Intops, which is the first vendor of Samsung electronics in the field of mobile case, announced on 29th that Intops made an agreement with Anyang city about 2016 happiness sharing project. The happiness sharing project is a social work of Intops that started in 2014 and has continued so far.
The event took place in a meeting room of Anyang city hall and CEO of Intops Mr. Kim, the mayor of Anyang Mr. Lee, and the administrator of community chest of Korea Mr. Kim participated and made an agreement on 2016 happiness sharing project. Intops will organize a budget of 140,000,000 won and deliver happiness sharing boxes to lower income family in Anyang city 4 times per year.
After the event, the happiness sharing volunteers that consist of intops employees have visited lower income family, delivered the boxes, and spent good time with them.
Intops started the happiness sharing project the last December 2013 for the first time in order to help lower income family. Currently Intops supplies daily necessities, electric fan, electric blanket to 1004 house holds in Seoul, Anyang, Gumi city every month. Through this project, Intops has helped total 28,000 lower income family so far.
The happiness sharing project can be seen very meaningful because employees participate in all procedures such as purchasing, wrapping, and delivering products.
Intops will operate 2016 happiness sharing project with 500,000,000 won of annual budget and have agreement with Seoul and Gumi city in March.
Mr. Kim, CEO of Intops, said we always appreciate that local community has helped us to grow and develop our compmany. Although the happiness sharing project is not tremendous help, I hope that it is to be delivered to the difficult neighbors with warm happiness.
Intops carries out corporate social responsibility activities for the local community in various aspects such as the happiness sharing project, sponsorship of Anyang city bissan social welfare center, and support of Anyang city family foster children.


text:
Tanga est une ville portuaire de Tanzanie et la capitale de la région de Tanga.

Géographie
Elle est située sur la côte de l'océan Indien, près de la frontière avec le Kenya. Lors du recensement de 2002 sa population s'élevait à  habitants.

Climat de la Tanzanie

Toponyme
Le mot Tanga signifie dans plusieurs des langues locales, comme le sambaa, le bondei et le zigua : « ferme » ou « terres cultivées ».

Tanga a donné son nom au Tanganyika, le territoire qui, en s'unissant en 1964 à Zanzibar, forme la Tanzanie actuelle.

Histoire
Au , l'explorateur grec Diogène décrit, dans son récit Voyage en Afrique orientale une ville qu'il dénomme « Rhapta » et dont la description géographique pourrait correspondre à celle de Tanga. Cette mention est reprise par Ptolémée ainsi que dans le Périple de la mer Érythrée (anonyme, ).

Tanga était, en 1889, un poste militaire de l'Afrique orientale allemande et devint un bureau de district deux ans plus tard. L'économie locale reposait sur la culture du sisal, introduite dans la région quelques années auparavant, et la population dans la région connut une croissance rapide. La ville devint également le terminus de la ligne de chemin de fer d'Usambara, qui conduisait jusqu'à Moshi, au pied du Kilimandjaro.

Comme ville côtière la plus proche du Kenya, Tanga était sur la ligne de front dès le début de la Première Guerre mondiale. Un débarquement britannique fut repoussé le  au cours de la bataille de Tanga. La ville ne tomba que le .

Depuis le , Tanga est l'une des trois municipalités à avoir le statut administratif de ville, les deux autres étant Arusha et Mbeya.

Population

Avec une population de  habitants en 2002, Tanga est l'une des plus vastes cités du pays. Avec un nombre d'habitants comparable à Arusha ou Moshi, la ville est cependant beaucoup plus paisible.

Jumelage
 .

Économie
La ville de Tanga fait face à l'océan Indien, et se situe non loin de la frontière avec le Kenya. Les produits d'exportation qui transitent par Tanga sont le sisal, le café, le thé et le coton. Tanga est également un important nœud ferroviaire, reliant l'essentiel du nord de la Tanzanie à la mer. Via les lignes Link et centrale de la compagnie d'État Tanzania Railways Corporation, Tanga est reliée à la région des Grands Lacs et à la capitale économique du pays, Dar es Salam.

Le port et les quartiers alentour sont le centre de la vie à Tanga, où se concentrent les hôtels, les bars et les seuls immeubles à compter plus de huit étages. Tanga s'étale sur plusieurs kilomètres carrés dans l'arrière pays et compte de nombreux marchés dans ses faubourgs.

Annexes

Article connexe
 Bataille de Tanga

Source et références

Région de Tanga
Ville en Tanzanie
Capitale de région en Tanzanie

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Fisk Park basketball hoops may be back soon
Green Bay City Council committee voted Wednesday to recommend replacing basketball hoops that were removed by the police department because of crowd-control problems.
Fisk Park basketball hoops may be back soon Green Bay City Council committee voted Wednesday to recommend replacing basketball hoops that were removed by the police department because of crowd-control problems. Check out this story on greenbaypressgazette.com: http://gbpg.net/1m9I16t
Scott Cooper Williams, Press-Gazette Media Published 3:39 p.m. CT July 7, 2014 | Updated 10:49 a.m. CT July 10, 2014
Rims have been removed from the basketball backboards at Fisk Park. (Photo: File/Press-Gazette Media )Buy Photo
Basketball could be returning to Fisk Park later this summer.
A Green Bay City Council committee voted Wednesday to recommend replacing basketball hoops that were removed by the police department because of crowd-control problems.
The full City Council will take final action next week on restoring the west-side park for basketball players and fans effective Aug. 1.
Members of the Park Committee said the police department acted improperly by unilaterally stripping resources away from a popular public park.
"It was created to serve the public," Alderman David Nennig said. "Having it sit there vacant doesn't serve anyone."
Editorial: It's time to return Fisk Park basketball rims
The committee, however, also voted to recommend that the police department be granted authority to remove the basketball hoops again if police officials determine that unruly crowds are creating a public safety emergency.
Police Capt. Bill Bongle said the unusual action was taken after several incidents of disorder last summer, including one confrontation in which basketball fans refused to leave and defiantly formed a circle around police officers.
"We had a situation that was escalating," Bongle told the committee. We were afraid somebody was going to get killed."
The park at 995 Dousman St. has been a popular spot for basketball in recent years, with enough hoops for two full-court games going simultaneously side-by-side on facilities that are lighted until 10 p.m.
Previous story: Rowdiness, litter prompt city to remove park basketball hoops
Police removed the hoops last summer and decided to keep them down this summer, leaving the four basketball backboards without the round metal rims needed to play.
Administrators in the city parks department were notified after the fact.
Alderman Mark Steuer, who represents the Fisk Park neighborhood, said at Wednesday's meeting that police officials should have approached the parks department and the City Council before disassembling the facilities.
Steuer acknowledged that crowd-control problems had occurred, but he called for the hoops to be replaced so that all basketball players in the neighborhood are not penalized.
"It wasn't done correctly," he said.
Bongle said the situation became an emergency after several instances of fighting, theft, vandalism and other problems. At times, as many as 40 or 50 people engaged in rowdy conduct, he said.
Police determined that the problems were emanating from the basketball courts, but officers were unable to get the situation under control. In one instance, unruly fans outnumbered officers and formed a threatening circle around them, said Bongle, who called the defiant behavior "shocking."
Of the park problem in general, he told aldermen, "This one got away from us."
Police Chief Tom Molitor also attended the committee meeting.
Aldermen voiced support for the police department and asked for police guidance on alternatives to cutting off basketball entirely. Options included replacing only some of the hoops, eliminating nighttime play and restoring basketball for a short trial period.
In the end, the committee voted to recommend restoring all basketball activity and reviewing the situation in November.
Police also hope to reach to out to community partners for help encouraging more decorum on the basketball courts.
Terry Cook, a representative of Divine Temple Church of God in Christ, told aldermen that the church would try to offer assistance with church patrons who frequent the Fisk Park courts.
Cook said he has played basketball there many times himself, and he suspects problems are created by a small number of people in the crowd.
"They make it look bad for all of us," he said. "We're not going to have that."
— swilliams@pressgazettemedia.com and follow him on Twitter @pgscottwilliams.
Read or Share this story: http://gbpg.net/1m9I16t

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Toy Korner, Toy Reviews
Spider-man:Homecoming Marvel Legends- The Movie Figures
By kastor417 - June 29, 2017
The new Spider-man: Homecoming Legends capture the look and the feel of the movie, while expanding the MCU roster in Legends.
Out of the new wave there are 3 movie based figures; Spider-man (Stark Suit), Spider-man (homemade suit), and the Vulture. The movie trio in this wave are some of the best examples of how much Marvel Legends has grown over the past few years. The Age of Ultron Avengers were great at the time, but now looking back they don't have great articulation and the paint is over glossy. These new Spider-man: Homecoming figures are not only well sculpted, but have clean paint and a great amount of articulation. We first saw MCU Spider-man in the Civil War 3-pack, and while it was a good figure there was something lacking, thank fully this new version is just what Spider-man fans need to make up their MCU Avengers team.
In the film Peter has two looks, his Stark suit and his original homemade suit, both capture the movie designs perfect. The Stark suit stands out with crisp clean colors, and has a surprising amount of circuitry details for retail figure. The costume captures the texture and the sleek look of the suit from the film, while incorporating a lot of articulation. The figure comes with pop out web-wings, and though they don't stay in place too well, they were a nice touch. The attachment points, under the biceps, are well hidden and don't impact the overall look of the figure. There is also an extra head, which allows collectors to mimic the different expressions the suit has in the film. Finally the figure like all the other Spider-men have interchangeable hands to give some web shooting action pose to the figure.
The homemade suit is definitely a nod to the Scarlet Spider suit in the comics, but also is just as well done as the Stark suit. The figure sculpting keeps the articulation but also keeps the baggy sweat suit look of the costume. This figure can have the hood up, which looks a little weird, or down. He also has multiple hands to give collectors options for some action shots. The best part of this figure is like in the film this looks like something a kid would make. It captures the feel of this new MCU Spider-man in some ways better than any of the other figures to date.
The final movie figure is the main bad guy, the Vulture. Not only is he the final figure, but his wings are the Build-a-figure feature of the wave. I was on the fence about not getting another figure with the wave, but the wings are massive and have a good range of motion. The team at Hasbro put just as much sculpting work into the wings as any figure, and certainly change my mind about having the wings as the BAF for the wave. The Vulture figure is also spot on compared to the movie design. Some might not that the fur on the bomber jacket is a little tame compared to the film, but because of the scale of Marvel Legends, trying to go bolder with that section would only hurt the overall look of the figure. The helmet is also one of the best parts in the whole wave, it has detail and depth, making it look like there is a head under that mask. unfortunately there is one issue with the figure, there is no Keaton head. The size of the wings also eliminated the possibility of another Vulture coming later with an unmasked head, like the Spider-man Iron Man Target 2 pack.
I usually try to stick to the comic figures, but this wave changed my mind, if the upcoming Thor Ragnarok figures are as good as these I will need the whole wave!
Thanks again to Hasbro for this set to review.
FIRST LOOK: Venom (Vudu Download) Retro Figure
The first, ever cinematic Venom action figure makes for a fun pack-in with Wal-Mart's home video exclusives.
Angela Is Coming To Marvel Legends
Hasbro reveals the winner of the 2015 Marvel Legends Fan Poll.


text:
John and Ken
Man killed in Amtrak crash was a convicted sex offender
By Nick VaVerka
Yesterday the Pierce County Medical Examiner in Washington identified the third victim of the Amtrak crash as 40-year-old Benjamin Gran from Auburn.
Officials say Gran had been ordered to a lifetime of supervised release after he was convicted of a felony for having child pornography. He spent two years in prison and was let out in 2015. His mom came to his defense and shared a statement with Q13 News:
"Ben was my 40 year old, autistic, but awesomely autistic son...who was an Amtrak fan to the max. He lived, breathed Amtrak since he was two years old. Ben is known for being warm, generous, loyal, and one who makes a difference in the lives he interacts with. Some years ago, he made a mistake, that he paid dearly for, and because of his optimism, a team of professionals and his best friends who believed in Ben, he turned his life completely around and was living his life in a mature, contributing manner, and was the happiest he had been in his life. He worked in the autism business world in accounting, and love his work family, and was moving forward in a way no one thought possible. His fateful ride on Amtrak 501 has left his friends and family shattered beyond belief. It is the posts from those who knew him well, and the Washington State Patrol's gracious actions in locating our boy, that have saved us from not being able to stand."
Amtrak Cascades 501 had 86 people on its first trip with paying customers, and was on a new stretch of track on the route from Seattle to Portland with it derailed on Monday. Three people were killed and dozens more were injured.
The other two victims were 61-year-old Jim Hamre and 35-year-old Zack Willhoite. They both died of severe brain injuries from blunt impact on the train.
Click here for more at Q13 News.


If you're wondering what it would have been like for those 689,000 guinea pigs who had their emotions manipulated by that controversial Facebook News Feed experiment? Well now you can. Sort of.
With more than a hint of sarcasm, one developer has built a FB Mood Manipulator plug-in for the Google Chrome web browser, allowing users to select which emotions they see reflected within status updates.
Using a progressive slider, users choose to see more or less Positive, Emotional, Aggressive and Open posts, with the News Feed automatically updating to account for words that fit the parameters.
Those four emotions were used by Facebook in its emotional contagion study, which found users posted more positively or negatively when exposed to similar emotions within their News Feeds.
"Why should Zuckerberg get to decide how you feel? Take back control. Leverage Facebook's own research to manipulate your emotions on your terms," writes New York-based developer Lauren McCarthy.
Of course, we took the Mood Manipulator for a quick spin. Requesting more positive emotions summoned happy posts containing words like; outstanding, phenomenal, rock, rule, proud, fun, sun, lovely, great and love.
Now we feel all warm inside, although that could be the faulty air conditioning inside this Starbucks.
Regardless, the Mood Manipulator seems like a viable way of getting rid of those Negative Nancys clogging up the News Feed on those days you need a little more sunshine in your life. Give it a spin and let us know your thoughts below.


As the Easter long weekend rolls around once again it's time to prepare yourself for the over-eating and cherished moments with family.
We say four days off in-a-row is a rare event, and one not to be wasted on the couch in your trackpants. But what's open over the Easter long weekend in Brisbane, we hear you collectively wondering?
For those poor unorganized souls who are staying in Brisbane for the Easter long weekend, we've put together a list of cafes, restaurants and bars that will kindly be keeping their doors open over the weekend. Thank goodness… surviving on hot cross buns and Easter eggs for four days straight would be no mean feat.
Join the team at Rogue Bar & Bistro for their 'Easter Feaster' on Thursday and Saturday night, a mouth watering three-course set menu. Bookings essential!
Open on Easter Saturday and Sunday, Gerard's is the perfect place for breakfast, lunch or dinner with those friends who are also stuck in Brisbane for the holiday. But who can complain when you're eating at Gerard's?
Bucci are open Good Friday, Easter Saturday and Sunday (closed Easter Monday) so make sure you stop by over the weekend for some of their delicious antipasti and a glass of vino.
If you would prefer treating yourself to an indulgent meal rather than gorging on hundreds of chocolate eggs then you're in luck, Malt Bar and Dining is open on Saturday and Sunday over the Easter weekend.
The perfect place to take family over the Easter weekend for a memorable dining experience, you can enjoy some of the best Australian produce, as Stokehouse is open for normal trading hours each day.
Watch the day slip away at The Jetty Southbank over the Easter weekend. Closed on Good Friday, but open from 11:30am on Easter Saturday, Sunday and Monday, what a perfect way to unwind, enjoying the river view whilst sampling a few of the Jetty's cocktail concoctions.
The Fox will be kicking off their Easter weekend with Tiki Thursdays held up at Dandy's Rooftop Bar. Closed on Good Friday (for recovery) but open again for the rest of the Easter weekend.
Celebrate the Easter holidays at Alfred & Constance with a delicious fish dish prepared by their talented chefs. Open every day over the holiday, from 7:30am.
Peasant, one of our all-time Spanish favourites, are open for lunch and dinner service on Good Friday, Saturday and Sunday, and closed on Monday.
What more could you need on the Easter weekend than freshly baked hot cross buns. Chester Street will be baking all weekend, open on Good Friday and Easter Monday from 8am till 11pm and Saturday and Sunday from 8am till late.
Limes Hotel will be open on Saturday from 12pm and Sunday night from 2pm for all you cool cats that can't have a weekend away from the rooftop bar.
The Jon Bonham Seattle Special will be served all weekend at Alfredo's (that's smoked salmon, capers, creme fraiche, watercress and lemon), which is just one of many reasons to get down to this pizzeria this weekend. Alfredo's is open all weekend from 12pm till late, very late.
Relax riverside and enjoy the glorious Italian fare that Popolo has to offer this Easter weekend. Specialising in rustic tapas and share plates, Popolo is another great place to take visiting family and friends, open all weekend for lunch and dinner.
The ever-popular Eat Street Markets at Hamilton Wharf will be open on both Good Friday and Saturday. Serving up cuisines from almost ever nation, as well as ice-cold boutique beers and wine.
The Gresham will be closed on Good Friday and Easter Monday but will be open on Saturday from 4pm and Sunday from 1pm for those of you who can't miss your weekly whiskeys, rums, and scotches (no judgement).
French Vietnamese haven, Libertine at The Barracks will be trading as normal from 12pm each day over the Easter weekend (with no surcharges!). A fab' spot for a cheeky drink or two and amazing grub, Libertine are also offering a special 5-course seafood extravaganza over Easter, available for both lunch and dinner.
The party starts Good Friday eve at The Story Bridge Hotel then kicks on with DJs and live music until late on Saturday and Sunday. Deery's Restaurant & Smokehouse will be serving up a sumptuous Easter Sunday long lunch, perfect for the whole family, and finishing with a recovery breakfast on Monday at Main St. Bar & Eatery.
West End cocktail haunt Lychee Lounge will be serving up their usual delicious menu (food and drink) and good times Easter Saturday, Sunday and Monday. Get your fix from 3pm til late!
Closed on Good Friday, but open all Easter weekend for lunch and dinner, The Chelsea is serving up new breakfast specials including their baked eggs with pork and fennel sausage, spicy tomato sauce and chevre mousse…yum!
The new Blackbird Bar & Grill continues to impress with its opulent restaurant and stunning bars, and will be open on Saturday and for lunch and dinner on Easter Sunday.
Quickly becoming a favourite amongst locals, Reef Seafood and Sushi in Newstead offers a large range of the freshest seafood and will be open over the Easter weekend.
Sourced Grocer will be open over the Easter weekend, serving up their ever-so-popular menu and produce. A relief for many coffee addicts!
Gasworks share-plates fave, Hatch & Co. are closed on Good Friday but open from 12pm till late Saturday, Sunday and Monday.
This east-side eatery is closed on Good Friday and Easter Sunday, but Pompidou are open for breakfast and lunch on Saturday and Monday from 7am.


text:
NHESS | Articles | Volume 20, issue 8
The mudflow disaster at Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia: understandings and insights derived from numerical simulation and postevent field surveys
The mudflow disaster at Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia: understandings and insights derived from numerical simulation and postevent field surveys The mudflow disaster at Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia: understandings and insights... Marcelo A. Somos-Valenzuela et al.
Marcelo A. Somos-Valenzuela1,2, Joaquín E. Oyarzún-Ulloa3, Ivo J. Fustos-Toribio3, Natalia Garrido-Urzua4, and Ningsheng Chen5 Marcelo A. Somos-Valenzuela et al. Marcelo A. Somos-Valenzuela1,2, Joaquín E. Oyarzún-Ulloa3, Ivo J. Fustos-Toribio3, Natalia Garrido-Urzua4, and Ningsheng Chen5
1Department of Forest Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Forest Sciences, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, 4780000, Chile
2Butamallin Research Center for Global Change, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, 4780000, Chile
3Department of Civil Engineering, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco, 4780000, Chile
4Servicio Nacional de Geologia y Mineria, Av. La Paz 406, Puerto Varas, Región de los Lagos, 5550000, Chile
5Key Laboratory of Mountain Hazards and Earth Surface Processes, Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
Correspondence: Ivo J. Fustos-Toribio (ivo.fustos@ufrontera.cl)
Received: 18 Dec 2019 – Discussion started: 16 Mar 2020 – Revised: 30 Jun 2020 – Accepted: 16 Jul 2020 – Published: 26 Aug 2020
The evaluation of potential landslides in mountain areas is a very complex process. Currently, event understanding is scarce due to information limitations. Identifying the whole chain of events is not a straightforward task, and the impacts of mass-wasting processes depend on the conditions downstream of the origin. In this paper, we present an example that illustrates the complexities in the evaluation of the chain of events that may lead to a natural disaster. On 16 December 2017, a landslide occurred in the Yelcho mountain range (southern Chile). In that event, 7 million m3 of rocks and soil fell on the Yelcho glacier, depositing 2 million m3 on the glacier terminal, and the rest continued downstream, triggering a mudflow that hit Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia and killing 22 people. The complex event was anticipated in the region by the National Geological and Mining Survey (Sernageomin in Spanish). However, the effects of the terrain characteristics along the run-out area were more significant than anticipated. In this work, we evaluate the conditions that enabled the mudflow that hit Villa Santa Lucía. We used the information generated by Sernageomin's professionals after the mudflow. We carried out geotechnical tests to characterize the soil. We simulated the mudflow using two hydrodynamic programs (r.avaflow and Flo-2D) that can handle the rheology of the water–soil mixture.
Our results indicate that the soil is classified as volcanic pumices. This type of soil can be susceptible to the collapse of the structure when subjected to shearing (molding), flowing as a viscous liquid. From the numerical modeling, we concluded that r.avaflow performs better than Flo-2D. The mudflow was satisfactorily simulated using a water content in the mixture ranging from 30 % to 40 %, which would have required a source of about 3 million m3 of water. Coupling the simulations and the soil tests that we performed, we estimated that in the area scoured by the mudflow, there were probably around 2 800 000 m3 of water within the soil. Therefore, the conditions of the valley were crucial to enhancing the impacts of the landslide. This result is relevant because it highlights the importance of evaluating the complete chain of events to map hazards. We suggest that in future hazard mapping, geotechnical studies in combination with hydrodynamic simulation should be included, in particular when human lives are at risk.
Article (PDF, 23851 KB)
Somos-Valenzuela, M. A., Oyarzún-Ulloa, J. E., Fustos-Toribio, I. J., Garrido-Urzua, N., and Chen, N.: The mudflow disaster at Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia: understandings and insights derived from numerical simulation and postevent field surveys, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 20, 2319–2333, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-20-2319-2020, 2020.
Landslide processes are particularly dangerous in areas close to human settlements. They can affect nearby villages, directly destroying houses and taking human lives (Gariano and Guzzetti, 2016) or indirectly affecting the connectivity of remote areas (Winter et al., 2016). The impacts of landslides are a function of the size of the event but also of the conditions downstream, for example glacial lakes susceptible to overflow as well as unstable valleys that, given the right soil matrix and water content, can mobilize and produce mudflows (Carey et al., 2011; Haeberli et al., 2013). Areas where glaciers are receding worsen this situation because they expose unstable hillslopes that can collapse as well as potentially create glacier lakes. Currently, baseline information availability is still critical in austral zones of South America, especially in northern Patagonia, with a low population density that has not encouraged rigorous evaluation. Moreover, in recent years landslide events have increased due to anthropic and climatic effects (Aldunce and González, 2009). At the same time, northern Patagonia shows an increase in the population (INE, 2018), increasing the risk. Therefore, a better understanding of the mudflows' chain of events triggered by landslides is urgent.
In our contribution, we evaluate the generation of a cascade of events associated with the Villa Santa Lucía mudflow in northern Patagonia. In this study, we evaluate the mechanisms that enable a landslide of 7×106 m3 to evolve to the catastrophic mudflow that destroyed Villa Santa Lucía in Chilean Patagonia, resulting in 22 people dead. The landslide, which may have been triggered by hydrometeorological conditions and destabilization of the wall around the receding glacier in the Yelcho range, led to the generation of a mudflow at the head of the Río Burritos that traveled around 10 km and affected 50 % of the urban area of Villa Santa Lucía on 16 December 2017. The first observations indicated that the event was possible because of the presence of a glacier lake. However, field results do not allow the support of this hypothesis in the area. Therefore, this study, which seeks to understand the conditions that enabled the event without the presence of a glacier lake, has a twofold application. First, it allows us to understand the mechanisms of the chain of events leading to the 2017 mudflow in Villa Santa Lucía, and second – and probably most important – it allows us to update the criteria for mapping risks associated with mudflows in Chilean Patagonia.
2 Study area
2.1 Location
Villa Santa Lucía is located in the valley of the Rio Frío, 75 km south of Chaitén (closest town), along the Carretera Austral, in the Los Lagos region, Chile. The landslide event started at the head of the Río Burritos basin (43.413∘ S, 72.367∘ W) that runs to the west of Villa Santa Lucía (Fig. 1). It begins on the eastern slope of the western side of the regional Andes, in the Yelcho glacier.
Figure 1a Study area and extension mudflow (South America and Los Lagos region layer from https://tapiquen-sig.jimdo.com (last access: 19 November 2019), b Río Burritos blue line layer from http://datos.cedeus.cl/ (last access: 19 November 2019, background © ESRI). c Elevation profile and geological formation along the mudflow path.
This area was under tectonic modeling associated with the Liquiñe–Ofqui fault system (LOFS), forming north–south-trending valleys (Hervé et al., 2017). The geomorphological analysis shows glacier erosion in the Rio Frío valley and Yelcho Lake during the Pleistocene followed by sedimentary deposition of volcanic and river processes (Sernageomin, 2018). The climate of the area presents intense thermal variations, high summer temperatures, and freezing temperatures in the winter. The rainfall reaches 3000 mm annually, decreasing to the east (CECS, 2017).
2.2 Geological setting
The study area consists mainly of nine geological units (Fig. 2). The dominant geological unit corresponds to an intrusive rock (Cretaceous and Miocene age) composed of tonalites, granodiorites, granites, diorites, and others. Moreover, the basement material is an old metamorphic rock. This unit is composed of micaceous shales, and amphibolite. Volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks represent, in part, the NW–SE volcanic arc, called the Cordón–Yelcho volcanic complex (Sernageomin, 1995). Sedimentary rocks, mainly sandstone, shales, and conglomerates are presented as intercalations. Recent sedimentary deposits are mainly associated with river, alluvial, colluvial, morainic, and glaciolacustrine deposits (Aguilera et al., 2014; Fig. 2).
Figure 2Geology of the study area (modified from Sernageomin, 1995).
2.3 Event background
The event in Villa Santa Lucía was triggered during a rainfall event that passed over the area. The event generated a significant record of rainfall surplus. Therefore, the hydrometeorological condition could constitute a condition of soil saturation that is favorable to natural hazards (Nguyen et al., 2018).
According to the information provided by the General Water Directorate (DGA in Spanish), the annual average rainfall in this area is 3420 mm. At the time of the event, the total annual rainfall was 3650 mm, and in the 30 h prior to the event the rainfall reached 124.8 mm, with a maximum intensity of 10.6 mm h−1 at 16:00 LT on 15 December 2017. This hydrometeorological event exceeds 99 % of the historical precipitation events in the area (CECS, 2017). The precipitation events in Villa Santa Lucía occurred after 2 weeks with maximum daily temperatures that exceeded 22 ∘C on at least 9 d between 1 and 15 December, with 2 and 5 December being the hottest days, with temperatures that exceeded 27 ∘C. During December, before the event, the air temperature reached an average of 14.9 ∘C (CECS, 2017). The Center for Scientific Studies (CEC in Spanish) determined through the data of a radiosonde located at Puerto Montt El Tepual (41.44∘ S, 73.09∘ W) that the isothermal level on 15 December was 2771 m a.s.l. (above sea level) for the Villa Santa Lucía coordinates. This implies that in the study area, there was only liquid precipitation on the days before the event, even in the glaciers of the Yelcho range, considering that the maximum heights of the peaks do not exceed approximately 1800 m a.s.l.
Previous studies show that the surroundings of the Villa Santa Lucía present a high and moderate risk of being affected by mass-wasting processes, highlighting possible debris flows at the bottom of the valleys and in active channels (Sernageomin, 2008). Areas not classified as high or moderate risk have low or no risk, which should be assessed in greater detail. High flood hazards should affect only the flood plain adjacent to Villa Santa Lucía, although some degree of risk in the town itself must be evaluated on a more detailed scale. This shows that the area of Villa Santa Lucía and its surroundings were and are prone to mass-wasting phenomena. Although the town itself was not at risk, it was mentioned that more detailed studies are needed in the area.
2.4 Description of the event
On 16 December 2017, a 7 million m3 volcanic rock slide detached (Fig. 3, point 1), falling next to the Yelcho glacier toe that sits on an intrusive formation that has a drop of about 80 m. The glacier has shown a retreat of at least 250 m during the last decade. Sernageomin (2018) indicated that there might have been a small lake and water available on top of the intrusive formation, but there is no conclusive information. Satellite images before the events do not indicate a lake above the intrusive unit. Also, there were indications that ice contributed to the mudflow. Remote-sensing data do not show that the landslide fell on top of the glacier unless detritus had covered the glacier, although we could see ice on top of the flank that collapsed. However, we do not have data to prove or rule out the covered ice on the intrusive unit nor to determine how much water it contributed to the mix. A total of 2 million m3 of the landslide material stayed above the intrusive unit, and 5 million m3 of material continued downstream, sliding on the intrusive unit at a slope of more than 70∘. At this point, the mudflow reached the Río Burritos with high topographic differences. The flow continued along with the drainage network at high speed (Figs. 1 and 3, point 2), adding a significant amount of sediment into the mudflow. The sediments are mainly associated with glaciolacustrine deposits (easy to mobilize) and ancient alluvials present in the valley and on the river walls.
Figure 3Flow trajectory scheme and details of the five key sections identified by Sernageomin and our fieldwork.
Additionally, the soil was almost saturated, which added water to the mix, transforming the landslide flow into a mudflow. Moreover, a dense forest was present, which added a significant amount of biomass to the mix. Then the mudflow reached an area with low slopes at a distance of 8.6 km from its origin through the Río Burritos to the east. In its trajectory, the mudflow crossed Route 7 (Carretera Austral) in a stretch estimated to be 2 km long and filled an old wetland. In that sector, the flow was channeled in a canyon oriented north–south toward Villa Santa Lucía in a section of 1.5 km (Figs. 1 and 3, point 4). Once the flood reached Villa Santa Lucía, it slowed down and deposited the sediment in an alluvial fan 600 to 1000 m wide with variable height between 1 and 5 m (Figs. 1 and 3, point 5). The mudflow destroyed 50 % of Villa Santa Lucía, killing 22 people and blocking two out of three accesses to the village (Route 7 and Route 235).
Through field observations, we identified five key sections that describe what happened in Villa Santa Lucía (Figs. 1 and 3).
Generation area: it has a range of peaks between 1000 and 1400 m a.s.l., with the main escarpment 900 m long and 520 m wide. The north wall has maximum slopes between 77 and 81∘ (Figs. 3 and 4a).
As a result of the chain processes, the material deposited acts as a dam, creating two small lakes. The largest lake has a length of 180 m and an average width of 50 m (Sernageomin, 2018).
Channeled flow: this corresponds to the upper segment at the foothills; the flow is channeled and travels 2 km. The flow width was between 200 and 400 m wide. Using photointerpretation of the digital elevation models (DEMs; SAF, 2017) and aerial photos, Sernageomin personnel (Sernageomin, 2018) estimated an approximate wave 20 m high (Figs. 3 and 4b).
Nonchanneled flow: this section has a length of 2.3 km in a west-to-east direction until the Río Burritos changes its orientation to a north–south direction. The elevation goes from 600 to 380 m a.s.l. The slopes decrease, slowing down the flow which deposited sediments. The nonchanneled flow width reaches 1.4 km. In this sector, the flow goes over the road (Carretera Austral), 1.3 km to the east, affecting an old wetland (Figs. 3 and 4c and d).
North–south channeled flow: the flow descends through the enclosed channel at the Río Burritos canyon from 380 to 250 m a.s.l. on a 2 km long section (Figs. 3 and 4e and f).
The alluvial fan on Villa Santa Lucía: due to the loss in confinement, the flow expands 600 to 1000 m with a radial distribution in a southeast–southwest direction (Figs. 3 and 4g and h).
Figure 4(a) Area of slope failure slide and deposit; (b) channeled flow at the foothills; (c, d) aerial photo of nonchanneled flood deposited in an old wetland captured with an Inspire II UAV; (e, f) photos of the channel in the last section before entering Villa Santa Lucía: (e) captured with an Inspire II UAV and (f) picture of the channel facing downstream. (h, i) Villa Santa Lucía after the mudflow (from Sernageomin, 2018).
In addition, Sernageomin (2018) estimated the volume of material mobilized during the event using DEMs created from photointerpretation of the orthomosaic provided by SAF (2017). Sernageomin (2018) identified the release and the intrusive formation before the mudflow started. They compared digital elevation models (Intermap and SRTM 30) before the event with the DEM created by SAF (2017) estimated a volume of 7 200 000 m3. Likewise, they estimated that approximately 2 200 000 m3 of sediments were deposited in the upper part of the basin and that approximately 5 000 000 m3 were the contribution to the flow.
The speed of the flow at the Río Burritos canyon (Fig. 4e and f) and at the beginning of Villa Santa Lucía when the flow opens (Fig. 4g and h) is approximately 20 m s−1 (Sernageomin, 2018).
3 Methodology
3.1 Fieldwork, topography, and soil characteristics
A fieldwork campaign was carried out in January 2019 to map in high resolution the area using an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). We used aerial photogrammetry to produce a high-resolution DEM for some parts of the study area. Aerial photogrammetry creates 3D models from 2D images, obtaining geometric characteristics of the objects they represent. We used an Inspire II UAV with a Zenmuse X4 camera to capture aerial photos (Fig. 5). We did not have differential GPS during this survey to take control points to correct the DEM generated. Therefore, we just used this DEM to corroborate that the DEMs with lower resolution and that were freely available were able to capture specific features such as canyons or small changes in slopes that could affect the hydrodynamic simulation and the path of the flood. We also generated a high-resolution mosaic to observe details of the mudflow deposition to improve the delimitation of the affected area. We used the software Agisoft PhotoScan Professional 1.4 desktop to process the images. The software performs the reconstruction of images by spatial coincidence among the elements represented in each image.
Figure 5UAV mapping survey.
In the study area, we have two freely available DEMs: the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) DEM of 30 m resolution and the ALOS-PALSAR DEM of 12.5 m spatial resolution. Alganci et al. (2018) and Caglar et al. (2018) compare these two DEMs and other global products, concluding that ALOS-PALSAR has fewer errors. Therefore, we used it for numerical simulation. We resampled the resolution of ALOS-PALSAR to 30 m to speed up the simulations.
3.1.1 Geotechnical sampling
It was not possible to carry out the extraction of unaltered geotechnical samples from the upper part, mainly due to the 5 km of steep terrain, including a section that needed to be climbed to transport the material by foot. However, we extracted soil samples in the middle-low part of the first section of the flow (Fig. 6). The geotechnical soil sample represents the material added to the mudflow during the event. Therefore, the soil properties become relevant to reproduce the mudflow flow of Villa Santa Lucía.
Figure 6Extraction of an undisturbed soil sample.
The tests performed to determine the geotechnical properties of the primary materials were a direct shear test, unconfined compression, density, and soil classification following the American Society of Testing Materials ASTM D3080 (ASTM, 2017a). The parameters obtained in each laboratory test serve as constraints for the numerical modeling of the mudflow of Villa Santa Lucía.
For the soil moisture, a wet portion of the soil was extracted and allowed to dry in an oven at 60 ∘C for 2 d. We then estimated mass soil water content (by weight) using the relation 1.96 gwater∕gsolid.
Then, a fraction of the soil sample was covered with paraffin to seal all pores and thus determine its density through the submerged weight difference. The wet soil density was 1.24 g cm−3, and the dry soil's apparent density was 0.419 g cm−3. The specific weight Gs was 2.65 g. Therefore, the void ratio was 5.324. Using these values, it turned out that the soil porosity was 84.18 % and the water saturation of the soil sample 97.4 %; therefore, 81.95 % of the total unaltered soil volume corresponded to water.
Then a direct shear test was performed in three probes. Each probe was loaded with 2, 4, and 8 kg, respectively, allowing them to consolidate for 24 h. We recorded the deformations versus time in the first sample to determine the speed for the direct shear test using the square root scale method (Table 1).
Table 1Direct shear test results.
Download Print Version | Download XLSX
Finally, we estimated a cohesion value of 22.5 kPa and an internal friction angle of 23.8∘.
3.1.2 Soil classification
In order to carry out the classification of the soil, we used two tests. First, we determined the soil granulometry using the American Society of Testing Materials ASTM D2487 (ASTM, 2017a), and then we determined soil consistency limits (liquid and plastic) using the American Society of Testing Materials ASTM D4318-17e1 (ASTM, 2017b). For the granulometry, Table 2 shows what percentages pass through the different sieve sizes. We omitted the larger sieves since 100 % of the material passed through them.
Table 2Percentage that passes through sieves.
Finally, the liquid and plastic limits of the soil are 50 % and 27 %, respectively. According to the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) classification, the soil corresponds to a CH, an inorganic clay of high plasticity, whereas for the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification, it is considered to be clay.
3.2 Numerical modeling
The modeling of the mudflow was carried out using two pieces of software: r.avaflow and Flo-2D, which we describe below. According to the antecedents of the event, the landslide fell on the intrusive formation. A fraction of the material stayed deposited between the glacier and the intrusive formation. The difference (about 5 million m3 of sediment) continued downstream, initiating the scouring process and mudflow that led to the Villa Santa Lucía event. Therefore, the domain of the models starts at the base of the intrusive formation with an initial volume of 5 000 000 m3.
3.2.1 r.avaflow
The software r.avaflow is an open-source model that offers a practical, innovative, and unified solution to simulate granular and debris flows produced in high mountains around the world. The model can handle rapid mass flows, including avalanches and two-phase flows (Mergili and Pudasaini, 2019). It calculates the propagation of mass flows from one or more given release areas on a defined baseline topography until (i) all material has been stopped and deposited, (ii) all the material has left the area of interest, or (iii) the maximum simulation time has been reached. The r.avaflow software is developed in two formats for its environment and operation, r.avaflow expert and r.avaflow professional. The latter is an autonomous version with reduced functionalities. It operates through a graphical user interface (GUI). In this study, we used the professional version (Mergili et al., 2017). This model represents a complete open-source computational framework based on a geographic information system (GIS) that offers a two-phase flow model. The entrainment of material along the flow path was also considered. These characteristics facilitate the simulation of complex mass flows as well as chained processes and interactions.
For the propagation of the flow, we used the Pudasaini model (Pudasaini, 2012), which is a two-phase mass flow model. Solid and fluid materials can be dragged from the bottom and incorporated into the flow. The r.avaflow output consists mostly of raster maps of solid and fluid flow heights, velocities, pressures, kinetic energies, and scoured heights.
3.2.2 Flo-2D
Flo-2D is a two-dimensional finite-differences model (FLO-2D, 2018; O'Brien and Zhao, 2004) that simulates non-Newtonian flow. The model creates simulations in complex topographies, urbanized areas, and floodplains, allowing fluid exchange between the channels and the floodplain. It can model water flows, hyperconcentrated sediment flows, and mudflows (FLO-2D, 2018; O'Brien and Zhao, 2004). The input data required are a digital topography of the land, the geometry of the channel, estimated values of the channel roughness and the flood plain, liquid and solid inputs, precipitation, and rheological properties of the water–sediment mixture. The software calculates the surface flow in eight directions, considering the conservation of the mass. It uses a variable time step by increasing and decreasing the scheme that incorporates efficient numerical stability criteria (FLO-2D, 2018). The rheological model used in Flo-2D is based on the work of Julien and Lan (2007), O'Brien et al. (1993), and O'Brien and Julien (1988), which describes the dynamic viscosity and the shear stress of the mixture as an exponential function of the sediment content (FLO-2D, 2018).
3.2.3 Model calibration
For the calibration of the models we used a trial-and-error approach seeking too match the following three pieces of data available from Sernagomin: (1) inundated area, which was mapped after the event using aerial imagery (SAF, 2017); (2) flow heights estimated by Sernageomin in Villa Santa Lucía and at the beginning of the canyon; and (3) flow velocities in the canyon curve and at the beginning of Villa Santa Lucía (Fig. 7). See Table 3 for the values.
Figure 7Location of the parameter estimation for the calibration of the models (background © ESRI).
Table 3Parameters for the calibration.
To define the model that best adjusts to Sernageomin's estimations, we calculated the standard deviation from the modeling results and the parameters from Table 3. The parameterization of the model with less standard deviation is considered the best parameterization for the particular software used.
4 Results
4.1 r.avaflow
To simplify the calibration, we divided the process into two. First, we set the sediment concentration by volume of the mudflow at 50 % and changed the entrainment coefficient, basal friction angle, ambient drag coefficient, and fluid friction coefficient. For the description of the parameters in r.avaflow see Mergili et al. (2017). Table 4 shows the first set of parameters used.
Table 4Initial parameters for the r.avaflow simulations.
The best set of parameters is 10−5.75, 2, 0.022, and 0.0005 for the entrainment coefficient, basal friction angle, ambient drag coefficient, and fluid friction coefficient, respectively, and the corresponding map result is in Fig. 8.
Figure 8Model results of r.avaflow for a concentration by volume of 50 % (background © ESRI).
Figure 8 shows good agreement with what was reported by Sernageomin (2018). However, the mixture is still largely fluidized, and it does not follow the edges of the inundation. For this reason, we performed simulations with the same input parameters but a varying percentage of initial water. We varied the percentage of water between 20 % and 70 %. The error for the heights and speeds calculated in each model is in Fig. 9. Therefore, we propose that a mudflow with a 30 % water volume could best reproduce the Villa Santa Lucía event (Fig. 10).
Figure 9Error obtained with different water content and the best set of parameters obtained in the first calibration (VSL: Villa Santa Lucía).
Figure 10Simulation results using the calibrated parameters for r.avaflow and 30 % water content (background © ESRI).
4.2 Flo-2D
The main results from Flo-2D for the mudflow flow in Villa Santa Lucía are presented below. For the laminar resistance k, we used the default number 3000. The influence of the value of k does not affect simulations significantly compared to other parameters related to flow resistance (Hsu et al., 2010). The specific gravity of sediments Gs is equal to 2.65 g cm−3. For the sediment concentration by volume, we used values between 40 % and 50 %, which correspond to mudflow flows. The error for the heights and speeds calculated in each model is in Fig. 11. Figure 12 shows the extension of the best model using Flo-2D.
Figure 11Sensitivity analysis for different dynamic viscosity and shear stress models (VSL: Villa Santa Lucía; FLO-2D, 2018).
Figure 12Result for Glenwood 1 using a 40 % concentration of water by volume (background © ESRI).
5.1 Geotechnical sample
Our geotechnical data show the soil corresponds to clay with high plasticity (CH). The soil has an internal friction angle of 23.8∘ and a cohesion value of 22.5 kPa, characteristic of a consolidated clay. However, the soil extracted had various types of soils and minerals in its composition, which made this a rare soil not described or classified by the USCS.
For the granulometry, 72 % of the soil passed through sieve no. 200. Mainly sand and volcanic soils did not pass sieve no. 200. Similar results were found by Gonzalez-Pulgar (2012) in volcanic soils that have an internal soil friction angle of 25∘ and a cohesion value of 2.9 kPa. Moreover, our results were consistent with their high soil water content, greater than 150 %, and a very low dry density of solids with values between 0.4 and 0.7 kg cm−3. The values obtained by Gonzalez-Pulgar (2012) are comparable to the results of this study.
The results of the dry density and natural moisture determination tests help to ascertain the natural state of the unaltered soil sample obtained in the mudflow zone of Villa Santa Lucía. Additionally, these tests help to calculate intrinsic soil parameters, such as the relative density of solid particles (2.65 g cm−3), the void ratio, the degree of saturation, and porosity. The humidity estimated under ASTM D2216-19 (ASTM, 2019) showed a value of 195.85 % and a dry-soil density of 48.1 kPa. The soil saturation was 97.4 %. Therefore, 81.58 % of the soil volume was water.
The previous result is relevant because the liquid and plastic limits are 50 % and 27 %, respectively. These parameters indicate whether the soil has a more liquid or plastic behavior given the moisture content. Also, incorporating the moisture of the soil sample of 195.85 %, the liquidity index was determined at a value of 7. When the liquid index is higher than 1, and the soil is subjected to cutting, it has a viscous liquid behavior. Such soils can be susceptible to the collapse of the soil structure. As long as they are not altered, they can be relatively stable, but if these soils are subjected to shearing (molding), and the soil structure collapses, then they can easily flow like a viscous liquid (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). These results show that the area downstream of the collapsed wall was prone to producing a mudflow due to the high water content, and the perturbation produced by the mudflow mobilized the soil bed, producing the mudflow flow that affected Villa Santa Lucía.
5.2 Back-calculation of the mudflow
The modeling in the r.avaflow software successfully reproduced the mudflow flow of Villa Santa Lucía. The model was able to reproduce the area affected, reference heights, and speeds during the back-calculations. Moreover, our results were highly consistent with in situ measurements 2 d after the event (Sernageomin, 2018). We ran 300 simulations to calibrate the model. We determined that the general ambient drag coefficient is the most sensitive of all since even a change of a decimal in the coefficient changed the viscosity of the flow, reducing or exaggerating the run-out. The sensitivity analysis showed that r.avaflow is also sensitive to changes in the basal friction angle. These strongly condition the rheology of the flow, determining the height and speeds. The results obtained in the modeling in the Flo-2D software were diverse. We could not achieve the same level of r.avaflow's results. The inundation area was the most sensitive result in the concentration of sediments by volume and the rheology model selected within Flo-2D (Fig. 11). The best combination of parameters was the Glenwood 1 rheology model and a 40 % concentration sediment, which has an error of 32 %. We concluded that we could reproduce the mudflow satisfactorily using r.avaflow with water content in the mixture ranging from 30 % to 40 % (Fig. 11).
For the calibration, we calculated the standard deviation from the modeling results and the parameters from Table 3. The parameter combination that results in less standard deviation is considered the best parameterization for the particular software used. Our procedure, as described in Saltelli and Annoni (2010), corresponds to a one-factor-at-a-time type of calibration where we changed one parameter at a time manually, trying to match Table 3. The limitations of this procedure, according to Saltelli and Annoni (2010), are that its efficiency is poor, and the method does not capture the interaction of the factors because that would require the movement of more than one element at a time. Therefore, the approach assumed that all the variables are independent, and the processes are linear, which is not usually the case. Another limitation of our calibration is the potential presence of equifinality. We did not test whether different combinations of parameters would provide similar performance. We selected the best combination of parameters without checking the degrees of freedom that these variables may have had to replicate the observations (Beven, 1996).
5.3 Source of water
From the observation and information provided by Sernageomin, our soil sample analyses, and numerical simulation, we found that the primary source of water was in the soil. Our analyses determined that in the area scoured, the soil has a porosity of 84.18 %. Similar values were reported by Cuevas et al. (2013) in volcanic soils in the south of Chile. From our observations, we also noticed the ground is saturated all the time. We did fieldwork after a couple of weeks of no rain, and the whole area around the river was saturated; indeed, our soil sample had a saturation of 97.4 %. Therefore, using the results from r.avaflow, we estimated that a volume of 3 402 100 m3 was scoured. Consequently, there was the potential of adding roughly 2.8 million m3 of water and 600 000 m3 of soil, which turned into a mudflow due to the water added to the event. Additionally, extra water not quantified in this study was added from the ice pieces that detached from the glacier and were carried by the landslide first and the mudflow later.
Our results highlight the importance of considering the potential chain of events in risk analysis and hazard mapping. In the practice of predicting a mudflow hazard, we seek areas where evident water sources are available, such as glacial lakes. However, in this work, we showed that it is possible to have the catastrophic event that hit Villa Santa Lucía only with the water within the soil in the valleys downstream of the landslide. Additionally, the soil has a particular volcanic origin, and it is highly fluidizable under low lateral effort. This result is relevant for the Patagonia region because, in order to update the hazard maps, we need to consider not only the primary events but also the potential reactions from the downstream elements of the chain of events, which as in this case, may not be evident prior to the event.
What actually triggered the landslide event is not clear and not part of this research. We focused on what conditions in the valley enabled the landslide to evolve into a mudflow and travel all the way to Villa Santa Lucía. We have no information to guess how much water was available at the glacier terminal, so we wanted to understand whether this event was possible without a lake or large water reservoir at the glacier. Our results show that in fact the water available around the Río Burritos was sufficient to transform the avalanche into a mudflow. Our numerical models and geotechnical work show that the mudflow event was possible due to pre-existing water in the saturated soil. Geotechnical evidence demonstrates a high-plasticity soil (CH) with a low internal friction angle associated with volcanic soils of the Holocene age. Hence, weak soils are prone to mass-wasting events due to their geomechanical properties.
6 Conclusions
Given the complexity and the potential increase in future extreme-event occurrences that can trigger landslides, we suggest that hazard studies should consider the structural conditions present in the area of influence of the mudflows. Soil characteristics ought to be included because they may be a crucial factor amplifying the impacts of local events triggered by hydroclimatic events. Such was the case of Villa Santa Lucía, where the water necessary to fluidize the mudflow mixture was in the soil in a volatile system that was easy to mobilize.
The combination of geotechnical tests and r.avaflow, which is a freely available computational software, to model mudflow is useful to characterize and reproduce mass-wasting events, such as the mudflow that occurred in December 2017 in Villa Santa Lucía, in Chile. Our results present the possibility of open-source software implementation to represent mudflow events in the Patagonian Andes with a good performance. These types of studies will allow for the integration of better methodologies to enhance risk scenarios related to mudflow events in active subduction zones like the Andes.
The ALOS-PALSAR DEM is publicly accessible at https://search.asf.alaska.edu/#/?dataset=ALOS (last access: 10 January 2019) (ASF DAAC, 2015). The r.avaflow model's setup used for the simulations is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3998134 (Oyarzún-Ulloa et al., 2020).
JOU contributed to the conceptualization and methodology of the research and performed the formal analysis, visualization, and validation. MSV and JOU contributed most of the writing of the original draft. MSV was involved in the funding, conceptualization, and supervision as well as in the translation, review, and editing of the paper. IFT contributed with the supervision, review, and editing of the paper. NGU and NC provided input in terms of methodology and the review and editing of the paper.
We want to thank the reviewers, Martin Mergili and Haruyuki Hashimoto, and the anonymous reviewer, whose suggestions helped improve and clarify this paper. We would also like to thank the research unit at the University of La Frontera for their support with the English review.
This study was made possible thanks to the Chilean National Agency of Research and Development (ANID in Spanish) through the Program of International Cooperation (PCI in Spanish; grant no. PII-180008) and the "Fondecyt Iniciación" program (grant no. 11170609).
This paper was edited by Daniele Giordan and reviewed by Martin Mergili, Haruyuki Hashimoto, and one anonymous referee.
Aguilera, F., Honores, C., Lemus, M., Neira, H., Pérez, Y., and Rojas, J.: Evaluación de los recursos geotérmicos de la Región de Los Lagos, Informe Registrado, Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, Santiago, Chile, 2014.
Aldunce, P. and González, M.: Desastres asociados al clima en la agricultura y medio rural en Chile, Fundación para la Innovación Agraria, Ministerio de Agricultura Chile, Santiago, 2009.
Alganci, U., Besol, B., and Sertel, E.: Accuracy assessment of different digital surface models, ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inform., 7, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi7030114, 2018.
ASF DAAC: ALOS PALSAR_Radiometric_Terrain_Corrected_hi_res; Includes Material ©JAXA/METI 2011, https://doi.org/10.5067/Z97HFCNKR6VA, 2015.
ASTM: D2487-17, Standard Practice for Classification of Soils for Engineering Purposes (Unified Soil Classification System), ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017a.
ASTM: D4318-17e1, Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017b.
ASTM: D2216-19, Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Determination of Water (Moisture) Content of Soil and Rock by Mass, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2019.
Beven, K.: Equifinality and uncertainty in geomorphological modelling, in: Sci. Nat. Geomorphol. Proceeding 27th Binghamt. Symp. Geomorphol., September 1996, Urbana-Champaign, IL, 289–314, 1996.
Caglar, B., Becek, K., Mekik, C., and Ozendi, M.: On the vertical accuracy of the ALOS world 3D-30m digital elevation model, Remote Sens. Lett., 9, 607–615, https://doi.org/10.1080/2150704X.2018.1453174, 2018.
CECS: Informe glaciológico sobre el flujo de detritos que afectó Villa Santa Lucía el 16 de diciembre del 2017, Laboratorio de Glaciológia, Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia, Chile, 2017.
Cuevas, J., Horn, R., Seguel, O., and Dörner, J.: Hydraulic conductivity variation in chilean volcanic soils due to wheeling and management, J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr., 13, 756–766, https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-95162013005000060, 2013.
FLO-2D: Reference Manual, FLO-2D Software, Inc., Nutrioso, AZ, 2018.
Gonzalez-Pulgar, C. A.: Propiedades Geomecánicas De Dos Suelos De Origen Volcánico, Universidad de Chile, available at: http://repositorio.uchile.cl/handle/2250/102764 (last access: 20 June 2020), 2012.
Hervé, F., Fuentes, F. J., Calderón, M., Fanning, M., Quezada, P., Pankhurst, R., and Rapela, C.: Ultramafic rocks in the North Patagonian Andes: is their emplacement associated with the Neogene tectonics of the Liquiñe–Ofqui Fault Zone?, Andean Geol., 44, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.5027/andgeoV44n1-a01, 2017.
Holtz, D. R. and Kovacs, D. W.: An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 733 pp., 1981.
Hsu, S. M., Chiou, L. B., Lin, G. F., Chao, C. H., Wen, H. Y., and Ku, C. Y.: Applications of simulation technique on debris-flow hazard zone delineation: a case study in Hualien County, Taiwan, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 10, 535–545, https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-10-535-2010, 2010.
INE: Memoria del Censo 2017 – Chile, Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Santiago, Chile, 2018.
Julien, P. Y. and Lan, Y.: Rheology of Hyperconcentrations, J. Hydraul. Eng., 117, 346–353, https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9429(1991)117:3(346), 2007.
Mergili, M. and Pudasaini, S. P.: r.avaflow – The mass flow simulation tool, r.avaflow 2.0 Software 2014–2019, available at: http://r.avaflow.org/software.php (last access: 20 June 2020), 2019.
Mergili, M., Fischer, J. T., Krenn, J., and Pudasaini, S. P.: R.avaflow v1, an advanced open-source computational framework for the propagation and interaction of two-phase mass flows, Geosci. Model Dev., 10, 553–569, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-10-553-2017, 2017.
Nguyen, D. H., Van Nguyen, T. H., Le, Q. H., Pham, V. S., and Nguyen, H. K.: TXT-tool 2.084-3.1 Rainfall Thresholds for Triggering Geohazards in Bac Kan Province (Vietnam), in: Landslide Dynamics: ISDR-ICL Landslide Interactive Teaching Tools, vol. 1, edited by: Sassa, K., Guzzetti, F., Yamagishi, H., Arbanas, Ž., Casagli, N., McSaveney, M., and Dang, K., Springer International Publishing, Cham, 351–360, 2018.
O'Brien, J. S. and Julien, P. Y.: Laboratory Analysis of Mudflow Properties, J. Hydraul. Eng., 114, 877–887, https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(1988)114:8(877), 1988.
O'Brien, J. S. and Zhao, B.: Real Time Rainfall-Runoff Modeling on Alluvial Fans, Floodplains, and Watersheds, in Critical Transitions in Water and Environmental Resources Management, American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, 1–9, 2004.
O'Brien, J. S., Julien, P. Y., and Fullerton, W. T.: Two-Dimensional water Flood and mudlow simulation, J. Hydraul. Eng., 119, 244–261, 1993.
Oyarzún-Ulloa, Somos-Valenzuela, and Fustos-Toribio: R.avaflow model for the VSL event, Zenodo, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3998134, 2020.
Pudasaini, S. P.: A general two-phase debris flow model, J. Geophys. Res.-Earth, 117, F03010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002186, 2012.
SAF: Aluvión NIR, SAF Fuerza Aérea de Chile, Santiago, available at: https://www.saf.cl/ (last access: 10 May 2019), 2017.
Saltelli, A. and Annoni, P.: How to avoid a perfunctory sensitivity analysis, Environ. Model. Softw., 25, 1508–1517, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.04.012, 2010.
Sernageomin: Carta Metalogénica X Región sur, Informe Registrado IR-95-05, 4 Tomos, 10 Vols., 95 mapas, diferentes escalas, available at: http://www2.sernageomin.cl/biblioteca/cgi/wxis.exe?IsisScript=plus.xis&mfn=011094&base=Bsngm (last access: 20 June 2020), 1995.
Sernageomin: Evaluación Preliminar de los Peligros Geológicos en la localidad de Villa Santa Lucía, Provincia de Palena, Región de Los Lagos, Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, Puerto Varas, Chile, 2008.
Sernageomin: Origen y efectos de la remoción en masa del 16.12.2017 que afectó la localidad de Villa Santa Lucía, comuna de Chaitén, Región de los Lagos, Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería, Puerto Varas, Chile, 57 pp., 2018.
This work presents a study of the biggest mudflow event in 20 years in Chilean Patagonia, which resulted from an avalanche in the Cordon Yelcho. We integrate in situ geotechnical tests and numerical modeling to model the Villa Santa Lucía mudflow event. Our results suggest that the initial soil water content is sufficient to transform the landslide and scoured soil into a mudflow. Therefore, knowing the soil characteristics is crucial to evaluating the impact of landslides in the study area.
This work presents a study of the biggest mudflow event in 20 years in Chilean Patagonia, which...


text:
September 30, 2017 buffalobrianbreen
ELIMINATING A CANCER FROM THE TEAM!!!
There is a long-held standard in the world of sports that for the team to succeed you have to get rid of individuals who aren't team players, have a grandiose view of themselves, and could care less about any objective other than their own agenda. This type of individual is often referred to as a cancer, whether, in the locker room, on the field of play, or away from the team it's always the same symptoms. The simple fact is, not removing or eliminating the cancer on a team is just like fighting the disease itself, cancer spreads, and once it has spread too far the fate is inevitable.
The Office of Police Ombudsman Commission, which theoretically is supposed to work as a team with the Office of Police Ombudsman haven't been much of a team since their inception, the fact is as I have reported earlier, OPOC Chair Debra Conklin has caused so much dissension on the team, not only because of her disdain for OPO Bart Logue, but her involvement in other things as well including sticking her nose into the Civil Service process which prohibits her right hand gal, confidant, and operative Martha Huseman from continuing in Huseman's role as OPOC Coordinator after Huseman failed the Civil Service typing test not once but twice that her actions and conduct can easily be compared with that of Rachel Dolezal. I honestly can't figure out how anyone could conclude that because Huseman could not pass a civil service exam, and was therefore not qualified for the position, could possibly be make the Civil Service process "sexist".
As I reported earlier, Conklin was not reappointed by the City Council when her term expired September, 15, 2017, one obvious sign that the City Council knows exactly what has been going on. Of course, when Conklin was asked to resign, she refused even though any reasonable, non-self-serving person who truly believed in good police oversight would have done so for the good of the oversight mission.
The usual blame game has gone on where no one wants to except responsibility for getting the cancer cut out and the likely next move of passing the Chair to someone else simply shows a grasping for straws mentality while trying to find a way keep on with an agenda driven self-serving plan. Is it the Mayor's job, the City Council's job, the rest of the OPOC members job, just whose job, is it? Is it the lack of a well-defined removal process in the OPOC Ordinance and the City Code of Ethics which would be the purview of the Mayor?
Perhaps it would be a good time to remind the Mayor of the demands I had for settlement of my PRR Lawsuit against the City and how adamant I was that this was included.
It isn't like the majority of City Government, some local reporters, SPD, and a few community folks haven't known about the dysfunction that has been going on for some time, as an example:
How long you ask?
These are just two of several emails regarding Conklin that have been circulating around City Hall, and the email interaction between Council Members Beggs, Kinnear, and Conklin dating back some time are in some cases laughable at best.
What say you Council Members Kinnear and Beggs?
Do the City Council fear political ramifications from Conklin's followers to bring forth have a NO CONFIDENCE VOTE?
Does the Mayor simply want to distance himself, sit back, and watch the Liberal side of City Government fail to act in his "National Model of Police Oversight"?
Who's bright idea was it to try and force Logue to become the scapegoat by trying to get him to complain about something others knew full well about? Does anyone down there at City Hall remember the Cotton/Straub Fiasco and what that costs the Citizens of Spokane?
https://files.acrobat.com/a/preview/4e71272b-995e-4f30-87bc-c2368f468e16
Once again, with the new US Attorney General's new policy of staying out of Police Oversight the baton is passed to the Locals, and if local oversight is dysfunctional what bloody good is it.
The full court press is on to find a replacement for Conklin to try and save some embarrassment from her refusal to step down, the question is, will the next choice be ideology, bias, and agenda driven or just plain Citizen Jane or Joe with the ability to put any bias or agenda aside and do what is best for the ENTIRE COMMUNITY?
The truth, no matter how hard to take or how embarrassing, is the only route to healing!
MORE OF THE WIZARD BEING NOT SO WIZARDLY!!!
https://onedrive.live.com/?authkey=%21AH%5FItNcU38vHfKE&cid=DFCF3DD2E665E533&id=DFCF3DD2E665E533%2145839&parId=DFCF3DD2E665E533%2126333&o=OneUp
http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2017/sep/27/knezovich-warns-north-monroe-road-project-would-im/
https://examplepro.me/2017/03/05/pulling-back-the-curtain-on-spokane-countys-very-own-wizard/
https://files.acrobat.com/a/preview/83819056-e485-4805-825d-912d91e0d271
https://www.facebook.com/spokesmanreview/
I REPORT HSS YOU DECIDE!!!
WHATEVER YOU DO DON'T PICK A MAN WHO WEARS A SUIT AND TIE!!!
As an update to my earlier story today I just received this from Brian Coddington in my Media Email Folder.
The backstory to all of this is typical HSS (Hilarious Spokane Stuff), needless to say and as expected the "Nasty Women Born in January" refused to quietly resign and fade into the sunset. So how long she stays on the OPOC is a question mark. As soon as someone else is appointed she legally has to be gone from the OPOC, or if no one steps up to the plate she can cause havoc until 90 days after September 15th, 2017 which is when her term ended.
In the meantime, I'll just be sitting back waiting for my PRRs.
NEVER UNDERESTIMATE A NASTY WOMEN BORN IN JANUARY!!!
Trust me, the Spokane Police Guild as well as the Lieutenants and Captains Association didn't underestimate anything when they agreed to a contract clause that established the Office of Police Ombudsman Commission for Mayor Condon's "National Model of Police Oversight".
Yup, the Unions knew full well that any civilian review commission or board would end up exactly like they all have in the past, a political quagmire with an inability to accomplish anything, and yes folks that is exactly where the OPOC and the OPO are today, in a political quagmire where the Mayor, and City Council can't figure out how to get rid of OPOC Chair Debra Conklin despite a number of complaints about her conduct and attempts to completely dominate an oversight panel in the interest of forwarding her own agenda and ideology.
In the case of Rachel Dolezal fear of alienating the African American Community prevented movement on the part of the politicians to do the right thing, and we all know what great national headlines that resulted in. In the case of her replacement Chair Debra Conklin some politicians are in great fear of alienating Debra Conklin's very Liberal followers and a voting block they need to get re-elected.
Documents which include electronic interaction between Conklin and Councilpersons paint the ugly picture, as does other communications responsive to my Public Records Request which I submitted back in May 2017 and have yet to receive.
Conklin's disdain for OPO Bart Logue is very well known throughout City Hall as well as among many of Conklin's followers. Her disdain for Logue likely not only stems from his military background but also from the fact the Conklin was unable to get her guy Canadian Raheel Humayun the job.
http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2016/apr/22/spokane-police-ombudsman-search-to-start-over-afte/
https://www.inlander.com/spokane/man-in-the-middle/Content?oid=2771558
https://examplepro.me/2015/11/04/only-in-spokane/
"Commission chair Deb Conklin said offering interim ombudsman Bart Logue the permanent job would run counter to the city ordinance, but that he will be encouraged to apply."
http://www.krem.com/news/local/spokane-county/spokane-police-ombudsman-search-to-start-over/151204105
Conklin's demeanor during the OPOC meetings when discussion turned to re-opening the search for an OPO when her guy couldn't get a US Visa and her statement that only "Second Tier" candidates would apply pretty much says it all… she considered Logue who was interim OPO at the time "Second Tier", despite the fact that both Mayor Condon and Council President Stuckart recommended the OPOC hire Logue.
http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2016/apr/04/condon-stuckart-urge-commission-to-keep-interim-om/
In character when it comes to law and ordinances, including the Public Records Act, Conklin wanted to tweak the OPO Ordinance to get her guy Humayun the job.
"Commission Chairwoman Deb Conklin suggested tweaking Humayun's visa application and having him apply again at the Canadian border, an action recommended by an immigration attorney who has consulted with the commission."
http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2016/mar/21/visa-request-of-man-picked-to-be-spokane-police-om/
Even though Logue was eventually appointed to the OPO job, when Conklin figured out his appointment was inevitable she of course still got her shot in at Logue by articulating her preference for MacConnell… no surprise there!
"Four commissioners voted unanimously to offer Logue the job, though before the vote, commission chair Deb Conklin said she thought the other candidate, former Phoenix police officer Jacquelyn MacConnell, was stronger."
"She's a person who comes with a lot of creativity and energy and a willingness to think outside the box," Conklin said.
http://www.spokesman.com/stories/2016/sep/06/logue-wins-job-as-permanent-police-ombudsman/
So, What's the Latest?
As the email exchange below clearly demonstrates Logue has decided to take the high road in the interest of trying to not make Spokane Police Oversight a complete joke.
I have lots more coming on this issue including the requirements set forth in the Nissen v Pierce County case where the Washington State Supreme Court directed the Pierce County Prosecutor to obtain transcripts via his carrier Version and turn them over to Pierce County. What say you Mr. Ormsby?
https://files.acrobat.com/a/preview/20681d2c-7380-4e99-9e01-e779dfc538bf
About the only thing Debra Conklin and I have in common is we were both born in January, and admittedly although I can be "Nasty" at times, I think I'm more of a Curmudgeon than just outright "Nasty". Having said that, I did try and find an image of a t-shirt that said "Never Underestimate A Nasty Man Who Was Born In January" to include with this story but I was unable to find one so if anyone has one please pass it along! 😊


text:
Das ehemalige Kutscherhaus steht im Stadtteil Venn in Mönchengladbach (Nordrhein-Westfalen), Roermonder Straße 279 a–c.

Das Gebäude wurde 1898 erbaut. Es wurde unter Nr. R 021 am 2. Juni 1987 in die Denkmalliste der Stadt Mönchengladbach eingetragen.

Lage

Das Kutscherhaus, das zur Villa Walendy gehört, liegt an der alten Verbindungsstraße Mönchengladbachs nach Hardt und weiter nach Roermond.

Architektur

Das kurz vor der Jahrhundertwende (wahrscheinlich 1898) fertiggestellte Kutscherhaus bildet mit seinem offenen Torbogen die Eingangssituation der Anlage Roermonder Str. 279. Das ehemalige Kutscherhaus reicht über einen spitzen Winkel in den Park hinein.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Wohngebäude in Mönchengladbach
Baudenkmal in Mönchengladbach
Erbaut in den 1890er Jahren


text:
The Latest: McConnell won't be watching Mueller testimony
FILE – In this May 29, 2019, file photo, Special counsel Robert Mueller speaks at the Department of Justice in Washington, about the Russia investigation. House Republicans are pledging tough questioning of special counsel Robert Mueller when he testifies before Congress this week as Democrats plan to air evidence of wrongdoing by President Donald Trump in a potentially last-ditch bid to impeach him. (AP Photo/Carolyn Kaster, File)
WASHINGTON (AP) — The Latest on congressional testimony by former special counsel Robert Mueller (all times local):
Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell says he doesn't intend to watch former special counsel Robert Mueller testify before Congress on Russia's interference in the 2016 election.
The Republican told reporters Tuesday the public already has a "pretty full picture" of Mueller's report.
McConnell said he doesn't know "how many times we want to see this movie again." He said the public has "moved on past" it.
The former special counsel is set to appear Wednesday in his first extended public remarks since being appointed more than two years ago to lead the probe.
Mueller's 448-page report released in April did not establish that Trump's campaign conspired or coordinated with Russia. But the special counsel did not exonerate President Donald Trump of wrongdoing in obstructing the investigation.
Former special counsel Robert Mueller has requested that a longtime associate appear alongside him when he testifies to Congress on Wednesday.
Mueller has asked that Aaron Zebley, his former chief of staff and his top aide on the Russia investigation, accompany him at the witness table during Wednesday's hearing. That's according to a person familiar with the negotiations who requested anonymity to discuss the matter.
Republicans are opposed to the request.
Georgia Rep. Doug Collins, the Judiciary panel's top Republican, called the move an "apparent stunt" by Democrats. He said it "shows the lengths Democrats will go to protect a one-sided narrative from a thorough examination by committee Republicans."
Mueller is scheduled to testify before the House Judiciary and intelligence committees.
—By Mary Clare Jalonick
The Justice Department has told former special counsel Robert Mueller not to stray beyond his report on Russian election interference when he testifies to Congress on Wednesday.
The department says in a letter that Mueller should not speak about redacted material from his report — including material pertaining to pending criminal prosecutions, "uncharged third-parties" and "executive privilege," such as "presidential communications privileges."
The letter is entirely in line with what Mueller has already said — which is that he doesn't intend to speak beyond his report's findings during Wednesday's congressional hearings. But Democrats are preparing questions to highlight the report's most damning details.
The department provided the letter Monday in response to what it said was a request from Mueller about limitations or potential privilege issues affecting his testimony.
Djokovic: wildfires could cause problems for Australian Open
by JOHN PYE AP Sports Writer / Jan 4, 2020
BRISBANE, Australia (AP) — Novak Djokovic has voiced concerns about the impact of the devastating wildfires in Australia on tennis' season-opening major, saying organizers may have to consider delaying the tournament if conditions around Melbourne deteriorate.
Djokovic has won a record seven Australian Open men's championships at Melbourne Park among his 16 Grand Slam singles titles and will be among the favorites again when the tournament is scheduled to start on Monday, Jan. 20.
Rockets fired after day of mourning for slain Iranian leader
by QASSIM ABDUL-ZAHRA and SARAH EL DEEB Associated Press / Jan 4, 2020
BAGHDAD (AP) — Thousands of militiamen and other supporters chanting "America is the Great Satan" marched in a funeral procession Saturday in Baghdad for Iran's top general after he was killed in a U.S. airstrike, as the region braced for the Islamic Republic to fulfill its vows of revenge.
Gen. Qassem Soleimani, the head of Iran's elite Quds Force and mastermind of its regional security strategy, was killed early Friday near the Baghdad international airport along with senior Iraqi militants in an airstrike ordered by President Donald Trump. The attack has caused regional tensions to soar and tested the U.S. alliance with Iraq.
KNWA / 3 hours ago


text:
DTW's Top Twenty-Two Great European Cars – Part 1
Some time back, DTW surveyed the world of cars to produce a definitive top 50 of all time. In this series, we narrow the field to European vehicles and present a run-down of the best Eurocars ever. The ratings are based on a weighted combination of engineering, styling, boot capacity and overall significance.
Borgward P100: reddit
We will start off by a reminder of why a Seat, a Borgward and a Fiat are remembered as they are.
The dubious honour of trailing at number 22 in this list belongs to the 1991 Seat Toledo. That was the one that set the standard the others never quite lived up to. To find out more about the Toledo and the others you have to carry on reading…. so please do.
1992 Seat Toledo. Made in Spain: http://www.bestsellingcarsblog.com
That Seat – the Toledo, the car that insiders know as the Typ 1L was on sale from May 1991 to March 1999 as a five-door hatch. This configuration created some clear blue water between it and the similar Jetta/Vento of the same time: the 'ledo's boot approached 551 litres if you crammed in things with enough force, possibly even 552 litres.
ItalDesign served up the crisp and distinctive lines of the car, setting down the main themes that have stayed with Seat to this day. The car lived in the era of intelligible engine displacements: 1.6, 1.8 and 2.o litre petrols and the inevitable odd-numbered 1.9 litre diesel intended for Malaga taxi drivers and duffel-coat wearers in Macclesfield.
Five speed manuals were standard and though it didn't come across as a sporting car, it found an audience as warm performance car. The germ of Seat's sporting image developed from this car. That happened because VAG really needed to find a way to distinguish the Toledo from its Audi and VW offerings, a problem it didn't have before.
This example I found for sale for 500 euros:
1992 Seat Toledo: Autoscout 24
You may have noticed DTW keeps coming back to the Toledo. It is something of a fascinating hybrid and almost certainly what we now often like to call a "game-changer": built in Spain to VW standards, with ItalDesign input in a market sector geared to saloons, this five-door surprised and satisfied by turns. Future classic? Don't say it too loud because then everyone will want one.
1960 Borgward P100 – was this affordable luxury? Image: http://www.history-of-cars.com
Number 21 – 1961 Borgward P100
Carl F.W. Borgward gmbh, the noted Bremen-based manufacturer presented this aristocratic carriage at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 1959. These days we consider the position of the Audi/Mercedes/BMW triumvirate to be an inevitability. From the banks of the Weser in 1959 that did not seem so clear. Borgward was among Germany's leading car makers.
In 1959 the world looked very different and if you wanted a well-made and bourgeois alternative to a Mercedes, then you went quickly hence to Borgward. No other German manufacturer came close in terms of engineering innovation. VW only made economy cars and BMW was toying with small saloons of considerable technical indifference.
Despite the production numbers remaining in the 4-figure range (manufacture only lasted under two years), the car has left a lasting impact. The car boasted (though modestly) a 2.2 straight six petrol engine and a 4-speed, syncromesh manual transmission. The tidy, reserved and almost mid-Atlantic styling disguised the car's 4.7 metre length and 1.7 metre width.
Bremen built these cars to last, as evinced by the hefty, Jaguar-challenging 1650 kg kerbweight. Borgward wanted a car to serve the captains of industry thriving amidst the Wirtschaftswunder years: it could pull 100 mph and had "Airswing" air-suspension to cushion the rush from Aschaffenburg to Worms, for example. That feature appeared before Mercedes managed to offer a version of it on their own cars. It was perhaps the last of Borgward's many firsts.
The car had to compete with stiff competition from Mercedes, whose 220E made much of the running. Even if Borgward borrowed something of the Anglo-Saxon habit of releasing cars with a tendency to teething troubles but the P100 did rather well in monthy-sales terms and had Borgward continued trading there are reasonable grounds to imagine that the car would have had a successful run and sired a successor.
Autobild Klassik dubs the P100 the "forgotten milestone". There are only about 50 left out of the roughly 5000 made.
Here's one from an earlier time, the 1983-1990 Fiat Regata: reddit
1983 Fiat Regata – To introduce this landmark car I have to go the Danish-language section of Wikipedia and translate this almost directly: "The Regata was a car made by Fiat. The car replaced the (respected and long-lived) Fiat 131 in 1983 and in turn was replaced by the Fiat Tempra".
Production lasted six tumultuous years during which standards of design and engineering changed markedly and the hang-over from the national markets began to wane. Despite these vicissitudes, the Tempra kicked the shins of the Ford Orion, Volvo 340, Mitsubishi Lancer and even Volkwagen Jetta.
Interestingly, the car is related to the Seat Malaga which in Greece was sold as the Gredos: appropriate enough as the Regata's rorty and torquey motors had no trouble with inclines and ascents. Due to the light steering they also thrived in the twisties of which the Gredos range has many.
Students of Seat history will also recall that the Regata was effectively replaced by none other than the Seat Toledo. What sets the Regata apart is the tidy and reserved styling and the broad range of engines, turning out between 65 and 100 bhp which meant that whether you were in search of economy or performance there was a Regata for you.
Unlike the VW Golf, the Regata had a boot – and a commodious one at that. Such was the appeal of the car that the Irish Ordnance Survey chose an image of one for the front cover of its 1:56,000 scale maps which are the ones antiquarians and landscape enthusiasts turn to today when exploring any of the Hibernian countryside not yet marred by ghost estates and shopping centres.
At the time of writing Autoscout had none at all for sale: that might mean that those who own them never sell them. Food for thought.
Author richard herriottPosted on 27 Mar 2018 22 Mar 2018 Categories Borgward, Car Culture, Fiat, Marques, Seat, The HistoryTags 1962 Borgward P100, Fiat Regata, Seat Toledo
14 thoughts on "DTW's Top Twenty-Two Great European Cars – Part 1"
Sean Lovis says:
27 Mar 2018 at 08:12
I can only assume Richard that you've never set foot inside the Seat Toledo, the car which must surely have the dreariest interior of the '90s. Incidentally, the Fiat Regatta soldiered on until 1990 when the Tempra replaced it.
simonstahel says:
The Regata actually was quite a seller here, mainly for its very competent estate with the typical opening in the rear bumper for low loading height.
What I also found interesting on that car was how much was done to make it appear different from its base, the Ritmo – much more than the Jetta was different from the Golf, for example. The straightened front fascia and the clamshell bonnet made it look more substantial than the facelifted Ritmo. They did a similar effort to set the Tempra apart from the Tipo, by the way.
The Borgward P100 as well as its hump backed Hansa 2400 predecessor were very expensive cars. The P100 cost about four times the average yearly income of a factory worker, so it's small wonder the production numbers were not too high.
At the time of the P100's presentation Germany only slowly progressed from125cc motorcycles and all kinds of micro cars to VW Beetles.
With their Hansa, Goliath and Lloyd sub-brands Borgward also provided cars for everyday people. Technical progress wasn't restricted to the expensive Borgwards, as the Lloyd Alexander was a (rare) near-micro car with a four stroke engine and the Goliath 500 had a two stroke engine with direct injection into the transfer ports.
Borgward cars always had a couple of characteristic features: baroque styling even for the time, impossible seating position that only fitted one person on earth (CFW Borgward himself) and a fanatic fan base even when the cars were still available new. Most Borgward drivers wouldn't be seen dead in anything else and many kept their beloved Isabellas long after the company had gone bankrupt. For non-Borgwarders the cars were an acquired taste, much more so than a Mercedes and later BMW Neue Klasse.
Robertas Parazitas says:
Indeed, the Bremers drive little else, as I discovered on a recent trip to the city.
That must be a different Bremen than the one I visited three months ago. Yours also seems to be sunny.
jacomo says:
Two remarkable features of the Toledo were its C-shape boot spoiler (original, and clearly done so well that no one has even attempted to copy it since) and its extraordinarily short wheelbase.
VAG used to allow its subsidiary brands to create odd misfits like this, before its platform sharing strategy became so rational and comprehensive. The Skoda Yeti was another mongrel creation that was executed rather well.
I suspect these (relatively) quirky offerings won't be repeated.
The Toledo's short wheelbase was the result of it being based on the Golf Mk3 platform with identical wheelbase for both cars.
Nowadays the MQB platform would be used wich is the most flexible and versatile system on the market where even the otherwise fixed triangle of pedals-to-steering column-to upper suspension mounts is variable.
S.V. Robinson says:
I remember the Regatta quite fondly – I think it must have been a time of life thing. It looked very nice, especially given that it was basically a Ritmo/ Strada with a boot. FIAT's brochure photography of the time always managed to make its models look better quality and more exotic and sophisticated than they were too; I don't think that 'Photoshop' existed then, so I believe one has to attribute it to a certain quality of the lighting in the studio and/ or the skill of the photographer. I think that, like the Ritmo, they rotted rather easily, but I'd have had one over an Orion or Jetta of the time on looks and boot space alone. Great choice. Encore! Encore!!
Markus Neubrand says:
Mr. Borgward wanted the P100 to be a german luxury car with a pininfarinian elegance – a german Lancia. But the P100 always looked more like a car for an russian communistic Apparatschik than a car belonging to a german business man of the Wirtschaftswunder or to a famous movie star of the german Heimatfilm era…
On home turf the big Borgwards competed with cars like the extremely sober Benz W180 'big ponton' or BMW 501/502 'baroque angel' which looked much more restrained and therefore were accepted much more easily.
The car coming closest was the Opel 'keyhole' Kapitän with equally extrovert looks, which was much less technically advanced and much cheaper.
Those who wanted an upmarket car and could afford it bought the Benz and those who wanted to openly boast of having made it in post war Germany bought the Opel. Openly showing one's (real or perceived) wealth wasn't seen as a sign of good taste at that time.
Borgward managed to build one of the dream cars of the Fifties with its Isabella, which because of its overly fashionable looks dated very quickly and badly. Somehow they never got to grips to make a true successor to the Isabella and after the Arabella debacle their reputation was irreversibly tarnished.
Barry Mark says:
Thank you for drawing our attention to Heimat; engrossing series on German family life and strife. I'm sure there should be a P100 somewhere in there.
I was an early adopter of Diesel and i bought a Regata Diesel at auction which was quite an eye opener, it knocked spots off the typical Orion or Cavalier Diesel of its time, even in standard 1.9 NA form the thing quite fairly romped along and handled nimbly leaving a goodly number of petrol cars easily and very frugal, i imagine the turboDiesel version was very quick.
However not much in the way of pattern parts and main dealer parts were scandalous prices, the only Fiat i've owned.
I remember the sun has a quick and bad influence on the plastic parts of the Regata. The dark grey was soon changing in all sorts of brighter grey tones….
Al Pinaweiss says:
28 Jan 2019 at 09:48
The Regata, among many objective positives about it, will be remembered mostly for the very unusual (almost unique, if I'm not mistaken?) re-styling manouvre it lived through halfway through its shelf life.
The said restyling, while resisting to change most of the other styling elements, focused 90% on the change in the car's beltline geometry
(mostly in its DLO-part), turning it from dead-level into a slightly curved forward-sloping, linear event.
It was barely noticeable, yet an immense change in the overall "soul"
of the Regata's styling. Almost a totally different "styling chassis",
if you will…
Neither back then, neither now, it's very hard to understand how did they manage to make such a huge change pass so subtle and (mostly) unnoticed.
It's a (re)styling exercise that's a textbook example, and should be studied in much more detail (perhaps deserving of an entire
dedicated article?).
Previous Previous post: Geneva 2018 Reflections – Minor Distractions
Next Next post: A Company Car