We are here for your safety!
Asper Norway AS is a shipping and Management company, based in Fosnavåg in Herøy municipality in western Norway. The company aims to enter long term contracts around the operation of vessels in the relevant field the company is experienced in.


Back when it first arrived at the Geneva Motor Show in 2016, the Morgan EV3 electric three-wheeler looked good with its streamlined carbon fiber body, shiny brass battery cooling fins, and offset headlight. But after the production date of late 2016 became late 2018, now we have news via Autocar that the EV3 is being shelved. Sad.
Noamaan Siddiqui said the deal had failed "for a number of contractual reasons", while declaring that prototypes his company had built were "very promising".
The specs for the car shown at the Geneva Motor Show back in 2016 included a 62 horsepower motor that received current from a 20 kWh lithium-ion battery, and that offered an overall range of 150 miles.
But in late 2017, when Morgan began its partnership with Frazer-Nash (which is known for its involvement with London's all-electric Metrocab taxi), some of those specs changed. The result was an "all-new, more robust architecture" with a stiffer chassis, as well as more motor torque. Battery capacity went up a single kilowatt-hour to 21 kWh, and motor power dropped about six ponies to 56 HP. Range also dropped 30 miles to 120 miles.
As long as it looks somewhat like the machine above after this "reevaluation," and makes it to production before the end of this millennium, I'll be happy.


The monthly fundraising event, Mondays Dark with Mark Shunock kicked off the New Year with the January edition that took place on Monday evening, January 25 inside Vinyl at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino. This month's chosen charity was the The Injured Police Officers Fund (IPOF) which helps injured police officers and the families of those officers killed in the line of duty, who are often in situations where insurance and other services fall short in providing the help they need.
The theme for the entertainment filled evening was "The Music from 'Anchorman', the 2004 hit movie comedy starring Will Ferrell as the lead character, Ron Burgundy.
Singers Jassen Allen and Phillip Drennen (The Backup Boys) opened the show singing "She's Gone". Among the list of other amazing performers that lent their time and talent for the worthy cause included: John Celentano with 'Ride Captain Ride'; the country quartet, Ghostlight performed 'Sunshine Go Away'; Autumn Belanger-Madill sang 'Treat Her Like A lady'; Shawn Perucca sang 'That Lady'; Travis Cloer performed 'Groovy Situation'; Jessenia Paz gave her rendition of 'Use Me'; Cheryl Daro sang 'Carry On My Wayward Son'; three members of Mo5aic were joined by Mark Shunock to perform 'Afternoon Delight'; and Mark Shunock sang a solo of 'Help Yourself'. Comedian Geechy Guy was on hand with a hilarious stand up routine of "joke grenades" and burlesque queen Lou Lou D'Vil performed a provocative exotic dance number. And as always, musical director Kenny Davidsen and the Mondays Dark Band provided back up.
As part of the evening's festivities, famed Disney artist James C. Mulligan painted a Marilyn Monroe portrait on stage and auctioned it and a Star Wars: The Force Awakens original painting to raise an additional $1500 for the IPOF..
In two years of monthly charity events, Mondays Dark has raised about $250,000 to support local charitable organizations. All proceeds from the evening's fundraising event, including ticket sales and a silent auction, go to the IPOF.


Discussion in 'Hardware Discussion & Support' started by Trusteft, Jan 25, 2019.
For reasons uknown, I haven't really dealt with defragging my drives in ...many years.
Anyway, I just decided to run it for one of my external drives.
I got this window, part of it I am showing.
I was surprised to see it says it runs automatically on my C and D drives, both of which are ssds.
I am pretty sure I never enabled that. Does Windows 8.1 actually defrag the SSDs?
Or does it perform some other type of optimization?
I think that it performs trim and maybe something else SSD specific and not actual defragmentation. At least I believe that I've read that in some discussion. And if memory serves me well, if you try to run defrag on an SSD manually, it should finish almost immediately (much faster than it could defragment a drive, SSD or not).
It detects it as solidstate, even windows 7 since SP1... should implement a Solid state detection provided the performance metric is run within it at least once after an SSD is installed or if the ssd was installed and windows was installed to it clean.
It'll perform general trim commands as IvanV stated, and with newer versions of windows, there are additional garbage collection codes that can be ran if the drive supports it.


CHRISTOPHER CRAIG HOUSTON and JAMES RICHARD HOUSTON have been appointed Co-Personal Representatives of the Estate of GLORIA ANN HOUSTON, deceased. All persons having claims against this estate are required to present their claims within two months after the date of the first publication of this Notice or the claims will be forever barred. Claims must be presented either to the Co-Personal Representatives at c/o P. O. Box 25051, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87125, or filed with the District Court of Bernalillo County, New Mexico.


text:
Down South, Southern Rap oder Dirty South ist ein Subgenre des Hip-Hop. Die Bezeichnung stellt eine Analogie zu Westcoast-Rap oder Eastcoast-Rap dar, da Down South ebenso wie die Musik der beiden Küsten eigene stilistische Merkmale aufweist. Der Begriff "Dirty South" geht auf ein gleichnamiges Lied der Gruppe Goodie Mob von ihrem Debüt-Album Soul Food zurück.

Beschreibung
Typisch für den Hip-Hop aus dem Süden sind Synthesizer-lastige Produktionen, aber auch Soul- und Funkeinflüsse. Er unterscheidet sich allgemein stark vom Sampling-geprägten Sound der Ostküste, weist aber Parallelen zum G-Funk der Westküste auf, dem er auch von den Inhalten näher steht.

Der Down South zeichnet sich immer wieder durch Innovationen aus, die die Grenzen des Genres Hip-Hop überschreiten und eigenständige Musikrichtungen hervorbringen: So kreierte die Rapformation 2 Live Crew schon Ende der 1980er Jahre den Miami Bass; Anfang der 1990er wurde der Crunk entwickelt, der aber erst Anfang der 2000er durch den US-Rapper Lil Jon populär wurde und Mitte der 1990er Jahre kam durch DJ Screw die Technik des chopping & screwing auf.

Das exzessive Zurschaustellen des eigenen Reichtums durch das Tragen von überdimensioniertem Schmuck – dem Bling-Bling – hat ebenfalls seine Ursprünge in der Rapszene des Down South. Als ursprünglicher Stammvater dieses Outfits gilt der ehemals in Memphis ansässige Soul-Musiker Isaac Hayes.

Künstler
 Lil Wayne
 2 Chainz
 Boosie Badazz
 21 Savage
 Bubba Sparxxx
 B.o.B
 Chamillionaire
 Flo Rida
 French Montana
 Three 6 Mafia
 T.I.
 Waka Flocka Flame
 Paul Wall
 Pimp C
 Nelly
 Birdman
 Ludacris
 Mystikal
 Young Buck
 Trina
 Outkast
 Young Thug
 Rich Homie Quan
 Travis Scott
 8Ball & MJG
 Juvenile
 Mike Jones
 $uicideboy$

Die Szene
Die größten Ballungsgebiete des Südstaatenraps sind New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Houston und Miami.

Subgenres
 Trap
 Crunk
 Miami Bass
 Screw

Siehe auch
 Pen & Pixel

Hip-Hop-Musiksubgenre
Südstaaten

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Inhale Exhale: A 40-Day Journey Breathing in Grace and Living Out Hope (Hardcover)
By Mercyme, Robert Noland (With)
A 40-day devotional experience inspired by MercyMe's best-selling album, inhale (exhale) follows the sixteen-track record to create a path for readers to breathe in and absorb God's grace in their lives.
Inspired by MercyMe's album of the same name, inhale (exhale): A 40-Day Journey Breathing in Grace and Living Out Hope follows the sixteen-track record to create a path for readers to breathe in and absorb what God can do, and then release His spirit of grace by offering hope in the world.
The heart of this devotional is found in two days of entries, an "inhale" day and an "exhale" day, designed to coincide with each song as readers work their way through the album and devotional. Each entry ties to a particular song and couples those thoughts and lyrics with scripture passages, application questions, meditative verses, prayers, and space to journal. These entries are:
On Our Way (Ft. Sam Wesley)
So Yesterday
A Little Love (Ft. Gary LeVox)
Bright Side of Broken
Let Yourself Be Loved
Hurry Up and Wait
Brand New (Ft. Gloria Gaynor)
Uh, Oh (Here I Go)
The Moment
Then Christ Came (Demo)
Say I Won't
Marking the twentieth anniversary of the band, after being named Billboard's Top Christian Artist of the Decade from 2010-2020, coupled with the breakout success of the 2018 film I Can Only Imagine, songwriter and lead singer Bart Millard said, "Going to these dark places that you have to go to write, I didn't know how to make music that wasn't connected to something painful, especially when I associated that with the songs that mean the most to me. It's been hard to go to that place, but I love the results when I do. For the first time, with inhale (exhale) it was more about other people's stories than mine. I was writing out of something that I witnessed more than I experienced myself."
This devotional helps readers to reflect on themes like:
Letting go of the past
Allowing God to teach you how to love yourself
Believing that when we are broken, hope is never far behind
Wrestling honestly in the battle between faith and doubt
Trusting Jesus through the chaos in this crazy world
Readers will be challenged and encouraged on this 40-day journey with MercyMe as they meet with God, accepting His invitation to breathe in grace and live out hope.
MercyMe is a multi-platinum selling contemporary Christian band, with numerous GRAMMY nominations, American Music Awards, a Billboard Music Award, multiple GMA Dove Awards and K-LOVE Fan Awards, and over 9 million albums sold worldwide. Their landmark song "I Can Only Imagine," written by lead singer Bart Millard after losing his father to cancer, was the first digital single in Christian music history to be certified platinum, and now 4x platinum. The song led to a breakout feature film and Millard's best-selling book by the same name. In 2009, Billboard named MercyMe's Word Of God Speak the No. 1 Song of the Decade and the group the No. 1 Artist of the Decade in both the Christian Songs and Christian AC Songs categories. The group has sold out venues throughout the US and Canada, including Radio City Music Hall and Red Rocks Amphitheater. MercyMe's 2017 album, Lifer, went No. 1 on Christian Soundscan and No. 10 on the Billboard Top 200 overall chart during its first week. Originally formed in 1994 in Greenville, Texas, the beloved band's storied career speaks to the endurance of the members and the timelessness of their music. inhale (exhale) is MercyMe's first book as a band. Robert Noland spent ten years as a touring musician, songwriter, and producer in Christian music and then twenty years running a para-church ministry where he first began writing Christian resources. Since 2014, he has become an author, writer, and creative consultant based outside of Franklin, Tennessee. Robert worked with Bart Millard on his best-selling memoir, I Can Only Imagine. To learn more about Robert's work, visit RobertNoland.com.
Publisher: K-LOVE
Publication Date: October 26th, 2021
Christian Living - Devotional

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


We as the human species unfairly place human emotions on dogs. Have you ever heard someone say or perhaps you've caught yourself saying, "My dog knows he did wrong", or how about this, "My dog knows he's guilty", or better yet "My dog did that just to spite me because he's mad at me." I'm here to tell you, dogs don't think like that. What we're doing is placing human emotions on our dogs to explain their behavior.
Dogs respond in the moment to their physical surroundings, available resources, and social pressures. They don't sit there and think, "you know, I didn't like it when Dad/Mom yelled at me earlier today so I'm going to rip out their cable line attached to the house and I'm going to do it when they least expect it. I'll show them!" Dogs just don't think like that. Although we all have very smart dogs, they don't sit there and think out plans of revenge.
What's really happening is dogs are opportunists looking for opportunities to take, possess, and/or guard resources. In the above example with the cable wire, it's much simpler behavior that's being expressed than an outrageous act of revenge. The dog has too much unsupervised time outside with fun toys available for him to amuse himself with. Trust me, I know this personally. I looked out the window one day to find my young German Shepherd ripping out my professional grade landscape edging. I'm here to tell ya, my dog Zena lived a pampered dog's life with plenty of food, exercise, and massages. There wasn't anything that she could possibly be upset about with me. In fact, she adored me so much I sometimes question if she knew she was a dog. But let's stick to one topic for discussion here.
In a dog's mind, Zena found the largest tug toy there was, 20 feet of edging material. And, better yet this toy was hidden treasure since it was partly buried in the ground. What an adventure it must've been for her.
It reminded me of the time when my brother and I were young kids digging a hole to visit China. Jimmy, as I called him back then, was looking down into our huge hole when I raised the shovel to take out another load of dirt. We were positive China would soon appear. Unfortunately, the shovel connected with the bridge of my brother's nose. To this day, he still reminds me of having scarred him since boyhood. I just wish he would understand that at age 5, I didn't know one should first go to Engineering school prior to constructing a tunnel. I'm happy to report though, while he may not have forgotten that tragic expedition experience, he has since forgiven me. Thank you Jim.
But let's go back to Zena. She was expressing the zest for life and adventure as my brother and I had in our earlier days. She was having the time of her life and I couldn't help but marvel at her commitment to remove that toy from the ground. She was tugging with all her might on one end of the edging material having successfully exposed 15 feet of it. With another tug or two, she certainly would remove the remaining 5 feet still buried in the ground. If I hadn't spent so much time and sweat installing that "tug toy", I think I would have found myself cheering her on. But instead, it really wasn't that funny when I thought about the work it would take to replace what she had removed.
Okay so what did I do? Well I certainly didn't replace that edging where she could perform another search and destroy mission time and time again. My mistake was failing to anticipate her commitment and resolve to amuse herself in my absence. And, while the edging material was there prior to her coming into my life, I couldn't expect her to make this extirpation. That would be placing a human emotion on her. Instead, I used the edging material in another part of my landscape that isn't accessible to her and I purchased a large jolly ball (a tough but still flexible rubber ball). She loved to pounce on that ball, carry it around and throw it just so she could chase it again. And, that one ball which seemed expensive at the time (approximately $24.00) was a drop in the bucket. It certainly saved me much more money, sweat and tears from having other landscape objects destroyed.
Zena was being a dog operating in the moment, which is one of the reasons I loved her so much. In a world that we find ourselves pondering the motive behind another person's behavior towards us; it's reassuring to know my dog was perfect at being a dog. Instead of blaming her for finding a truly wonderful tug toy, I found her a new appropriate toy to occupy her time and energy.
So the next time you find yourself considering your dog's unacceptable behavior as being a well planned out and executed act of revenge consider the following question. When my dog is being "good", did he/she sit there and think "you know its my owner's birthday tomorrow, so I am going to be extra nice because I love them so and this is what they would want me to do?" I'm sorry to inform you they don't have this forethought either. Instead, they are fun loving opportunists thinking and acting in the moment.
It's true that dogs have and express emotions such as happiness, being sad, etc. but I hope this helps to reformat the way we unfairly place human emotions such as guilt and revenge on our dogs. We should instead recognize and honor their true dog behavior.
This entry was posted in Dog Training Tips, Uncategorized and tagged dog behavior, dog emotions, dog training. Bookmark the permalink.


text:
(51 - 72 of 72)
Temporal variation and succession in an algal-dominated high intertidal assemblage,
We determined whether temporal variation and succession were similar among sites with similar species composition by sampling unmanipulated and cleared plots in a high intertidal assemblage dominated by Endocladia muricata and Mastocarpus papillatus. Sampling was done for 6 years at six sites spanning over 4° of latitude in California. Ten 1 × 2-m permanent plots were chosen in the central portion of the assemblage at each site. Four of these served as unmanipulated controls, three were cleared (scraped and burned) in the spring of 1985, and three were cleared in the fall of 1985. The cover of sessile and density of motile species were determined by subsampling within the plots from 1985 until 1991. Recovery of the clearings was determined by their similarity to the controls. The algae E. muricata, M. papillatus, and Fucus gardneri, and the barnacle Balanus glandula, were the most abundant sessile organisms in the control plots, although the latter never exceeded 12% cover at any site. The grazing gastropods Littorina scutulata/plena, various limpets, and Tegula funebralis were the most common mobile organisms. The species composition of the common species remained constant in the control plots over the study period and there were few large changes in relative abundance. Significant seasonal variation was detected in 11 species but variation was commonly site-specific. Ephemeral algae were abundant during early succession at only two of the six sites, and barnacle cover was low (< 15% cover) at four sites and moderate (15-50% cover) at the remaining two throughout succession. Recovery rate varied considerably among sites and between times of clearing (1-10%/month). Correlations between ephemeral algae and grazer abundance, and between these variables and recovery rate were not significant. The effects of grazers on recovery rate were only evident at one site where they appeared to reduce an initially high cover of ephemeral algae and delay the establishment of perennials. Some of the largest differences in recovery rate were between clearing times, associated with differences in the phenology of the dominant perennial algae. In spite of these differences, most plots recovered by the end of the study period. These results indicate that the assemblages in the control plots at each site were relatively stable and, while successional pathways and processes varied, the assemblage at most sites still recovered. Current models, based largely on biological interactions, that attempt to explain within assemblage structure and succession were not broadly applicable. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved., Cited By (since 1996):31, Seaweeds, CODEN: JEMBA, ,
Foster, Nigg, Kiguchi, Hardin, Pearse
Regulation of algal community development in a Macrocystis pyrifera forest
Cited By (since 1996):46, The effects of small and large-scale roughness, overstory development, competition for space with sessile animals, and grazing on algal community development in a subtidal Macrocystis pyrifera forest were examined using specially prepared concrete blocks as substrata. Variation in small-scale roughness (crevices and grooves in the order of 0.1 to 3 mm width and depth) had no significant effects on community composition. However, M. pyrifera colonization, algal diversity, and sessile animal biomass were higher near the upper horizontal edges of blocks and concrete prisms. This "edge" effect may result from a combination of increased spore and larval settlement and enhanced growth of plants and animals associated with the turbulent eddies formed around these obstructions. Natural and experimentally produced variations in the algal overstory demonstrated that the presence of an overstory can reduce algal diversity and cover beneath. Caging experiments suggest that predatory fishes and sea-stars indirectly affect the algal community by removing sessile animals (primarily bryozoans) which compete with the algae for space. The exclusion of grazers resulted in increased growth of Gigartina spp. Selective grazing on this genus may account for its reduced abundance in the study area.
Spatial variation in kelp forest communities along the Big Sur coast of central California, USA,
Giant kelp [Macrocystis pyrifera (Linnaeus) C. Agardh] forests are commonly called a community, but their composition varies among sites and depths. While numerous studies mention this variation and it is the descriptive basis for general models of kelp community structure, it has rarely been quantitatively assessed. We described kelp forest structure among four depths (6, 9, 12, and 15 m) at nine sites along 80 km of the relatively pristine Big Sur coast of California. Density and cover of common organisms were assessed in replicate quadrats at each depth in each site. Macrocystis pyrifera formed a surface canopy at eight sites, and bull kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana (Mertens) Postels & Ruprecht, at one site. The understory kelps Pterygophora californica Ruprecht and Laminaria setchellii P.C. Silva and the bat star Asterina miniata Brandt were the most abundant organisms counted as individuals. Geniculate and nongeniculate coralline algae and encrusting invertebrates had the highest cover. Abundances of giant kelp and the two understory kelps, and sessile invertebrates were significantly different among sites, and differences in sessile invertebrate abundance suggest two general 'types' of kelp forests in the region; one with abundant understory kelps and coralline algae and the other with an understory dominated by sessile invertebrates. Among the eight abundant taxa only the abundance of the two types of coralline algae varied significantly among depths when all sites were combined. Cluster analyses indicated two depth zones within these forests. © 2001 Adac/Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS., Cited By (since 1996):12, Seaweeds, CODEN: CRALD, ,
Foster, Vanblaricom
Bryoliths (Bryozoa) in the Gulf of California,
Populations of Diaperoforma californica (d'Orbigny) bryoliths were discovered in rhodolith beds, a sand habitat, and on a cobble bottom in the Gulf of California, Mexico, the first known observation of a modern free-living cyclostome bryozoan in the Northern Hemisphere. Densities ranged from a mean of 9.2 to 22.6 individuals/0.06 m 2. Bryoliths from the deepest site were irregularly shaped and had the highest variation in shape; those from shallow sites were spheroidal. Water motion and bioturbation move the bryoliths and may determine their morphology. Schizomavella robertsonae (Soule, Soule & Chaney) bryoliths also occurred occasionally in one rhodolith bed sampled. Fossilized bryolith specimens of the cyclostome Diaperoforma californica (d'Orbigny) were found in a Pleistocene deposit near modern habitats. © 2006 by University of Hawai'i Press All rights reserved., Cited By (since 1996):6, Invertebrates, ,
James, Foster, O'Sullivan
Out of the channel: the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Prince William Sound (book review),
Growth and reproduction of Dictyota binghamiae J. G. Agardh,
Foster, Neushul, Chi
To clean or not to clean: The rationale, methods, and consequences of removing oil from temperate shores,
Foster, Tarpley, Dearn
Population dynamics of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera along a wave exposure gradient,
Sporophyte recruitment, holdfast growth, and mortality of giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera were measured seasonally on permanent transects at 3 sites (protected, intermediate, and exposed) along a wave exposure gradient on the Monterey Peninsula, central California (USA) between 1986 and 1991. The constant presence of cold, nutrient-rich water and the relative absence of other kelps and large grazers allowed the dynamics of M. pyrifera populations to be examined under conditions in which wave exposure was highly variable and influences of other abiotic and biotic factors were minimized. Recovery of M. pyrifera populations from decreased adult density (presumably due to storm-induced mortality; adult density was negatively correlated with storm activity) was a 2-stage process requiring the establishment of juvenile populations and conditions suitable for juvenile growth to adult size. Sporophyte recruitment was negatively correlated with M. pyrifera canopy cover, and thus appeared to be related to irradiance. Recruitment was low and continuous under a temporally stable M pyrifera canopy at the protected site. At the intermediate and exposed sites, canopy cover was more variable, canopy loss was greater, and durations of low canopy cover were longer than at the protected site, resulting in episodic sporophyte recruitment. These distinct patterns in sporophyte recruitment resulted in continuous juvenile populations at the protected site and intermittent juvenile populations at the intermediate and exposed sites. Growth of juveniles to adult size required additional irradiance probably due to greater light requirements for juvenile growth than for sporophyte recruitment. We observed that juveniles grew to adult size when canopy cover was low and adults were below a threshold density estimated at ~10 plants 100 m-2, but juveniles also occasionally grew to adult size following periods of low canopy cover only. Episodic sporophyte recruitment at the intermediate and exposed sites resulted in decreased coincidence of the 2 recovery stages; adult densities were often decreased below threshold prior to the establishment of juvenile populations. Recovery time, that required by populations to return to densities above threshold, was equal to the time lag between occurrence of the 2 recovery stages and was therefore greatest at the more exposed sites. Comparisons between central and southern California M. pyrifera populations suggest that by altering recovery time, variable frequency and magnitude of storm disturbance may result in different periodicities of adult population cycles., Cited By (since 1996):58, CODEN: MESED, ,
Graham, Harrold, Lisin, Light, Watanabe, Foster
Organization of macroalgal assemblages in the Northeast Pacific: The assumption of homogeneity and the illusion of generality,
Evidence for the geographic generality of the causes of intertidal zonation and the indirect effects of a 'keystone' predator, the sea otter, on subtidal kelp assemblages was examined. Most research on intertidal algal assemblages has been done at a few protected sites where zonation is distinct. Surveys of wave-exposed intertidal sites in central and northern California show that assemblage structure is highly variable. This indicates that our present understanding of assemblage organization, including the effects of mussel-algal interactions, may not be widely applicable. Surveys of kelp forest habitat along the entire coast of California suggest that deforestation by sea urchins is uncommon in the absence of sea otters. These examples indicate that the generality of commonly accepted causes of algal assemblage structure in the Northeast Pacific may be an illusion based on assumptions of environmental homogeneity. © 1990 Kluwer Academic Publishers., Cited By (since 1996):118, CODEN: HYDRB, ,
The maintenance of community structure in a central California giant kelp forest,
, , , The relative effects of sea urchin grazing and physical disturbance on community structure in a Macrocystis pyrifera (L.) C.A. Agardh forest were examined experimentally. Sea urchins, Strongylocentrotusfranciscanus (Agassiz), were removed from shallow (8.5 m) and deep water (11.5 m) sites and subsequent changes in the algal and invertebrate populations followed relative to unmanipulated areas for over 12 months. Unusually high water motion also occurred during the experiment, allowing a comparison of grazing and storm effects. The results indicate that algal species composition, abundance, and distribution are strongly influenced by storm-related water motion by (1) initially reducing algal cover, especially the kelp canopy, (2) providing space for recruitment via abrasion and removal of portions of the substratum, and (3) causing apparent clumping of sea urchins in protected areas. Sea urchins dispersed after the storms, and there was a six-fold increase in algal cover, especially of the brown alga Desmarestia ligulata var. ligulata (Lightf.) Lamour. However, canopy-forming brown algal cover was generally higher and remained higher in urchin removal sites, while understory red algal cover was generally higher and remained higher in control sites. Other studies have suggested the sea otter—sea urchin—algae interaction as most important in structuring nearshore kelp communities in the North Pacific. Although changes in community structure related to sea otter predation on sea urchins may vary, our results suggest they will be less important than seasonal and year-to-year changes associated with storms in this study area., ,
Cowen, Agegian, Foster
Top-down vs. bottom-up effects in kelp forests,
Cited By (since 1996):6, Seaweeds, CODEN: SCIEA, , ,
Foster, Edwards, Reed, Schiel, Zimmerman
The effects of harvesting Macrocystis pyrifera on the algal assemblage in a giant kelp forest,
Cited By (since 1996):8, Seaweeds, CODEN: HYDRB, , ,
Kimura, Foster
The use of substratum manipulations in field studies of seaweed colonization and growth,
Natural and artificial surfaces have been used to investigate marine fouling, succession, and pollution; for experiments on factors affecting the insitu colonization and growth of seaweeds; and for growing large quantities of commerically important species. The use of field clearings and artificial substrata, and their advantages and disadvantages in small-scale studies and commercial production are discussed. Substratum toxicity, color, roughness, large-scale heterogeniety, and water-holding capacity may affect settlement and growth, and must be considered when using artificial materials. Plates, ropes, and other substrata require support structures and may not precisely simulate cleared natural areas, but have the advantages of easy manipulation and sampling, and are the only means available for studying spores and other small stages in the field. Growing seaweeds can be an effective alternative to transplanting adults. If properly designed and placed, these substrata could be incorporated into artificial polyculture reefs., , ,
Foster, Abbott, Foster, Eklund
Clathromorphum nereostratum (Corallinales, Rhodophyta): The oldest alga?,
The longevity of organisms is intrinsically interesting and can provide useful information on their population structure and dynamics and the dynamics of associated communities. With the exception of perennial Laminariales that have rings in the stipe, the life spans of most perennial macroalgae are unknown or based on anecdotal observations. Using morphological analyses combined with the location and time of the rise in 14C from atmospheric nuclear testing within the thallus, we determined that the growth rate of a specimen of Clathromorphum nereostratum Lebednik from Adak Island was 0.30 mm·yr -1, the 30 bands within the thallus were annual, and the specimen sampled was 61-75 years old. Living crusts of this species from the same geographic region are reported to be up to 20 cm thick. Assuming our growth rate is typical, C. nereostratum can be approximately 700 years old, the oldest known living alga. This longevity and consistent banding within the thallus suggest that smaller scale sampling and additional chemical analyses of this alga could provide a detailed long-term record of environmental variation at high latitudes in the North Pacific. © 2005 Phycological Society of America., Cited By (since 1996):25, Seaweeds, CODEN: JPYLA, ,
Frantz, Foster, Riosmena-Rodríguez
Rhodoliths: Between rocks and soft places,
Rhodoliths (maërl) are widely distributed in the worlds' oceans and have an excellent fossil record. Individuals are slow growing, may be long lived (>100 years), and are resilient to a variety of environmental disturbances. Their external morphology and internal growth bands are potential archives of environmental variation at scales of within years to tens of years. At high densities, these free-living non-geniculate coralline algae form rhodolith beds, communities of high diversity that can be severely impacted by resource extraction., Cited By (since 1996):123, CODEN: JPYLA, ,
Hermatypic corals associated with rhodolith beds in the Gulf of California, México,
Subtidal surveys along the western Gulf of California coast revealed the presence of free-living hermatypic corals associated with rhodolith beds, the first record of this association in the gulf. Five coral species were found, as follows: Psammocora stellata Verrill, Parites panamensis Verrill, P. sverdrupi Durham, Fungia curvata Hoeksema, and F. distorta Michelin, with several new distributional records. Differences in relative abundance of species in our collections from those in other regions of the Pacific suggest that transport, light, and temperature play important roles in distribution and development of coral-rhodolith associations in the gulf., Cited By (since 1996):13, ,
Reyes-Bonilla, Riosmena-Rodriguez, Foster
Can stormwater be detected by algae in an urban reef in Hawai'i?,
Nitrogen (N) enrichment of tropical reefs can result in the dominance of invasive algae. The invasive alga Acanthophora spicifera and the native alga Laurencia nidifica are part of a diverse reef assemblage in 'Ewa Beach, O'ahu. Their N contents and δ15N values were investigated to determine if N was enriched and to evaluate potential nitrogenous sources near and removed from storm-drain outlets. δ15N values of algae (3.8-17.7‰) were within and above the range for algae around the island (1.9-11.9‰). Elevated algae N isotope values (δ15N>+7‰, [N]>1.6%) and seawater nitrate+nitrite levels (0.59-7.93μM) indicated a mixed, high nutrient environment. The overlap in δ15N values with multiple nitrogenous sources precluded identification. However, spatial and temporal patterns did not support stormwater as the dominant, nitrogenous source. Patterns were congruent with algal incorporation of terrestrial derived N, subjected to a high degree of biogeochemical cycling. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd., Seaweeds, CODEN: MPNBA, ,
Cox, Smith, Popp, Foster, Abbott
Genetic differences between two growth-forms of Lithophyllum margaritae (Rhodophyta) in Baja California Sur, Mexico,
Unattached, nongeniculate, coralline algae or rhodoliths exhibit a range of morphological variability seemingly dependent on environmental factors. Rhodoliths have an extensive fossil record, and environmentally dependent characteristics make them potentially reliable paleoindicators. Species of the rhodolith-forming genus Lithophyllum Philippi in Baja California Sur, Mexico were recently consolidated into one species. Under the new classification, L. margaritae (Hariot) Heydrich consists of several growth forms presumably reflecting local environmental conditions. We examined the genetic structure of four populations of this species using amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLP) to characterize the extent of genetic variation associated with foliose and fruticose growth forms. AFLP band sharing analysis revealed that foliose growth forms exhibited consistently higher intrapopulation similarities (0.75-0.85) than fruticose growth forms (similarity range, 0.55-0.67). This trend was also evident in comparisons of geographically isolated populations. These data indicate that the two morphologies are genetically distinct and that genetic exchange between foliose and fruticose growth forms of L. margaritae may be limited. Consequently, rhodolith growth forms appear to be the result of an interplay between both genetic makeup and environmental conditions., Cited By (since 1996):5, CODEN: JPYLA, ,
Schaeffer, Smith, Foster, DeTomaso
The structure of subtidal algal and invertebrate assemblages at the Chatham Islands, New Zealand,
, , , We examined the distribution and abundance of organisms on subtidal rocky reefs at nine sites around the Chatham Islands, a remote group 780 km east of southern New Zealand. We sampled five depth strata ranging from 1 to<16 m to identify spatial patterns in the abundance of algae and invertebrates and to assess their variation within and among sites. This information is used to discuss hypotheses concerning community structure at this remote locality. Several patterns were apparent. The immediate subtidal was occupied by the southern bull kelp Durvillaea spp. A suite of 11 fucalean species were dominant to a depth of 10 m with an average abundance of 28 m-2, while one species, Carpophyllum flexuosum, occurred mostly in deeper water. Only two laminarian species of algae were present at the islands. The indigenous Lessonia tholiformis was abundant at 2.5 to 15 m and was not found in deeper water, while the giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera was abundant at two sites in 12 to 18 m. The commercially valuable abalone Haliotis iris was extremely abundant in shallow water, with an overall mean of 6 m-2 at 5 m. The sea urchin Evechinus chloroticus was common, but reached high densities only in small (<25 m2) patches. The characteristic urchin-dominated zones reported in kelp beds world-wide were not seen. There was considerable site-to-site variation in the occurrence and abundance of individual species. Some differences between sites were associated with shelter from swell (e.g. M. pyrifera was found only in sheltered sites) and physical habitat (e.g. juvenile H. iris were found only beneath boulders inshore), but much of the variation could not be explained by physical or depth-related factors alone. We hypothesize that the differences in these kelp bed assemblages compared to mainland New Zealand are partially due to the high degree of endemism at the Chatham Islands. Local variation cannot be explained by herbivory, and is most likely the result of the various life-history characteristics of the major habitat-forming species, the large brown algae., ,
Schiel, Andrew, Foster
The Santa Barbara oil spill ‑ an ecological disaster?,
In its initial stages, the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill released over 70,000 barrels of crude oil into the Santa Barbara Channel. This oil eventually polluted the entire channel and over 230 km of mainland and Channel Islands shore. The greates known damage occured in surfgrass communities and barnacle and bird populations; an estimated 9,000,000 barnacles and 9,000 birds were killed, and over 14 tonnes of surfgrass blades and associated organisms were lost. The oil also affected other populations, but, in general total damage cannot be determined. Cleanup procedures resulted in additional damage on both rocky shores and sandy beaches. Although some populations have recovered, the lack of prespill and postspill information makes it impossible to determine adequately the long-term effects. In addition, the side of the spill, diversity of habitats affected, and lack of ecological information combine to make an overall "disaster" assessment impossible. The inherent difficulties in assessing biological damage and recovery resulting from such a pollution incident suggest that every effort must be made to prevent and contain future spills., , ,
Foster, Holmes, Dickson, Herricks
The ecology of kelp communities,
Foster, Carter, Schiel, Bascom
Living rhodolith beds in the Gulf of California and their significance for paleoenvironmental interpretation
Foster, Riosmena-Rodriguez, Steller, Woelkerling, Johnson, Ledesma-Vazquez
Schiel (9) + -
Riosmena-Rodriguez (7) + -
Steller (6) + -
Neushul (5) + -
Carter (4) + -
Reed (4) + -
Woelkerling (4) + -
Pearse (3) + -
Abbott (2) + -
Carpenter (2) + -
Coon (2) + -
Cox (2) + -
Edwards (2) + -
Frantz (2) + -
Harger (2) + -
Harrold (2) + -
Hernández-Carmona (2) + -
Jessee (2) + -


text:
Star Trek Deep Space Nine: Change Of Heart
by JRS
I look forward to walking through the jungle without a map and no idea of what lies ahead.
In this fun Deep Space Nine episode, Worf and Dax are tasked with a mission that could impact millions – while back on the station, Bashir and Quark have a sparring match of their own.
Worf and Dax are my favorite couple in this and probably any other Trek series. I love their dynamic, and Michael Dorn as Worf is one of the most underappreciated men on television, sexy even in the bland Trek uniforms and rich with the culture of Klinzhai. Dax is a gorgeous genius with some nice fighting skills and lives of experience behind her eyes. This episode showed pretty quickly how deep their relationship had gotten, and I loved every minute of it and the couple banter.
Bashir and O'Brien may be my second favorite couple, at least in terms of the humor. I think this episode took us a little further into their own dynamic too, surprisingly, since their storyline was fairly weak this time around.
This episode sees Couple #1 assigned to take the runabout Shenandoah out to the Badlands to look for a Cardassian operative. When they land on an occupied planet and are attacked, Dax quickly loses blood and encourages Worf to keep going. Worf, whose solid commitment to duty has by now seen him through two television series and invasions from both the Delta and Gamma quadrants, has to wrestle with the decision: leave his newly bound partner to inevitable painful death alone to save millions of strangers, or find a way to get Dax back to safety. And Worf chooses Dax. I think this is special because Worf, in the history of Trek, rarely chooses his heart. There was that mess with K'Ehlyr and Alexander, and Troi. And with Dax it's like he's finally got it right. Maybe Dax is wondering why he's so quiet and compliant; I'm not. There comes a point in life where you fall in love and you go, hell, I know how easy this is to lose now.
O'Brien and Bashir are on a completely different tack – one so apposite to the other in tone that it almost under cuts the episode. For our dynamic duo, the quest is to out-play Quark in a game of tongo, and ruin Quark's winning streak. For once, Quark wins – by playing very unfairly and dangling the memory of Dax in front of Bashir's eyes, hinting at lost love and passion. By itself the storyline is a comedy; with Dax dying in the Badlands, this discussion manages to bring the episode together.
In the end, Worf gets a fairly strong slap on the wrist from Sisko and Starfleet – and an admission that Sisko would have done the same, had it been Jennifer. We probably won't be seeing this couple going on any missions again soon.
This episode kind of slipped in a big secret: why O'Brien is drawn to Bashir. It isn't jealousy, it's challenge, the challenge of keeping up with someone as amazing as Bashir is. Bashir, on the other hand, admires O'Brien's persistence. That was, however, the best of that storyline.
The honeymoon discussion! Room service!
Todd Waring plays the forgettable Lasarus. Nobody's really that sorry the character died.
Heard on the Holodeck
Worf: Your problem is you cannot accept change.
Dax: I can't accept change?
Worf: That is correct.
Dax: Oh, you've got to be kidding. I've changed bodies six times, Worf.
Worf: Yes, but you are still very set in your ways.
O'Brien: It's the challenge.
Bashir: The challenge?
O'Brien: Isn't it enough? Why do you think I became an engineer? The challenge. What do you think has kept me kayaking down the same river week after week for the last seven years? The challenge. Why would I keep playing darts against someone with a genetically engineered hand-eye coordination?
Bashir: The challenge.
I love Worf and Dax, but the secondary storyline is a bit blorshtriggle here. 3/5 runabouts.
Star Trek DS9 season 6
Star Trek DS9 home
Tags: Joseph Santini, Star Trek Deep Space Nine


Ahhh…motherhood. Most mothers will tell you that becoming a mother has given them a newer and higher purpose in life. They will attest to the idea that motherhood is the most rewarding part of life. As beautiful as is motherhood, every mother has both good days and bad days. There are those moments in mothering when everything seems just right, and then there are those days when things seem to go all wrong.
When things are great, we don't often complain. We are happy for the successes of the day, whether that accomplishment is defined by adhering to the daily routine outlined for our ever-busy children, or by reading a bedtime story when we are usually unable. We claim those victories with a peaceful smile, knowing that moments like these are treasures.
On the opposite end of the spectrum, in moments of high stress, frustration, and difficulty, it's easy to feel badly about our abilities as mothers. I have heard many mothers say, "I'm a bad mom." Most often that statement is fueled by nothing other than the guilt of responding to a challenging situation in what we see as a less than perfect way.
The working mother often feels guilty if she is unable to adequately juggle the roles of wife, mother, business woman, friend, and daughter. The stay-at-home mom may feel a sense of dread for desiring a child-free moment of peace.


text:
Q: How to pass `this` to Dozer field mapping? In my app I have Dozer mapping which looks like this:
<mapping>
    <class-a>java.util.HashMap</class-a>
    <class-b>org.mycompany.TargetClass</class-b>
    <field custom-converter="org.example.MyConverter">
        this
        anotherField
    </field>
</mapping>

MyConverter is an instance of ConfigurableCustomConverter:
public class MyConverter implements ConfigurableCustomConverter {

    private String parameter;

    @Override
    public Object convert(
            Object existingDestinationFieldValue,
            Object sourceFieldValue,
            Class<?> destinationClass,
            Class<?> sourceClass) {
        // sourceClass is always java.lang.Object and
        // sourceFieldValue is always null!!!
    }

    @Override
    public void setParameter(String parameter) {
        this.parameter = parameter;
    }
}

Why things noted in in-source comment happen?

A: You need to tell dozer which key of the Map should be mapped to b.anotherField, with something like
<field custom-converter="org.example.MyConverter">
    this
    anotherField
</field>

See http://dozer.sourceforge.net/documentation/mapbackedproperty.html#Mapping_Class_Level_Properties_to_a_java.util.Map_or_a_Custom_Map_with_unique_GetSet_methods

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


You can livestream the talk starting at 12:15pm on June 2.
When Karen discovered she had a life threatening heart condition, the last thing she expected was to have to worry about software. Now, with a heart device implanted in her body, she has come to understand not only how vulnerable medical devices are but how we are making critical choices about software that will have huge societal impacts. Karen will talk about the hacks which show how essential free and open source software is and will discuss her professional and personal view of the issues both as a patient and as a cyborg lawyer.
Karen will also touch on potential avenues for accountability, transparency, and access to remedies as we hurtle towards an Internet of Things built on proprietary source code that prevents us from knowing exactly how these vital devices work, what data they are collecting and to what ends, what their vulnerabilities might be, and the extent to which their closed, proprietary nature keeps us from developing societal mechanisms and review processes to keep us safe.
She will also touch on a few ways that she has found to advocate for more openness (including her fight to get permission to do research on some of these devices) in the current legal and regulatory environment, as well possible fruitful pathways for pushing for mechanisms of review and oversight of these devices that are increasingly embedded into our lives and will serve critical and essential societal functions.
Karen M. Sandler is the executive director of the Software Freedom Conservancy. Karen is known for her advocacy for free software, particularly in relation to the software on medical devices. Prior to joining Conservancy, she was executive director of the GNOME Foundation, where she has since been elected to the board of directors. Before that, she was general counsel of the Software Freedom Law Center. Karen co-organizes Outreachy, the award-winning outreach program for women, and is an advisor to the Ada Initiative. She is also pro bono counsel to the FSF and GNOME and pro bono general counsel to QuestionCopyright.Org. Karen is a recipient of the O'Reilly Open Source Award and cohost of the oggcast Free as in Freedom.


Our personnel at WR Contractor knows that different clients in North Port, Florida will need different types of portable toilets. Since this is the case, we like to make certain that we have a sufficient porta potty product line to have something for every customer. Since the majority of our consumers in North Port are under a lot of logistical pressure with managing their construction site or even managing a big event, we make certain that the portable toilets show up on time. Given that you have to make everything work on a limited budget, our North Port business will work with you on bulk pricing. Let our port-a-potty company assist with your restroom facility demands by calling us at 888-240-1169 today.
What do Customers Like About Our Portable Toilets in North Port, FL?
Many individuals we assist in the North Port, FL area rent our toilets for their staff who does not have access to toilet facilities at their sites. Promotion companies also rent our port a potties frequently as many venues do not include restrooms or the venue's owner will lock them up. Regardless of why each individual customer came to us with their portable toilet demands, they will let you know that we offered unbeatable pricing and fast service.
Our porta johns company realizes that not all consumers will have identical toilet leasing needs within North Port, FL. This is the reason we have such a large porta john selection. The 50 to 60-gallon base portable toilets we offer come stocked with sanitization fluid in the tank as well as a toilet inside. This type does not incorporate a sink, but it is equipped with paper towels along with a soap dispenser. You should think about our deluxe unit if you would like to include a urinal and sink in addition to a somewhat larger tank. Of course, if you do choose the cheaper portable toilets, you can always add a handful of our portable washing stations to your site, which can be shared by the guests.
Preferably, you and your staff would never have to do work in a location that did not have permanent toilets. The truth is that you will typically need to lease restroom trailers within North Port, FL for your event or jobsite. The good thing is that when you use the assistance of our porta potty business, you will not have to worry about being overcharged or us not having the toilets delivered promptly. Since your portapotty demands will likely be different than those of other people, you should call us at WR Contractor at 888-240-1169 for an estimate.
We lease portable toilets to a lot of different people in the North Port, Florida vicinity, but the majority of our clients are promoters or contractors. Call WR Contractor at 888-240-1169 to learn how we can help with your portable toilets demands.
How Could I Rent a Porta Potty in North Port, FL?
Renting a porta potty from our company is simple as all you have to do is give us a call, so we can make certain you are going to have the perfect number of toilets for your North Port, FL property or event. When you have determined which toilets you would like to rent, the only thing left to complete is for you to plan a delivery time and send us your payment. In many cases, we can even have your port-a-potty units on site within a day, but we advise scheduling two or three days ahead of time to be safe.
Although some of our port a potty models have different features than others, we offer very economical pricing on all of them since we understand you need to stay within your budget. Call WR Contractor to obtain a free quote based around your needs.
How Do I Know Which Porta Potty to Select in North Port?
This is a lot more normal than you think considering the number of porta potty models we stock. You do not have to fret because we can determine which option is ideal for you. For additional information, explore a lot of our service areas: portable toilets Kingston, OK.
We sanitize and do a deep cleaning on each porta john after we bring it back to our facilities and before it gets leased out again. In order to take sanitization to a new level and to reduce odors, we will also pour special solution into the porta potty tanks. We in addition provide service to portable toilets Healdton, OK among other regions and states around the country.
Will I Have to Handle the Portable Toilets in North Port?
No, whenever we deliver your portable toilets in North Port, you will inform us where they should be placed and we will unload them. Of course, we can also use foot traffic estimations in various areas to give you suggestions about where to put them. When you have finished building the home or office, or the event has ended, we also do not expect you to help us load them back up.


When Texas parents divorce, the court splits custody between the parents based on the best interests of the children involved. No two situations are exactly the same, and the best interests of the children can vary according to their ages. Thus, the custody arrangements created for a newborn are typically different from those created for an older child.
Texas treats legal and physical custody separately, and either can be awarded to both parents jointly or solely to one parent. Legal custody, called conservatorship in Texas, refers to the right to make important decisions involving the child, such as whether he receives medical care and religious education. Physical custody, called possession, refers to the time the child spends with each parent. It is rare for possession to be split exactly in half, especially when the child is a newborn, because newborns typically need consistent routines. Thus, Texas courts typically award primary custody to one parent and give visitation rights to the other.
Texas parents can create their own arrangement of conservatorship and possession, and they can customize visitation rather than relying on a court to decide for them. Although the parent-created schedule must be approved by the court before it becomes legally binding, judges typically go with the parents' agreement. Later, after the court adopts the parents' suggested arrangement, they can modify it without the court's involvement. If the parents cannot agree to modifications later, they can return to court for the judge to rule on a modification request.
When parents cannot reach agreement on their own, the court will establish the division of custody rights, typically as part of the divorce decree. Texas courts generally use a standard possession order, established in Texas' Family Code, to make visitation arrangements for older children as consistent as possible. While this standard order is presumed to be in a child's best interests once the child reaches age 3, courts typically do not follow the standard order for younger children. Instead, courts try to provide shorter, more frequent visits for very young children, never going any more than seven days without seeing each parent. A likely schedule for a newborn could place the child with his non-custodial parent for two hours each Tuesday and Thursday and four hours on Saturdays.
Sometimes, a standard or presumed schedule simply does not work well for a particular family's situation, so the court will design a customized schedule for the family. For example, parents who live more than 100 miles away from each other will likely have a different visitation arrangement than those who live in the same town. Long-distance visitation for newborns can be especially difficult because of a young child's preference for routines and stability. Parents who are in the military may have a special schedule, too, since either parent could deploy overseas for several months, making traditional visitation schedules impossible. When the records show a history or evidence of family violence, Texas courts can order supervised visitation for the child to allow him to form a relationship with his parent while still ensuring his safety.


text:
\section{INTRODUCTION}\label{intro}
On 17th August 2017, the LIGO \& VIRGO collaboration detected the gravitational waves (GWs) from a binary neutron star (NS) merger for the first time \citep[GW170817,][]{Abbott+2017c}.
After the GW detection, many observation groups carried out the electromagnetic-counterpart searches all over the world \citep{Abbott+2017_gw170817_multi}, and they detected a gamma-ray flash \citep{Abbott+2017e,Goldstein+2017,Savchenko+2017}, a UV, optical, and NIR emissions \citep{Arcavi+2017,Chornock+2017,Coutler+2017,Cowperthwaite+2017,Diaz+2017,Drout+2017,Evans+2017,Kasliwal+2017,Kilpatrick+2017,McCully+2017,Nicholl+2017,Pian+2017,Shappee+2017,Smartt+2017,Soares-Santos+2017,Tanvir+2017,Tominaga+2018,Utsumi+2017,Valenti+2017}, and X-ray and radio afterglows \citep{Haggard+2017,Margutti+2017,Troja+2017,Alexander+2017,Hallinan+2017,Kim+2017}.

Theoretically, optical and NIR counterparts of binary NS mergers have been predicted to be produced by the radioactive decay heating of heavy elements synthesized in the ejecta, and they are named as macronovae \citep{Li&Paczynski1998,Kulkarni2005} or kilonovae \citep{Metzger+2010}.\footnote{In addition to the \textit{r}-process element decay heating, central-engine activities can also power emissions like macronovae \citep{Kisaka+2015,Kisaka+2016,Matsumoto+2018b}. Therefore, we call a transient associated with binary NS mergers as macronovae whatever the energy source is, like ``supernovae''.}
In neutron-rich ejecta, the neutron-capture reaction advances rapidly and synthesizes the \textit{r}-process elements.
These products are unstable and decay to heat up the ejecta.
Detailed emission models have been studied based on many numerical simulations on hydrodynamics of the ejecta \citep{Hotokezaka+2013,Dessart+2009,Perego+2014,Sekiguchi+2015,Sekiguchi+2016,Fujibayashi+2017,Fujibayashi+2018,Fernandez&Metzger2013,Metzger&Fernandez2014,Fernandez+2015,Siegel&Metzger2017,Kiuchi+2014,Giacomazzo+2015,Ciolfi+2017}, the nucleosynthesis \citep{Wanajo&Janka2012,Wanajo+2014,Just+2015,Lippuner+2017}, and the radiative transfer \citep{Kasen+2013,Tanaka&Hotokezaka2013,Tanaka+2018}.
The emission models are also applied to GW170817 \citep{Kasen+2017,Tanaka+2017,Shibata+2017b,Kawaguchi+2018}.

In the up-coming GW observations, the counterpart searches will be started in a shorter timescale than an hour (for GW170817, the detection was announced in the GCN circular $\sim40\,\rm{min}$ after the GW observation), while the macronova in GW170817 was discovered $\sim10\,\rm{hrs}$ after the GW detection \citep{Coutler+2017}.
The first-hour macronovae can be helpful to constrain the emission models of macronovae \citep{Arcavi2018}.
Furthermore, since the early emission is potentially powered by other mechanisms rather than the \textit{r}-process heating, the observations of them may give us the information on the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis or activities of the merger remnants.
For example, if the nucleosynthesis does not advance in the fast expanding outer layer of the ejecta and leaves free neutrons, their beta-decay produces a bright emission \citep[so-called, a neutron precursor,][]{Metzger+2015}.
Moreover, if a relativistic jet is launched by the merger remnant, it forms a cocoon during the propagation in the ejecta \citep{Nakar&Piran2017}.
When the cocoon breaks out of the ejecta, its cooling emission also contributes to the early emission \citep{Gottlieb+2018,Wang&Huang2018}.

In this paper, we propose that early-time polarimetric observations can be a powerful tool to study the first-hour macronovae.
As we explain in section \ref{fast velocity tail}, if free nucleons survive in the outermost layer of the ejecta, the electron scattering dominates the opacity, which produces a larger degree of polarization than that produced by the \textit{r}-process element-rich ejecta.
We study the temporal evolution of the degree of polarization by constructing a simple model and show that the polarimetric observations enable us to study not only the morphology of the ejecta, but also to estimate the mass of the free nucleons that survived the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis.
The early polarimetric observations can be a probe to study the condition on the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis or even discriminate the emission mechanisms of the early macronvae.

We organize this paper as follows.
In the next section, we describe our model.
First, we review the basic properties of the fast expanding ejecta where nucleons survive (section \ref{fast velocity tail}).
Next, we explain how to calculate the degree of polarization produced in the early macronovae (section \ref{polarization}).
Then, we construct a light curve model taking the \textit{r}-process element and neutron decay heating into account (section \ref{light curve}).
The resulting light curves and temporal behaviors of the polarization are shown in section \ref{results}.
We finally summarize this work and discuss implications to observations in section \ref{summary and discussion}.

\section{Model}\label{model}
We construct a simple model to study the first-hour macronovae and temporal evolution of the degree of polarization.
To compare the results with the observed macronova in GW170817, we also consider the late-time ($>\,\rm{hr}$) macronova component.
The macronova in GW170817 showed a transition from optical ($\sim\rm{\,days}$) to NIR emissions ($\sim\,\rm{weeks}$), which are called blue and red macronovae, respectively.
In this work, we include only the blue macronova component, and do not consider the red macronova emission.

\subsection{Fast velocity tail}\label{fast velocity tail}
We discuss properties of a fast expanding outermost layer of the ejecta.
This component is called as the fast velocity tail, which is the fastest ejecta produced just after the coalescence of a binary NS.
Originally, this component was recognized in numerical simulations as ejecta with velocity $\gtrsim0.5\,c$ and mass $\lesssim10^{-4}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$ \citep{Hotokezaka+2013,Bauswein+2013,Metzger+2015,Hotokezaka+2018b}, where $c$ is the speed of light.
One of the possible mechanisms producing the fast tail is the shock breakout from a contact surface of the merged NS \citep{Kyutoku+2014,Ishii+2018}.
When a shock wave emerges from the surface of the NS, it accelerates a small amount of the stellar matter even to a relativistic velocity.
The ejecta mass and velocity are smaller and larger than those of the blue and red macronvae of $\sim10^{-3}-10^{-2}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$ and $\sim0.1-0.3\,c$.

A fast velocity tail possibly shows an emission in an hour-timescale after the merger.
The fast tail is ejected first and located at the head of the ejecta.
Due to the small ejecta mass $\lesssim10^{-4}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, the fast tail has a short characteristic emission timescale, so-called the diffusion timescale \citep{Arnett1980}, of
\begin{eqnarray}
t_{\rm{diff}}&\sim&\sqrt{\frac{\kappa{M}}{4\pi{vc}}},
   \label{diffusion time}\\
&\sim&1{\,\rm{hr}\,}\biggl(\frac{\kappa}{1{\,\rm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}}}\biggl)^{1/2}\biggl(\frac{M}{10^{-4}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}}\biggl)^{1/2}\biggl(\frac{v}{0.5\,c}\biggl)^{-1/2},
\end{eqnarray}
where $\kappa$, $M$, and $v$ are the ejecta opacity, mass, and velocity, respectively.

In the fast velocity tail, the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis may not occur efficiently.
In most of the ejecta from a binary NS merger, the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis advances and produces heavy elements.
On the other hand, since the fast tail has a smaller expansion timescale than that of the late-time macronova ejecta, the neutron-capture reaction may not proceed efficiently and leaves free nucleons.
\cite{Metzger+2015} analyzed the results of numerical simulations by \cite{Bauswein+2013,Just+2015} and found that if the expansion timescale is smaller than $\sim5\,\rm{ms}$, free neutrons may remain in the fast ejecta.
They also discussed that the beta-decay of the free neutrons powers a precursor emission to macronovae although the final abundance of the neutrons is uncertain.
\cite{Ishii+2018} also carried out numerical simulations of shock breakout from a NS and confirmed that a fraction of neutrons remains in the outermost layer.

When ejecta are composed of nucleons rather than the \textit{r}-process elements, the electron scattering becomes a main opacity source.
Furthermore, if the photosphere has a deviation from the spherical symmetry, the emission shows a continuum linear polarization as actually observed in supernovae (SNe) \citep[for a review]{Wang&Wheeler2008}.
In contrast to the electron scattering, the bound-bound transition dominates the opacity of the \textit{r}-process elements, which does not produce polarization.
Of course, the electron scattering occurs in the \textit{r}-process element ejecta, but their opacity is much smaller than that of the nucleon ejecta \citep{Kasen+2013,Kyutoku+2015}.
In the \textit{r}-process element ejecta, electrons are supplied by the ionization of the \textit{r}-process elements, and the electron scattering opacity is given by
\begin{eqnarray}
\kappa_{\rm{es}}=\frac{x}{A}\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}\sim0.1\,\biggl(\frac{x}{10}\biggl)\biggl(\frac{A}{80}\biggl)^{-1}\,\kappa_{\rm{es,H}},
   \label{kappa_es for r}
\end{eqnarray}
where $x$, $A$, and $\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}=0.4\,\rm{cm^2\,g^{-1}}$ are the degree of ionization, the averaged atomic number of the \textit{r}-process elements, and Thomson scattering opacity of hydrogen, respectively.
Therefore, the fast-tail emission may show a much larger degree of polarization than that of the blue and red macronovae.
We also remark that the observed luminosity and timescale of the blue macronova in GW170817 suggest the ejecta mass and opacity of $M_{\rm blue}\simeq0.02\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$ and $\kappa_{\rm r}\simeq0.1-1{\,\rm cm^{2}\,g^{-1}}$ \citep[e.g.][]{Drout+2017}.
The rather small opacity supports our assumption that the electron scattering is still the main opacity source even if a fraction of \textit{r}-process elements are synthesized in the fast tail and mixed with free nucleons.

We can also expect the time evolution of the polarization degree.
When the photosphere is located in the fast velocity tail, where the electron scattering dominates the opacity, the degree of polarization can be large if the photosphere has a large asphericity.
As the photosphere recedes into the \textit{r}-process element-rich ejecta (e.g., blue or red macronova ejecta), the bound-bound transition dominates the opacity at the photosphere, which reduces the degree of polarization.
In Fig. \ref{fig picture}, we show a schematic picture of the situation we consider.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=270]{fig_picture.ps}
\caption{A schematic picture of the configuration of the ejecta and their polarization.
A fast velocity tail (purple) is located at the outermost layer and expands faster than blue macronova ejecta (blue).
In the tail, nucleons remain and the electron scattering dominates the opacity, while the bound-bound transition of the \textit{r}-process elements is the main opacity source in the blue macronova ejecta.
The photosphere is assumed to be an ellipsoidal shape.
An observer sees the merger event with a viewing angle $\theta_{\rm{obs}}$.}
\label{fig picture}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Polarization}\label{polarization}
In the following, we demonstrate that a large polarization degree and temporal behavior can be produced in the first-hour macronovae.
The degree of polarization is defined by the ratio of the polarized intensity to the total intensity \citep{Chandrasekhar1960,Rybicki&Lightman1979}.
We approximately estimate the observed polarization degree $\Pi$ as
\begin{eqnarray}
\Pi\simeq\Pi_0\tau_{\rm{es}},
   \label{degree of polarization}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\Pi_0$ is the ``intrinsic'' degree of polarization which is made by a purely electron-scattering-dominated photosphere and gives the ratio of the intensities produced by the electron scattering at the photosphere, and $\tau_{\rm{es}}$ is the optical depth of the electron scattering at the photosphere which approximately gives the ratio of the photon intensity scattered by electrons and total intensity at the photosphere.
In order to calculate these quantities, we make the following assumptions.
(a) In the fast velocity tail, the \textit{r}-process elements are not synthesized, and free nucleons such as neutrons and protons remain.
When the photosphere is located in this nucleon layer, the electron scattering dominates the opacity.
(b) The high velocity tail has an aspherical morphology, which determines the intrinsic degree of polarization $\Pi_0$.
We assume that the photosphere keeps its morphology and the intrinsic polarization degree is fixed.
In the latter of this subsection, we explain a method to evaluate the intrinsic degree $\Pi_0$.

The intrinsic degree of polarization $\Pi_0$ is the polarization produced by a purely electron-scattering-dominated photosphere.
An asphericity may be produced, for instance, when the fast velocity tail is ejected not in a spherically symmetric manner.
\cite{Hotokezaka+2018b} analyzed the results of the high-resolution numerical simulation by \cite{Kiuchi+2017}, and we can see that high velocity ejecta are produced anisotropically depending on the equation of state of the dense matter.
For simplicity, we approximate the photosphere as an ellipsoid.

The degree of polarization from oblate and prolate ellipsoids has been calculated in the context of SN explosions \citep{Shapiro&Sutherland1982,Hoflich1991,Wang&Wheeler2008}.
In this work, we evaluate the polarization degree of ellipsoids by using a result of Monte Carlo simulations by \cite{Hoflich1991}.
They calculated the degrees of polarization of ellipsoids for various configurations.
The results are well described by (see their Figs. 4 and 7)
\begin{eqnarray}
\Pi_0\propto\begin{cases}\bigl(1-\frac{a}{b}\bigl)\sin^2\theta_{\rm{obs}}&\text(a<b),\\
\bigl(1-\frac{b}{a}\bigl)\sin^2\theta_{\rm{obs}}&\text(b<a),
\end{cases}
   \label{intrinsic polarization}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\theta_{\rm{obs}}$, $a$, and $b$ are the viewing angle and the axis lengths of the ellipsoid (see Fig. \ref{fig picture}).
For a small asphericity $a/b\simeq1$ (sphere) or a face-on observer $\theta_{\rm{obs}}\simeq0\,\rm{deg}$, the degree vanishes due to the symmetry.
The viewing angle dependence $\Pi_0\propto\sin^2\theta_{\rm{obs}}$ is consistent with an analytical calculation by \cite{Brown&McLean1977}.
By using the result of \cite{Hoflich1991} (their Fig. 7), we normalize Eq. \eqref{intrinsic polarization} and estimate the degrees of polarization for various axis ratios and viewing angles.

In Figs. \ref{fig pol pro} and \ref{fig pol ob}, we show the contours of the viewing angle and the axis ratio which give the same degree of polarization for the prolate ($a<b$) and oblate ($a>b$) ellipsoids, respectively.
The evaluated polarization degrees show similar values for prolate and oblate ellipsoids while the oblate shape shows a little larger polarization.
The maximum value of the polarization is about $\sim1-3\,\%$ for $a/b$ or $b/a\lesssim0.8$ and $\theta_{\rm{obs}}\gtrsim40\,\rm{deg}$.
With black dashed lines, we show the upper limit of the viewing angle of GW170817 $\theta_{\rm{obs}}\lesssim28\,\rm{deg}$ \citep{Abbott+2017c}, which is determined only by the GW observation.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=270]{fig_pol_pr.ps}
\caption{Contours of the viewing angle and the axis ratio of ellipsoids which give the same degree of polarization for the purely electron-scattering-dominated photosphere.
The ellipsoid is prolate ($b<a$, see Fig. \ref{fig picture}).
The degrees of polarization vanishes for the sphere $a/b\simeq1$ or a face-on observer $\theta_{\rm{obs}}\simeq0{\,\rm{deg}}$ due to the rotational symmetry.
We also show the upper limit of the viewing angle of GW170817 with a dashed line.}
\label{fig pol pro}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=270]{fig_pol_ob.ps}
\caption{The same as Fig. \ref{fig pol pro}, but for oblate ellipsoids.}
\label{fig pol ob}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Optical depth and light curve}\label{light curve}
We calculate the electron-scattering optical depth at a photosphere and the light curve of the early macronovae, by assuming that ejecta are piecewise spherical.
This simplification may also be justified for our order-of-magnitude estimation.

The early macronovae can be powered by various mechanisms.
If the \textit{r}-process elements are synthesized in the head of fast velocity tail, their radioactive decay heating powers an early emission as late-time macronovae.
A free neutron precursor and a cocoon emission may also contribute to the early emission.
In this work, since we are interested in the polarization produced in the nucleon layer of the fast tail, we focus on the early macronovae powered by the \textit{r}-process element and free neutron radioactive decay heating.
It should be noted that the following results qualitatively hold for the cocoon powered case, which we discuss in section \ref{summary and discussion}.

We consider the fast tail and blue macronova ejecta components separately, and assume that they have power-law density profiles.
For the blue macronova component, numerical simulations have studied the density profile and found that it is reasonably approximated by a power-law profile \citep{Hotokezaka+2013,Nagakura+2014}.
For the fast velocity tail, the power-law density profile may be a reasonable approximation \citep{Kyutoku+2014,Hotokezaka+2018b}.

We locate the blue macronova ejecta and the fast velocity tail at the reasonable ranges of velocity and give their density profiles as
\begin{eqnarray}
\rho_{\rm{blue}}(v,t)&=&\frac{M_{\rm{blue}}}{4\pi(v_{\rm{blue}}t)^3}\biggl(\frac{v}{v_{\rm{blue}}}\biggl)^{-\beta_{\rm{blue}}}\biggl[\frac{\beta_{\rm{blue}}-3}{1-(\frac{v_{\rm{tail}}}{v_{\rm{blue}}})^{3-\beta_{\rm{blue}}}}\biggl]\nonumber\\
&&(v_{\rm{blue}}<v<v_{\rm{tail}}),\\
\rho_{\rm{tail}}(v,t)&=&\frac{M_{\rm{n}}}{4\pi(v_{\rm{n}}t)^3}\biggl(\frac{v}{v_{\rm{n}}}\biggl)^{-\beta_{\rm{tail}}}\biggl[\frac{\beta_{\rm{tail}}-3}{1-(\frac{c}{v_{\rm{n}}})^{3-\beta_{\rm{tail}}}}\biggl]\nonumber\\
&&(v_{\rm{tail}}<v),
\end{eqnarray}
respectively.
The quantities $M_{\rm{blue}}$, $v_{\rm{blue}}$, $\beta_{\rm{blue}}$, $M_{\rm{n}}$, $v_{\rm{tail}}$, $v_{\rm{n}}$, and $\beta_{\rm{tail}}$ are the total mass, the lowest velocity, and the power-law index of the blue macronova ejecta, the total nucleon mass, the lowest velocities of the tail and nucleon mass shell, and the power-law index of the fast tail's profile, respectively.
For the blue macronova ejecta, we set $M_{\rm{blue}}=2\times10^{-2}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, $v_{\rm{blue}}=0.1\,c$, $v_{\rm{tail}}=0.3\,c$, and $\beta_{\rm{blue}}=4$, for the fiducial values.
While the ejecta mass and highest velocity ($v_{\rm tail}$) of the blue macronova ejecta are motivated by the observations \citep[e.g.,][]{Cowperthwaite+2017,Drout+2017,Kilpatrick+2017}, the lowest velocity ($v_{\rm blue}$) of the ejecta is uncertain. However, the shell at the lowest velocity contributes the emission at later time $t\gtrsim{\rm\,days}$, which does not have an effect on the polarization signature at the early timescale.
The tail profile is normalized at the velocity $v_{\rm{n}}$ above which nucleons remain with a total mass $M_{\rm{n}}$ (see below, for the composition of the tail).
At each edge of the both profiles, we suppress the profiles with Gaussian functions.
In Fig. \ref{fig profile}, we show the distribution of the enclosed mass which is defined by
\begin{eqnarray}
M(>v)=\int_{vt}^{ct}dr\,4\pi{r^2}(\rho_{\rm{blue}}+\rho_{\rm{tail}}).
   \label{enclosed mass}
\end{eqnarray}
The red solid and dashed curves show the mass profile with $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
For the fast velocity tail, the parameters are adopted as $v_{\rm{n}}=0.5\,c$, which is motivated by \cite{Metzger+2015}, and $\beta_{\rm{tail}}=6$.
Different values of the index do not change our result so much as long as the enclosed mass is fixed at $v_{\rm{n}}$.
The distribution of the kinetic energy is also consistent with the numerical results by \cite{Hotokezaka+2018b} and the estimated value from the afterglows of GW170817 \citep{Matsumoto+2018c}.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=270]{fig_profile.ps}
\caption{Enclosed-mass profiles of the blue macronova ejecta ($v\lesssim{v_{\rm{tail}}}=0.3\,c$) and fast velocity tail ($v\gtrsim{}v_{\rm{tail}}$).
Red solid and dashed curves denote the profiles with the nucleon mass of $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
The blue solid curves show the enclosed mass of free neutrons at 0 and 1 hr after the merger where we assume that only neutrons compose the tail above $v>v_{\rm{n}}=0.5\,c$.
The black dash-dotted lines show the diffusion mass as a function of velocity at $t=0.1$, $1$, and $10\,\rm{hrs}$ from bottom to top.}
\label{fig profile}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

We also make an assumption on the chemical composition in the fast tail in order to calculate the electron-scattering optical depth and the light curve of neutron precursors.
To see two extreme cases, we consider the following models along \cite{Metzger+2015}.
In one model, we assume that the tail is composed of only free neutrons as survived nucleons above $v>v_{\rm{n}}$.
We use the following mass fraction of the \textit{r}-process elements, free neutrons, and protons which are the products of the neutrons' beta-decay as
\begin{eqnarray}
X_{\rm{r}}(v,t)&=&\frac{2}{\pi}\arctan{\biggl[\biggl(\frac{M(>v)}{M_{\rm{n}}}\biggl)^\alpha}\biggl],
   \label{mass fraction r}\\
X_{\rm{n}}(v,t)&=&(1-X_{\rm{r}})e^{-t/t_{\rm{n}}},\\
X_{\rm{p}}(v,t)&=&(1-X_{\rm{r}})(1-e^{-t/t_{\rm{n}}}),
\end{eqnarray}
where $t_{\rm{n}}=900\,{\rm{s}}$ is the beta-decay timescale\footnote{There is a $3.9\,\sigma$ discrepancy between the neutron lifetime measured by using neutrons in a beam \citep[$t_{\rm{n}}=887.7\pm2.2{\,\rm{s}}$,][]{Yue+2013} and trapped neutrons \citep[$t_{\rm{n}}=878.5\pm0.8\,\rm{s}$,][]{Serebrov+2008}.
Unfortunately, this difference does not make a significant change in our results and we cannot use neutron precursors as an independent method to measure the neutron lifetime.} and the index $\alpha$ expresses how sharply the nucleon (neutrons, in this case) abundance decreases below $v<v_{\rm{n}}$.
While we set $\alpha=10$, other parameter value does not change the results so much.
In Fig. \ref{fig profile}, we also show the enclosed mass of the neutrons with blue curves at $t=0$ and $1\,\rm{hr}$ after the merger.
Due to the beta-decay, the amount of free neutrons decreases.
In the other model, we assume that nucleons do not survive and only the \textit{r}-process elements exist, $X_{\rm{r}}(v,t)=1$.
For the blue macronova ejecta, we also set $X_{\rm{r}}=1$.

For each mass shell, we can calculate the diffusion time given by Eq. \eqref{diffusion time}.
Conversely, we can estimate the position of the diffusion shell which powers the emission at time $t=t_{\rm{diff}}$.
In Fig. \ref{fig profile}, we also show the diffusion shell whose diffusion times are $t_{\rm{diff}}=0.1$, $1$, and $10\,\rm{hrs}$ with dash-dotted lines for $\kappa=\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}$.
Intersections of these lines with the enclosed-mass profile roughly give the mass shells which power the emission  at $t=t_{\rm{diff}}$.

We derive the diffusion shell and the photosphere in the ejecta for the above chemical composition.
These positions are given by solving the equations of $\tau=c/v$ and $\tau=1$, respectively, where $\tau$ is the optical depth.
As we discussed above, there are two opacity sources in the ejecta, e.g., the electron scattering and the bound-bound transition of the \textit{r}-process elements.
Then, the optical depth is given by
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau(v,t)=\int_{vt}^{ct}dr[\kappa_{\rm{r}}\rho_{\rm{blue}}+(\kappa_{\rm{r}}X_{\rm{r}}+\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}X_{\rm{p}})\rho_{\rm{tail}}],
   \label{optical depth}
\end{eqnarray}
where $\kappa_{\rm{r}}=1\,\rm{cm^2}\,g^{-1}$ is the bound-bound opacity of the \textit{r}-process elements in the blue macronova ejecta \citep{Tanaka+2018}.
In Eq. \eqref{optical depth}, we ignore the contribution from the electron scattering by electrons supplied by the ionization of the \textit{r}-process elements, which is justified due to its small opacity (Eq. \ref{kappa_es for r}).
We solve the equations $\tau=c/v$ and $\tau=1$ numerically and derive the velocity coordinates of the diffusion shell $v_{\rm{diff}}$ and photosphere $v_{\rm{ph}}$ at each time.

The bolometric luminosity is given by using the enclosed mass of the diffusion shell $M(>v_{\rm{diff}})$.
The mass of the \textit{r}-process elements and free neutrons in the enclosed mass are evaluated by
\begin{eqnarray}
M_{\rm{r}}(>v_{\rm{diff}})&=&\int_{v_{\rm{diff}}t}^{ct}dr\,4\pi{r^2}(\rho_{\rm{blue}}+X_{\rm{r}}\rho_{\rm{tail}}),\\
M_{\rm{n}}(>v_{\rm{diff}})&=&\int_{v_{\rm{diff}}t}^{ct}dr\,4\pi{r^2}X_{\rm{n}}\rho_{\rm{tail}}.
\end{eqnarray}
The bolometric luminosity is estimated by
\begin{eqnarray}
L\simeq{q_{\rm{r}}}M_r(>v_{\rm{diff}})+q_{\rm{n}}M_{\rm{n}}(>v_{\rm{diff}}),
\end{eqnarray}
where we use the specific heating rates of the radioactive decay of the \textit{r}-process elements and neutrons of \cite{Wanajo+2014,Kulkarni2005}
\begin{eqnarray}
q_{\rm{r}}&=&2\times10^{10}\biggl(\frac{t}{\rm{day}}\biggl)^{-1.3}\,\rm{erg\,s^{-1}\,g^{-1}},
   \label{q_r}\\
q_{\rm{n}}&=&3\times10^{14}\,\rm{erg\,s^{-1}\,g^{-1}},
\end{eqnarray}
respectively.
It should be noted that for blue macronova ejecta with $\kappa_{\rm r}\simeq0.1-1\,\rm cm^{2}\,g^{-1}$, which suggests thier initial electron fraction $Y_{\rm e}\gtrsim0.3$ \citep{Tanaka+2018}, Eq. \eqref{q_r} gives a correct heating rate up to $t\lesssim{\rm day}$, but overestimates the rate at later time \citep[see Fig. 5 in ][]{Wanajo+2014}.

At the photosphere $R_{\rm{ph}}=v_{\rm{ph}}t$, we evaluate the electron-scattering optical depth $\tau_{\rm{es}}$.
The electron scattering opacity at the photosphere is given by
\begin{eqnarray}
\tau_{\rm{es}}=\int_{v_{\rm{ph}}t}^{ct}dr\,\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}\biggl[\frac{x}{A}(\rho_{\rm{blue}}+X_{\rm{r}}\rho_{\rm{tail}})+X_{\rm{p}}\rho_{\rm{tail}}\biggl],
\end{eqnarray}
where we take the contributions from electrons supplied by the ionization of the \textit{r}-process elements into account (the first and second terms), which we ignored in Eq. \eqref{optical depth}.
For the mean mass number of the \textit{r}-process elements, we adopt $A=80$.
The degree of ionization of the \textit{r}-process elements $x$ is approximated by using the ionization degree of germanium (the most abundant \textit{r}-process element for the solar abundance) at the same density and the photospheric temperature in the photosphere, and given by solving the Saha equation.
The photospheric temperature is given by $T_{\rm{ph}}=(L/4\pi\sigma_{\rm{SB}}R_{\rm{ph}}^2)^{1/4}$, where $\sigma_{\rm{SB}}$ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

\section{results}\label{results}
In Fig. \ref{fig tau}, we show the time evolution of the degree of polarization, which is given by Eq. \eqref{degree of polarization}.
We set the intrinsic polarization degree as $\Pi_0=1\,\%$, which results in that the polarizations shown in Fig. \ref{fig tau} are equal to the electron-scattering optical depths $\tau_{\rm{es}}$.
The thick red solid and dashed curves show the polarizations for the ejecta with free neutrons of $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
At first, both of the ejecta show the intrinsic polarization degree $\Pi=\Pi_0$, but the polarizations decay soon about $1\,\rm{hr}$ ($M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$) and $0.3\,\rm{hr}$ ($M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$) after the merger.
This temporal behavior is explained as follows.
At the early timescale, the photosphere is located in the free neutron layer and the electron-scattering optical depth is unity.
As the photosphere recedes to the \textit{r}-process elements-rich ejecta ($v<v_{\rm{n}}$), the electron scattering is suppressed, which results in the significant decrease of the polarization degree.
In this phase, the polarization degree decreases as $\Pi\propto{t^{-2}}$ tracing the electron-scattering optical depth $\tau_{\rm{es}}\simeq\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}M_{\rm{n}}/4{\pi}R^2\propto{t^{-2}}$.
Since the degree of polarization decays faster for the ejecta with smaller total neutron mass, the timescale may be useful to evaluate the total neutron mass.

The thin red solid and dashed curves show the time evolution of the polarization degrees for the ejecta with the same parameters as the thick ones but $X_{\rm{r}}=1$ (no free neutrons).
Due to the large mass number $A$, the electron scattering is not the main opacity source in these \textit{r}-process element-rich ejecta (see Eq. \ref{kappa_es for r}).
In this case, the observed polarization is much smaller than the intrinsic polarization degree.
The small drops at $t\simeq0.3$, $1$, and $20\,\rm{hrs}$ in these curves are caused by the recombination of electrons to the \textit{r}-process elements (the decrease of the ionization degree $x$).

We also show the polarimetric observation data of GW170817 with black points \citep{Covino+2017}.
The first observation was carried out at $1.46\,\rm{days}\simeq35\,hrs$ after the merger.
The observed value is consistent with the polarization produced by the dust scattering in the interstellar medium (ISM).
If the polarimetric observation is performed at the early timescale $t\lesssim{\,\rm{hr}}$, we may detect the intrinsic polarization degree.

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=270]{fig_tau.ps}
\caption{Time evolution of the degree of polarization from the fast velocity tail and blue macronova ejecta.
The thick red solid and dashed curves show the polarization degrees of ejecta with $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
The thin curves denote the polarization degrees for ejecta with the same parameters as thick ones but no free nucleons ($X_{\rm{r}}=1$).
For these curves, we set the intrinsic polarization degree as $\Pi_0=1\,\%$.
The data points show the observed degree of polarization for GW170817 \citep{Covino+2017}, and the first point is consistent with the polarization produced by the dust scattering in the ISM.}
\label{fig tau}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

In Fig. \ref{fig Lf}, we show the light curves of the bolometric luminosity (top) and the r-band ($\nu=5\times10^{14}\,\rm{Hz}$) and uvw2-band ($\nu=1.5\times10^{15}\,\rm Hz$) fluxes (bottom) from the ejecta with magenta, red, and blue curves, respectively.
The thick solid and dashed curves show the light curves for the ejecta of $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
The thin curves denote the light curves when no free neutrons remain and the emissions are powered only by the \textit{r}-process elements.
In the top panel, the data points show the macronova in GW170817 taken from \cite{Kilpatrick+2017}.
At the early time ($t\lesssim\rm{\,hr}$), the beta-decay heating produces a bump in the bolometric light curves.
This behavior is basically consistent with \cite{Metzger+2015}.
It should be noted that if a cocoon breaks out of ejecta, its cooling emission may also produce a similar bump in the light curve.

In the bottom panel, the light curves in the r-band and uvw2-band are depicted by setting the distance to the merger events as $40\,\rm{Mpc}$.
The data points show the observed light curve of GW170817 taken from \cite{Kasliwal+2017} (circle) and \cite{Drout+2017} (square).
In the r-band, the bumps are not as large as in the bolometric light curve.
This is because the photosphere is small $R_{\rm{ph}}\lesssim5\times10^{13}\,\rm{cm}$ at the early time and the photospheric temperature is as high as $T_{\rm{ph}}\gtrsim3\times10^{5}{\,\rm{K}}$.
Therefore, the emission is produced mainly in UV bands.
Actually, the flux in uvw2-band is $\gtrsim3$ times larger than the r-band flux and the bumps are pronounced in UV bands.
The small flux in optical bands makes the optical polarimetric observations challenging (see section \ref{summary and discussion}).

\begin{figure}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=60mm, angle=90]{fig_Lf.ps}
\caption{The bolometric (top) and optical and UV bands' (bottom) light curves of the fast velocity tail ($\lesssim{\,\rm{hr}}$) and the blue macronova ejecta  ($\gtrsim{\,\rm{hr}}$).
The thick solid and dashed curves show the light curves for $M_{\rm{n}}=10^{-4}$ and $10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, respectively.
In the bottom panel, red and blue curves show the r-band (optical) and uvw2-band (UV) light curves, respectively.
Compared with the no-neutron cases (thin curves), the free-neutron decay produces a bump at $t\lesssim\rm{\,hr}$ as a neutron precursor \citep[see][]{Metzger+2015}.
The points are the observation data of GW170817 taken from \citep{Kilpatrick+2017} (top), \citep{Kasliwal+2017} (bottom, circle), and \citep{Drout+2017} (bottom, square).}
\label{fig Lf}
\end{center}
\end{figure}

\section{Summary \& Discussion}\label{summary and discussion}
In this work, we study the degree of polarization from early macronovae at the first hour, and its time evolution.
We find that if a fast expanding outermost layer of ejecta is aspherical and has a sufficient amount of free nucleons such as neutrons, the degree of polarization becomes larger than that of the ejecta composed of the \textit{r}-process elements only.
For the total nucleon mass of $10^{-5}$ and $10^{-4}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}$, the degree of polarization shows the ejecta's ``intrinsic'' value $\Pi_0$, which is dictated by the ejecta morphology, for the first $\sim0.3$ and $1\,\rm{hr}$, respectively.
We evaluate the intrinsic polarization degree by assuming the ejecta as an ellipsoid.
For a reasonable range of the axis ratio of the ellipsoid ($a/b$ or $b/a>0.5$), the intrinsic polarization has a value of $\Pi_0\lesssim3\,\%$.
The degree drops when the photosphere passes through the nucleon layer.
The timescale of the drop is given by the transparent timescale of the free nucleon shell as \citep{Kisaka+2015,Matsumoto+2018b}
\begin{eqnarray}
t_{\rm{tr}}=\sqrt{\frac{\kappa{M_{\rm{n}}}}{4\pi{v^2}}}.
   \label{photosphere timescale}
\end{eqnarray}
After the passage, the bound-bound transition of the \textit{r}-process elements dominates the opacity and reduces the degree of polarization as $\Pi\propto{t^{-2}}$.

The detection of the polarization from early macronovae tells us not only the morphology of the ejecta but also the amount of free nucleons which survived the \textit{r}-process nucleosynthesis.
As shown in Figs. \ref{fig pol pro} and \ref{fig pol ob}, the intrinsic polarization is a function of the viewing angle and the axis ratio.
For binary NS merger events, we can constrain the viewing angle by the GW observation only \citep{Abbott+2017c}, or combining it with the electromagnetic observations \citep{Mandel2018,Finstad+2018,Mooley+2018b}.
A precise determination of the viewing angle helps us to constrain the morphology of the early macronovae.
The total free nucleon mass is evaluated by the time when the polarization decreases significantly (Eq. \ref{photosphere timescale}).
Since we can estimate the ejecta velocity by measuring the bolometric luminosity and photospheric temperature, we evaluate the total mass as
\begin{eqnarray}
M_{\rm{n}}\simeq\frac{4\pi{v^2t_{\rm{tr}}^2}}{\kappa}\simeq5\times10^{-5}\,\ensuremath{\mathrm{M}_\odot}\,\biggl(\frac{v}{0.5\,c}\biggl)^2\biggl(\frac{t_{\rm{tr}}}{1\,{\rm{hr}}}\biggl)^2\biggl(\frac{\kappa}{\kappa_{\rm{es,H}}}\biggl)^{-1}.
\end{eqnarray}

If a cocoon breaks out of the fast velocity tail, its cooling emission also contributes to the early macronovae \citep{Nakar&Piran2017,Gottlieb+2018,Wang&Huang2018}.
In this case, when nucleons remain at the fast tail and enrich the cocoon's outer layer, the detectable degree of polarization may be produced.
The cocoon light curve is dictated by the internal-energy (or temperature) distribution in the cocoon \citep{Nakar&Piran2017}, which depends on the complicated dynamics of the jet propagation and the cocoon.
Therefore, we need numerical calculations to follow the cocoon shape and the nucleon mixing at the surface, which is an interesting future work.
However, we can check whether an early emission is produced by a cocoon or not, by polarimetric observations.
When the early macronova shows a bump in the light curve, we can evaluate the required free neutron mass in the neutron precursor scenario.
On the other hand, we can also evaluate the nucleon mass from the timescale (Eq. \ref{photosphere timescale}) by polarimetric observations, which gives the upper limit on the total nucleon mass.
If the former evaluated mass is larger than the latter one, the early macronova requires the contribution from the cocoon.

As shown in Fig. \ref{fig tau}, polarimetric observations should be performed within $\sim\,\rm{hr}$.
Such quick observations are actually carried out for some GRB afterglows \citep{Uehara+2012,Mundell+2013,Covino&Gotz2016}.
To carry out similar observations for binary mergers, the positions of the events have to be specified and alerted soon after the GW detections, which may be possible in the future observations.
However, it should be noted that the quick followups for GRB afterglows have been performed in optical bands.
As we show in the bottom panel of Fig. \ref{fig Lf}, due to the high photospheric temperature, the optical flux is not so large as the blue macronova emissions, which makes the accurate polarimetric observations hard.
For instance, for a source with flux $\sim0.1\,\rm{mJy}$ ($\sim19\,\rm{mag}$) in the r-band, an observation time of $\simeq10^3\,\rm{s}$ is required in order to detect the polarization degree with $1\,\%$ of accuracy by using the Kanata Telescope \citep{Kawabata+2008} or Liverpool Telescope \citep{Steele+2010}.
UV polarimetric facilities are required to observe the polarization degree from the early macronovae.

We discuss the uncertainties of our calculation.
First, we derived the intrinsic degree of polarization $\Pi_0$ only for the ellipsoidal photospheres and assumed that the polarization degree is fixed in time.
However, an actual ejecta-shape may have a more complicated structure and change temporally due to the multidimensional effect, an inhomogeneous chemical composition, and so on.
It is an interesting future work to calculate the polarization degree taking these effect into account.

Second, we assumed that the top of the tail ($v>v_{\rm{n}}$) is composed of only nucleons $X_{\rm{n}}+X_{\rm{p}}=1$ as an extreme case, which makes the electron-scattering optical depth $\tau_{\rm{es}}$ unity at this layer.
When the \textit{r}-process elements are synthesized and located in the outermost layer, it of course reduces the relative contribution of the electron scattering to the total optical depth at the photosphere.
For instance, the mass fraction of the \textit{r}-process elements is larger than $X_{\rm{r}}>0.5$ at $v>v_{\rm{n}}$, the optical depth of the electron scattering becomes $\tau_{\rm{es}}\lesssim0.3$ at the photosphere.
In this case, the polarization degree may be initially small and does not show a detectable reduction.

Finally, we calculated the light curve of a neutron precursor by setting the initial neutron-mass fraction as unity $X_{\rm{n}}=1$, which gives the maximum luminosity of the neutron precursor.
Realistically, the neutron mass fraction is not unity even in NSs before the merger and gets small due to the positron capture and helium synthesis \citep{Metzger+2015,Ishii+2018} and the precursor luminosity decreases.
The dimmer precursor may be helpful to perform polarimetric observations in optical bands owing to the smaller temperature.
It should be noted that if protons and helium rather than neutrons are produced, the electron scattering dominates the opacity in the outer layer.

\section*{Acknowledgements}
We thank Koutarou Kyutoku, Masaomi Tanaka, and Kenji Toma for reading the manuscript and giving us useful comments.
We are also grateful to Sho Fujibayashi and Nobuya Nishimura for fruitful discussions on the nucleosynthesis.
This work is supported by Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Research Fellow 17J09895 and JSPS Overseas Challenge Program for Young Researchers.

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