative Treasury jobs to dispense—there were 1,700 of them by 1801.[19] Jefferson had one part-time job in the State Department, which he gave to journalist Philip Freneau to attack the Federalists. In New York, George Clinton won the election for governor and used the vast state patronage fund to help the Republican cause.
Washington tried and failed to moderate the feud between his two top cabinet members.[20] He was re-elected without opposition in 1792. The Democratic-Republicans nominated New York's Governor Clinton to replace Federalist John Adams as vice president, but Adams won. The balance of power in Congress was close, with some members still undecided between the parties. In early 1793, Jefferson secretly prepared resolutions introduced by William Branch Giles, Congressman from Virginia, designed to repudiate Hamilton and weaken the Washington Administration.[21] Hamilton defended his administration of the nation's complicated financial affairs, which none of his critics could decipher until the arrival in Congress of the Republican Albert Gallatin in 1793.
Federalists counterattacked by claiming the Hamiltonian program had restored national prosperity as shown in one 1792 anonymous newspaper essay:[22]
To what physical, moral, or political energy shall this flourishing state of things be ascribed? There is but one answer to these inquiries: Public credit is restored and established. The general government, by uniting and calling into action the pecuniary resources of the states, has created a new capital stock of several millions of dollars, which, with that before existing, is directed into every branch of business, giving life and vigor to industry in its infinitely diversified operation. The enemies of the general government, the funding act and the National Bank may bellow tyranny, aristocracy, and speculators through the Union and repeat the clamorous din as long as they please; but the actual state of agriculture and commerce, the peace, the contentment and satisfaction of the great mass of people, give the lie to their assertions.
Jefferson wrote on February 12, 1798:
Two political Sects have arisen within the U. S. the one believing that the executive is the branch of our government which the most needs support; the other that like the analogous branch in the English Government, it is already too strong for the republican parts of the Constitution; and therefore in equivocal cases they incline to the legislative powers: the former of these are called federalists, sometimes aristocrats or monocrats, and sometimes tories, after the corresponding sect in the English Government of exactly the same definition: the latter are stiled republicans, whigs, jacobins, anarchists, disorganizers, etc. these terms are in familiar use with most persons.[23]
Religious dimension
In New England, the Federalist Party was closely linked to the Congregational church. When the party collapsed, the church was disestablished.[24] In 1800 and other elections, the Federalists targeted infidelity in any form. They repeatedly charged that Republican candidates, especially Jefferson, were atheistic or nonreligious. Conversely, the Baptists, Methodists and other dissenters as well as the religiously nonaligned favored the Republican cause.[25] Jefferson told the Baptists of Connecticut there should be a "wall of separation" between church and state.[26][27]
Effects of foreign affairs
International affairs—the French Revolution and the subsequent war between royalist Britain and republican France—decisively shaped American politics in 1793–1800 and threatened to entangle the nation in wars that "mortally threatened its very existence".[28] The French revolutionaries guillotined King Louis XVI in January 1793, leading the British to declare war to restore the monarchy. The King had been decisive in helping the United States achieve independence, but now he was dead and many of the pro-American aristocrats in France were exiled or executed. Federalists warned that American republicans threatened to replicate the horrors of the French Revolution and successfully mobilized most conservatives and many clergymen. The Republicans, some of whom had been strong Francophiles, responded with support even through the Reign of Terror, when thousands were guillotined, though it was at this point that many began backing away from their pro-France leanings.[29] Many of those executed had been friends of the United States, such as the Comte D'Estaing, whose fleet had fought alongside the Americans in the Revolution (Lafayette had already fled into exile, and Thomas Paine went to prison in France). The republicans denounced Hamilton, Adams and even Washington as friends of Britain, as secret monarchists and as enemies of the republican values. The level of rhetoric reached a fever pitch.[30][31]
In 1793, Paris sent a new minister, Edmond-Charles Genêt (known as Citizen Genêt), who systematically mobilized pro-French sentiment and encouraged Americans to support France's war against Britain and Spain. Genêt funded local Democratic-Republican Societies that attacked Federalists.[32] He hoped for a favorable new treaty and for repayment of the debts owed to France. Acting aggressively, Genêt outfitted privateers that sailed with American crews under a French flag and attacked British shipping. He tried to organize expeditions of Americans to invade Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida. When Secretary of State Jefferson told Genêt he was pushing American friendship past the limit, Genêt threatened to go over the government's head and rouse public opinion on behalf of France. Even Jefferson agreed this was blatant foreign interference in domestic politics. Genêt's extremism seriously embarrassed the Jeffersonians and cooled popular support for promoting the French Revolution and getting involved in its wars. Recalled to Paris for execution, Genêt kept his head and instead went to New York, where he became a citizen and married the daughter of Governor Clinton.[33] Jefferson left office, ending the coalition cabinet and allowing the Federalists to dominate.[34]
Jay Treaty
The Jay Treaty battle in 1794–1795 was the effort by Washington, Hamilton and John Jay to resolve numerous difficulties with Britain. Some of these issues dated to the Revolution, such as boundaries, debts owed in each direction and the continued presence of British forts in the Northwest Territory. In addition, the United States hoped to open markets in the British Caribbean and end disputes stemming from the naval war between Britain and France. Most of all the goal was to avert a war with Britain—a war opposed by the Federalists, that some historians claim the Jeffersonians wanted.[35]
As a neutral party, the United States argued it had the right to carry goods anywhere it wanted. The British nevertheless seized American ships carrying goods from the French West Indies. The Federalists favored Britain in the war and by far most of America's foreign trade was with Britain, hence a new treaty was called for. The British agreed to evacuate the western forts, open their West Indies ports to American ships, allow small vessels to trade with the French West Indies and set up a commission that would adjudicate American claims against Britain for seized ships and British claims against Americans for debts incurred before 1775. One possible alternative was war with Britain, a war that the United States was ill-prepared to fight.[36]
The Republicans wanted to pressure Britain to the brink of war (and assumed that the United States could defeat a weak Britain).[37] Therefore, they denounced the Jay Treaty as an insult to American prestige, a repudiation of the American-French alliance of 1777 and a severe shock to Southern planters who owed those old debts and who were never to collect for the lost slaves the British captured. Republicans protested against the treaty and organized their supporters. The Federalists realized they had to mobilize their popular vote, so they mobilized their newspapers, held rallies, counted votes and especially relied on the prestige of President Washington. The contest over the Jay Treaty marked the first flowering of grassroots political activism in the United States, directed and coordinated by two national parties. Politics was no longer the domain of politicians as every voter was called on to participate. The new strategy of appealing directly to the public worked for the Federalists as public opinion shifted to support the Jay Treaty.[38] The Federalists controlled the Senate and they ratified it by exactly the necessary ⅔ vote (20–10) in 1795. However, the Republicans did not give up and public opinion swung toward the Republicans after the Treaty fight and in the South the Federalists lost most of the support they had among planters.[39]
Main article: Whiskey Rebellion
The excise tax of 1791 caused grumbling from the frontier including threats of tax resistance. Corn, the chief crop on the frontier, was too bulky to ship over the mountains to market unless it was first distilled into whiskey. This was profitable as the United States population consumed per capita relatively large quantities of liquor. After the excise tax, the backwoodsmen complained the tax fell on them rather than on the consumers. Cash poor, they were outraged that they had been singled out to pay off the "financiers and speculators" back in the East and to pay the salaries of the federal revenue officers who began to swarm the hills looking for illegal stills.[40]
Insurgents in western Pennsylvania shut the courts and hounded federal officials, but Jeffersonian leader Albert Gallatin mobilized the western moderates and thus forestalled a serious outbreak. Washington, seeing the need to assert federal supremacy, called out 13,000 state militia and marched toward Washington, Pennsylvania to suppress this Whiskey Rebellion. The rebellion evaporated in late 1794 as Washington approached, personally leading the army (only two sitting Presidents have directly led American military forces, Washington during the Whiskey Rebellion and Madison in an attempt to save the White House during the War of 1812). The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting. Federalists were relieved that the new government proved capable of overcoming rebellion while Republicans, with Gallatin their new hero, argued there never was a real rebellion and the whole episode was manipulated in order to accustom Americans to a standing army.
Angry petitions flowed in from three dozen Democratic-Republican Societies created by Citizen Genêt. Washington attacked the societies as illegitimate and many disbanded. Federalists now ridiculed Republicans as "democrats" (meaning in favor of mob rule) or "Jacobins" (a reference to the Reign of Terror in France).
Washington refused to run for a third term, establishing a two-term precedent that was to stand until 1940 and eventually to be enshrined in the Constitution as the 22nd Amendment. He warned in his Farewell Address against involvement in European wars and lamented the rising north–south sectionalism and party spirit in politics that threatened national unity:
The party spirits serves always to distract the Public Councils, and enfeeble the Public Administration. It agitates the Community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one part against another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which find a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions. Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another.
Washington never considered himself a member of any party, but broadly supported most Federalist policies.[41]
Newspaper editors at war
The spoils system helped finance Federalist printers until 1801 and Republican editors after that. Federalist Postmasters General, Timothy Pickering (1791–94) and Joseph Habersham (1795–1801) appointed and removed local postmasters to maximize party funding. Numerous printers were appointed as postmasters. They did not deliver the mail, but they did collect fees from mail users and obtained free delivery of their own newspapers and business mail.[42][43]
To strengthen their coalitions and hammer away constantly at the opposition, both parties sponsored newspapers in the capital (Philadelphia) and other major cities.[44] On the Republican side, Philip Freneau and Benjamin Franklin Bache blasted the administration with all the scurrility at their command. Bache in particular targeted Washington himself as the front man for monarchy who must be exposed. To Bache, Washington was a cowardly general and a money-hungry baron who saw the Revolution as a means to advance his fortune and fame; Adams was a failed diplomat who never forgave the French their love of Benjamin Franklin and who craved a crown for himself and his descendants; and Alexander Hamilton was the most inveterate monarchist of them all.[45]
The Federalists, with twice as many newspapers at their command, slashed back with equal vituperation. John Fenno and "Peter Porcupine" (William Cobbett) were their nastiest penmen and Noah Webster their most learned. Hamilton subsidized the Federalist editors, wrote for their papers and in 1801 established his own paper, the New York Evening Post. Though his reputation waned considerably following his death, Joseph Dennie ran three of the most popular and influential newspapers of the period, The Farmer's Weekly Museum, the Gazette of the United States and The Port Folio.[46]
Ceremonies and civil religion
The Apotheosis of Washington as seen looking up from the Capitol rotunda in Washington, D.C.
The Federalists were conscious of the need to boost voter identification with their party. Elections remained of central importance, but the rest of the political calendar was filled with celebrations, parades, festivals and visual sensationalism.[47] The Federalists employed multiple festivities, exciting parades and even quasi-religious pilgrimages and "sacred" days that became incorporated into the American civil religion. George Washington was always their hero and after his death he became viewed as a sort of demigod looking down from heaven to bestow his blessings on the party. At first, the Federalists focused on commemorating the ratification of the Constitution and organized parades to demonstrate widespread popular support for the new Federalist Party. The parade organizers incorporated secular versions of traditional religious themes and rituals, thereby fostering a highly visible celebration of the nation's new civil religion.[48]
The Fourth of July became a semi-sacred day—a status it has maintained for much of American history.[49] Its celebration in Boston emphasized national over local patriotism and included orations, dinners, militia musters, parades, marching bands, floats and fireworks. By 1800, the Fourth of July was closely identified with the Federalist Party. Republicans were annoyed and staged their own celebrations on the same day—with rival parades sometimes clashing with each other, which generated even more excitement and larger crowds. After the collapse of the Federalists starting in 1815, the Fourth of July became a nonpartisan holiday.[50][51]
Adams administration: 1797–1801
Main article: John Adams
Gilbert Stuart, John Adams, c. 1800-1815
Hamilton distrusted Vice President Adams—who felt the same way about Hamilton—but was unable to block his claims to the succession. The election of 1796 was the first partisan affair in the nation's history and one of the more scurrilous in terms of newspaper attacks. Adams swept New England and Jefferson the South, with the middle states leaning to Adams. Adams was the winner by a margin of three electoral votes and Jefferson, as the runner-up, became vice president under the system set out in the Constitution prior to the ratification of the 12th Amendment.[52]
The Federalists were strongest in New England, but also had strengths in the middle states. They elected Adams as president in 1796, when they controlled both houses of Congress, the presidency, eight state legislatures and ten governorships.[53]
Foreign affairs continued to be the central concern of American politics, for the war raging in Europe threatened to drag in the United States. The new president was a loner, who made decisions without consulting Hamilton or other "High Federalists". Benjamin Franklin once quipped that Adams was a man always honest, often brilliant and sometimes mad. Adams was popular among the Federalist rank and file, but had neglected to build state or local political bases of his own and neglected to take control of his own cabinet. As a result, his cabinet answered more to Hamilton than to himself. Hamilton was especially popular because he rebuilt the Army—and had commissions to give out.[54]
Alien and Sedition Acts
After an American delegation was insulted in Paris in the XYZ affair (1797), public opinion ran strongly against the French. An undeclared "Quasi-War" with France from 1798 to 1800 saw each side attacking and capturing the other's shipping. It was called "quasi" because there was no declaration of war, but escalation was a serious threat. At the peak of their popularity, the Federalists took advantage by preparing for an invasion by the French Army. To silence Administration critics, the Federalists passed the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. The Alien Act empowered the President to deport such aliens as he declared to be dangerous. The Sedition Act made it a crime to print false, scandalous and malicious criticisms of the federal government, but it conspicuously failed to criminalize criticism of Vice President Thomas Jefferson.[55]
Several Republican newspaper editors were convicted under the Act and fined or jailed and three Democratic-Republican newspapers were shut down.[56] In response, Jefferson and Madison secretly wrote the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions passed by the two states' legislatures that declared the Alien and Sedition Acts unconstitutional and insisted the states had the power to nullify federal laws.
Undaunted, the Federalists created a navy, with new frigates; and a large new army, with Washington in nominal command and Hamilton in actual command. To pay for it all, they raised taxes on land, houses and slaves, leading to serious unrest. In one part of Pennsylvania, the Fries' Rebellion broke out, with people refusing to pay the new taxes. John Fries was sentenced to death for treason, but received a pardon from Adams. In the elections of 1798, the Federalists did very well, but this issue started hurting the Federalists in 1799. Early in 1799, Adams decided to free himself from Hamilton's overbearing influence, stunning the country and throwing his party into disarray by announcing a new peace mission to France. The mission eventually succeeded, the "Quasi-War" ended and the new army was largely disbanded. Hamiltonians called Adams a failure while Adams fired Hamilton's supporters still in the cabinet.
Hamilton and Adams intensely disliked one another and the Federalists split between supporters of Hamilton ("High Federalists") and supporters of Adams. Hamilton became embittered over his loss of political influence and wrote a scathing criticism of Adams' performance as president in an effort to throw Federalist support to Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. Inadvertently, this split the Federalists and helped give the victory to Jefferson.[57]
Main article: United States presidential election, 1800
Adams's peace moves proved popular with the Federalist rank and file and he seemed to stand a good chance of re-election in 1800. If the Three-Fifths Compromise had not been enacted, he most likely would have won reelection since many Federalist legislatures removed the right to select electors from their constituents in fear of a Democratic victory. Jefferson was again the opponent and Federalists pulled out all stops in warning that he was a dangerous revolutionary, hostile to religion, who would weaken the government, damage the economy and get into war with Britain. Many believed that if Jefferson won the election, it would be the end of the newly formed United States. The Republicans crusaded against the Alien and Sedition laws as well as the new taxes and proved highly effective in mobilizing popular discontent.[20]
The election hinged on New York as its electors were selected by the legislature and given the balance of North and South, they would decide the presidential election. Aaron Burr brilliantly organized his forces in New York City in the spring elections for the state legislature. By a few hundred votes, he carried the city—and thus the state legislature—and guaranteed the election of a Republican president. As a reward, he was selected by the Republican caucus in Congress as their vice presidential candidate. Alexander Hamilton, knowing the election was lost anyway, went public with a sharp attack on Adams that further divided and weakened the Federalists.[58]
Members of the Republican Party planned to vote evenly for Jefferson and Burr because they did not want for it to seem as if their party was divided. The party took the meaning literally and Jefferson and Burr tied in the election with 73 electoral votes. This sent the election to the House of Representatives to break the tie. The Federalists had enough weight in the House to swing the election in either direction. Many would rather have seen Burr in the office over Jefferson, but Hamilton, who had a strong dislike of Burr, threw his political weight behind Jefferson. During the election, neither Jefferson nor Burr attempted to swing the election in the House of Representatives. Jefferson remained at Monticello to oversee the laying of bricks to a section of his home. Jefferson allowed for his political beliefs and other ideologies to filter out through letters to his contacts. Thanks to Hamilton's support, Jefferson would win the election and Burr would become his vice president. Many Federalists held to the belief that this was the end of the United States and that the experiment they had begun had ended in failure.[59] This unintended complication led directly to the proposal and ratification of the 12th Amendment. "We are all republicans—we are all federalists", proclaimed Jefferson in his inaugural address.[60] This election marked the first time power had been transferred between opposing political parties, an act that occurred remarkably without bloodshed. Though there had been strong words and disagreements, contrary to the Federalists fears, there was no war and no ending of one-government system to let in a new one. His patronage policy was to let the Federalists disappear through attrition. Those Federalists such as John Quincy Adams (John Adams' own son) and Rufus King willing to work with him were rewarded with senior diplomatic posts, but there was no punishment of the opposition.[61]
Federalists in opposition
Fisher Ames (1758–1808) of Massachusetts ranks as one of the more influential figures of his era.[62] Ames led Federalist ranks in the House of Representatives. His acceptance of the Bill of Rights garnered support in Massachusetts for the new Constitution. His greatest fame came as an orator who defined the principles of the Federalist Party and the follies of the Republicans. Ames offered one of the first great speeches in American Congressional history when he spoke in favor of the Jay Treaty. Ames was part of Hamilton's faction and cautioned against the excesses of democracy unfettered by morals and reason: "Popular reason does not always know how to act right, nor does it always act right when it knows".[63] He warned his countrymen of the dangers of flattering demagogues, who incite dis-union and lead their country into bondage: "Our country is too big for union, too sordid for patriotism, too democratic for liberty. What is to become of it, He who made it best knows. Its vice will govern it, by practising upon its folly. This is ordained for democracies".[64]
Jefferson administration
Main article: Thomas Jefferson
President Thomas Jefferson
Jefferson had a very successful first term, typified by the Louisiana Purchase, which was ironically supported by Hamilton, but opposed by most Federalists at the time as unconstitutional. Some Federalist leaders (Essex Junto) began courting Jefferson's vice president and Hamilton's nemesis Aaron Burr in an attempt to swing New York into an independent confederation with the New England states, which along with New York were supposed to secede from the United States after Burr's election to Governor. However, Hamilton's influence cost Burr the governorship of New York, a key in the Essex Junto's plan, just as Hamilton's influence had cost Burr the presidency nearly four years before. Hamilton's thwarting of Aaron Burr's ambitions for the second time was too much for Burr to bear. Hamilton had known of the Essex Junto (whom Hamilton now regarded as apostate Federalists) and Burr's plans and opposed them vehemently. This opposition by Hamilton would lead to his fatal duel with Burr in July 1804.[65]
The thoroughly disorganized Federalists hardly offered any opposition to Jefferson's reelection in 1804 and Federalists seemed doomed. Jefferson had taken away most of their patronage, including federal judgeships. The party now controlled only five state legislatures and seven governorships. After again losing the presidency in 1804, the party was now down to three legislatures and five governorships (four in New England). Their majorities in Congress were long gone, dropping in the Senate from 23 in 1796, and 21 in 1800 to only six in 1804.[66] In New England and in some districts in the middle states, the Federalists clung to power, but the tendency from 1800 to 1812 was steady slippage almost everywhere as the Republicans perfected their organization and the Federalists tried to play catch-up. Some younger leaders tried to emulate the Democratic-Republican tactics, but their overall disdain of democracy along with the upper class bias of the party leadership eroded public support. In the South, the Federalists steadily lost ground everywhere.[57]
The Federalists continued for several years to be a major political party in New England and the Northeast, but never regained control of the presidency or the Congress. With the death of Washington and Hamilton and the retirement of Adams, the Federalists were left without a strong leader as Chief Justice John Marshall stayed out of politics. However, a few younger leaders did appear, notably Daniel Webster. Federalist policies favored factories, banking and trade over agriculture and therefore became unpopular in the growing Western states. They were increasingly seen as aristocratic and unsympathetic to democracy. In the South, the party had lingering support in Maryland, but elsewhere was crippled by 1800 and faded away by 1808.[67]
Massachusetts and Connecticut remained the party strongholds. Historian Richard J. Purcell explains how well organized the party was in Connecticut:
It was only necessary to perfect the working methods of the organized body of office-holders who made up the nucleus of the party. There were the state officers, the assistants, and a large majority of the Assembly. In every county there was a sheriff with his deputies. All of the state, county, and town judges were potential and generally active workers. Every town had several justices of the peace, school directors and, in Federalist towns, all the town officers who were ready to carry on the party's work. Every parish had a "standing agent," whose anathemas were said to convince at least ten voting deacons. Militia officers, state's attorneys, lawyers, professors and schoolteachers were in the van of this "conscript army." In all, about a thousand or eleven hundred dependent officer-holders were described as the inner ring which could always be depended upon for their own and enough more votes within their control to decide an election. This was the Federalist machine.[68]
After 1800, the major Federalist role came in the judiciary. Although Jefferson managed to repeal the Judiciary Act of 1801 and thus dismissed many lower level Federalist federal judges, the effort to impeach Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 failed. Led by the last great Federalist, John Marshall as Chief Justice from 1801 to 1835, the Supreme Court carved out a unique and powerful role as the protector of the Constitution and promoter of nationalism.[69]
Anti-war party
As the wars in Europe intensified, the United States became increasingly involved. The Federalists restored some of their strength by leading the anti-war opposition to Jefferson and Madison between 1807 and 1814. President Jefferson imposed an embargo on Britain in 1807 as the Embargo Act of 1807 prevented all American ships from sailing to a foreign port. The idea was that the British were so dependent on American supplies that they would come to terms. For 15 months, the Embargo wrecked American export businesses, largely based in the Boston-New York region, causing a sharp depression in the Northeast. Evasion was common and Jefferson and Treasury Secretary Gallatin responded with tightened police controls more severe than anything the Federalists had ever proposed. Public opinion was highly negative and a surge of support breathed fresh life into the Federalist Party.[70]
The Republicans nominated Madison for the presidency in 1808. Meeting in the first-ever national convention, Federalists considered the option of nominating Jefferson's Vice President George Clinton as their own candidate, but balked at working with him and again chose Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, their 1804 candidate. Madison lost New England excluding Vermont, but swept the rest of the country and carried a Republican Congress. Madison dropped the Embargo, opened up trade again and offered a carrot and stick approach. If either France or Britain agreed to stop their violations of American neutrality, the United States would cut off trade with the other country. Tricked by Napoleon into believing France had acceded to his demands, Madison turned his wrath on Britain and the War of 1812 began.[71] Young Daniel Webster, running for Congress from New Hampshire in 1812, first gained overnight fame with his anti-war speeches.[72]
Madison administration
Main article: James Madison
President James Madison
The nation was at war during the 1812 presidential election and war was the burning issue. Opposition to the war was strong in traditional Federalist strongholds in New England and New York, where the party made a comeback in the elections of 1812 and 1814. In their second national convention in 1812, the Federalists, now the peace party, nominated DeWitt Clinton, the dissident Republican Mayor of New York City and an articulate opponent of the war. Madison ran for reelection promising a relentless war against Britain and an honorable peace. Clinton, denouncing Madison's weak leadership and incompetent preparations for war, could count on New England and New York. To win, he needed the middle states and there the campaign was fought out. Those states were competitive and had the best-developed local parties and most elaborate campaign techniques, including nominating conventions and formal party platforms. The Tammany Society in New York City highly favored Madison and the Federalists finally adopted the club idea in 1808. Their Washington Benevolent Societies were semi-secret membership organizations which played a critical role in every northern state as they held meetings and rallies and mobilized Federalist votes.[73] New Jersey went for Clinton, but Madison carried Pennsylvania and thus was reelected with 59% of the electoral votes. However, the Federalists gained 14 seats in Congress.
Opposition to the War of 1812
The War of 1812 went poorly for the Americans for two years. Even though Britain was concentrating its military efforts on its war with Napoleon, the United States still failed to make any headway on land and was effectively blockaded at sea by the Royal Navy. The British raided and burned Washington, D.C. in 1814 and sent a force to capture New Orleans.
The war was especially unpopular in New England. The New England economy was highly dependent on trade and the British blockade threatened to destroy it entirely. In 1814, the British Navy finally managed to enforce their blockade on the New England coast, so the Federalists of New England sent delegates to the Hartford Convention in December 1814.
During the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, secession from the Union was discussed, though the resulting report listed a set of grievances against the Democratic-Republican federal government and proposed a set of Constitutional amendments to address these grievances. They demanded financial assistance from Washington to compensate for lost trade and proposed constitutional amendments requiring a two-thirds vote in Congress before an embargo could be imposed, new states admitted, or war declared. It also indicated that if these proposals were ignored, then another convention should be called and given "such powers and instructions as the exigency of a crisis may require". The Federalist Massachusetts Governor had already secretly sent word to England to broker a separate peace accord. Three Massachusetts "ambassadors" were sent to Washington to negotiate on the basis of this report.
By the time the Federalist "ambassadors" got to Washington, the war was over and news of Andrew Jackson's stunning victory in the Battle of New Orleans had raised American morale immensely. The "ambassadors" hastened back to Massachusetts, but not before they had done fatal damage to the Federalist Party. The Federalists were thereafter associated with the disloyalty and parochialism of the Hartford Convention and destroyed as a political force. Across the nation, Republicans used the great victory at New Orleans to ridicule the Federalists as cowards, defeatists and secessionists. Pamphlets, songs, newspaper editorials, speeches and entire plays on the Battle of New Orleans drove home the point.[74]
The Federalists fielded their last presidential candidate (Rufus King) in 1816. With the party's passing, partisan hatreds and newspaper feuds declined and the nation entered the "Era of Good Feelings". After the dissolution of the final Federalist congressional caucus in 1825, the last traces of Federalist activity came in Delaware and Massachusetts local politics in the late 1820s. The party controlled the Delaware state legislature in 1827. The party controlled the Massachusetts Senate and Harrison Gray Otis, who was elected Mayor of Boston in 1829, became the last major Federalist office holder.
Intellectually, Federalists were profoundly devoted to liberty. As Samuel Eliot Morison explained, they believed that liberty is inseparable from union, that men are essentially unequal, that vox populi ("voice of the people") is seldom if ever vox Dei ("the voice of God") and that sinister outside influences are busy undermining American integrity.[75] Oxford-trained British historian Patrick Allitt concludes that Federalists promoted many positions that would form the baseline for later American conservatism, including the rule of law under the Constitution, republican government, peaceful change through elections, stable national finances, credible and active diplomacy and protection of wealth.[76]
In terms of "classical conservatism", the Federalists had no truck with European-style aristocracy, monarchy, or established religion. Historian John P. Diggins says: "Thanks to the framers, American conservatism began on a genuinely lofty plane. James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, John Marshall, John Jay, James Wilson, and, above all, John Adams aspired to create a republic in which the values so precious to conservatives might flourish: harmony, stability, virtue, reverence, veneration, loyalty, self-discipline, and moderation. This was classical conservatism in its most authentic expression".[2]
The Federalists were dominated by businessmen and merchants in the major cities who supported a strong national government. The party was closely linked to the modernizing, urbanizing, financial policies of Alexander Hamilton. These policies included the funding of the national debt and also assumption of state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War, the incorporation of a national Bank of the United States, the support of manufactures and industrial development, and the use of a tariff to fund the Treasury. In foreign affairs, the Federalists opposed the French Revolution, engaged in the "Quasi War" (an undeclared naval war) with France in 1798–99, sought good relations with Britain and sought a strong army and navy. Ideologically, the controversy between Republicans and Federalists stemmed from a difference of principle and style. In terms of style, the Federalists feared mob rule, thought an educated elite should represent the general populace in national governance and favored national power over state power. Republicans distrusted Britain, bankers, merchants and did not want a powerful national government. The Federalists, notably Hamilton, were distrustful of "the people", the French and the Republicans.[77] In the end, the nation synthesized the two positions, adopting representative democracy and a strong nation state. Just as importantly, American politics by the 1820s accepted the two-party system whereby rival parties stake their claims before the electorate and the winner takes control of majorities in state legislatures and the Congress and gains governorships and the presidency.
As time went on, the Federalists lost appeal with the average voter and were generally not equal to the tasks of party organization; hence they grew steadily weaker as the political triumphs of the Republican Party grew.[78] For economic and philosophical reasons, the Federalists tended to be pro-British—the United States engaged in more trade with Great Britain than with any other country—and vociferously opposed Jefferson's Embargo Act of 1807 and the seemingly deliberate provocation of war with Britain by the Madison Administration. During "Mr. Madison's War", as they called it, the Federalists made a temporary comeback.[79] However, they lost all their gains and more during the patriotic euphoria that followed the war. The membership was aging rapidly,[80] but a few young men from New England did join the cause, most notably Daniel Webster.
After 1816, the Federalists had no national power base apart from John Marshall's Supreme Court. They had some local support in New England, New York, eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland and Delaware. After the collapse of the Federalist Party in the course of the 1824 presidential election, most surviving Federalists (including Daniel Webster) joined former Republicans like Henry Clay to form the National Republican Party, which was soon combined with other anti-Jackson groups to form the Whig Party in 1833. By then, nearly all remaining Federalists joined the Whigs. However, some former Federalists like James Buchanan, Louis McLane and Roger B. Taney became Jacksonian Democrats.[81]
The "Old Republicans", led by John Randolph of Roanoke, refused to form a coalition with the Federalists and instead set up a separate opposition since Jefferson, Madison, Gallatin, Monroe, John C. Calhoun and Clay had in effect adopted Federalist principles of implied powers to purchase the Louisiana Territory and after the failures and lessons of the War of 1812 raised tariffs to protect factories, chartered the Second National Bank, promoted a strong army and navy and promoted internal improvements. All these measures were opposed to the strict construction of the Constitution, which was the formal basis of the Republicans, but the drift of the party to support them could not be checked. It was aided by the Supreme Court, whose influence under John Marshall as a nationalizing factor now first became apparent. The whole change reconciled the Federalists to their absorption into the Republican Party. Indeed, they claimed, with considerable show of justice, that the absorption was in the other direction: that the Republicans had recanted and that the "Washington-Monroe policy", as they termed it after 1820, was all that Federalists had ever desired.[82]
The name "Federalist" came increasingly to be used in political rhetoric as a term of abuse and was denied by the Whigs, who pointed out that their leader Henry Clay was the Republican Party leader in Congress during the 1810s.[83]
The Federalists had a weak base in the South, with their main base in the Northeast and especially New England. It was the reverse for the Republicans. As a result, anti-slavery elements were largely based in the Federalist Party. Several leading Federalists, most notably John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, were leaders of the anti-slavery movement. They led the successful battles to abolish the international slave trade in New York City and the battle to abolish slavery in the state of New York.[84]
Main article: List of Federalist Party presidential tickets
Presidential nominee
Running mate
Electoral votes
1796 John Adams Thomas Pinckney 53.4
1800 Charles C. Pinckney 38.6
1804 Charles C. Pinckney Rufus King 27.2
1812 DeWitt Clinton[a] Jared Ingersoll 47.6
1816 Rufus King[b] John E. Howard 30.9
1820 No candidate[c] 16.2
^ While commonly labeled as the Federalist candidate, Clinton technically ran as a Democratic-Republican and was not nominated by the Federalist Party itself, the latter simply deciding not to field a candidate. This did not prevent endorsements from state Federalist parties (such as in Pennsylvania), but he received the endorsement from the New York state Democratic-Republicans as well. The Virginia state Federalist Party rejected the Clinton–Ingersoll ticket and instead nominated Rufus King for President and William Richardson Davie for Vice President—this ticket earned 27% of the state vote and 2% of the national vote.
^ The Federalist caucus did not even bother to make a formal nomination, although many Federalists supported Rufus King.
^ Though the Federalists did not put forward a ticket in the 1820 election, Federalist presidential electors received a portion of the popular vote.
Congressional representation
See also: Party divisions of United States Congresses
The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up until 1794 voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent.[85]
Senate[86]
House of Representatives[87]
1st 1789–1791 26 8 18 — — 65 28 37 — — George Washington
2nd 1791–1793 30 13 16 — 1 69 30 39 — —
3rd 1793–1795 30 14 16 — — 105 54 51 — —
Democratic-
Federalists
4th 1795–1797 32 11 21 — — 106 59 47 — — George Washington
5th 1797–1799 32 10 22 — — 106 49 57 — — John Adams
6th 1799–1801 32 10 22 — — 106 46 60 — —
7th 1801–1803 34 17 15 — 2 107 68 38 — 1 Thomas Jefferson
8th 1803–1805 34 25 9 — — 142 103 39 — —
10th 1807–1809 34 28 6 — — 142 116 26 — —
11th 1809–1811 34 27 7 — — 142 92 50 — — James Madison
14th 1815–1817 38 26 12 — — 183 119 64 — —
15th 1817–1819 42 30 12 — — 185 146 39 — — James Monroe
Blue light federalists
Democratic-Republican Party
Essex Junto
First Party System
List of political parties in the United States
The Port Folio
^ Viereck, Peter (1956, 2006). Conservative Thinkers: From John Adams to Winston Churchill. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. pp. 87–95.
^ a b Diggins, John P. (1994). Up from Communism. Columbia University Press. p. 390. ISBN 9780231084895.
^ a b Lind, Michael (1997). Hamilton's Republic. Free Press, Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83160-0.
^ Hushaw, C. William (1964). Liberalism Vs. Conservatism; Liberty Vs. Authority. Dubuque, IA: W. C. Brown Book Company. p. 32.
^ Ornstein, Allan (March 9, 2007). Class Counts: Education, Inequality, and the Shrinking Middle Class. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9780742573727 – via Google Books.
^ Larson, Edward J. (2007). A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, America's First Presidential Campaign. p. 21. ISBN 9780743293174. The divisions between Adams and Jefferson were exasperated by the more extreme views expressed by some of their partisans, particularly the High Federalists led by Hamilton on what was becoming known as the political right, and the democratic wing of the Republican Party on the left, associated with New York Governor George Clinton and Pennsylvania legislator Albert Gallatin, among others.
^ Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive Culture in the Early American Republic. Simon P. Newman, p. 163.
^ Northrup, Cynthia Clark Northrup (2003). Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History: The Encyclopedia, volume I. Chapters.indigo.ca. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313319433. Retrieved March 15, 2019.
^ Chambers, William Nisbet (1963). Political Parties in a New Nation.
^ Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815.
^ Formisano, 2001.
^ Cite error: The named reference Chambers was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^ Chambers, William Nisbet (1963). Parties in a New Nation. pp. 39–40.
^ Miller, John C. (1960). The Federalist Era 1789–1801. pp 210–228.
^ Miller, John C. (1960). The Federalist Era 1789–1801. pp 84–98.
^ After 1793–174, with the Terror in the French Revolution, "Democrat" became a negative term until the middle of Madison's presidency and the Federalists continued to use it to describe their opponents. Dahl, Robert A. (2005). "James Madison: Republican or Democrat?". Perspectives on Politics. 3#3: 439–448. Malone, Dumas. Jefferson. 3:162.
^ Manning J. Dauer, The Adams Federalists, chapter 2.
^ Renzulli, L. Marx (1973). Maryland: The Federalist Years. p 142, 183, 295.
^ White, Leonard D. (1948). The Federalists. A Study in Administrative History. p 123.
^ a b Miller, The Federalist Era 1789–1801 (1960).
^ Sheridan, Eugene R. (1992). "Thomas Jefferson and the Giles Resolutions". The William and Mary Quarterly. 49 (4): 589–608. doi:10.2307/2947173. JSTOR 2947173.
^ The Gazette of United States, September 5, 1792 in Beard, Charles A. (1915). Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy. p. 231.
^ "A Letter of Jefferson on the Political Parties, 1798". The American Historical Review. 3 (3): 488–489. 1898. doi:10.2307/1833690. JSTOR 1833690.
^ Olds, Kelly (1994). "Privatizing the Church: Disestablishment in Connecticut and Massachusetts". Journal of Political Economy. 102 (2): 277–297. doi:10.1086/261932. JSTOR 2138662. S2CID 154259901.
^ Amanda Porterfield, Conceived in Doubt: Religion and Politics in the New American Nation (2012).
^ Jonathan J. Den Hartog, Patriotism and Piety: Federalist Politics and Religious Struggle in the New American Nation (2015).
^ Schulz, Constance B. (1983). ""Of Bigotry in Politics and Religion": Jefferson's Religion, the Federalist Press, and the Syllabus". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography. 91 (1): 73–91. JSTOR 4248611.
^ Elkins and McKitrick, ch 8; Sharp (1993) p. 70 for quote
^ Elkins and McKitrick pp. 314–16 on Jefferson's favorable responses.
^ Marshall Smelser, "The Federalist Period as an Age of Passion," American Quarterly 10 (Winter 1958), 391–459.
^ Smelser, "The Jacobin Phrenzy: Federalism and the Menace of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity," Review of Politics 13 (1951) 457–82.
^ Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, pp 451–61
^ Eugene R. Sheridan, "The Recall of Edmond Charles Genet: A Study in Transatlantic Politics and Diplomacy". Diplomatic History 18#4 (1994), 463–68.
^ Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 330–65.
^ Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 375–406.
^ Miller (1960) p. 149.
^ Estes, Todd (2000). "Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate". Journal of the Early Republic. 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.
^ Sharp 113–37.
^ Miller (1960) pp. 155–62
^ "History of the Federal Judiciary".
^ Carl E. Prince, "The Federalist Party and Creation of a Court Press, 1789–1801." Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 53#2 (1976): 238–41.
^ Si Sheppard, The Partisan Press: A History of Media Bias in the United States (2007).
^ Jeffrey L. Pasley. "The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early Republic (2001)
^ Donald H. Stewart, The Opposition Press of the Federalist Period (1969)
^ Lora, Ronald (1999). The Conservative Press in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-century America. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 103–111. ISBN 0-313-31043-2.
^ David Waldstreicher, In the midst of perpetual fetes: The making of American nationalism, 1776–1820 (1997).
^ Heideking, Jürgen (1994). "The Federal Processions of 1788 and the Origins of American Civil Religion". Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 77 (3/4): 367–387. JSTOR 41178897.
^ "The Theology of the Fourth of July". Time. Retrieved March 16, 2020.
^ Len Travers, "Hurrah for the Fourth: Patriotism, Politics, and Independence Day in Federalist Boston, 1783–1818." Essex Institute Historical Collections 125: 129–161.
^ Kevin Coe, et al. The Rhetoric of American Civil Religion: Symbols, Sinners, and Saints (Lexington Books, 2016).
^ Bernard A. Weisberger, America afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the first contested election (Perennial, 2001).
^ Philip J. Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence, 1808–1816: Evidence from the New Nation Votes Database." Journal of the Early Republic 33.2 (2013): 255–281.
^ Richard H. Kohn, Eagle and sword: The Federalists and the creation of the military establishment in America, 1783–1802 (1975).
^ Smith, James Morton (1955). "President John Adams, Thomas Cooper, and Sedition: A Case Study in Suppression". The Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 42 (3): 438–465. doi:10.2307/1898365. JSTOR 1898365.
^ Marc A. Franklin, David A. Anderson, & Lyrissa Barnett Lidsky, Mass Media Law (7th ed. 2005).
^ a b Manning Dauer, The Adams Federalists (Johns Hopkins UP, 1953).
^ Brian Phillips Murphy, "' A Very Convenient Instrument': The Manhattan Company, Aaron Burr, and the Election of 1800." William and Mary Quarterly 65.2 (2008): 233–266.
^ Miller, John C. "The Federalist Era 1789–1801" (1960)
^ "Thomas Jefferson: First Inaugural Address. U.S. Inaugural Addresses. 1989".
^ Susan Dunn, Jefferson's second revolution: The Election Crisis of 1800 and the Triumph of Republicanism (2004)
^ Douglass, Elisha P. (1959). "Fisher Ames, Spokesman for New England Federalism". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 103 (5): 693–715. JSTOR 985426.
^ Russell Kirk, The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot (2001). p. 83
^ Fisher Ames, letter of October 26, 1803, Works, p. 483. As cited in Kirk, The Conservative Mind p. 83.
^ David H. Fischer, "The Myth of the Essex Junto." William and Mary Quarterly (1964): 191–235.
^ Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence," p 259
^ Google Books.
^ Richard J. Purcell, Connecticut in Transition: 1775–1818 1963. p. 190.
^ Knudson, Jerry W. (1970). "The Jeffersonian Assault on the Federalist Judiciary, 1802-1805; Political Forces and Press Reaction". The American Journal of Legal History. 14 (1): 55–75. doi:10.2307/844519. JSTOR 844519.
^ Lampi, "The Federalist Party Resurgence,"
^ James M. Banner, To the Hartford Convention: The Federalists and the origins of party politics in Massachusetts, 1789–1815 (1970).
^ Kenneth E. Shewmaker, '"This Unblessed War': Daniel Webster's Opposition to the War of 1812" Historical New Hampshire 53#1 (1998) pp 21–45
^ William Alexander Robinson, "The Washington Benevolent Society in New England: a phase of politics during the War of 1812", Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society (1916) vol 49 pp 274ff.
^ Stoltz, Joseph F. (2012). ""It Taught our Enemies a Lesson:" the Battle of New Orleans and the Republican Destruction of the Federalist Party". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 71 (2): 112–127. JSTOR 42628249.
^ Samuel Eliot Morison, Harrison Gray Otis, 1765–1848: the urbane Federalist (2nd ed. 1969) pages x–xi
^ Patrick Allitt, The Conservatives (2009) p 26
^ Chernow (2004)
^ Shaw Livermore, Jr., The Twilight of Federalism: The Disintegration of the Federalist Party 1815–1830 (1962)
^ Robert Vincent Remini (1997). Daniel Webster: The Man and His Time. W. W. Norton. pp. 94–95. ISBN 9780393045529.
^ James H. Broussard (1978). The Southern Federalists: 1800–1816. LSU Press. p. 274. ISBN 9780807125205.
^ Lynn Parsons (2009). The Birth of Modern Politics : Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828. Oxford University Press. p. 164. ISBN 9780199718504.
^ John Joseph Lalor. Cyclopedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the Political History of the United States (1881).
^ Hans Sperber and Travis Trittschuh. American Political Terms: An Historical Dictionary (1962). p. 150.
^ Paul Finkelman,"Federalist Party" in Robert A. Rutland, ed. James Madison and the American Nation 1751-1836: An Encyclopedia (1994) pp 144–145.
^ Cunningham (1957), 82.
^ "Party Division". United States Senate.
^ "Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present". United States House of Representatives.
Media related to Federalist Party (United States) at Wikimedia Commons
A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825
Pro-Administration Party ideology over time
Federalist Party ideology over time
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After noticing a gap in the apparel industry for people with disabilities, students at the Wilson College of Textiles have started a chapter of the Runway of Dreams Foundation (RODF) at NC State. The Runway of Dreams Foundation is a nonprofit working towards inclusivity, acceptance and opportunity in the fashion industry for people with disabilities.
This mission has inspired Kelly Wallace, Sydney Parker and Abby Levinson to spread awareness about accommodation needs and influence others to think inclusively. Kelly Wallace, a senior in Fashion and Textile Design (FTD) and co-president, learned about RODF after visiting their headquarters in New York City and meeting with the CEO and Founder Mindy Scheier.
With the help of the Runway of Dreams Foundation HQ and other chapters across the United States, Kelly established NC State's RODF chapter and is excited about its potential. She answered a few questions about the future of the club and adaptive fashion.
Why is starting a chapter of ROD at NC State important?
What is the goal of NC State's RODF chapter?
How can current students get involved?
How can others learn more about adaptive fashion?
After Kelly graduates in the spring, Sydney Parker, a junior in FTD, and Abby Levinson, a junior in Fashion and Textile Management, will be taking over to support Runway of Dreams' mission of empowerment and advocacy.


text:
Webcast Summit Connects Australia-United States
Rain Bird, a manufacturer and provider of irrigation products and services, has invited a global audience to watch, listen, and participate in the upcoming Intelligent Use of Water Summit through a live Webcast on www.rainbird.com (www.rainbird.com/iuow/summit.htm).
Scheduled for March 19 in Melbourne, Australia, the Webcast will be available to all viewers beginning at 9:30 a.m. Australian Eastern Daylight Time (U.S. viewers tune-in on March 18 at 6:30 p.m. EDT/3:30 p.m. PDT).
Viewers can submit questions to the panel via the Webcast's 'real time' interactive online chat function.
In partnership with Smart Approved WaterMark, Australia's not-for-profit water-efficient product labeling program for products that help reduce outdoor water waste, panelists at the Melbourne thought-leadership event are:
Mary Ann Dickinson, executive director, Alliance for Water Efficiency (Chicago, Ill.)
Geoff Gardiner, general manager Service Sustainability, City West Water (Melbourne)
Julian Gray, chief executive officer, Smart Approved WaterMark (Sydney)
Benjamin Grumbles, former assistant administrator for Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Washington, D.C.)
Stuart White, director, Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology (Sydney)
Greg Stewart, general manager, Total Eden; Chair of Irrigation Australia WA Region
Jeremy Cape, president of CapeAbility Consultants Pty Ltd, a leading Australian irrigation consulting and research firm, will moderate the symposium and lead a panel discussion focused on providing insight and perspective to various global water conservation policies and legislation, programs, initiatives, and trends.
"The Australians have done a fabulous job in educating consumers. In some areas, like South-East Queensland, water use is down to 140 liters per person per day. We Americans need to be much more sensitive about reducing our own consumption. The average water use per person is still around 600 liters," says Dickinson.
"If you leave the tap running for five minutes, that's the same as letting a 60-watt light bulb burn for 14 hours," adds Grumbles. "Water is at the heart of climate change and the more regulators, policy makers, and citizens recognize it, the better."
The Clean Water Regulations of 2015 are No Longer, Thanks to the EPA
Funding Is Available for Energy Technology Research and Development
Ecosystems/Ecology

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Vince Young, a son of Houston, TX and an embattled quarterback, has been released from the Cleveland Browns.
A man with probably more raw talent than any quarterback that has ever played the game, still has been unable to find his stride in the NFL after leaving the Tennessee Titans.
Read More on the NFL's Website.
Some of the people in Houston wanted VY with the Houston, Texans, however, he ended up in Tennessee.
Sad to see VY get dropped as this was probably his last chance to play in the pros. With any luck, he'll get a job as a water carrier with a team.


Discussion in 'The Dungeon - Knights Only' started by Knight_Light, Sep 1, 2018.
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Come and race it with COTA Karting! Whether you're in the market for a unique corporate event or just a little friendly competition, COTA Karting is sure to become a year-round family favorite. We've recently added some new additions to the mix—a Junior Karting track for the kiddos and a Zip Line for all ages that offers a bird's eye view of the facility from Turn 1. We've also teamed up with Margay Racing as a certified Margay dealer and Ignite Series host. The inaugural COTA Karting race schedule for 2019 will feature 10-12 races, starting with a double-header on February 23-24. We're open seven days a week so check out our availability dates through the link below to book ahead and get on track faster!
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Environmental Charter Middle School - Inglewood (ECMS-I) is a free, public middle school in South Los Angeles that offers students a small, caring school environment supporting their transition from elementary school to a college preparatory high school.
The ECMS approach creates strong relationships between students, teachers and families.
After School Tutoring, Urban Scholars, Green Ambassadors, EmpowHer Institute, and more.
The 8th Grade Ocean Institute Overnight Camping Trip will be on September 13th-15th.


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With Lavender Vitality, you can make the most elegant beverage by adding just one drop per quart of lemonade.
Make a capsule of 2 drops Lavender, 1 drop Frankincense and 1 drop Copaiba for deep, restorative sleep.
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Valor: a blend of Camphor, Blue Tansy, Black Spruce, Frankincense, and Geranium in a base of coconut oil. This blend was developed based on a legend of Roman soldiers anointing themselves and their shields with a similar blend of botanicals before heading into battle.
Think "courage" in a bottle. Make a roller and keep it with you at work and huff it during situations where confidence is needed. I loved this...the Oil Collective Instagram has really cool info on this oil and how she uses it. SO good.
And, physically - it helps support your spine! Just like the idiom goes, if someone is "spineless", he doesn't have much courage, right? Well, Valor supports and aligns your back and your skeletal structure. It's a powerful oil used in the Raindrop massage technique. At our house we massage it up and down the spine and on our feet whenever we're feeling "out of whack," and it makes a big difference.
I add this to my moisturizers, and to a blend we rub on our liver/kidneys.
Skin: This is awesome for scaly, tough skin on your arms, legs, and face.
Can help slow bleeding if needed.
Liver: Incredible for any issues related to the liver.
Hormones/Reproductive System: Provides balance of ALL kinds. (Guy hormones, girl hormones, 20s-30s women, pre-menopause/post menopause women...) EVERYONE can benefit from this balancing oil. It helps your reproductive system do what it's supposed to do, no matter if it's too high or too low on things.


Bookmaker 22Bet is one of the latest European betting sites to start accepting customers in Nigeria, with our review taking a detailed look at their entire operation, including everything from their range of markets to promotions. However, let's kick things off by taking a closer look at the history of 22Bet.
22Bet was established back in 2007, meaning that they now have over a decades worth of experience to their name within the industry. However, it is over recent years where they have achieved significant growth, with the bookmaker being licensed by the Government of Curacao, one of the most respected authorities in the gambling world. 22Bet now offer a good all-round betting platform, featuring a range of sports markets and competitive odds. The following are among the standout pros and cons of the 22Bet sportsbook, offering those looking for a new betting site a clear understanding of exactly what it is that they offer.
It is markets including football, tennis and golf that offer the most depth, with games from around the world covered by 22Bet. In fact, there was over 1,000 football betting options at the time of writing this review, along with 500 between the other two sports mentioned. Elsewhere, popular sports in Nigeria also feature heavily, including basketball and boxing, meaning that customers are always likely to find something to suit their needs.
22Bet also score highly when it comes to the odds in which they offer, especially when it comes to popular sports including football, tennis and cricket. Footall payouts sit as high as 97% at times, which enables the bookmaker to compete with even the best-known bookmakers within the industry today.
22Bet have worked hard in order to ensure that their website is as easy to use as possible, with the bookmaker having made significant changes in this area recently. As a result, their sportsbook is now a platform that offers easy access to all market and features, while there is no unnecessary information as was previously found. All sports markets are conveniently listed down the left-hand side of the page, while customers can also move easily between 22Bet's live betting, casino, payments and promotions pages thanks to links at the top of the page. A green and white colour scheme dominates throughout, while a small amount of imagery and graphics are used in order to separate features and additional pages. The 22Bet website is also available in a huge number of languages, catering for a range of customers in the process.
22Bet performs well when it comes to their options for mobile customers too, with an easy to use app accompanying their website, which is accesible via a range of mobile browsers. The 22Bet app can be downloaded free of charge using both iOS and Android devices, with this platform allowing users tot take advantage of features including live streaming, in-play betting and customer support when on the move. However, for those not wishing to download another app onto their device, punters will be pleased to know that the 22Bet website works well on mobiles too, however the speed will be slightly slower in general.
Along with their vast variety of betting markets, 22Bet have also ensured that their betting coverage is as good as possible when it comes to the depth of markets. As a result, both high-profile events and more regional encounters are all available to bet on, with fans of football, tennis, basketball and golf likely to be especially pleased with the bookmakers coverage. Whether it be action from the English Football Championship, Challenger tennis Tour or Euro Basket league, 22Bet have things covered.
Those that enjoy live betting will certainly be impressed with the number of opportunities available at 22Bet, with the bookmaker having a dedicated in-play page on their sportsbook. All current live betting markets are immediately accessible upon entering the 22Bet website, with markets being separated into individual sports. Sports such as football, tennis, basketball, volleyball and handball regularly feature, with odds from these markets being regularly updated in accordance with the action as it unfolds. In total, there were over 200 live betting markets at the time of writing this review, with this number only increasing over weekends.
Potential customers will also be pleased to know that live streaming is also available at 22Bet, allowing them to simultaneously watch and bet upon sporting action from around the world on a daily basis. In order to gain access to such streams via desktop or mobile, punters must either have a positive account balance of have placed a bet on the game in which they wish to view. Footall tennis and basketball are just three of the sports to feature heavily in this area at 22Bet, with this feature only adding to the excitement of betting.
Nigerian-based customers registering a new account at 22Bet are able to earn themselves a 100% matched deposit bonus, worth up to a maximum of 50,000 NGN. Simply sign-up with the bookmaker, before making a qualifying deposit, which 22Bet will 100% match, providing the perfect platform to kick-start your sports betting on. As well as this, the unstrict wagering requirements surrounding the offer means that making withdrawals using bonus funds from this promotion are actually quite realistic, unlike other such offers in the industry today.
Elsewhere, the bookmaker also deliver a small number of promotions that are available to existing customers, which offer punters the chance to earn free bets, bonuses and cash-back.
As soon as you enter the 22Bet website, one of the first things in which customers will notice is the "Ask a Qustion" tab located at the bottom of the page. Acting as something of a live chat service, online consultants are available to talk to in just a matter of minutes in most cases, offering a hugely efficient method of support. Elsewhere, a range of email address are available to contact, which include security, technical and partnership departments. Response times in this area are good at less than 24 hours, however there is no telephone number available to customers at present. The bookmaker also offers a good amount of hints and guides when it comes to operating on their website, acting as something of a FAQ page, providing answers to commonly asked questions.
22Bet has quickly become one of the best betting sites available to customers in Nigeria, with the bookmaker having introduced a number of appealing markets and features. If the ability to bet on sporting action from around the world is not sufficient, watching games through 22Bet's live streaming service, cashing out bets before their completion or using bonus funds earned through generous promotions should be enough to tempt you. The range of markets available at 22Bet is second to none too, with everything from football and tennis to skiing and trotting being available. Customers can also rest assured that 22Bet are nothing but a reliable and trustworthy bookmaker, thanks to the range of security measures that have been put in place, along with the fact that they are licensed by the Government of Curacao. An SSL encryption is used in order to ensure that all transactions are processed securely, as well as avoiding any risk of fraud from third parties.
It is clear from our review that 22Bet are an excellent option for betting customers in Nigeria, with the bookmaker having made vast improvements to their platforms over recent times. A generous welcome bonus is on offer in Naira, providing a good platform to build upon, while the sheer volume of sports markets should cater for even the most demanding of customers. The odds on offer at 22Bet also allow for some significant earnings to be made, especially when it comes to disciplines including football, tennis and basketball. While improvements can certainly still be made when it comes to banking and customer support, 22Bet offer an excellent all-round platform, which is well worth considering for punters based in Nigeria.


I cannot imagine life without music, in all its various, beautiful forms. I see music as one of the markers for a healthy society, as well as being fascinated with its diversity. I wish to add to that. For me, to create music is part of being human.
May Lyon is a Melbourne-based composer whose music explores themes from deep human emotions, history and mythology, through to mathematical concepts, as well as the lighter side of life. Stylistically eclectic, Lyon's compositions move from dramatic and intense, to quirky. Emotion, precision, duality and rhythm are all strong recurring elements.
Recently Lyon's work has been performed by Syzygy Ensemble (Ode to Damascus and Neheh), Zelman Symphony Orchestra and Kat Tsyrlin (Nornir Concerto), and members of Rubiks Collective (On the Inside). Recent commissions have included the Melbourne Recital Centre 'Local Heroes' program / University of Melbourne, and the Macedon Music Glen Johnson Award. Past collaborations have been with multi-arts organisation Forest Collective, a cappella group Icon Trio, and the Melbourne Women's Choir, among others. At present May is working on her first opera.
In 2016 - 2017 Lyon is studying a Master of Music as a recipient of the Fay Marles Scholarship at the University of Melbourne under the guidance of Katy Abbott Kvasnica. While completing an undergraduate part-time, studying with Stuart Greenbaum and Elliott Gyger, Lyon was a recipient of the Victor Fox Foundation from 2009-12, and received the Adolf Spivakovsky Scholarship for Composition of Music for the a cappella work verse re-rhymes, which was premiered by Ensemble 21. In 2010 Lyon's short and quirky cello duo, Bugs, was premiered as part of 'Live at the Convent' at 3MBS by Alister Barker and Chien-Hsiu Ong.


Group photo of students from different universities of Jamshoro and Hyderabad.
A student sharing her input in relation to international peace day activity with media.
A theatre play was performed highlighting issues of discrimination.
Student from audience sharing her input during question answer session.
Salman Chattha sharing an example of Canada's first Cabinet under Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, where there are equal number of men and women in cabinet along with representation of minorities and how diversity is an asset.
Aqsa Rajput emphasized importance of education especially of girls in her session.
Aqsa Rajput welcomed the guests and youth panelists.
The event commenced with the National Anthem of Pakistan.
The Youth Alumni of Hyderabad, Pakistan, organized an event titled "Muktalif Magar Muttahid" (different but united) in celebration of International Peace Day. Aqsa Rajput, a senior member of the Alumni, while welcoming the guests spoke about the value peace, dignity and respect holds as a basic human need irrespective of one's beliefs or thoughts.
Celebrating the idea of peace among people of different faiths, alumni speakers shared their thoughts and views. Some highlighted issues of racial and religious discrimination prevalent in societies globally while others shared possible ideas to overcome these issues and maintain interfaith harmony.
Aqsa Rajput, among many other Youth Alumni members, has participated in various trainings on governance, democracy, constitutional rights and other such themes in the last three years. This unique event on Peace Day, where all panelists were youth members themselves, was organized by her as a way of sharing her learnings with her peers and other youth members. Aqsa shared that organizing and taking part in such activities also helps youth members like herself in enhancing their leadership and communication skills. Being the first speaker at the event, Aqsa underscored the many types of discrimination that is practiced in various countries, religions and societies and how the most vulnerable suffer the most in such circumstances. With that, she also highlighted the importance of education and how that plays a key role in empowering communities, specially girls. Aqsa had recently visited Nepal as part of a youth exposure and exchange visit, of which she gave an example of how people of completely different faiths and religions live peacefully and happily in one county.
As part of her address, Aqsa focused on the need for building more peace and establishing frequent interfaith dialogues among people of varying religions to develop a relationship of mutual respect and dignity.
the world needs to come forward for fostering peace.
I strongly condemn the human rights violations in Myanmar of the Rohingya community.
The panel sessions then followed a question answer exercise, where participants shared their views and experiences on discrimination, if any, that they had faced. Some girls among the participants, quoted experiences of gender discrimination faced by them. Another youth member shared his own experience of practicing religious discrimination towards people of other faiths, and acknowledged how the panel and speaking sessions at the event made him realize that all citizens are equal irrespective of their belief, caste or creed. Queries on other similar issues were put forward to the speakers and were discussed in detail. Many participants claimed that their understanding on accepting and celebrating diversity has fairly improved since participating at the Peace Day event.
Towards the end of the day, a theatre performance on the theme of religious discrimination by youth group members was held. The event concluded with participants coming together to share messages of peace in solidarity with the Myanmar's Rohingya community.
I am now taking a positive message of peace being the only solution for a country's development and progress.
Many other participants, after the event, committed to being more determined and active in promoting and enhancing peace and tolerance among their communities.


text:
Chydarteres octolineatus is a species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae. It was described by Thunberg in 1822.

References

Trachyderini
Beetles described in 1822

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


With the walls of the old closets removed, the framing could begin to form the layout and physical boundaries of the new bathroom. It also meant that the design could be modified (easily) so we had to be certain about our plans.
I have a small compressor that's great for finish and brad nailing, but not framing. I decided that it'd be cheaper and easier for my small project to use screws for the framing instead of renting a larger compressor and framing nail gun. I had picked up a nice Bosch impact driver that did the trick -- it's light and plenty strong enough to whip through the project I had.
The framing was straightforward, the only delay was laying down some new oak flooring to patch in where there was plywood on the floor (hidden by our washer and dryer). In addition to the framing, we put in a new window so there would be some natural light into the bathroom. We didn't want a full size window because it'd be in the shower area and the water would destroy it pretty quickly. We decided upon a vinyl window and I'd use some waterproof material to frame it in the tiled bath.
The window went in quickly, as did the rest of the wall. I put in insulation, plastic/waterproof layer and then finished with some felt paper. I had to use some odd spacing to make sure there was stud walls where I need them, but those were in addition to the 16" OC walls I had. I wanted to make sure I had something to nail into at the end of the tub as well as decent blocking for my sink!
I had also decided to add some sound-blocking insulation since the kid's playroom would be just opposite one of the walls. This would keep things quiet and personal in the bathroom even if it wasn't really critical or necessary.
The electrical was pretty straightforward. I had put in a fan at the end of tub so I made sure it was UL approved for a wet location -- which it was, as long as it was on a GFCI circuit. I also made sure the GFCI outlet was on a different circuit breaker than the lights in the bath per code.
With the walls in place and some insulation on them, I could really see the shape of the bath and get a feel of the space. The plumber came in and put in the tub and roughed in the other plumbing. Things were really moving along!
Hi. I found you through Amazon, and really like your work. I have a question for you - my husband is blind, but he'd like to start carving. So I'm trying to cobble together a basic set of woodworking tools for him. Something that won't be too expensive, but will give him a decent, if basic, start. I've looked at the kits that are available, but most include patterns, which, you can imagine, will be useless for him! Do you have any suggestions?


text:
JONETTE
thrillers mysteries suspense
The Widow Catcher
The Thief Catcher
Three Cold Hours anthology
Poison in the Pond
Strange Legacy
A suspenseful murder mystery set in a coastal town of Australia
READ FIRST 7 CHAPTERS FOR FREE
RETIRING TO THIS COASTAL TOWN COULD BE FATAL.
Delia Frost loves her job at the bank. She loves her customers, most of whom are elderly. She doesn't love the idea of quitting her job to travel around Australia in a motor home with her husband who is recovering from a heart attack. And she can't bring herself to tell him that she doesn't want to go.
Days before quitting her job, she is invited to a book club meeting, run by a local celebrity. This seems like a beacon of hope, one last chance to do something for herself before she leaves it all behind.
But this isn't a random invitation.
Delia has been carefully selected by a serial killer to play her part in the murders of elderly widows.
HIVE UK
BOOKSHOP UK
BOOKSHOP US
ANGUS & ROBERTSON
REVIEWS AND ACCLAIM:
"The Widow Catcher is a fast-paced, suspenseful murder mystery. Blake excels at crafting well-timed reveals that keep readers engaged and intrigued. This murder mystery feels authentic and original. It's set apart from its contemporaries by the unusual crimes and unlikely but determined heroine." The Booklife Prize
"I really enjoyed this book! I thought I knew where it was going, but was totally wrong. I think it was very fast-paced in some parts, but also a little slow in others. Other than that it was an amazing book." Netgalley
"I will definitely be buying this for our staff fiction section." Librarian
"Thought I knew who the killer was but got it completely wrong. Just couldn't wait to find out who it was." Goodreads
"Delia is a down to earth character... A good read." Netgalley and Goodreads
"This was an enjoyable read with some very interesting characters." Netgalley and Goodreads
"Finally, a mystery about a woman in her fifties without a sordid past, a drinking problem, or psychological baggage." Netgalley
"This book was a joy to read." Netgalley
"A very good mystery with a well-paced storyline and a great cast of interesting characters." LibraryThing
"The plot was well-paced, and the characters were skillfully done. The ending was worth the wait."Netgalley
"It's an easy to read, enjoyable suspenseful mystery with some great characters." Netgalley
"The author has done a great job in keeping the readers interest and also keeping us guessing. I did not expect how this book would end." Netgalley
"A wonderfully written mystery, with an intriguing storyline." Netgalley
"For someone like me who is about her age her character is quite relatable." Netgalley
"A fun enjoyable read with a very likable lead character and a very chatty Gray Bird." Netgalley
"I really enjoyed this book. It was an easy, fast read with likeable characters and a hint of suspense and mystery." Netgalley
"A real turning page book!! There is no better description! The characters are amazing and full of history." Netgalley
"I wanted twists and this book met my expectations." Netgalley
Add to your Goodreads shelf
Add to your Bookbub shelf
Release date: August 2020
Genre: Murder mystery, Suspense thriller
Format: Print and Ebook
Number of pages: 260 (print) 260 (ebook)
Print ISBN: 978-1-64871-236-4
Ebook ASIN: B08GX642FG
© 2020 by Jonette Blake. Proudly created with Wix.com


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Palmarès

Olimpiadi
1 medaglia:
1 oro (Monaco di Baviera 1972 nel quattro con)

Mondiali
1 medaglia:
1 bronzo (Lucerna 1974 nel quattro con)

Europei
1 medaglia:
1 oro (Copenaghen 1971 nel quattro con)

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni