The green sand process utilizes a mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand packed around a wood or metal pattern. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture in the molding sand, and indicates that the mold is not baked or dried.
The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below. Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the casting.
2009-01-16· Using a loose pattern, this video shows making a sand mold. The process was videoed at Miller Foundry, Santa Ana, California.
Making sand moulds and cores for iron casting Posted 25 April 2014 Following previous blogs about specifying cast iron and pattern making, the purpose of this blog is to throw some light on another highly skilled aspect of the casting process - mould and core making.
Sand Casting Process and Component 1. Precision Machined Component Sand Casting Process and Component Sand casting is a process used to make or manufacture components and equipment made of brass, aluminum, iron and bronze large.
In this lecture I have taught about the types of mould and sand mould making Procedure.
Gating from the cup down: 1. Pouring Cup: The main purpose of the pouring cup is to provide a large area for the metal to be poured in. It can also be used to slow the speed of the metal so it will not erode the inside of the mold by making a pouring basin in the sand (as pictured above).
sand mold making procedure. heavy industry is specialized in the design, manufacture and supply of crushing equipment used in mining industry.
Pattern making and placing it the sand mold. Making a proper gating system in the mold. Removing the pattern. Pouring the molten metal in the mold cavity.
Sand castingWikipedia. OverviewContentsBasic processProcessesMold materialsHistorySand casting is a process that uses a mold made from either metal, wood, or wax to create a negative impression in a special sand that will be the mold for the molten metal.
Answer: c Explanation: The first step involved in the sand casting method is to produce the mould for the casting. In an expendable moulding process, this step should be done for each different casting.
Alibaba.com offers 185 sand mould making process products. About 2% of these are machining, 1% are sheet metal fabrication, and 1% are pipe fittings. A wide variety of sand mould making process options are available to you, such as free samples.
Sand Casting, OEM Sand Casting, Bronze Sand Casting manufacturer / supplier in China, offering OEM Brass Casting Pump Housing for Water Pump Sand Mould Making Procedure, Lost Wax Casting Foundry with ISO, Customized CNC Machining Parts Stainless Steel Investment Casting and so on.
Sand casting is a vital process in the process of castings. The process of sand casting has various steps and internal processes in it. Casting is the process in which the metal object is obtained by allowing molten metal to solidify in a mold.
Before ripping into the bag of sand, make sure you ware a respirator mask to avoid inhaling the fine silica dust that will be all over you during this process. If you have sensitive skin I also recommend wearing gloves and long sleeves to avoid contact with the chemicals during mixing.


Heavy rain woke crews this morning but there was no need to get up just yet as it was a rest day.
The rain continued into the day so some plans to explore Jersey were scuppered. Ashore, the pavements were awash with water but everyone made the most of it, donning their foul weather gear and venturing into St Helier high street.
Cruise leader Neale has been liaising with Terry and Graham aboard Crescendo II throughout the day and we can now report after a very miserable passage that they are now safely in St Helier Marina and reunited with the fleet. A round of applause went up as they came in alongside.
For the MBM team, there was the usual jobs' list to tend to, but there was also a chance to unveil and test out the latest member of the MBM control fleet, a new Ribeye TL240 RIB with Yamaha 4hp.
When the rain finally ceased in the late afternoon, the team took turns to potter around the small basin in the baby RIB, nicknamed TT Time Flies. Click here for your chance to win a TL240, worth £1380.
At 7.30pm a group meal had been arranged at the St Helier Yacht Club. The club had kindly arranged a vin d'honneur and crews were greeted by the commodore and were handed a glass of wine on arrival. It was a great chance to mingle and share stories from passages so far. Many thanks to the committee, chef Matthew and his team for their hospitality, everyone had a fantastic evening.


text:
Opinion: Stop telling other freelancers where they should work
PUBLISHED:	 10:55, Thursday, 2 September 2021	 | UPDATED:	 10:55, Thursday, 2 September 2021
By Dan Thornton
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Whenever people describe the best things about being self-employed, independence, flexibility and choice all sit high on the list. So perhaps we could all stop telling other freelancers where they should work?
It's not as if the debate between remote, hybrid and office working is even a new one. The Covid-19 restrictions and lockdowns may have given many people their first taste of freedom, and inspired fear in some employers and commercial landlords. But it was the internet, not coronavirus, that opened up the possibility to escape the daily commute, communal kitchens, and office politics.
Like many people, I started regularly working from home in the early 2000s, particularly when it came to catching up, or covering overtime. My first job with formally agreed hybrid working was back in 2009. And I've spent more than 10 years running my own business, and choosing where I work. None of which means I'm an expert on productivity, but does mean I'm irritated at being told I should sit in an office every day to achieve anything worthwhile. Especially when it comes from someone who first tried working remotely during the first coronavirus lockdown.
It's obvious that a commercial landlord with office or co-working spaces will want to encourage people back into communal working. And some employers will always prefer to see bums on seats rather than actually looking at productivity and outputs. But why would my fellow freelancers and small business owners assume their preference is the definitive way to work?
The best location for freelance working
There have been many studies of remote and office working which compared productivity, motivation, and output. And you can expect a lot more to be produced in the near future, as a quick search for home vs office working already returns 4,210,000,000 results. Without a definitive answer.
But I can save the entire global workforce endless hours of sifting through research and clickbait articles, debates with clients and managers, and arguments on social media. And the actual, definitive, absolute best location for freelance working can be summarised in just four words.
Where you work best.
That could be in a busy central London office. It might be sitting in a friendly coffee shop in your local town. Or on a laptop in bed, still in your pyjamas at lunchtime. The important thing to take from this is that I don't know. And neither do the article writers or researchers, because the answer is different for every individual.
Unfortunately, many clients and employers might not know or care, either. But the good news is that the Covid crisis seems to have prompted a growing acceptance that flexible working locations and hours can be a benefit.
Let's not undermine that by insisting our own choices are the right ones for every freelancer.
Share inspiration, not judgement
If you're excited about getting back to the office and seeing clients and colleagues in person, that's fantastic and I'm happy to see you enthusiastically sharing it on social media.
When you've secured a new hybrid contract and you're able to find a better balance between work commitments and family life, then that's a lovely thing to see.
And I'm always fascinated by everyone sharing their home office set-up, and what it reveals about their personality, hobbies, or taste in motivational posters.
Just don't expect, or insist, that everyone follows your example. For every example of remote working benefits, there's research to promote a return to the office, or vice versa. And for each person recommending a clean desk accompanied by the sound of ambient rainfall, there's someone who thrives in mess, with a death metal playlist.
The more we all share the amazingly different things about freelancing that make us happier, motivated, or more productive, the more we emphasize that the one thing that consistently works for every self-employed person is having choices.
If you enjoyed this, why not check out Dan's previous article, on why it's time to redefine freelance success and failure.
How to become a freelance hair stylist
How to become a freelance photojournalist
Exciting new freelance occupations in 2022
Don't wait for New Year's Resolutions to build your freelance success in 2022
How to become a freelance illustrator

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
2012 NFL Draft Results: NFC South Draft Recap - Atlanta Falcons
Share All sharing options for: 2012 NFL Draft Results: NFC South Draft Recap - Atlanta Falcons
Feb 25, 2012; Indianapolis, IN, USA; Wisconsin Badgers offensive lineman Peter Konz gets measured during the NFL Combine at Lucas Oil Stadium. Mandatory Credit: Brian Spurlock-US PRESSWIRE
We looked at the Carolina Panthers' 2012 NFL Draft yesterday, and today we take a look at how the Atlanta Falcons did in the draft. How did they try to improve a team that seems to always beat bad teams, but never the really good teams?
Draft Picks:
The Atlanta Falcons came into the draft with just five draft picks. They did not have a first-round pick or a fourth-round pick, as both were used in an exorbitant deal with the Cleveland Browns to trade up and select Julio Jones in the 2011 draft. They also lost a seventh-round pick, by trading for cornerback Asante Samuel this year. They did manage to add a fifth-round pick during the draft, by trading back with the Baltimore Ravens.
Second Round, Pick 23 (55th overall): Peter Konz, C, Wisconsin
The Atlanta Falcons tried to run a pass-first offense early last season, and they completely failed because their offensive line could not handle pass-blocking play after play after play. Meanwhile, their running game fell off as well, in part because Michael Turner is old and declining, in part because they lacked depth and quality on the offensive line. Drafting Peter Konz gives them the best center in the draft, which should help both their pass protection and running game. He should be a starter from day one.
Third Round, Pick 29 (91st overall): Lamar Holmes, T, Southern Mississippi
The Falcons traded back in the third round with the Baltimore ravens, picking up an extra third-round pick in the process. They decided to add another offensive lineman in Lamar Holmes. This lineman likely won't start, though, as Holmes is a raw but talented tackle who needs to improve his technique before he can threaten to start. This is a pick for the future, as neither Sam Baker nor Will Svitek look like a great left tackle for the future, and right tackle Tyson Clabo isn't the youngest player anymore either.
Fifth Round, Pick 22 (157th overall): Bradie Ewing, FB, Wisconsin
And with their third pick of the 2012 NFL draft, the Atlanta Falcons once again select an offensive player. The Atlanta Falcons already have a really good fullback in Ovie Mughelli. Fullbacks aren't that hard to come by. But, apparently, Mughelli is making $3 million this year and the Falcons desperately need that cap space, as they have just $700,000 in cap space - before signing any of their draft picks. Plus, Mughelli is getting older, and he's coming off a knee injury. Fullbacks don't seem like the type of player to last a long time in this league. Still, drafting a fullback in the fifth round, even if it's a weak draft? Ehhhhhhh.
Fifth Round, Pick 29 (164th overall): Jonathan Massaquoi, DE, Troy
This is the pick the Falcons got from the Ravens for trading back in the third round. And hey, look at that, it's a defensive player. Massaquoi is pass-rush specialist who struggles vs the run, and doesn't have the speed to reach the edge consistently against quality offensive tackle. Could develop into a decent role-player, but not much more than that. But hey, it's the fifth round, so what do you expect?
Sixth Round, Pick 22 (192nd overall): Charles Mitchell, S, Mississippi State
Hey, another defensive player. Mitchell could contribute as an in-the-box safety, but will most likely be a core special teamer, if he sticks. A typical sixth-round pick, really.
Seventh Round, Pick 41 (249th overall): Travian Robertson, DT, South Carolina
A huge defensive tackle who should mostly help in run defense, if he even sticks. Yes, run defense. That part of their defense that didn't really need help. But it's a seventh-round pick, so drafting for need doesn't make much sense at that point anyway.
Needs they didn't fill: Pass rush anyone?
The Atlanta Falcons had a solid team in 2011, and a surprisingly solid defense. But they lacked two things above all else: the ability to play pass-first on offense, despite the addition of Julio Jones, and a pass rush on defense. The strength of their team was the ability to stop the run on defense, and the ability to have an offense work off of the running game on offense.
The Falcons have addressed the passing offense by adding offensive linemen for improved pass protection. Will that make Ryan good enough to run a pass-first offense? On defense, they added Asante Samuel, who should immediately improve their pass defense, although run defense may suffer a little. But they still haven't addressed their pass rush. They had just 33 sacks last season, and were ranked 24th in Football Outsiders' Adjusted Sack Rate. Their only good pass rusher is John Abraham, who turned 34 today. They severely limited his sacks last season, and he's extremely close to the end. If he falls off, they have no one - and counting on fifth-rounder Massaquoi to make an early impact is unrealistic.
So, the Falcons didn't have many picks, but did address their offensive line. Their pass rush remains a big problem, however, and could be the key weakness that kills them in 2012.


Oops, try again. Did you create a function called censor? Your code threw a "global name 'string' is not defined" error.
Please help me. Thank you, folks.
string is not defined anywhere neither do you have any module called string defined.


Ideally have a picnic blanket (optional, but girls love it).
Have everything you need in the basket and put the basket in the car.
Go pick up your date.
Go have the picnic, talk, and have fun!
Gather up everything you brought and go back to the car.
If you already have the picnic basket & blanket, then you just need the food. Milk is typically $1.50 (I'd get ½ a gallon) and cereal is typically $3. So a total of about $5.
Bowls, spoons, cups, and napkins.
Thrift stores or D.I. usually have picnic baskets for $3-5 dollars. If you find a good picnic blanket here, make sure you wash it first.
Picnic blankets are also available at Walmart for about $15.
Walmart, Albertsons, Broulims, etc. for the food.
Ideas to mix up the date.
This date is pretty spontaneous in and of itself (you don't know exactly where you'll be having the picnic, what cereal you'll be eating, etc.), but you could add fruit to your cereal, or pick a juice to drink.
Have your date's bowl, cup, & spoon and let him/her have yours, then make each other "earn" them back by answering questions (it's just a fun simple way to get to know the other person).
Get to know your date better.
Find out if your date is down for picnics in spontaneous random places.
Determine if you would like to go on another date with this person.


Is my EZ Oil Drain Valve going to leak?
A. No. The EZ Oil Drain Valve incorporates the "ball valve" design of valves used in pressurized gas applications and will not leak. Every single valve is constructed under precise specifications and pressure tested, ensuring a perfect seal upon factory approval. The EZ Oil Drain Valve is produced from an ISO-9001 certified factory.
Will my EZ Oil Drain Valve open up while I am on the Road?
No. When installed, the EZ Oil Drain Valve only extends about 1/2 inch from the oil pan more than a stock oil drain plug in its closed position. The valve's effective locking system requires a double-action mechanism to open it, preventing any accidental openings. Unlike spring-loaded gate valves, the heavy-duty ball valve construction will withstand any engine vibration.
Using the EZ Oil Drain Valve under extreme circumstances such as, off-road vehicles, agricultural tractors, and logging equipment (i.e. corn fields, brush areas), it is advised that a hose clip as shown below be applied for additional safety and security. Hose clips can be purchased at any hardware stores and will securely keep the lever closed in the locked position at all times.
* A zip tie as shown below can be applied for additional safety and security. Zip ties can be purchased at any hardware store and will securely keep the lever closed in the locked position at all times. The zip tie can be easily cut and removed when you need to change oil.
Does my EZ Oil Drain Valve protrude into the interior of the oil pan and prevent full drainage of my engine oil?
A. No.The threaded oil drain plug hole is always reinforced to accept the threaded bolt of the drain plug. Your EZ Oil Drain Valve will not extend past this threaded portion of the drain hole and will allow the oil to be properly drained. Your EZ Oil Drain Valve will let you drain your engine oil while it is hot without burning your hands and it is much more effective than trying to pump the oil out from above.
How long will my EZ Oil Drain Valve last?
A. Your EZ Oil Drain Valve is constructed out of corrosion-resistant forged brass, stainless steel, and nickel-plated for added protection from the elements. Brass is the ideal material as it can withstand temperature extremes as well as harsh environmental factors. (I.e. salt, water, oil, chemicals, etc.) Your EZ Oil Drain Valve will outlast your engine.
How much does the EZ Oil Drain Valve extend out from the oil pan?
A. The EZ Oil Drain Valve for passenger cars and light trucks is approximately 7/8" long. This means that the valve only extends out 1/2" more than the standard plug head outside from the oil pan.
How do I install and use my EZ Oil Drain Valve?
Installation is easy. Simply follow the instructions below.
Hand install the valve until tight, and give 1/8 turn with a small crescent wrench on the body.
When it's time for an oil change, using your EZ Oil Drain Valve is simple.
Lift up the lever and turn counter-clockwise.
Turn back the lever to close.
Make sure the lever is secured in the locked position.
How do I know which EZ Oil Drain Valve to use?
My oil pan has a recess around the drain plug. Can I still install my EZ Oil Drain Valve?
A. Yes. Engines with a recessed oil pan may require an adapter (A-106, A-107, etc.) to prevent the valve from hitting against the oil pan wall during installation. Although our application chart indicates engines requiring an adapter, it is always recommended to determine the shape of the drain port. (In some cases longer adapters are necessary, i.e. part number AL-106). See Sizes & Applications for more details.
What is recommended torque for installing the Engine Oil Drain Valves?
A. We recommend to install the valve by hand and give it last 1/8 turn with small crescent wrench. Here is the list of reccomended torque for your information.
How do I know which Hose End to use/buy?
Can I use the EZ Oil Drain Valve for other applications?
A. Yes, the EZ Oil Drain Valve can be used for many applications, including transmission oil, radiator coolant, water drain, and synthetic motor oil.
Re-tap your current stripped oil pan threads to the next largest thread size and install the corresponding EZ Oil Drain Valve. For example, if your original thread size is 12mm-1.5, re-tap it to the size 14mm-1.5 and use the EZ Oil Drain Valve Model No. EZ-106. You can hire a mechanic do this for you, or you can do it yourself if you have the right tools and skills. Once the EZ Oil Drain Valve is installed, while you are enjoying quick and mess-free oil changes, you will never have the problem of stripping the oil pan threads again!
What is an NPT plug?
National Pipe Thread (NPT) plugs are tapered and they are self-tightening plugs. As you turn and tighten the plug (or the valve), it gets tighter and it will eventually stop with a few threads still exposed. Since these types of plugs use the compression between the male/female threads to seal, they do not require gaskets or washers to seal between the flange and the oil pan.
How do I know if I have an NPT plug?
A. If your oil drain plug does not have an O-ring or washer/gasket, then it is most likely tapered and therefore an NPT plug.
How do I measure an NPT plug?
Here's the tricky part. NPT plugs always have an actual outside diameter (OD) that is approximately 1/4" greater than the Trade Size. Measuring the actual plug will oftentimes mislead you into choosing the wrong valve, so please follow the chart below.
If you've worked with pipe threads much at all, you've probably noticed that the size of the pipe isn't really what size the pipe is. Unlike tubing, which is generally specified by its OD, or hose, which is generally specified by its ID, pipe is specified by something else... its Trade Size. So when you say "NPT 3/4 plug," you're actually saying "NPT plug whose OD is a little more than an inch.


Simplifies and automates the process of fulfilling orders with live rates, labels, & branded tracking. Integrates with AusPost, DHL, Fastway, StarTrack & more.
Enhance your check out experience using the StarShipIT Live Rates at Check-out Extension, download the extension to display shipping rates to your customers. This extension will enable you to streamline the shipping process from checkout, offering flexible, multiple check out options including Click and Collect and 3 Hour (Express options) and will help save you and your customers money with accurate live postage rates. This extension is ideal if you are running an eCommerce store on Magento 2 and want to improve your shipping experience for both you and your customers with accurate delivery labels, branded tracking, live rates and more.
A new StarShipIT account will need to be created after you have downloaded the extension here.
Updated carrier code from "starshipit_services" to "ssi".


text:
\not\hskip-3pt\partial{\not\hskip-3pt\partial}
\rightline{IASSNS-HEP-92/24}
\vglue-.50in
\font\bigbold=cmbx12 scaled\magstep2
\title{\bigbold TWO DIMENSIONAL STRING THEORY
\break  AND BLACK HOLES\foot{Lecture at the conference on
``Topics in Quantum Gravity,'' University of Cincinnati, April 3-4, 1992.}}
\vglue-.25in
\author{Edward Witten}\foot{Research supported by NSF Grant No.
91-06210.}
\address{Institute for Advanced Study
\break Olden Lane
\break Princeton, NJ 08540}
\vglue-.25in
\fourteenpoint
\abstract{This lecture surveys a few loosely related topics,
ranging from the scarcity of quantum field theories -- and the role that
this has played, and still plays, in physics
-- to paradoxes involving black holes
in soluble two dimensional string theory and the question of whether naked
singularities might be of even greater interest to string theorists
than black holes.}
\endpage

Consistent quantum field theories are apparently scarce.  As far as we
understand, truly consistent four dimensional field theories (without
Landau ghosts) require Yang-Mills gauge fields, so as to ensure
asymptotic freedom.  This assertion is an extrapolation beyond what we
firmly know, but is supported in various simple examples by mathematical
theorems and computer experiments, mostly about $\phi^4$ theories.

The scarcity of quantum field theories is arguably one of the most
important things we teach our students, and one of the main assets
physicists have had in understanding elementary particles.  In fact, it
has been very fortunate for the progress of physics that a generic
Lagrangian, such as a Fermi-type Lagrangian
$$
{\cal L} = \int d^4 x[\overline \psi i\hskip-4pt\not\hskip-3pt\partial \psi
- G_F ~\overline \psi
\gamma_\mu \psi~ \overline \psi \gamma^\mu \psi]
\eqn\joe
$$
does not (presumably) lead to a consistent quantum theory.  The search
for a consistent quantum theory that reduces to the Fermi theory at low
energies led to the discovery of the now-standard electroweak theory,
and with it an appreciation of the role of non-abelian gauge fields in
physics.  The scarcity of quantum field theories also accelerated the
discovery of QCD.  Of course, questions of consistency also were crucial
in the discovery of Maxwell's equations and of special and then general
relativity.

General relativity -- which is based on a geometric concept somewhat
analogous to that of non-abelian gauge theory -- is the one real
experimental signal we have of physics at energies way beyond
accelerator energies.  Other experiments sensitive to physics
of ultra-high energies -- notably proton decay and neutrino mass
measurements, and searches for magnetic monopoles and other
ultra-massive big bang relics -- have so far given null results, albeit
important ones.

The peculiar properties of general relativity are of course intimately
tied up with the fact that Newton's constant has dimensions of
(Mass)$^{-2}$.  This leads among other things to the perturbative
unrenormalizability  of the theory
$$
{\cal L} = M^2_{P\ell} \int d^4x \sqrt g ~ R
\eqn\jim
$$
which I will take at face value as an indication that the quantum theory
does not exist.  I consider this the optimistic as
well as most likely interpretation.

Indeed, the fact that general relativity is unrenormalizable is the one
reason that we have some hope of learning something about new physical
principles that prevail at higher-than-accelerator energies.  If,
conversely, this problem were solved -- say in the strongest form of
showing that at a nonperturbative level an arbitrary Lagrangian coupling
general relativity to matter can be successfully quantized -- we would
feel truly forsaken by what in the twentieth century has become our best
friend, the goddess of consistency.  Our hopes of learning what the
right theory is, or more modestly of learning about fundamental new
structures in physics, would greatly dwindle.

Taking then at face value the appearance that general relativity is
unrenormalizable, let us ask what new consistent framework could have
conventional quantum theory, and Riemannian geometry, as limiting cases.
 Since geometrical structures of the relevant depth do not exist just by
accident, this kind of question cannot be expected to have many possible
answers -- whether right or wrong for physics.  In fact, no insight has
ever been gained by frontal assault.  Happily, a possible answer -- in
the form of string theory -- emerged as an unintended consequence of
work on (unsuccessful models of) strong interactions.

What we really understand about string theory are rules for
perturbative computations of scattering amplitudes.  Curiously
enough, these rules are much simpler, in key ways, than standard Feynman
rules.  It can be argued that the tree level scattering of gauge bosons
and gravitons -- first worked out by Feynman, De Witt, and others in
the 1960's -- is most easily calculated by embedding
Yang-Mills theory or gravity
in a string theory, that is, by calculating appropriate string
amplitudes and then taking the appropriate limit to extract the field
theory result.  The advantage of embedding the conventional calculations
in string theory is all the greater at the one loop level.  This became
clear in the calculations by Green and Schwarz of graviton scattering in
the early 1980's, and has recently begun to be exploited systematically
in work of Bern, Kosower, and others.  Indeed, the simplification
obtained by embedding the conventional calculations in string theory is
substantial enough that this method may well become standard in
computations of QCD processes relevant to the SSC.  It may also lead to
new insights about QCD.  In any event, the simplification that arises
this way in the standard calculations in the most interesting
geometrical theories is one of the symptoms of the power of the
mysterious new geometrical structure that underlies string theory.

What is missing in our knowledge of string theory is precisely that this
structure is mysterious -- that we are far from understanding the
conceptual-geometrical, and presumably Lagrangian, framework from
which all this is
to be derived.  Roughly, we know the Feynman rules, but we do not
understand the classical theory from which they came.   Nor are we
close, as far as I know.  But the spinoffs that have been discovered,
even in purely geometrical problems (index theory on loop spaces, soluble
conformal field theory and knot invariants, mirror symmetry, cohomology
of moduli space of Riemann surfaces -- just to name a few) show the
exceptional richness of this structure.

In groping toward an answer, we grapple with the following paradigm.
The string theory analog of a metric is a two dimensional Lagrangian
$$
{\cal L}(X) = {1 \over 8\pi} \int_\Sigma d^2\sigma \sqrt h ~
\left[h^{\alpha\beta} \partial_\alpha X^\mu~\partial_\beta X^\nu g_{\mu\nu}
(X^\lambda) + \ldots \right]~.
\eqn\jack
$$
(The $X$'s are a map from a two dimensional surface $\Sigma$ to a space-time
manifold $M$ of arbitrary dimension.)

The string theory analog of a solution of the Einstein equations is then
an ${\cal L}(X)$ for which the corresponding quantum theory is {\it
conformally invariant}.  Then on the space of ${\cal L} (X)$'s $ - \ie$, the
space of two dimensional quantum field theories -- one should find a
function (perhaps some version of the $c$ function of Zamolodchikov) that
is stationary precisely when ${\cal L}(X)$ defines a conformal field
theory.

This paradigm is quite beautiful.  It is perhaps vaguely reminiscent of
an early idea of Penrose that the metric structure of spacetime should
be coded in properties of the space of null geodesics.  Here null
geodesics -- one dimensional objects -- are replaced by two dimensional
minimal surfaces in spacetime (or more generally, by surfaces that are
stationary points of ${\cal L}(X)$).

In one direction, the paradigm is quite correct and extremely useful.
Every conformal field theory (obeying a couple of simple conditions)
determines a classical solution of string theory.  But the paradigm has
trouble in the reverse direction, because it clashes with the
fundamental first lesson that I recalled at the outset.  There is no
problem in writing down a generic ${\cal L}(X)$, but the generic ${\cal
L}(X)$ does not determine a quantum theory; there is therefore no known
way to define the beta function associated with a generic ${\cal L}(X)$,
or to discuss the vanishing of this beta function.  The problem is
particularly acute if one tries to think about sigma models with time
dependence (leading to world-sheet operators of negative dimension) or
superficially unrenormalizable operators  (corresponding to the
characteristic massive modes of the string).

This clash between what string theorists appear to need and the rest of
what we know in physics is in my opinion the main obstacle to progress
in string theory;  I cannot emphasize this enough. It is a hint that
two dimensional field theory as we know it is not an adequate framework.
I have long suspected that we need something cruder, that would contain
less information in return for less work.  This suspicion was one of my
main motivations, incidentally, in developing topological  field theory.
 Today, however, I will be sketching some other developments.

Though we
do not yet know the end of the story, a main focus of effort by many
physicists in the last few years has been to experiment with ${\cal
L}(X)$'s in a simple situation -- that in which {\it space-time}, as
well as the world-sheet, is two dimensional.  The simplicity that arises
here, though very unexpected technically, is perhaps crudely analogous
to the simplicity that appears in many types of problems in two
dimensional mathematical physics.

My discussion of these matters will be purely qualitative.  For more
detail I refer to some of the excellent review articles, or to the
generally well-known original papers (including the celebrated papers of
Brezin and Kazakov, Douglas and Shenker, and Gross and Migdal on the
double scaling limit for $D < 2$).

Granted that a generic ${\cal L}(X)$ does not lead to a quantum field
theory, what are some of the good ${\cal L}(X)$'s that we know with a
two dimensional target space?  The simplest is free field theory, with a
linear coupling added to achieve conformal invariance:
$$
{\cal L}(X^0, X^1) = {1 \over 8\pi} \int d^2\sigma \big[-\partial_\alpha X^0
\partial^\alpha X^0
+\partial_\alpha X^1 \partial^\alpha X^1
- 2 \sqrt2 R^{(2)} X^1 \big]~.
\eqn\jake
$$
The linear term is a little strange.  It means that in this two
dimensional world, it is impossible to achieve Poincar\' e invariance. We
will offer an intuitive explanation of this later.  I will call this
puzzle $(a)$.  Several other puzzles will appear presently.

A slightly more sophisticated example, still leading to a conformal
field theory, is obtained by adding an experimental interaction, the
so-called Liouville term:
$$
\widetilde{\cal L}(X) = {\cal L}(X) + \mu \int d^2\sigma ~e^{-\sqrt2 X^1}~.
\eqn\joss
$$
For $\mu > 0$, this repels us from the region of $X^1 \rightarrow -
\infty$ where, technically, the string coupling is large.

Once one finds a classical solution -- whether in general relativity or
string theory -- one would like to understand the scattering theory
around this classical solution.  In general this is difficult.  The
greatest progess in $D = 2$ string theory has come from the remarkable
discovery that scattering theory around the particular classical
solution of string theory determined by $\widetilde{\cal L}(X)$ is exactly
soluble.  It can be described in terms of a degenerate gas of free
fermions interacting with an upside-down harmonic oscillator potential:
$$
V(\lambda) = - {1 \over 2} \lambda^2~.
\eqn\jessie
$$
This was discovered by studying the quantum mechanics of an $N \times N$
matrix, on the one hand by diagonalizing the matrix and constructing the
Hamiltonian, and on the other hand by expanding in Feynman diagrams.

The relation of $\widetilde {\cal L}(X)$ to the free fermions leads to
several additional puzzles about this theory (beyond puzzle $(a)$ that I
have already noted above):

$(b)$ The physics of $\widetilde {\cal L}$ is really related just to the
behavior of the free fermions for $\lambda \rightarrow \infty $.  What
does the second region at $\lambda \rightarrow - \infty$ have to do with
it?

$(c)$  The free fermions are an (elementary) integrable system. They have
infinitely many conserved qualities.  If one considers a state with
incoming fermions of energies (relative to the fermionic surface)
$\varepsilon_1, \ldots, \varepsilon_k$ then
$$
Q_n = \sum_{i=1}^k ~\varepsilon_i^n
\eqn\jason
$$
is conserved for each $n$.  Of course, $Q_1$ is just the Hamiltonian.

$(d)$  More generally, the canonical transformations of the free fermion
phase space enter in deeper study of the model.

By now, $(c)$ and $(d)$ have been pretty well explained from a two
dimensional field theory point of view, by studying certain discrete
operators of the two dimensional theory.  What about $(a)$ and
$(b)$?  To
explain these points, it is judicious to remember that the interest of
string theory derives from its interpretation as a theory of space-time
gravity.  Look for a more general Lagrangian
$$
\hat{\cal L}(X^0, X^1) = {1 \over 8\pi} \int d^2\sigma ~
\sqrt h ~\big[h^{\alpha\beta}
\partial_\alpha X^\mu~\partial_\beta X^\nu g_{\mu\nu}(X^\lambda)
+ \Phi(X^\lambda) R^{(2)}\big]~.
\eqn\jock$$
In a one loop approximation, it is easy enough to solve the equations of
conformal invariance.  One finds that the target space metric
$g_{\mu\nu}$ must (up to a coordinate transformation) take the form
$$
ds^2 = {du~ dv \over 1 - uv}
\eqn\john
$$
that is characteristic of a black hole.  Indeed \john\ is the essence of
the Schwarz-schild metric (dropping the angular variables and an
inessential conformal factor) in a form that exhibits its maximal
analytic continuation.  The two asymptotically flat regions of the black
hole are the two regions of $uv$ large and negative, the exterior of the
light cone in figure (1).

This apparently explains our problem $(b)$ about the free fermions of the
matrix model.  The unexpected region $\lambda \rightarrow - \infty$ of
the free fermions apparently corresponds to the second asymptotically
flat world that is discovered upon making a maximal analytic
continuation of the original Schwarzschild solution, which as we recall
is

$$
ds^2 = - (1 - {2GM \over r}) dt^2 +  \big(1 -
{2GM \over r} \big)^{-1}dr^2 + r^2 d \Omega^2 ~.
\eqn\jontue
$$

What about problem $(a)$, the lack of Poincar\' e invariance in our two
dimensional target space?  Actually, in writing the metric in equation
\john, I have not indicated the
dilaton field, and so I have not exhibited the one parameter of the
solution, which is the mass $M$ of the black hole, and is buried in the
possibility of adding a constant to the
dilaton field.  (In the brand of two dimensional target space gravity
that is determined by this model, the dilaton field enters in the ADM
mass formula.)  One may ask what happens to the solution as $M
\rightarrow 0$.

A four dimensional Schwarzschild black hole goes over to Minkowski space
for $M \rightarrow 0$; but a charged black hole in four dimensions
cannot have $M < Q$, and goes over for $M \rightarrow Q$ to a
non-trivial and interesting limit, the extreme Reissner-Nordstrom black
hole.  I believe that the lack of Poincar\' e invariance in two
dimensional string theory can be understood intuitively by making an
analogy with the $s$-wave sector of a Reissner-Nordstrom black hole in
four dimensions.  It is as if there is a charge sitting at $X^1 = -
\infty$; the linear dilaton field in \jake\ is the field of this
charge, and the simple solution \jake\ is the analog not
of Minkowski space
but of an extreme Reissner-Nordstrom black hole.

Now actually one can do better and find an exact black hole solution in
this two dimensional world, by using $SL(2,{\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}})$ current algebra.  To
put it differently, and I think this is a vivid illustration of how rich
and physical string theory is, the black hole solution pops out of a
simple, universal calculation using current algebra and gauge theory.

In the black hole analogy, the Liouville term $\mu \exp({-\sqrt 2 X^1})$
in $\widetilde
{\cal L}$ corresponds to a repulsive non-gravitational interaction that
does not have a really good counterpart in four dimensions.

So far I have outlined, or at least alluded to, answers to our four
questions $(a)$-$(d)$.  But at this point,
two more basic questions arise:

(1)  Is the black hole that arises here stable, and if so how is this
compatible with Hawking's discovery that conventional black holes
radiate?

(2)  If standard two dimensional string theory is -- as I believe -- a
theory of matter interacting with the analog of an extreme
Reissner-Nordstrom black hole, why is this not more obvious in studies
of the free fermion model?

I will propose answers.  I must warn you, however, that the answer to
(2) will be frustrating, though in my opinion entirely consistent and
even correct.

For (1), I want to first step back and ask, can a black hole be in
equilibrium with matter, and can such an equilibrium state be described
by a pure quantum mechanical state?   My answer to this is not really novel,
and involves
considerations of Hartle and Hawking from the 1970's -- with
a twist at
the end that depends on the linear dilaton field of the two dimensional
string theory.  (My comments might also be compared to observations by
Seiberg and Shenker in a recent Rutgers preprint.)

To begin with, we ask whether one can have pure quantum mechanics of any
kind in the field of a black hole.  There is no problem here, as long as
one considers both asymptotically flat ends.  One picks a Cauchy
hypersurface $S$, as sketched in figure (1).  In the standard way, one
defines a quantum Hilbert space ${\cal H}$ by quantization on this
hypersurface.  It is convenient to pick $S$ to be a hypersurface of time
reflection symmetry, as sketched in the figure.

What would be a natural state vector in ${\cal H}$?  In general, in a
time dependent situation such as the field of the black hole, such a
question has no answer; there is a natural Hilbert space, but because of
particle creation and annihilation, there is no distinguished ``vacuum.''
The black hole is special, however.  Recall the Euclidean black hole
solution.  In two dimensions it is described by a metric of the form
$$
ds^2 = dr^2 + \tanh^2 r~ d\phi^2
\eqn\jerry
$$
and looks like a semi-infinite cigar.  In four dimensions, there is a
similar formula, with additional angular variables that we suppress.
The Euclidean black hole has a hypersurface $\widetilde S$ of time symmetry,
given by $\phi = 0, \pi$.  $\widetilde S$ has the same extrinsic and
intrinsic geometry as $S$, and so we could equally well regard $S$ as
the boundary not of half of the extended Lorentzian Schwarzschild space
but of a half of its Euclidean analog, as sketched in figure (2).  We
will use the letter $W$ to denote the relevant half of the Euclidean
black hole metric, with boundary $S \cong \widetilde S$.

We can now try to define a distinguished state vector $\psi \in
{\cal H}$ by following a recipe similar to that of Hartle and Hawking.
We denote the quantum field variables on $S$ as $X$ and those on $W$ as
$Y$.  We attempt to define a vector $\psi(X) \in {\cal H}$ by
integrating over the $Y's$:
$$
\psi(X) = \int_{Y|{_S}=X} DY~ \exp\left( - {\cal L}(Y)\right)~.
\eqn\jan
$$
We will postpone temporarily the discussion of whether the integral is
well-behaved, and consider first the physical properties of $\psi$ if it
is.

The key point is that although the two asymptotically flat ends, say
$S_L$ and $S_R$, of $S$ are asymptotically infinitely distant in the
Lorentzian black hole, in the Euclidean hole the distance between them
is finite.  In fact they are separated asymptotically by a distance
$\beta/2$, with $\beta$ being the asymptotic circumference of the cigar.
 Thus if $X_L$ and $X_R$ are quantum field variables on $X_L$ and $X_R$,
the wave function $\psi$ is approximately (if one considers only
observables supported in the asymptotically flat region)
$$
\psi(X_L, X_R) = \langle X_L | \exp(- {1 \over 2} \beta H) | X_R
\rangle ~,
\eqn\joel
$$
with $H$ the Hamiltonian.

This is a pure state, but if one wants to consider only observables
supported on one end, say $S_R$, then one must integrate out $X_L$ to
form a density matrix in $X_R$.  In the approximation of $\joel$, the
density matrix in question is simply
$$
\eqalign{
\rho (X_R{}^\prime, X_R) &= \int DX_L ~\overline \psi(X_R{}^\prime,
X_L)~ \psi(X_L, X_R)\cr
&= \langle X_R{}^\prime | \exp(-\beta H)| X_R\rangle ~.\cr}
\eqn\jaffe
$$
This is a thermal state at the Hawking temperature $T = 1/\beta$.

Thus, though $\psi$ is a pure state, it looks like a mixed, thermal
state to an observer at one end.  To such an observer, this state
appears to describe a black hole in thermal equilibrium with matter, the
outgoing Hawking radiation being in balance with the incoming flux of
thermal radiation.

Is such equilibrium possible?  As we will see, the answer is no in the
conventional four dimensional world, but yes in two dimensional string
theory.   The key point is simply to ask whether the integral \jan\ converges.
In any dimension, the one loop approximation to this integral is
well-defined.  In that approximation, one finds a thermal energy density at
temperature $T = 1/\beta$.  In infinite volume, the total energy due to
this thermal energy density is infinite.

In the two loop approximation, we will begin to see the gravitational
back-reaction of the infinite thermal energy.  In four dimensions, this
will produce gravitational collapse on a larger scale, showing that
thermal equilibrium between a black hole and matter is impossible in
four dimensions.  (The same conclusion is sometimes reached by
considering the negative specific heat of a black hole in four
dimensions.)

In two dimensional string theory, there is a very elementary but crucial
difference.  This comes from the linear dilaton term in \jake. As a
result of this term, the gravitational coupling vanishes exponentially
for $X^1 \rightarrow \infty$.  As a result of this, the gravitational
effects of the infinite thermal gas are
finite!   So the perturbative
contributions to
the path integral \jan\ will all be convergent, and there is no
difficulty presumably in defining the state $\psi$.  Thus, in two
dimensional string theory, it is possible to have a pure quantum state
which to an observer at one end appears to describe thermal equilibrium
between a black hole and matter.

Not only is this possible; it is presumably what one gets by
systematically calculating string loop corrections to the $SL(2,{\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}})/
U(1)$ conformal field theory of the black hole.  In fact, it is
presumably what one would get in any calculation of Lorentzian black
hole physics which can be obtained by analytic continuation of a
Euclidean black hole calculation.  This would be so for the standard
conformal field theory, in which the Lorentzian and Euclidean black
holes are described by $SL(2,{\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}})$ cosets that are related by analytic
continuation.  There may well be an analog of the free fermion
description of the black hole interacting with matter.

Now as a preliminary to addressing question (2), let me discuss a crude
version of that question that is often  asked.  Can ``the'' black hole,
that is the $SL(2,{\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}})$ coset model, decay to the standard two
dimensional string model, with world-sheet Lagrangian ${\cal L}$ or
$\widetilde{\cal L}$? (I put quotes around the word ``the,'' since I have
suggested above that the standard ${\cal L}$ or $\widetilde{\cal L}$
describes ``a'' black hole-like object.) The answer is clearly no.
``The'' black hole does not decay, since it is in equilibrium with the
thermal gas around it.

Here is another naive preliminary to question (2).  Can ``the'' black
hole be created in the usual scattering theory around the
standard ${\cal L}$
or $\widetilde{\cal L}$ states?  The answer again is obviously no.  In usual
scattering theory, one excites the ground state by a finite energy
disturbance, but ``the'' black hole lies above the ground state (the
${\cal L}$ or $\widetilde{\cal L}$ vacuum) by an infinite energy.
Therefore, it cannot be created in conventional scattering theory.

This infinite energy may seem worrisome, so let me make a further
comment.  In two dimensional string theory, the spacetime gravitational
and dilaton fields approach their flat space values for $X^1 \rightarrow
\infty$ exponentially fast.  The analog of the ADM mass is the
coefficient of $\exp(-X^1)$.  The infinite energy that was crucial above
merely means that the coefficient of $\exp(-X^1)$ grows linearly in $X^1$
for $X^1 \rightarrow \infty$, and thus the ominous-sounding infinite
thermal energy just means that the correction to the asymptotic vacuum
behavior is proportional to $X^1 \exp(-X^1)$ instead of $\exp(-X^1)$.  The
extra factor of $X^1$ obviously does not change things drastically.

Having disposed of some preliminaries, let us now discuss what I regard
as the most incisive version of question (2): why have not black hole
effects, such as Hawking radiation, been noticed in scattering theory
around the ground state?  For I have suggested that this scattering
theory involves interaction of matter with a black hole analog.

I will give an answer that I consider convincing but frustrating -- it
will show the price we pay for embedding black hole physics in a soluble
model.

We noted above that the description by free fermions leads to
conservation of infinitely many charges
$$
Q_n = \sum_{i=1}^k ~\varepsilon_i^n~.
\eqn\jonesy
$$
These charges are all coupled to gauge fields (as one sees by examining
the discrete excitations of ${\cal L}$), so the $Q_n$ values of a black
hole are measurable outside the horizon and so well-defined.

Thus there must be a family of black hole solutions depending on
infinitely many parameters $Q_n$; ``the'' black hole
(described by $SL(2, {\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}}$) current algebra) is just a special case.  The
more general black holes would be related to more general ${\cal
L}(X)$'s containing superficially unrenormalizable operators, so they
are hard to study.

In the theory of Hawking radiation, there is a classical potential
conjugate to every conserved charge carried by the black hole.
(Electric and magnetic charge are the examples most often considered in
four dimensions.)   A black hole carrying non-zero values of these other
classical potentials does not just radiate thermally.  How it radiates
depends on the values of the chemical potentials.

Now consider scattering theory around the standard $D = 2$ string
vacuum.  The initial state is a black hole-like object with some value
of the $Q_n$'s, presumably zero.  We excite it by sending in some
particles from infinity.  The values of the $Q_n$'s and hence the
chemical potentials of the system so created depend on what we send in.
Therefore, in a generic experiment, the radiation that will come back
out will not be thermal -- it depends on the chemical potentials of the
``hole'' and hence on what was sent in.   Therefore, generically, one
will not get thermal radiation as a result of exciting the hole by
incoming matter.  This answers question (2).

Is there, however, any way to excite the hole in such a way that it will
emit thermally?  The answer is yes, as I will now explain -- but in a
way that is sure to be frustrating.

If one sends in on the hole a thermal distribution of particles, then
conservation of the $Q_n$'s ensures that a thermal distribution will
come back out.  Therefore, it must be that sending in a thermal
distribution of particles is a way to excite the vacuum to just the
values of the chemical potentials that will lead to thermal radiation.
This is an unglamorous way to ``see'' Hawking radiation, but it seems to
be all one can hope for when the black hole is embedded in an integrable
system.

I wish to add the following remarks.  (1) In a scattering experiment
with just a few incident particles, instead of a macroscopic number,
most probably the resulting chemical potentials have such extreme
values that a thermodynamic description is not valid, even allowing for
the chemical potentials.  (For four dimensional black holes, the
analogous issues have been worked out by Preskill, P. Schwarz, Shapere,
Trivedi, and Wilczek.)
(2)  The Liouville interaction, which I have
not built into these remarks explicitly, is a repulsive interaction that
will scatter many low energy incident particles non-gravitationally.
This is very important quantitatively. (3) Ellis, Mavromatos, and
Nanopoulos have related the $Q_n$'s to quantum coherence of black holes.

Finally, then, I do believe that the {\it standard}  two dimensional
string theory describes the unitary quantum mechanics of matter
interacting with an
object similar to a black hole.  Integrability means that the behavior
is rather different from black hole physics as we usually know it.  The
linear dilaton field means that stable quantum mechanics of the black
hole in thermal equilibrium is possible; it is related to $SL(2,{\hbox{{\rm I}\kern-.2em\hbox{\rm R}}})$
current algebra, and an analog of the free fermion description may well
exist.

In this lecture, I have been focussing on black holes to elucidate
the surprising role of a black hole look-alike in soluble
two dimensional string theory.  There are indeed many unsolved
conceptual mysteries in black hole physics, and string theory may give
a fruitful vantage point for rethinking them.  We should be alert,
however, to other possibly related problems that might be even more
pertinent for string theorists.  Here I have in mind the whole question
of the role in physics of general relativistic singularities other
than black holes.
The ``cosmic censorship'' conjecture of Penrose asserts roughly
(in its original form) that black holes are the only type of singularities
that can evolve in classical general relativity from good initial data.
Attractive though the cosmic censorship
hypothesis is, the evidence for it is quite limited.  We are pretty
well convinced that gravitational collapse that is sufficiently close to
being spherically symmetric leads to black holes; but we know very little
about highly aspherical collapse.
Though a proof
of cosmic censorship would extend the scope of classical general relativity
in a dramatic fashion, its failure would possibly benefit physics
even more, since the breakdown of classical general relativity at a naked
singularity might give us the chance to observe effects of quantum
gravity -- or string theory.

Many physicists seem to think that naked singularities would be ``objects,''
in the same sense that black holes are objects.  I think that we should
be on the lookout for naked singularities as ``events,'' analogous
to instantons rather than to solitons, and perhaps looking to a distant
observer much like a miniature big bang.
In this context, it is very interesting that there are events known
to astrophysicists -- the cosmic gamma ray bursts, whose extragalactic
origin has been pretty well established by the recent BATSE observations --
among whose most {\it conservative} explanations
scenarios involving highly aspherical gravitational collapse
(inspiraling neutron star pairs, for instance) are prominent.  These
events are therefore fairly good candidates as already observed events
in which cosmic censorship may have been violated if it is in fact wrong.
These events ought to give us a good incentive for thinking about what
string theory would have to say if cosmic censorship is false in general
relativity.

\end

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
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text:
You are here: Home1 / Blog2 / Resilience and the Manchester Bombing by Gerry Myers
Resilience and the Manchester Bombing by Gerry Myers
May 26, 2017 /in Blog
The British people have shown great resilience over the last few days in coping with the Manchester bombing. For the most part they have kept true to their values and their way of life. We hear of Mancunians pulling together in the midst of the crisis, offering practical support, food, shelter, care. We read the story of a homeless man overcoming his own difficult circumstances and rushing in to help in the immediate aftermath of the bomb, we read of families offering bed and board to strangers who were searching for missing relatives. And whilst there are those who were quick off the blocks to stoke hate for Muslims and immigrants, the vast majority of people were having none of it. Our TV screens showed soccer fans holding a dignified minute's silence at a match, and there were vox pop interviews on news programmes where ordinary people spoke out against hate, including hatred of immigrants and Muslims. There was also no shortage of Muslim voices saying "Not in our name" to any of their faith who were thinking of launching any attacks in Britain. It is clear that for some time members of the Islamic community have been co-operating with the police to identify threats to the people of Britain. Those of us who were in London at the height of the troubles will well remember the great Irish demonstration in Hyde Park when many thousands of Irish people said "Not in our name" to our fellow countrymen who wanted to bomb Britain. Back then, as now, the people who make up the great melting pot that is Britain dipped into their resilience and were not cowed by bombers. So what is this thing called resilience? It could be described as communities and individuals successfully adjusting to very difficult circumstances, through psychological, emotional, practical and spiritual means. One of the most important facets of resilience is the capacity for meaning-making. In the midst of the carnage in Manchester this week, and despite a small minority urging hatred, the community remembered what is important to them, they kept to their values and meaning, found solidarity in communal care, rejected hatred and continued to do what they always do. Resilience isn't just continuing to do what we always do, it is also knowing the meaning, values and philosophy of life that drive us to continue.
https://www.psychotherapycouncil.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ICP-Logo-1-204x300.png 0 0 admin https://www.psychotherapycouncil.ie/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/ICP-Logo-1-204x300.png admin2017-05-26 09:06:302017-05-26 09:06:30Resilience and the Manchester Bombing by Gerry Myers
Summer Solstice Shamanic Workshop & Certificate Course in Advanced Shamanic...Editorial


text:
!!> Download ➹ Love in the Time of Cholera ➾ Author Gabriel García Márquez – Tkcleaningservices.co.uk
Gabriel García Márquez10 on Love in the Time of Cholera
In Their Youth, Florentino Ariza And Fermina Daza Fall Passionately In Love When Fermina Eventually Chooses To Marry A Wealthy, Well Born Doctor, Florentino Is Devastated, But He Is A Romantic As He Rises In His Business Career He Whiles Away The Years In 622 Affairs Yet He Reserves His Heart For Fermina Her Husband Dies At Last, And Florentino Purposefully Attends The Funeral Fifty Years, Nine Months, And Four Days After He First Declared His Love For Fermina, He Will Do So Again.
10 thoughts on "Love in the Time of Cholera "
Madeline Madeline	says:
LET ME EXPLAIN, GUYS.Okay I like Marquez I think his writing is beautiful, his settings are evocative and masterfully portrayed, and yes, his books are pretty romantic, and I always enjoy magical realism this one could have usedof that last bit, though The last twenty pages of the book even manged to suck me into the romance of the story, and I found mysel
Samantha Newman Samantha Newman	says:
I previously read One Hundred Years of Solitude and I liked it a lot, and I was intruiged by the title Love in the Time of Cholera so I thought I d read it.Within the first few pages I had the inkling I didn t like it, but sometimes it takes books a little while to get warmed up Plus, I don t like starting a book and not finishing it, because I know I ll never
Jaidee Jaidee	says:
5 masculine, organic, decaying stars 8th Favorite Read of 2016 Do not make the mistake that this book is about love This book is about muchcommon vices Vices that masquerade for love.Jealousy, obsession, desire, pity and vengeance.Perpetually selfish penises promising but only perjuring voluminous misunderstood vaginas.Men using women that use men.The demise of th
Mohammed Arabey Mohammed Arabey	says:
6 70 9070, , , , , , ,, , ,, , , ,, , , L le des Pingouins51 ,10 2015 14 2015 2007 ,
MsAprilVincent MsAprilVincent	says:
This review has been hidden because it contains spoilers To view it, click here I don t like this book.I don t like the characters This was going to be a list, but then I realized that this is the only reason I have Florentino Ariza is a baby Seriously, his mom gives him whatever he wants, and she tries to make everything all right for him, and he is very, very if he live
Huda Yahya Huda Yahya	says:
Riku Sayuj Riku Sayuj	says:
This review is now also available at The Bombay Literary Magazine TBLM The Infinite Capacity for Illusion The words I am about to express They now have their own crowned goddess. THE INFINITE CAPACITY FOR ILLUSION Whither The MagicOne Hundred Years of Solitudeis one of my favorite novels Which is why, when I started reading Love in the Time of Cholera, one of the things I noticed
Siobhan Siobhan	says:
I learned that I will never be a great writer, because sometimes, there are people like Marquez, who manage to write such an amazing piece of art without making it ponderous, pretentious, or difficult It s not really about the plot, is it A guy is in love with a girl, and waits for her for 50 odd years, while conducting his own affairs Here s the thing, though The way the story is to
Ahmad Sharabiani Ahmad Sharabiani	says:
236 El amor en los tiempos del c lera Love in the time of cholera, Gabriel Garc a M rquezLove in the Time of Cholera Spanish El amor en los tiempos del c lera is a novel by Nobel prize winner Colombian author Gabriel Garc a M rquez first published in Spanish in 1985 Alfred A Knopf published an English translation in 1988, and an English language movie adaptation was released in 2007 The
Liz Liz	says:
This review has been hidden because it contains spoilers To view it, click here I feel suspicious about the fact that I didn t fall for this book the way Florentino Ariza fell for Fermina Daza I am compelled to blame my lack of appreciation on poor reader comprehension rather than GGM S writing, because only one of us won the nobel prize and I m pretty sure it wasn t me However, I m no idiot
About the Author: Gabriel García Márquez
Gabriel Jos de la Concordia Garc a M rquez was a Colombian novelist, short story writer, screenwriter and journalist Garc a M rquez, familiarly known as Gabo in his native country, was considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century In 1982, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.He studied at the University of Bogot and later worked as a reporter for the Colombian n Gabriel Jos de la Concordia Garc a M rquez was a Colombian novelist, short story writer, screenwriter and journalist Garc a M rquez, familiarly known as Gabo in his native country, was considered one of the most significant authors of the 20th century In 1982, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.He studied at the University of Bogot and later worked as a reporter for the Colombian newspaper El Espectador and as a foreign correspondent in Rome, Paris, Barcelona, Caracas and New York He wrote many acclaimed non fiction works and short stories, but is best known for his novels, such as One Hundred Years of Solitude 1967 and Love in the Time of Cholera 1985 His works have achieved significant critical acclaim and widespread commercial success, most notably for popularizing a literary style labeled as magical realism, which uses magical elements and events in order to explain real experiences Some of his works are set in a fictional village called Macondo, and most of them express the theme of solitude.Having previously written shorter fiction and screenplays, Garc a M rquez sequestered himself away in his Mexico City home for an extended period of time to complete his novel Cien a os de soledad, or One Hundred Years of Solitude, published in 1967 The author drew international acclaim for the work, which ultimately sold tens of millions of copies worldwide Garc a M rquez is credited with helping introduce an array of readers to magical realism, a genre that combinesconventional storytelling forms with vivid, layered fantasy.Another one of his novels, El amor en los tiempos del c lera 1985 , or Love in the Time of Cholera, drew a large global audience as well The work was partially based on his parents courtship and was adapted into a 2007 film starring Javier Bardem Garc a M rquez wrote seven novels during his life, with additional titles including El general en su laberinto 1989 , or The General in His Labyrinth, and Del amor y otros demonios 1994 , or Of Love and Other Demons Arabic Hebrew


Hello fellow dalelands folks I am posting this to inform everyone that I have not quit playing, Rather just been extremely busy and to tired to be even interested in a game. Will be playing soon I hope.
To any plans discussed with any of my characters are still being worked on by the DM staff so need to worry.


text:
Bundestagswahlkreis Parchim steht für folgende Wahlkreise in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern:

 Bundestagswahlkreis Güstrow – Sternberg – Lübz – Parchim – Ludwigslust

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Glazed pictorial boards with slight damage to front left bottom corner. Glazed pictorial unclipped dust jacket, now in protective clear sleeve. No inscriptions, 288pp, £18.99 net. Clean and bright pages with colour images throughout. Please note this is a heavy book and an additional postage charge may apply. 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1. (Any digital image available on request).


Drop, Swarovski® crystals, crystal red magma, 14x11mm faceted pure leaf pendant (6734). Sold per pkg of 2.
Item Number: H20-9337CR Have a question about this item?
The crystal red magma effect, with its gentle surface but powerful core, is the perfect complement for the Swarovski crystal effects range, adding both tenderness and strength at the same time. This attention- getting effect can stand alone as the primary design element or be used as a fiery accent in jewelry designs.
Swarovski's pure leaf pendant is a navette-shaped crystal with symmetrical faceting that evokes the natural beauty of foliage. The uncomplicated shape lends itself to both fresh, summertime looks as well as warm, autumnal combinations.
Drop, Swarovski® crystals, crystal red magma, 14x11mm faceted pure leaf pendant (6734). Sold per pkg of 12.
Drop, Swarovski® crystals, crystal red magma, 14x11mm faceted pure leaf pendant (6734). Sold per pkg of 108.


text:
Floridatandkarp (Jordanella floridae) är en fiskart bland de äggläggande tandkarparna i ordningen tandkarpar. Den lever i olika slags sötvatten som floder, dammar och sjöar i Florida i Nordamerika, men kan ibland också simma in brackvattensområden. Den hålls även i akvarium.

Hanen är olivfärgad med svart, röd och blå färgteckning, medan honan är mer dämpad i färgerna.

Floridatandkarpen som akvariefisk
Floridatandkarpen är revirhävdande och kan bete sig aggressivt mot andra fiskar i akvariet. Den lever i harem, det vill säga en hane håller ihop med flera honor. Den är en så kallad romspridare och har ingen ägg- eller yngelvård. Främst är den nattaktiv.

Som många andra akvariefiskar behöver den passande skötsel, utrymme och inredning i akvariet, liksom en näringsriktig utfodring. Floridatandkarpen är en allätare (omnivor) som gärna äter både animalisk föda och alger i släktet Bryopsis ("håralger"). I ett planterat akvarium kan den även äta akvarieväxter.

Källor
 Denna artikel är delvis baserad på en översättning från engelska Wikipedia
 Djurmagazinet: skötselråd för Floridatandkarp

Tandkarpar
Akvariefiskar


Dystonia (or dyskinesia) is a neurological movement disorder in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures. The disorder may be inherited or caused by other factors such as birth-related or other physical trauma, infection or reaction to drugs.
There appear to be higher incidents of dystonia and related movement disorders in some geographic areas (like East Texas) indicating the possibility of a contributing factor from the environment.
Symptoms vary according to the kind of dystonia involved. In most cases, dystonia tends to lead to abnormal posturing, particularly on movement. Many sufferers have continuous pain, cramping and relentless muscle spasms due to involuntary muscle movements.
Early symptoms may include loss of precision muscle coordination (sometimes first manifested in declining penmanship, frequent small injuries to the hands, dropped items and a noticeable increase in dropped or chipped dishes), cramping pain with sustained use and trembling. Significant muscle pain and cramping may result from very minor exertions like holding a book and turning pages. It may become difficult to find a comfortable position for arms and legs with even the minor exertions associated with holding arms crossed causing significant pain similar to restless leg syndrome. Affected persons may notice trembling in the diaphragm while breathing, the need to place hands in pockets, under legs while sitting or under pillows while sleeping to keep them still and to reduce pain. Trembling in the jaw may be felt and heard while lying down and the constant movement to avoid pain may result in TMJ-like symptoms and the grinding and wearing down of teeth. The voice may crack frequently or become harsh triggering frequent throat clearing and swallowing can become difficult and accompanied by painful cramping.
Direct symptoms may be accompanied by secondary effects of the continuous muscle and brain activity including disturbed sleep patterns, exhaustion, mood swings, mental stress, difficulty concentrating, blurred vision, digestive problems and short temper. People with dystonia may also become depressed and find great difficulty adapting their activities and livelihood to a progressing disability. Side affects from treatment and medications can also present challenges in normal activities.
In some cases, symptoms may progress and then plateau for years or stop progressing entirely and the progression may be delayed by treatment or adaptive lifestyle changes while forced continued use may make symptoms progress more rapidly. In others, the symptoms may progress to total disability making some of the more risky forms of treatment worth considering.
An accurate diagnosis may be difficult because of the way the disorder manifests itself. Sufferers may be diagnosed as having similar and perhaps related disorders including Parkinson's Disease, Essential Tremor (ET), Carpel Tunnel Syndrome, TMJ, Tourette's Syndrome or other neuromuscular movement disorders.
Cervical dystonia (spasmodic torticollis). This affects the muscles of the neck, causing the head to rotate to one side, to pull down towards the chest, or back, or a combination of these postures.
Blepharospasm. This affects the muscles around the eyes. The sufferer experiences rapid blinking of the eyes or even their forced closure causing effective blindness.
Oculogyric crisis. An extreme and sustained (usually) upward deviation of the eyes often with convergence causing diplopia. It is frequently associated with backwards and lateral flexion of the neck and either widely opened mouth or jaw clenching. Frequently a result of antiemetics such as the neuroleptics (e.g. prochlorperazine) or metoclopramide.
Oromandibular dystonia. This affects the muscles of the jaw and tongue, causes distortions of the mouth and tongue.
Spasmodic dysphonia/Laryngeal dystonia. This affects the muscles of the larynx, causing the voice to sound broken or reducing it to a whisper.
Focal hand dystonia (also known as writer's/musician's cramp). This affects a single muscle or small group of muscles in the hand. It interferes with activities such as writing or playing a musical instrument by causing involuntary muscular contractions. The condition is "task specific," meaning that it is generally only apparent during certain activities.
Hemidystonia. This affects an arm and a leg on one side of the body.
Dystonia must be differentiated from other diseases that cause neurological manifestations in infants.
Treatment has been limited to minimizing the symptoms of the disorder as there is yet no successful treatment for its cause. Reducing the types of movements that trigger or worsen dystonic symptoms provides some relief as does reducing stress, getting plenty of rest, moderate exercise and relaxation techniques. Various treatments focus on sedating brain functions or blocking nerve communications with the muscles via drugs, neuro-suppression or denervation. All current treatments have negative side affects and risks.
Physicians may prescribe a series of different medications on a trial-and-error basis in an effort to find a combination that is effective for a specific patient. Not all patients will respond well to the same medications. Drugs that have had positive results in some patients include anti-Parkinsons agents (Trihexyphenidyl), muscle relaxers (Valium), keppra, and beta-blockers including "off-label" uses for some blood pressure medications.
Drugs, such as anticholinergics which act as an inhibitor of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, may provide some relief. Clonazepam, an anti-seizure medicine, is also sometimes prescribed. However, for most sufferers their effects are limited and side affects like mental confusion, sedation, mood swings and short term memory loss occur.
Botulinum toxin injections into affected muscles have proved quite successful in providing some relief for around 3-6 months, depending on the kind of dystonia. Bo-Tox injections have the advantage of ready avalibility (the same form is used for cosmetic surgery) and the affects are not permanent. There is a risk of temporary paralysis of the muscles being injected or the leaking of the toxin into adjacent muscle groups causing weakness or paralysis in them. The injections have to be repeated as the effects wear off and around 15% of recipients will develop immunity to the toxin. There is a Type A and Type B toxin approved for treatment of dystonia; often those that develop resistance to Type A may be able to use Type B.
Surgery, such as the denervation of selected muscles, may also provide some relief, however, the destruction of nerves in the limbs or brain is not reversable and should only be considered in the most extreme cases. Recently, the procedure of deep brain stimulation (DBS) has proved successful in a number of cases of severe generalised dystonia.
One type of dystonia, dopa-responsive dystonia can be completely treated with regular doses of L-dopa in a form such as Sinemet (carbidopa/levodopa). Although this doesn't remove the condition, it does alleviate the symptoms most of the time.
A baclofen pump has been used to treat patients of all ages exhibiting muscle spasticity along with dystonia. The pump delivers baclofen via a catheter to the thecal space surrounding the spinal chord. The pump itself is placed in the abdomen. It can be refilled periodically by access through the skin.
Physical therapy can sometimes help with focal dystonia. A structured set of exercises are tailored to help the affected area.
This page was last edited 16:31, 9 October 2017 by Ahmed Younes. Based on work by Irfan Dotani, Rabin Bista, Vignesh Ponnusamy, Aparna Vuppala, Gloria Picoy, Varun Kumar, charlesmichaelgibson@gmail.com, Felton Severance, achirlin@perfuse.org, Lakshmi Gopalakrishnan, Navin, Cafer Zorkun, Alexandra Almonacid, Jacki Buros (bot) and Heather Mangan, wikidoc users Kiran Singh, Adeel Jamil, Alberto Plate, Stefano Giannoni, Deepika Beereddy, WikiBot and LBiller and wikidoc anonymous user SmackBot.


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I wouldn´t believe it is possible to lose weight eating really delicious food 4 times every day, but it is with Fitlap!
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Thank you so much for all these wonderful recipes and tips. The healthy lifestyle has changed my habits completely and I am much more active now. If sometimes I have slipped and eaten something unhealthy then I can immediately feel how it´s not good for me and so it is quite easy to stay on track.
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text:
Martin Smith - Player Profile
Full Name: Martin Smith
Born: August 2nd, 1993 (Inverness)
Height: 6' 1
Position: Striker
Career Totals: 42 appearances, 12 goals
2015 Ross-shire Welfare - (8) 1 - (8) 1 0.13 75.0% 0.0% 25.0%
2013 Ross-shire Welfare 8 (7) 4 8 (7) 4 0.27 73.3% 6.7% 20.0%
Totals: 25 (17)	 12
Aug 2nd, 2014 02/08/14 Cordiner Cup Final vs. Alness Athletic (H) 0 - 6
Jul 26th, 2014 26/07/14 Cordiner Cup Semi Final vs. Invergordon SC (H) 4 - 0
Jul 16th, 2014 16/07/14 League vs. Contin (A) 2 - 1
Jul 9th, 2014 09/07/14 League vs. Ross-shire Club (H) 3 - 0
Jul 5th, 2014 05/07/14 Seaboard Cup Semi Final vs. Fortrose Union (H) 0 - 1
Apr 25th, 2015 25/04/15 RSWFA League Cup 1st Round vs. Contin (H) 4 - 2
Jul 2nd, 2014 02/07/14 League vs. Invergordon SC (A) 6 - 2
Jun 14th, 2014 14/06/14 Coronation Cup Semi Final vs. Fortrose Union (H) 1 - 1
Jun 11th, 2014 11/06/14 League vs. Invergordon SC (H) 4 - 2
Apr 25th, 2015 25/04/15 RSWFA League Cup 1st Round vs. Contin (H) 4 - 2 (89')
Jul 9th, 2014 09/07/14 League vs. Ross-shire Club (H) 3 - 0 (6')
Jul 2nd, 2014 02/07/14 League vs. Invergordon SC (A) 6 - 2 (15')
Jun 14th, 2014 14/06/14 Coronation Cup Semi Final vs. Fortrose Union (H) 1 - 1 (29')
Jun 11th, 2014 11/06/14 League vs. Invergordon SC (H) 4 - 2 (10')
Jun 4th, 2014 04/06/14 League vs. Ross-shire Club (A) 2 - 2 (55')
May 21st, 2014 21/05/14 League vs. Fortrose Union (A) 1 - 2 (43')
Apr 26th, 2014 26/04/14 RSWFA League Cup 1st Round vs. Balintore (H) 2 - 4 (41')
Jul 6th, 2013 06/07/13 Seaboard Cup Semi Final vs. Alness Athletic (H) 8 - 0 (-)
Jun 8th, 2013 08/06/13 Coronation Cup 1st Round vs. Alness Athletic (A) 1 - 0 (112')
May 22nd, 2013 22/05/13 League vs. Cromarty (A) 1 - 1 (28')
May 18th, 2013 18/05/13 Pattisons' Challenge Cup 1st Round vs. Balintore (A) 3 - 1 (66')
Aug 1st, 2015 01/08/15 Cordiner Cup Final vs. Dingwall (N) 3 - 0 (sub)
Jul 24th, 2015 24/07/15 Cordiner Cup Semi Final vs. Alness United (H) 7 - 0 (sub)
Jul 15th, 2015 15/07/15 League vs. Alness United (A) 3 - 0 (sub)
Jul 8th, 2015 08/07/15 League vs. Balintore (H) 5 - 2 (sub)
Jul 1st, 2015 01/07/15 League vs. Contin (A) 3 - 6 (sub)
Jun 13th, 2015 13/06/15 Coronation Cup Semi Final vs. Alness United (H) 1 - 2 (sub)
May 30th, 2015 30/05/15 Coronation Cup 1st Round vs. Invergordon SC (H) 6 - 2 (sub)
Apr 25th, 2015 25/04/15 RSWFA League Cup 1st Round vs. Contin (H) 4 - 2 (sub)
Jun 21st, 2014 21/06/14 Coronation Cup Final vs. Alness Athletic (N) 0 - 3
Jun 18th, 2014 18/06/14 League vs. Dornoch City (A) 4 - 0
Jun 7th, 2014 07/06/14 Coronation Cup 1st Round vs. Invergordon SC (H) 8 - 1
Jun 4th, 2014 04/06/14 League vs. Ross-shire Club (A) 2 - 2
May 21st, 2014 21/05/14 League vs. Fortrose Union (A) 1 - 2
May 17th, 2014 17/05/14 Pattisons' Challenge Cup 1st Round vs. Balintore (H) 0 - 1
May 14th, 2014 14/05/14 League vs. Contin (H) 3 - 1
May 7th, 2014 07/05/14 League vs. Balintore (A) 2 - 2 (sub)
Apr 30th, 2014 30/04/14 League vs. Dornoch City (H) 0 - 0
Apr 26th, 2014 26/04/14 RSWFA League Cup 1st Round vs. Balintore (H) 2 - 4
Jul 27th, 2013 27/07/13 Cordiner Cup Semi Final vs. Balintore (H) 4 - 1
Jul 13th, 2013 13/07/13 Seaboard Cup Final vs. Balintore (N) 1 - 2 (sub)
Jul 10th, 2013 10/07/13 League vs. Cromarty (H) 2 - 3
Jul 6th, 2013 06/07/13 Seaboard Cup Semi Final vs. Alness Athletic (H) 8 - 0
Jun 29th, 2013 29/06/13 Seaboard Cup 1st Round vs. Cromarty (A) 3 - 1 (sub)
Jun 22nd, 2013 22/06/13 Coronation Cup Final vs. Fortrose Union (N) 1 - 0 (sub)
Jun 19th, 2013 19/06/13 League vs. Balintore (A) 5 - 0 (sub)
Jun 15th, 2013 15/06/13 Coronation Cup Semi Final vs. Invergordon SC (H) 3 - 1 (sub)
Jun 12th, 2013 12/06/13 League vs. Alness Athletic (H) 2 - 1
Jun 8th, 2013 08/06/13 Coronation Cup 1st Round vs. Alness Athletic (A) 1 - 0
May 29th, 2013 29/05/13 League vs. Fortrose Union (H) 4 - 2 (sub)
May 25th, 2013 25/05/13 Pattisons' Challenge Cup Semi Final vs. Alness Athletic (A) 1 - 5
May 22nd, 2013 22/05/13 League vs. Cromarty (A) 1 - 1
May 18th, 2013 18/05/13 Pattisons' Challenge Cup 1st Round vs. Balintore (A) 3 - 1 (sub)
May 15th, 2013 15/05/13 League vs. Ross-shire Club (H) 1 - 0


text:
João Batista Primoli (Milão, 10 de outubro de 1673  Candelaria, 11 de setembro de 1747) foi um sacerdote jesuíta e arquiteto italiano ativo no sul da América do Sul durante a era colonial.

Segundo Athos Damasceno ele foi o mais importante arquiteto das missões ibero-americanas, sendo tido como autor da igreja de São Miguel, hoje a maior relíquia missioneira em terras do Brasil, e declarada Patrimônio da Humanidade pela UNESCO.

Também consta ter sido o autor do edifício do colégio anexo àquela igreja, e sua presença é assinalada em diversas outras reduções da região e mesmo em Buenos Aires e Córdoba, na Argentina. Foi ainda autor da igreja da redução de Trinidad e de Concepción, e de outras mais.

Sua atuação foi louvada por seu confrade o padre Carlos Gervasioni, em carta de 9 de julho de 1729, nos seguintes termos: "Este é um irmão incomparável, infatigável. Ele é o arquiteto, o mestre, o pedreiro da obra. (...) Este irmão construiu a Catedral de Córdoba, no Tucumán, a nossa igreja daquele colégio, a dos Padres Reformados de São Francisco aqui em Buenos Aires, a dos Padres da Mercê, que é maior e mais majestosa que a nossa; e anda sempre ocupado aqui e acolá, a ver, a examinar, a levantar planos...".

Morreu na redução de Candelaria (Argentina) em 11 de setembro de 1747.

 Damasceno, Athos. Artes Plásticas no Rio Grande do Sul. Porto Alegre: Globo, 1970. pp. 10–13.

Ver também
Missões
Reduções no Paraguai e adjacências

Arquitetos da Itália
Joao Batista Primoli
Arquitetos da Argentina
Missões jesuíticas
Jesuítas da Itália
Naturais de Milão
Arquitetos coloniais do Brasil
Viajantes do Brasil


text:
byFadehan Emmanuel
Modulation is a process which involves changing one or more signal carrier parameters based on the current values of the message signal.
A message signal is a signal which is transmitted for communication, and a carrier signal is a high-frequency signal which has no data but which is used for long distance transmission.
There are several modulation techniques which are classified according to the type of modulation used. Among all these, the digital modulation technique is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a digital display of an analogue signal that samples the amplitude of an analogue signal at regular intervals. The sampled analogue data is modified and then represented by binary data.
PCM requires an exact clock. The number of samples per second, which ranges from 8,000 to 192,000, is typically several times the maximum frequency of the analogue waveform in Hertz (Hz), or cycles per second, ranging from 8 to 192 kHz.
The word pulse refers to the pulses located on transmission lines, which are a natural consequence of two other analogue methods developed almost simultaneously: pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation, where each uses pulses of a discrete signal of different widths or positions.
Otherwise, PCM bears little resemblance to these other forms of signal coding. These methodologies were introduced in the United States in the early 1960s when telephone companies began converting voice to digital signals to enhance transmission between cities.
Each pattern in PCM is quantized, approximating an extensive set of possible values to a relatively small set of values, which can be integers or even discrete symbols. No matter how complex, all analogue data can be digitized. This includes analogue data such as general videos, sound, telemetry, and virtual reality.
PCM data is raw digital audio samples. Audio files in formats like MP3 and AAC are first converted to PCM data. The PCM data is then converted to analogue speaker signals.
READ: 10 Best Sites Like Pinterest
Post-processing of digital signal processors can create many data streams. These streams, in turn, can be multiplexed into more massive data streams which are transmitted very quickly over long distances by processes such as time-division multiplexing, frequency division multiplexing, etc. TDM is used more because of its natural compatibility with digital communication and lower bandwidth requirements.
Once these data streams reach their destination, they are demultiplexed, redistributed into individual data streams, and demodulated, with the modulation procedure being applied in reverse to recreate the original binary numbers.
They are then processed to restore the original analogue waveform. In the process of changing from one sampling period to another, the signal receives significant high-frequency energy.
Analogue filters are used to equalize the signal and remove these unwanted frequencies, called alias frequencies. Depending on the requirement for accurate output signals, these analogue filters may or may not be required.
How PCM Works?
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) devices receive analogue signals with continuously varying voltages and quantize these signals into respective voltages sampled at regular time intervals, typically 8000 times per second, each sample having 8 bits.
This allows a total transfer rate of 64 Kbps, as in digital telephone communication with an Integrated Digital Network Service (ISDN). The result of this quantization procedure is a series of discrete voltages over time.
The voltage levels correspond to powers of 2 and represent a series of binary numbers, so the output of the PCM device is essentially a binary number.
A typical PCM device consists of a sample-and-hold circuit that samples an analogue voltage signal and holds it long enough for the analogue-to-digital converter to convert it to a digital (binary) format.
A single device with associated software that can also perform analogue to digital conversion and vice versa is known as a codec or encoder/decoder.
READ: 20 Different Types of Resistors
Processing and Coding
Some forms of PCM integrate signal processing with coding. Previous versions of these systems applied analogue domain processing as part of the analogue-to-digital process; the newest implementations do so in the digital domain.
These simple techniques are largely obsolete by modern transform-based sound compression techniques, such as Modified Discrete Cosine Transform (MDCT) coding.
Linear PCM (LPCM) is a linear quantization PCM.
Differential PCM (DPCM) encodes PCM values as the difference between the current value and the expected value. The algorithm predicts the next sample based on the previous samples, and the encoder only stores the differentiation between this projection and the actual value. If the projection is reasonable, less bits can be used to represent the same information. For audio, this type of encoding decreases the number of bits required per sample by about 25% compared to PCM.
Adaptive DPCM (ADPCM) is a variation of DPCM that changes the size of the quantization steps to allow further reduction in the bandwidth required for a given signal-to-noise ratio.
Delta modulation is a form of DPCM which uses one bit per sample to indicate whether the signal is increasing or decreasing from the previous sample.
In telephony, the standard audio signal for a telephone call is encoded at 8,000 samples per second, 8 bits each, resulting in a 64 kbit / s digital signal called DS0.
The default signal compression encoding on DS0 is PCM -law (mu-law) (North America and Japan) or A-law PCM (Europe and most other countries in the world).
These are logarithmic compression systems in which a 12-bit or 13-bit linear PCM sample number is mapped to an 8-bit value. The international standard G.711 describes this system.
When circuit costs are high, and the loss of voice quality is acceptable, it sometimes makes sense to compress the voice signal further. The ADPCM algorithm is used to map a series of 8-bit -law or PCM A-law samples into a series of 4-bit ADPCM samples.
READ: How Do Mechanical Keyboards Work?
In this manner, the capacity of the line is doubled. The technique is described in detail in the G.726 standard.
Audio coding formats and audio codecs have been developed to achieve higher compression. Some of these techniques are standardized and patented.
Advanced compression techniques, such as MDCT and Linear Predictive Coding (LPC), are widely used today in mobile phones, voice over IP (VoIP) and broadcast media.
The word pulse in the term Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) refers to "pulses" located on a transmission line.
This may be a reasonable consequence of the fact that this technique was developed in conjunction with two analogue methods, pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation, in which the encoded data is represented by discrete signal pulses of variable width or position, respectively.
In this regard, PCM bears little resemblance to these other forms of signal coding, except that they can all be used in time-division multiplexing, and PCM code numbers are represented as electrical pulses.
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) is a method used to represent sampled analogue signals digitally. It is a standard form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony, and other digital audio applications.
In the PCM stream, the amplitude of the analogue signal is regularly sampled at uniform intervals, and each sample is quantized to the closest value in the range of digital steps.
The PCM sequence has two basic properties that determine the fidelity of the chain to the original analogue signal: the sample rate, which is the number of times per second of sampling; and bit depth, which ascertain the number of possible digital values that can be used to represent each sample.
About the Author Fadehan Emmanuel 100 posts
Moore is an associate contributor of Xplorion. Got a NEWS TIP related to this story or to anything else in the world of big tech? Please e-mail him: mooreplug[at]gmail.com. You can also connect with him via the connections below the box.
fadehanemmanuel@gmail.com
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