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Rayleigh radiance computations for satellite remote sensing: accounting for the effect of sensor spectral response function
Menghua Wang
Menghua Wang*
NOAA National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, Center for Satellite Applications and Research, E/RA3, 5830 University Research Ct., College Park, Maryland 20740, USA
*Corresponding author: Menghua.Wang@noaa.gov
M Wang
Menghua Wang, "Rayleigh radiance computations for satellite remote sensing: accounting for the effect of sensor spectral response function," Opt. Express 24, 12414-12429 (2016)
NIR- and SWIR-based on-orbit vicarious calibrations for satellite ocean color sensors
Menghua Wang, et al.
Out-of-band effects of satellite ocean color sensors
Appl. Opt. 55(9) 2312-2323 (2016)
New algorithm for computation of the Rayleigh-scattering radiance for remote sensing of water color...
Vimalathitthan Shanmugam, et al.
Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics
Atmospheric correction
Hyperspectral imaging
Infrared imaging
Ocean color
Optical depth
Atmospheric and oceanic optics (010.0010)
Oceanic optics (010.4450)
Atmospheric correction (010.1285)
Remote sensing and sensors (010.0280)
2. Rayleigh LUTs for the entire solar reflective spectrum
3. Effects of sensor spectral response function
4. Various applications with the new Rayleigh LUTs
To understand and assess the effect of the sensor spectral response function (SRF) on the accuracy of the top of the atmosphere (TOA) Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation, new TOA Rayleigh radiance lookup tables (LUTs) over global oceans and inland waters have been generated. The new Rayleigh LUTs include spectral coverage of 335–2555 nm, all possible solar-sensor geometries, and surface wind speeds of 0–30 m/s. Using the new Rayleigh LUTs, the sensor SRF effect on the accuracy of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation has been evaluated for spectral bands of the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (SNPP) satellite and the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)-1, showing some important uncertainties for VIIRS-SNPP particularly for large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles as well as for large Rayleigh optical thicknesses (i.e., short wavelengths) and bands with broad spectral bandwidths. To accurately account for the sensor SRF effect, a new correction algorithm has been developed for VIIRS spectral bands, which improves the TOA Rayleigh radiance accuracy to ~0.01% even for the large solar-zenith angles of 70°–80°, compared with the error of ~0.7% without applying the correction for the VIIRS-SNPP 410 nm band. The same methodology that accounts for the sensor SRF effect on the Rayleigh radiance computation can be used for other satellite sensors. In addition, with the new Rayleigh LUTs, the effect of surface atmospheric pressure variation on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation can be calculated precisely, and no specific atmospheric pressure correction algorithm is needed. There are some other important applications and advantages to using the new Rayleigh LUTs for satellite remote sensing, including an efficient and accurate TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for hyperspectral satellite remote sensing, detector-based TOA Rayleigh radiance computation, Rayleigh radiance calculations for high altitude lakes, and the same Rayleigh LUTs are applicable for all satellite sensors over the global ocean and inland waters. The new Rayleigh LUTs have been implemented in the VIIRS-SNPP ocean color data processing for routine production of global ocean color and inland water products.
In the last several decades, global ocean color products have been routinely produced from satellite ocean color sensors, including the Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor (SeaWiFS) [1], the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on the Terra and Aqua satellites [2], the Medium-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) on the Envisat [3], and the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) on the Suomi National Polar-orbiting Partnership (SNPP) [4, 5]. Ocean color products were also produced from other ocean color satellite sensors, including the Modular Optoelectronic Scanner (MOS) [6, 7], the Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) [8, 9], and the Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectance (POLDER) [10], as well as regional ocean color products with high temporal coverage from geostationary satellite ocean color sensors, e.g., the Korean Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI) [11, 12]. In addition, VIIRS on the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)-1 (or J1) is planned for launch in 2017. In the satellite ocean color data processing, the top of the atmosphere (TOA) air molecules scattering (Rayleigh-scattering) radiance has to be computed accurately [13], as the Rayleigh-scattering radiance is the dominant radiance component in the visible spectra from the satellite sensor-measured TOA signals [14]. Indeed, results show that [14], for a typical open ocean case with chlorophyll-a concentration of 0.1 mg m−3 and maritime aerosols with aerosol optical thickness of 0.1 at 865 nm, the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances contribute about 88%, 83%, 78%, 69%, 59%, and 50% at the sensor-measured total radiances for the spectral wavelengths at 412, 443, 490, 555, 670, 765, and 865 nm, respectively. For a reference, the TOA atmospheric and ocean surface radiance contributions (path radiances) in this case are about 94%, 90%, 88%, 94%, and 99% for the spectral bands of 412, 443, 490, 555, and 670 nm [14], respectively. The radiance contributions from the two near-infrared (NIR) bands are all from atmosphere and ocean surface. Thus, measurements from the NIR bands can be used for atmospheric correction over the global open ocean [13]. The rest of signals (i.e., after subtracting atmosphere and ocean surface contributions) are the radiance contributions from ocean waters (i.e., the normalized water-leaving radiances [15–17]), which can be related to ocean (or water) optical, biological, and biogeochemical properties [18–21]. Therefore, in the satellite ocean color data processing, it is essential to compute the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance accurately in order to derive accurate ocean color products [13, 14].
In a series of works for improving the satellite ocean color data processing (atmospheric correction), the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation using the radiative transfer simulation has included the polarization effect [22], the sea surface roughness (wind speed) effect [23–25], and the effect of surface atmospheric pressure variation [22, 26]. There is also a study to understand the Rayleigh-scattering like effect for extremely small particles [27]. The TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance accuracy has been significantly improved from the ocean color data processing for the Coastal Zone Color Scanner (CZCS) [22] to SeaWiFS and MODIS [24–26]. However, to account for the effect of the satellite sensor spectral response function (SRF) (i.e., all instruments have spectral bandwidths and may have important in-band and out-of-band (OOB) effects [28, 29]), for a given sensor spectral band the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances are calculated using the SRF-weighted Rayleigh optical thickness <τr(λi)> [30, 31]. Specifically, for a given solar-sensor geometry, the TOA Rayleigh radiance is computed as Lr(θ0, θ, Δϕ, <τr(λi)>), where θ0, θ, and Δϕ are solar-zenith angle, sensor-zenith angle, and relative-azimuth angle, respectively. <τr(λi)> is the sensor SRF-weighted Rayleigh optical thickness for sensor spectral band λi [30, 31]. This is an approximation to account for the sensor SRF effect and works generally well for cases with small Rayleigh optical thicknesses (i.e., not short wavelengths), not large spectral bandwidths, not significant sensor OOB contributions, and not large solar- and/or sensor- zenith angles [30]. The approximation in computing the TOA Rayleigh radiances for the ocean color data processing has been used for various satellite ocean color sensors, including MOS [7], OCTS and POLDER [9], SeaWiFS [1, 30], MODIS [32], and the initial part of VIIRS [5].
In this paper, the VIIRS SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh radiances computations is evaluated for all applicable solar-sensor geometries and for the VIIRS visible and NIR bands for both SNPP and JPSS-1. First, a significant effort has been spent to build new large Rayleigh lookup tables (LUTs) including spectral wavelength covering from 335 to 2555 nm for producing accurate TOA Rayleigh radiances for any given wavelength (e.g., hyperspectral Rayleigh radiances). The new Rayleigh LUTs (including the polarization effect) are for all possible solar-sensor geometries with surface wind speeds covering from 0 to 30 m/s. Second, with the new Rayleigh LUTs, the effect of VIIRS SRFs on the accuracy of the VIIRS TOA Rayleigh radiance computations is assessed and analyzed, showing some important errors associated with the large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles, as well as for the large Rayleigh optical thicknesses, large spectral bandwidths, and large sensor OOB effects. Thus, a correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS SRF effect to accurately compute the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances has been developed, showing the improved VIIRS TOA Rayleigh radiances using the correction algorithm (particularly for VIIRS-SNPP). Finally, with the new Rayleigh LUTs, some other important applications and improvements for satellite remote sensing are described and discussed, including Rayleigh radiance computations for hyperspectral remote sensing, sensor detector-based Rayleigh radiance computation, accurately accounting for atmospheric pressure variation, remote sensing for global high altitude lakes, and a consistent TOA Rayleigh radiance computation using the same LUTs for all satellite sensors in ocean color data processing.
2.1. Radiative transfer code
The radiative transfer equation (RTE) code using the successive order of scattering method [33] for the ocean-atmosphere system, including polarization effects and accounting for the surface wind speed, was developed by Gordon et al. (1988) [22], Wang (1991) [23], and Gordon and Wang (1992) [24]. The RTE code has been well validated [22–24] and was used to generate the TOA Rayleigh radiance LUTs and aerosol LUTs for the ocean color data processing for SeaWiFS, MODIS, and VIIRS [5, 13, 32], as well as for MOS, OCTS, POLDER, and GOCI [7, 9, 12].
Specifically, main inputs of the RTE for each run are [22, 24–26]: Rayleigh optical thickness (or wavelength) with the standard atmospheric pressure, solar-zenith angle θ0, and surface wind speed (or surface roughness parameter from the Cox-Munk (1954) model [34]). The outputs are the Fourier coefficients (with respect to the relative-azimuth angle Δϕ) of the TOA Rayleigh-scattering Stokes components for sensor-zenith angles from ~0° to ~90° defined by the Gaussian quadratures for the integration in the RTE [22–24]. With the Fourier coefficients (generally three terms for given wavelength, solar- and sensor-zenith angles), TOA Rayleigh-scattering Stokes components can be calculated for any Δϕ values.
In building the new expanded Rayleigh LUTs, Rayleigh optical thickness τr(λ) from 0.0002 to 0.75 covering wavelengths from ~335.5 nm to ~2555.5 nm are used. This computation is for a pure molecules atmosphere (Rayleigh-scattering), i.e., no aerosols. Specifically, to have sufficient accuracy for the TOA Rayleigh radiances across the entire solar reflective spectrum, the RTE was run for the air molecules (Rayleigh) atmosphere overlying a Fresnel reflection ocean (or water) surface using Rayleigh optical thicknesses of 0.0002–0.0005 with a step of 0.0001, 0.001–0.002 with a step of 0.0005, 0.003–0.07 with a step of 0.001, 0.072–0.3 with a step of 0.002, and 0.305–0.75 with a step of 0.005. Thus, the total number of Rayleigh optical thickness cases (or wavelengths) is 280. With such fine Rayleigh optical thicknesses in the RTE computation, there is sufficient accuracy in the interpolation of the Rayleigh optical thickness (or wavelength) in the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation. In addition, the Rayleigh RTE runs are for solar-zenith angles from 0°–88° with a step of 2° (with the total number of 45), and sensor-zenith angles from 0°–84° with a step of ~2°. Note that the Rayleigh LUTs are stored in the Fourier coefficients with respect to the relative-azimuth angle Δϕ from the Fourier series analysis [22–24]. Therefore, the TOA Rayleigh radiance can be easily calculated with any Δϕ values using the stored Fourier coefficients in LUTs [22–24]. In addition, there are eight cases with the Cox-Munk (1954) [34] surface slope parameter, i.e., σ = 0, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35, and 0.40, corresponding to surface wind speeds of 0, 1.9, 4.2, 7.5, 11.7, 16.8, 22.9, and 29.9 m s−1 [24], respectively. A bidirectional-shadowing factor for a collection of individual wind-ruffled surface facets [23, 24, 35] was used in all computations (cases for wind speed > 0 m s−1). Thus, the total number of Rayleigh RTE runs for the new Rayleigh LUTs is 100,800, which requires a considerable amount of CPU power. Indeed, in generating the new Rayleigh LUTs, it takes a significant amount of time and effort to complete these computations.
2.2. The new Rayleigh LUTs covering 335–2555 nm
Figure 1 shows some examples of the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances from the new Rayleigh LUTs for a case with solar-zenith angle θ0 of 60°, sensor-zenith angle θ of 20°, and relative-azimuth angle Δϕ of 90°. This is for the case with a surface wind speed of 0 m s−1 (i.e., a flat Fresnel reflection ocean surface). Figure 1(a) provides the TOA Rayleigh radiance as a function of the wavelength from 335 to 2555 nm. The TOA Rayleigh radiance is a smooth function of the wavelength as expected (Fig. 1(a)). Figure 1(b) is for the TOA Rayleigh Stokes components, i.e., the Stokes I-component (TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance), Stokes Q-component, and Stokes U-component, as a function of the wavelength. Again, all Rayleigh Stokes components are smooth functions of the wavelength (Fig. 1(b)). Figure 1(c) shows the TOA Rayleigh Stokes components as a function of the Rayleigh optical thickness, and Fig. 1(d) is the result for the degree of linear polarization (%) from molecules scattering as a function of the wavelength. It should be noted that Rayleigh radiance values (or Stokes components) in Fig. 1 are plotted with the assumption that the extraterrestrial solar irradiance F0(λ) = 1 (i.e., values are normalized to F0(λ)). As expected, results in Fig. 1(d) show that degree of polarization increases with increase of the wavelength, i.e., the effect of the multiple scattering reduces the degree of polarization in the TOA Rayleigh radiances. In addition, results in Fig. 1(c) show that the Rayleigh Stokes components are smooth functions of the Rayleigh optical thickness, which can be used as the interpolation parameter for the TOA Rayleigh radiances (or Stokes components) that are not in the 280 grid points of the Rayleigh optical thickness. In fact, for the case with low Rayleigh optical thickness, the Rayleigh radiance is linearly proportional to the Rayleigh optical thickness as described from the single-scattering approximation [13]. Therefore, the new Rayleigh LUTs can be used to produce accurate TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances for any given solar-sensor geometry and at any wavelength between 335 and 2555 nm. It is noted that results in Fig. 1 correspond to the TOA Rayleigh radiances as a function of specific single wavelength, which may be different from those measured by satellite sensor with spectral bandpasses. This will be discussed later.
Fig. 1 Examples of the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiances (F0(λ) = 1) for a case with solar-zenith angle of 60°, sensor-zenith angle of 20°, and relative-azimuth angle of 90° for (a) Rayleigh radiance as a function of the wavelength, (b) Rayleigh Stokes components as a function of the wavelength, (c) Rayleigh Stokes components as a function of Rayleigh optical thickness, and (d) the degree of linear polarization (%) as a function of the wavelength.
In this section, we provide evaluations for the effect of VIIRS SRFs on the accuracy of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation. This includes a brief description of the approximation for accounting for the sensor SRF effect for the Rayleigh radiance computation, an assessment of the effect of VIIRS SRFs for both SNPP and JPSS-1, and development of a new correction algorithm for such effects to provide more accurate and consistent TOA Rayleigh radiance computations for satellite ocean color data processing.
3.1. Assessment of VIIRS SRF effects
All instruments have spectral bandwidths which are characterized by the sensor SRFs. Table 1 provides the VIIRS nominal center wavelengths and bandwidths for SNPP and JPSS-1 for solar reflective bands. The nominal center wavelength and the corresponding bandwidth are defined as the center wavelength and bandwidth measured from the band full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the sensor SRF. Figure 2 shows VIIRS SRFs for both SNPP and JPSS-1 as a function of the wavelength for VIIRS spectral bands of M1–M7 (Figs. 2(a)–2(g)) and I1 (Fig. 2(h)), respectively. As with other satellite sensors, VIIRS SRFs not only have an in-band response, but also an OOB response [28–30]. This is particularly true for VIIRS-SNPP. For example, VIIRS-SNPP M4 band (551 nm) (Fig. 2(d)) has a significant OOB effect for oligotrophic waters [29]. For the same two VIIRS, however, Fig. 2 shows that VIIRS-JPSS-1 has much better sensor OOB performance (i.e., almost no OOB effect). Table 1 and Fig. 2(h) also show that three I-bands, particularly the I1 band, have quite large bandwidths compared with their corresponding VIIRS M-bands.
Table 1. VIIRS nominal center wavelengths and bandwidths for SNPP and JPSS-1.
Fig. 2 VIIRS SRFs for SNPP and JPSS-1 as a function of the wavelength for VIIRS spectral bans of (a)–(g) M1–M7 and (h) I1. Nominal center wavelengths are indicated in plots for both SNPP and JPSS-1.
On the other hand, to account for the effect of the sensor SRF in the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation, for a given sensor spectral band, the Rayleigh radiances are calculated using the spectral band weighted Rayleigh optical thickness <τr(λi)> [30, 31], i.e.,
(1)〈τr(λi)〉=∫τr(λ)F0(λ)Si(λ)dλ∫F0(λ)Si(λ)dλ,
where F0(λ) is the extraterrestrial solar irradiance [36] and Si(λ) is the SRF for the ith spectral band for a given satellite sensor. In fact, the computed <τr(λi)> values from Eq. (1) have been used for generating the Rayleigh LUTs for SeaWiFS, MODIS, VIIRS, as well as other ocean color satellite sensors, e.g., MOS, OCTS, POLDER [7, 9, 31]. Thus, for a given sensor spectral band with the wavelength of λi, Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation can be written approximately as
(2)Lr(θ0,θ,Δϕ,λi)≈Lr(θ0,θ,Δϕ,〈τr(λi)〉),
where <τr(λi)> is from Eq. (1), and θ0, θ, and Δϕ are solar-zenith angle, sensor-zenith angle, and relative-azimuth angle, respectively. Note that the computation of the sensor spectral Rayleigh radiances using Eq. (2) (<τr(λi)> from Eq. (1)) is the exact same for the single-scattering approximation [23, 30]. However, the exact calculation (including all multiple scattering effects) for the Rayleigh radiance (i.e., sensor-measured values) for this case should be
(3)〈Lr(λi)〉=∫Lr(λ)Si(λ)dλ∫Si(λ)dλ,
where the integration in the wavelength covers all non-zero Si(λ) for a given sensor spectral band with Lr(λ) from hyperspectral Rayleigh radiance data. For convenience in discussion, we write the "exact" (E) Rayleigh radiance with accurately accounting for the sensor SRF effect as Lr(E)(λ) ( = <Lr(λ)> in Eq. (3)) and the approximation (A) computation as Lr(A)(λ) from Eq. (2) (i.e., Lr(θ0, θ, Δϕ, <τr(λi)>)). Note that, with the single-scattering approximation, Lr(E)(λ) in Eq. (3) equals to Lr(A)(λ) in Eq. (2).
Gordon (1995) [30] showed that, when multiple scattering is included, the approximation in computing Lr(A)(λ) for eight SeaWiFS spectral bands are accurate to ~0.1% for the case with a solar-zenith angle of 60° and a sensor-zenith angle of 0°. In fact, the largest error for the case is 0.15% at the SeaWiFS 412 nm band, followed by 0.12% at the 443 nm band [30]. However, in order to completely understand the performance of the approximation in computing TOA Rayleigh radiances, evaluations for all applicable solar-sensor geometries and for all spectral bands are needed. Therefore, assessments of Lr(A)(λ) computations for all VIIRS visible to NIR spectral bands with all applicable solar-sensor geometries have been carried out.
Figure 3 provides example results of this evaluation for VIIRS-SNPP runs for various cases. Figures 3(a), 3(b), 3(c), and 3(d) are Rayleigh radiance ratio values in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) as a function of solar-zenith angle with satellite sensor-zenith angles of 20°, 60°, 70°, and 75°, respectively. These are corresponding to a relative-azimuth angle Δϕ of 90° and with a wind speed of 7.5 m/s (about global mean value) for all the VIIRS-SNPP visible and NIR spectral bands, i.e., 410, 443, 486, 551, 671, 745, and 862 nm. Results show that for low sensor-zenith angles (e.g., 20° in Fig. 3(a)) errors in Lr(A)(λ) using the approximation (Eq. (2)) for Rayleigh radiance computations are negligible for VIIRS bands M2 to M7 for solar-zenith angles up to ~60° (Fig. 3(a)). However, for the VIIRS-SNPP 410 nm band, there are biased high errors about 0.1%, 0.5%, and 0.8% for solar-zenith angles of 0°, 70°, and 80° (Fig. 3(a)), respectively. There are also noticeable errors (biased high) for other VIIRS bands with large solar-zenith angles (> ~60°). For cases with large sensor-zenith angles, Figs. 3(b)–3(c) show that errors are increased for all VIIRS bands. In particular, errors in the VIIRS-SNPP 410 nm band are increased to ~0.3–0.85% for solar-zenith angles of 0°–80° in the case of θ = 60° (Fig. 3(b)), ~0.5–0.95% for solar-zenith angles of 0°–80° in the case of θ = 70° (Fig. 3(c)), and ~0.6–1.0% for solar-zenith angles of 0°–80° in the case of θ = 75° (Fig. 3(d)), respectively. Errors for other VIIRS-SNPP bands are also increased and become important with large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles (Figs. 3(b)–3(d)). In general, errors are biased high, i.e., the approximation using Eq. (2) in computing VIIRS Rayleigh radiances Lr(A)(λ) is overestimated, compared with the exact Rayleigh radiance Lr(E)(λ) values weighted by the VIIRS SRFs from Eq. (3).
Fig. 3 Rayleigh radiance ratio values in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) for VIIRS spectral bands as a function of the solar-zenith angle with satellite sensor-zenith angles of (a) 20°, (b) 60°, (c) 70°, and (d) 75°, respectively. This is for a case with a relative-azimuth angle of 90° and with a wind speed of 7.5 m/s.
It should be noted that these TOA Rayleigh radiance errors using the approximation (Eq. (2)) are important for large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles, as well as for large Rayleigh optical thicknesses (short wavelengths) and for bands with large bandwidths. In fact, errors in the approximation Lr(A)(λ) using Eq. (2) are fairly constant for solar-zenith angles up to ~50°–60° as shown in Fig. 3. Although errors are generally small for not very large solar- and sensor-zenith angles, it is certainly useful if these biased errors in the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations can be corrected to further improve ocean color products, particularly over regions with large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles, e.g., over high latitude ocean regions, where these biased errors in Rayleigh radiance computations become important.
3.2. Development of the correction algorithm for VIIRS
To develop a correction algorithm for accounting for the VIIRS SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation, some extensive simulations and tests have been carried out. It has been found that there is a well-defined relationship between the TOA Rayleigh radiance ratio of Lr(E)(λ)/Lr(A)(λ) versus the air mass M value, which is defined as M = 1/cosθ0+1/cosθ. Figure 4 shows examples of Lr(E)(λ)/Lr(A)(λ) as a function the air mass M for the VIIRS-SNPP bands of M1 (410 nm) (Fig. 4(a)), M2 (443 nm) (Fig. 4(b)), M3 (486 nm) (Fig. 4(c)), and M4 (551 nm) (Fig. 4(d)), respectively. Results in Fig. 4 include all applicable solar-sensor geometries for four VIIRS-SNPP spectral bands, i.e., solar-zenith angles θ0 up to 80°, sensor-zenith angles θ up to 75°, and various relative-azimuth angles Δϕ values. Note that x-axis (air mass M) is in log-scale. Other VIIRS spectral bands, e.g., M5 to M7, I1 and I2, have similar results. Thus, from results in Fig. 4, a correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS SRF effect can be proposed, i.e.,
(4)Corr(λ)=a0(λ)+a1(λ)loge(M)
where a0(λ) and a1(λ) are coefficients to best fit to the data in the log-scale with the parameter of the air mass M. Obviously, the correction factor is Corr(λ)=Lr(E)(λ)/Lr(A)(λ).
Fig. 4 The TOA Rayleigh radiance ratio Lr(E)(λ)/Lr(A)(λ), i.e., correction factor, as a function of the air mass M for the VIIRS-SNPP spectral bands of (a) M1 (410 nm), (b) M2 (443 nm), (c) M3 (486 nm), and (d) M4 (551 nm), respectively.
It should be noted that the best fits for the VIIRS spectral bands are in the log-scale of the air mass M (instead of linear scale), in which only two fitting coefficients are needed to obtain sufficient accuracy. Compared with VIIRS-SNPP, errors in VIIRS-JPSS-1 are much smaller due to much smaller (or negligible) sensor OOB effects (Fig. 2). Similar relationships to Eq. (4) can also be obtained for VIIRS-JPSS-1 spectral bands. Table 2 provides the derived fitting coefficients a0(λ) and a1(λ) for VIIRS spectral bands (M1–M7, and I1 and I2) for both SNPP and JPSS-1. Therefore, the proposed correction algorithm in Eq. (4) can be used to improve VIIRS TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computations.
Table 2. Fitting coefficients for the correction algorithm as in Eq. (4) for VIIRS.
The proposed correction algorithm Eq. (4) (and Table 2) for VIIRS Rayleigh radiance computations has been extensively evaluated for all applicable solar-sensor geometries and VIIRS nine spectral bands (M1–M7, and I1 and I2) for both SNPP and JPSS-1. Figure 5 provides examples of evaluation results for the correction algorithm performance for nine VIIRS-SNPP spectral bands and all applicable solar-sensor geometries, i.e., cases with solar-zenith angle θ0 from 0°–80° at every 5°, sensor-zenith angle θ from 5°–75° at every 5°, and relative-azimuth angle Δϕ from 30°–150° at every 30°. The solar-sensor geometries associated with the sun glint [37, 38] are not included. The y-axis in Fig. 5 is the Rayleigh radiance ratio Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) values, in which the correction algorithm can be applied to Lr(A)(λ) for improving the accuracy of Rayleigh radiances. Figure 5(a) provides Rayleigh radiance accuracy without applying the correction for the VIIRS-SNPP nine spectral bands with a wind speed of 7.5 m/s, showing that for large air mass values errors for VIIRS M1 band reach ~1% and errors for other VIIRS bands are about 0.2–0.5%. After applying the correction algorithm, the accuracy of VIIRS Rayleigh radiance computations is all within ~0.1% and most data are even accurate to ~0.01% (Figs. 5(b)–5(d)). In fact, the proposed correction algorithm can be applied to various wind speed cases, as evaluation results shown for wind speeds of 3 m/s (Fig. 5(b)), 7.5 m/s (Fig. 5(c)), and 10 m/s (Fig. 5(d)), respectively.
Fig. 5 Evaluation results in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) for the proposed correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS-SNPP band SRF effect on the performance of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for (a) without applying the correction, (b) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 3 m/s, (c) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 7.5 m/s, and (d) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 10 m/s.
Similarly, Fig. 6 shows evaluation results for the VIIRS-JPSS-1 nine spectral bands (M1–M7, and I1 and I2). VIIRS-JPSS-1 displays much smaller sensor SRF effects on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation, i.e., except for the I1 band (where errors can go up to ~0.4%), errors are all within ~0.15% without making the correction (Fig. 6(a)). This shows the impact of the OOB effect (compared with that from SNPP) and also the effect of a large bandwidth (e.g., I1 band) on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations. After applying the correction using Eq. (4) and the coefficients in Table 2, there are almost no errors in the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations for all applicable solar-sensor geometries and for wind speeds of 3 m/s (Fig. 6(b)), 7.5 m/s (Fig. 6(c)), and 10 m/s (Fig. 6(d)). For a quantitative evaluation, Table 3 summarizes results of mean ratio values in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) (with and without applying the correction) for SNPP and JPSS-1 for cases involving large solar-zenith angles of 70°–80° and for a wind speed of 7.5 m/s. Results in Table 3 show that after applying the correction the TOA Rayleigh radiances are significantly improved, particularly for VIIRS-SNPP bands. For example, for the VIIRS-SNPP M1 band, mean error in Rayleigh radiance is reduced from ~0.7% to ~0.01% after applying the correction. Relatively significant errors are also present for the VIIRS-SNPP M4–M7 and I1 and I2 bands (~0.3–0.4%), however, the mean error can all be reduced to ~0.01% after applying the correction algorithm. Table 3 also shows that VIIRS-JPSS-1 has a much smaller SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation, compared with VIIRS-SNPP. Without applying the correction, errors in the TOA Rayleigh radiances are all within ~0.1–0.2%, significantly less than those from VIIRS-SNPP. After the correction, however, the results are essentially error free for all VIIRS-JPSS-1 bands.
Fig. 6 Evaluation results in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) for the proposed correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS-JPSS-1 band SRF effect on the performance of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for (a) without applying the correction, (b) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 3 m/s, (c) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 7.5 m/s, and (d) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 10 m/s.
Table 3. Mean ratio values in Lr(A)(λ)/Lr(E)(λ) (with and without applying the correction) for VIIRS SNPP and JPSS-1 for solar-zenith angles of 70°–80° with wind speed of 7.5 m/s (total data number of 225).
Therefore, this simple correction algorithm has been implemented in the VIIRS-SNPP ocean color data processing, i.e., the Multi-Sensor Level-1 to Level-2 (MSL12) ocean color data processing system [5, 7, 9, 31], for accurately computing TOA Rayleigh radiances for VIIRS spectral bands. For a consistent ocean color data processing, the correction algorithm will also be implemented in VIIRS on the JPSS-1 though the correction is not as vital for the SNPP.
In addition to accurately accounting for the sensor SRF effect for VIIRS, with the new Rayleigh LUTs that cover spectral wavelengths from 335 to 2555 nm, there are some other important applications and improvements for the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computations in satellite remote sensing. These applications and improvements are described and discussed in this section.
4.1. Rayleigh radiance computations for hyperspectral satellite measurements
As described in the previous sections, with the new Rayleigh LUTs, the TOA Rayleigh radiance for any given wavelength in the range of 335–2555 nm can be computed quickly for any solar-sensor geometry and wind speed. Thus, the required TOA hyperspectral Rayleigh radiances for satellite remote sensing applications can be calculated accurately and efficiently. In fact, the accuracy in the TOA Rayleigh radiances is the same for any hyperspectral bands as for the multi-spectral sensors, e.g., for MODIS, VIIRS, etc. There is no impact for the data processing (i.e., CPU time requirement or any other limitations) for satellite hyperspectral data processing. The implementation for the hyperspectral Rayleigh radiances computation is straightforward.
4.2. Detector-based Rayleigh radiance computations
Most satellite sensors now have multiple detectors, e.g., VIIRS has 16 detectors for M-bands and 32 detectors for I-bands. Generally, each individual detector has its own optical characteristics (e.g., slightly different SRFs for different detectors), which are different from other detectors. Therefore, the SRF-weighted Rayleigh optical thicknesses for these detectors are generally different, and sometimes the differences are significant. Using the new Rayleigh LUTs, detector-based Rayleigh radiances can be computed, thereby providing accurate Rayleigh radiance data for individual detectors and possibly removing some data noise (from the detector difference signal when using the detector-averaged Rayleigh optical thickness). This scheme can be used for any satellite sensors.
4.3. Accounting for atmospheric pressure variation
The TOA Rayleigh radiance depends on the surface atmospheric pressure [22, 26], which usually varies within ~3%. Gordon et al. (1988) [22] developed a simple method to account for the atmospheric pressure variation for the Rayleigh radiance computations in order to process CZCS imagery [39]. Wang (2005) [26] further refined the algorithm in computing the TOA Rayleigh radiances for the SeaWiFS ocean color data processing. Within ~3% atmospheric pressure variation, the Wang (2005) refined algorithm can produce the TOA Rayleigh radiance with an uncertainty within ~0.1% for the blue bands, while uncertainty is usually within ~0.05% for the green to NIR wavelengths [26]. However, for large atmospheric pressure variations, e.g., ~5% or ~10%, the uncertainty in the TOA Rayleigh radiance using the refined algorithm is still quite significant [26]. With the new Rayleigh LUTs, the procedure of accounting for the atmospheric pressure variation can be eliminated. In fact, the TOA Rayleigh radiances can be computed accurately while accounting for the atmospheric pressure variation.
Specifically, for any change of atmospheric pressure at ocean surface from the standard atmospheric pressure P0, P0 + ΔP, the corresponding Rayleigh optical thickness can be calculated as
(5)τr(λ, P0+ΔP)=τr(λ, P0)P0+ΔPP0,
where τr(λ, P0 + ΔP) and τr(λ, P0) are the Rayleigh optical thicknesses corresponding to the atmospheric pressure of P0 + ΔP and P0, respectively. Note that the standard surface atmospheric pressure P0 is 1013.25 hPa. Thus, with the new Rayleigh LUTs, the TOA Rayleigh radiance for τr(λ, P0 + ΔP) can be directly calculated as for all other calculations, i.e., Lr(E)(λ) = Lr(θ0, θ, Δϕ, τr(λ, P0 + ΔP)), with the same method and accuracy for the computation of Lr(θ0, θ, Δϕ, τr(λ, P0)) (no specific correction is needed). For VIIRS-SNPP ocean color data processing, the Wang (2005) [26] algorithm for accounting for atmospheric pressure variation has been replaced with the new Rayleigh LUTs with τr(λ, P0 + ΔP) calculated using Eq. (5) in the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation as described herein.
4.4. Remote sensing for high altitude lakes
For high altitude lakes, the TOA Rayleigh radiances are reduced significantly due to reduced Rayleigh optical thickness (i.e., reduced amount of air molecules). This effect is essentially the same as the change of atmospheric pressure discussed in the previous section, i.e., high altitude with low atmospheric pressure. The previous ocean color data processing (e.g., CZCS, SeaWiFS, MODIS, etc.) for high altitude lakes (e.g., Lake Victoria in South Africa with altitude of 1133 m) may be invalid due to the incorrect computation of the TOA Rayleigh radiances, which usually lead to significantly biased low satellite-derived normalized water-leaving radiance nLw(λ) spectra (e.g., no retrievals due to nLw(λ) < 0). With the new Rayleigh LUTs, the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations for global high altitude lakes can be significantly improved with the input of the lake altitude, which can be related to the atmospheric pressure. This can also be done if the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the lake is known (or measured). Figure 7 shows the ratio of the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude (i.e., height) P(h) to the sea level P0 (i.e., P(h)/P0) as a function of the altitude for the US standard 1976 atmospheric model [40]. Thus, at the altitude of an inland lake, the atmospheric pressure P(h) can be calculated from Fig. 7, and the corresponding Rayleigh optical thickness can then be computed according to Eq. (5) with P(h) = P0 + ΔP. Finally, the TOA Rayleigh radiance Lr(E)(λ) = Lr(θ0, θ, Δϕ, τr(λ, P(h)) can be computed from the new Rayleigh LUTs for satellite data processing. The TOA Rayleigh radiance computation scheme using the new Rayleigh LUTs for global high altitude lakes has been implemented in MSL12 for the VIIRS-SNPP ocean color data processing. Initial results from VIIRS-derived water property data over global high altitude lakes show very significant improvements (e.g., from original no retrievals to what seems now reasonable water property data), representing an important step for remote sensing of global inland water properties.
Fig. 7 The ratio of the atmospheric pressure at a given altitude (height) P(h) to the sea level P0 (i.e., P(h)/P0) as a function of altitude for the US standard 1976 atmospheric model.
4.5. Consistent Rayleigh radiance computations for all satellite sensors
One of the main advantages for the proposed new Rayleigh LUTs is its applicability for all satellite sensors. It is obvious that the new Rayleigh LUTs are not sensor specific and can be used for all satellite sensors for ocean color data processing, e.g., OCTS, SeaWiFS, MODIS, MERIS, GOCI, VIIRS, etc. There is now no need to generate sensor-specific Rayleigh LUTs for different satellite ocean color sensors. Thus, the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations are consistent for all satellite ocean color sensors in the data processing. In fact, the new Rayleigh LUTs can also be used for other satellite sensors with the capability for water quality monitoring, e.g., the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Landsat-8, and any satellite sensors that require the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation over oceans (or inland waters). Therefore, the consistent TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computation with the same Rayleigh LUTs can be used for all satellite sensors, eliminating any differences resulting from Rayleigh radiance computation differences when remote sensing products are compared among satellite sensors.
To understand the sensor SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh-scattering radiance computations, a significant effort has been applied to build complete and accurate Rayleigh LUTs covering spectral wavelengths of 335–2555 nm for all possible solar-sensor geometries, as well as for surface wind speeds of 0–30 m/s. Evaluation results from VIIRS spectral bands show that it is necessary to develop a correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS SRF effect on the Rayleigh radiance computations, in particular, for cases with large solar- and/or sensor-zenith angles, as well as for cases with large Rayleigh optical thicknesses (i.e., short wavelengths) and bands with large bandwidths. The proposed methodology for VIIRS can also be applied to other satellite sensors, i.e., the same algorithm can be used with different fitting coefficients that can be derived from the new Rayleigh LUTs as demonstrated in this study for both VIIRS-SNPP and VIIRS-JPSS-1. Furthermore, the study shows that the sensor SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation is important for every sensor with important OOB effects such as VIIRS-SNPP, while for VIIRS-JPSS-1 the SRF effect is much smaller or even negligible. In addition, the results also show that it is important to account for the SRF effect on the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations for sensors with large spectral bandwidths such as the USGS Landsat series (e.g., Landsat-8 for ocean color or water quality monitoring applications). However, it should be emphasized that this study has been focused on the issue of the sensor SRF effect on the accuracy of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for ocean color remote sensing, that is, its consistency in calculation with various solar-sensor geometries as well as different SRF distributions (including in-band and OOB effects).
Using the new Rayleigh LUTs, the TOA Rayleigh radiance computations can be improved for various cases, including applications of hyperspectral remote sensing, Rayleigh radiance computations in accounting for sensor detector variations, Rayleigh radiance computations in accounting for surface atmospheric pressure variations, remote sensing of high altitude lakes, and the same Rayleigh LUTs are applicable for all satellite sensors over global oceans and inland waters. In particular, initial VIIRS results show some significant improvements over global high altitude lakes, representing an important step for effective water quality monitoring of global inland waters.
The new Rayleigh LUTs have already been implemented in VIIRS-SNPP ocean color data processing (i.e., MSL12) for the routine production of ocean color products over the global ocean and inland waters. The same Rayleigh LUTs will be used for other satellite sensors including future VIIRS on the JPSS series, e.g., JPSS-1 and JPSS-2. VIIRS global ocean color data (e.g., daily, 8-day, monthly, and climatology imageries) and some extensive calibration and validation results can be found at: www.star.nesdis.noaa.gov/sod/mecb/color/.
The views, opinions, and findings contained in this paper are those of the authors and should not be construed as an official NOAA or U.S. Government position, policy, or decision.
1. C. R. McClain, G. C. Feldman, and S. B. Hooker, "An overview of the SeaWiFS project and strategies for producing a climate research quality global ocean bio-optical time series," Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 51(1-3), 5–42 (2004). [CrossRef]
2. W. E. Esaias, M. R. Abbott, I. Barton, O. B. Brown, J. W. Campbell, K. L. Carder, D. K. Clark, R. L. Evans, F. E. Hodge, H. R. Gordon, W. P. Balch, R. Letelier, and P. J. Minnet, "An overview of MODIS capabilities for ocean science observations," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 36(4), 1250–1265 (1998). [CrossRef]
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4. M. D. Goldberg, H. Kilcoyne, H. Cikanek, and A. Mehta, "Joint Polar Satellite System: the United States next generation civilian polar-orbiting environmental satellite system," J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118(24), 13463–13475 (2013). [CrossRef]
5. M. Wang, X. Liu, L. Tan, L. Jiang, S. Son, W. Shi, K. Rausch, and K. Voss, "Impact of VIIRS SDR performance on ocean color products," J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118(18), 10347–10360 (2013). [CrossRef]
6. G. Zimmermann and A. Neumann, "The Spaceborne Imaging Spectrometer MOS for ocean remote sensing," the 1st International Workshop on MOS-IRS and Ocean Color (1997), 1–9.
7. M. Wang and B. A. Franz, "Comparing the ocean color measurements between MOS and SeaWiFS: A vicarious intercalibration approach for MOS," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(1), 184–197 (2000). [CrossRef]
8. J. Tanii, T. Machida, H. Ayada, Y. Katsuyama, J. Ishida, N. Iwasaki, Y. Tange, Y. Miyachi, and R. Sato, "Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) for ADEOS," Proc. SPIE 1490, 200–206 (1991).
9. M. Wang, A. Isaacman, B. A. Franz, and C. R. McClain, "Ocean-color optical property data derived from the Japanese Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner and the French Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances: a comparison study," Appl. Opt. 41(6), 974–990 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
10. P. Y. Deschamps, F. M. Bréon, M. Leroy, A. Podaire, A. Bricaud, J. C. Buriez, and G. Sèze, "The POLDER Mission: instrument characteristics and scientific objectives," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 32(3), 598–615 (1994). [CrossRef]
11. J. K. Choi, Y. J. Park, J. H. Ahn, H. S. Lim, J. Eom, and J. H. Ryu, "GOCI, the world's first geostationary ocean color observation satellite, for the monitoring of temporal variability in coastal water turbidity," J. Geophys. Res. 117(C9), C09004 (2012). [CrossRef]
12. M. Wang, J. H. Ahn, L. Jiang, W. Shi, S. Son, Y. J. Park, and J. H. Ryu, "Ocean color products from the Korean Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)," Opt. Express 21(3), 3835–3849 (2013). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
13. H. R. Gordon and M. Wang, "Retrieval of water-leaving radiance and aerosol optical thickness over the oceans with SeaWiFS: a preliminary algorithm," Appl. Opt. 33(3), 443–452 (1994). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
14. IOCCG, Atmospheric Correction for Remotely-Sensed Ocean-Colour Products, M. Wang (ed.), Reports of International Ocean-Color Coordinating Group, No. 10, IOCCG, Dartmouth, Canada (2010).
15. A. Morel and B. Gentili, "Diffuse reflectance of oceanic waters. III. Implication of bidirectionality for the remote-sensing problem," Appl. Opt. 35(24), 4850–4862 (1996). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
16. H. R. Gordon, "Normalized water-leaving radiance: revisiting the influence of surface roughness," Appl. Opt. 44(2), 241–248 (2005). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
17. M. Wang, "Effects of ocean surface reflectance variation with solar elevation on normalized water-leaving radiance," Appl. Opt. 45(17), 4122–4128 (2006). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
18. J. E. O'Reilly, S. Maritorena, B. G. Mitchell, D. A. Siegel, K. L. Carder, S. A. Garver, M. Kahru, and C. R. McClain, "Ocean color chlorophyll algorithms for SeaWiFS," J. Geophys. Res. 103(C11), 24937–24953 (1998). [CrossRef]
19. Z. Lee, K. L. Carder, and R. A. Arnone, "Deriving inherent optical properties from water color: a multiband quasi-analytical algorithm for optically deep waters," Appl. Opt. 41(27), 5755–5772 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. S. Maritorena, D. A. Siegel, and A. R. Peterson, "Optimization of a semianalytical ocean color model for global-scale applications," Appl. Opt. 41(15), 2705–2714 (2002). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
21. M. Wang, S. Son, and J. L. W. Harding Jr., "Retrieval of diffuse attenuation coefficient in the Chesapeake Bay and turbid ocean regions for satellite ocean color applications," J. Geophys. Res. 114(C10), C10011 (2009). [CrossRef]
22. H. R. Gordon, J. W. Brown, and R. H. Evans, "Exact Rayleigh scattering calculations for use with the Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner," Appl. Opt. 27(5), 862–871 (1988). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
23. M. Wang, "Atmospheric correction of the second generation ocean color sensors," Ph.D. dissertation (University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla., 1991), p. 135.
24. H. R. Gordon and M. Wang, "Surface-roughness considerations for atmospheric correction of ocean color sensors. I: The Rayleigh-scattering component," Appl. Opt. 31(21), 4247–4260 (1992). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
25. M. Wang, "The Rayleigh lookup tables for the SeaWiFS data processing: Accounting for the effects of ocean surface roughness," Int. J. Remote Sens. 23(13), 2693–2702 (2002). [CrossRef]
26. M. Wang, "A refinement for the Rayleigh radiance computation with variation of the atmospheric pressure," Int. J. Remote Sens. 26(24), 5651–5663 (2005). [CrossRef]
27. A. J. Brown, "Spectral bluing induced by small particles under the Mie and Rayleigh regimes," Icarus 239, 85–95 (2014). [CrossRef]
28. M. Wang, B. A. Franz, R. A. Barnes, and C. R. McClain, "Effects of spectral bandpass on SeaWiFS-retrieved near-surface optical properties of the ocean," Appl. Opt. 40(3), 343–348 (2001). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
29. M. Wang, P. Naik, and S. Son, "Out-of-band effects of satellite ocean color sensors," Appl. Opt. 55(9), 2312–2323 (2016). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
30. H. R. Gordon, "Remote sensing of ocean color: a methodology for dealing with broad spectral bands and significant out-of-band response," Appl. Opt. 34(36), 8363–8374 (1995). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
31. M. Wang, "A sensitivity study of SeaWiFS atmospheric correction algorithm: Effects of spectral band variations," Remote Sens. Environ. 67(3), 348–359 (1999). [CrossRef]
32. H. R. Gordon, "Atmospheric correction of ocean color imagery in the Earth Observing System era," J. Geophys. Res. 102(D14), 17081–17106 (1997). [CrossRef]
33. H. C. van de Hulst, Multiple Light Scattering (Academic Press, 1980).
34. C. Cox and W. Munk, "Measurements of the roughness of the sea surface from photographs of the sun's glitter," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 44(11), 838–850 (1954). [CrossRef]
35. P. M. Saunders, "Shadowing on the ocean and the existence of the horizon," J. Geophys. Res. 72(18), 4643–4649 (1967). [CrossRef]
36. G. Thuillier, M. Herse, D. Labs, T. Foujols, W. Peetermans, D. Gillotay, P. C. Simon, and H. Mandel, "The solar spectral irradiance from 200 to 2400 nm as measured by the SOLSPEC spectrometer from the ATLAS and EURECA missions," Sol. Phys. 214(1), 1–22 (2003). [CrossRef]
37. M. Wang and S. W. Bailey, "Correction of the sun glint contamination on the SeaWiFS ocean and atmosphere products," Appl. Opt. 40(27), 4790–4798 (2001). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
38. H. Zhang and M. Wang, "Evaluation of sun glint models using MODIS measurements," J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 111(3), 492–506 (2010). [CrossRef]
39. W. A. Hovis, D. K. Clark, F. Anderson, R. W. Austin, W. H. Wilson, E. T. Baker, D. Ball, H. R. Gordon, J. L. Mueller, S. Z. El-Sayed, B. Sturm, R. C. Wrigley, and C. S. Yentsch, "Nimbus-7 coastal zone color scanner: system description and initial imagery," Science 210(4465), 60–63 (1980). [CrossRef] [PubMed]
40. NOAA, NASA, and USAF, U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976).
C. R. McClain, G. C. Feldman, and S. B. Hooker, "An overview of the SeaWiFS project and strategies for producing a climate research quality global ocean bio-optical time series," Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. 51(1-3), 5–42 (2004).
W. E. Esaias, M. R. Abbott, I. Barton, O. B. Brown, J. W. Campbell, K. L. Carder, D. K. Clark, R. L. Evans, F. E. Hodge, H. R. Gordon, W. P. Balch, R. Letelier, and P. J. Minnet, "An overview of MODIS capabilities for ocean science observations," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 36(4), 1250–1265 (1998).
M. Rast, J. L. Bezy, and S. Bruzzi, "The ESA Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer MERIS a review of the instrument and its mission," Int. J. Remote Sens. 20(9), 1681–1702 (1999).
M. D. Goldberg, H. Kilcoyne, H. Cikanek, and A. Mehta, "Joint Polar Satellite System: the United States next generation civilian polar-orbiting environmental satellite system," J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118(24), 13463–13475 (2013).
M. Wang, X. Liu, L. Tan, L. Jiang, S. Son, W. Shi, K. Rausch, and K. Voss, "Impact of VIIRS SDR performance on ocean color products," J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 118(18), 10347–10360 (2013).
G. Zimmermann and A. Neumann, "The Spaceborne Imaging Spectrometer MOS for ocean remote sensing," the 1st International Workshop on MOS-IRS and Ocean Color (1997), 1–9.
M. Wang and B. A. Franz, "Comparing the ocean color measurements between MOS and SeaWiFS: A vicarious intercalibration approach for MOS," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 38(1), 184–197 (2000).
J. Tanii, T. Machida, H. Ayada, Y. Katsuyama, J. Ishida, N. Iwasaki, Y. Tange, Y. Miyachi, and R. Sato, "Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner (OCTS) for ADEOS," Proc. SPIE 1490, 200–206 (1991).
M. Wang, A. Isaacman, B. A. Franz, and C. R. McClain, "Ocean-color optical property data derived from the Japanese Ocean Color and Temperature Scanner and the French Polarization and Directionality of the Earth's Reflectances: a comparison study," Appl. Opt. 41(6), 974–990 (2002).
P. Y. Deschamps, F. M. Bréon, M. Leroy, A. Podaire, A. Bricaud, J. C. Buriez, and G. Sèze, "The POLDER Mission: instrument characteristics and scientific objectives," IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. 32(3), 598–615 (1994).
J. K. Choi, Y. J. Park, J. H. Ahn, H. S. Lim, J. Eom, and J. H. Ryu, "GOCI, the world's first geostationary ocean color observation satellite, for the monitoring of temporal variability in coastal water turbidity," J. Geophys. Res. 117(C9), C09004 (2012).
M. Wang, J. H. Ahn, L. Jiang, W. Shi, S. Son, Y. J. Park, and J. H. Ryu, "Ocean color products from the Korean Geostationary Ocean Color Imager (GOCI)," Opt. Express 21(3), 3835–3849 (2013).
H. R. Gordon and M. Wang, "Retrieval of water-leaving radiance and aerosol optical thickness over the oceans with SeaWiFS: a preliminary algorithm," Appl. Opt. 33(3), 443–452 (1994).
IOCCG, Atmospheric Correction for Remotely-Sensed Ocean-Colour Products, M. Wang (ed.), Reports of International Ocean-Color Coordinating Group, No. 10, IOCCG, Dartmouth, Canada (2010).
A. Morel and B. Gentili, "Diffuse reflectance of oceanic waters. III. Implication of bidirectionality for the remote-sensing problem," Appl. Opt. 35(24), 4850–4862 (1996).
H. R. Gordon, "Normalized water-leaving radiance: revisiting the influence of surface roughness," Appl. Opt. 44(2), 241–248 (2005).
M. Wang, "Effects of ocean surface reflectance variation with solar elevation on normalized water-leaving radiance," Appl. Opt. 45(17), 4122–4128 (2006).
J. E. O'Reilly, S. Maritorena, B. G. Mitchell, D. A. Siegel, K. L. Carder, S. A. Garver, M. Kahru, and C. R. McClain, "Ocean color chlorophyll algorithms for SeaWiFS," J. Geophys. Res. 103(C11), 24937–24953 (1998).
Z. Lee, K. L. Carder, and R. A. Arnone, "Deriving inherent optical properties from water color: a multiband quasi-analytical algorithm for optically deep waters," Appl. Opt. 41(27), 5755–5772 (2002).
S. Maritorena, D. A. Siegel, and A. R. Peterson, "Optimization of a semianalytical ocean color model for global-scale applications," Appl. Opt. 41(15), 2705–2714 (2002).
M. Wang, S. Son, and J. L. W. Harding., "Retrieval of diffuse attenuation coefficient in the Chesapeake Bay and turbid ocean regions for satellite ocean color applications," J. Geophys. Res. 114(C10), C10011 (2009).
H. R. Gordon, J. W. Brown, and R. H. Evans, "Exact Rayleigh scattering calculations for use with the Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner," Appl. Opt. 27(5), 862–871 (1988).
M. Wang, "Atmospheric correction of the second generation ocean color sensors," Ph.D. dissertation (University of Miami, Coral Gables, Fla., 1991), p. 135.
H. R. Gordon and M. Wang, "Surface-roughness considerations for atmospheric correction of ocean color sensors. I: The Rayleigh-scattering component," Appl. Opt. 31(21), 4247–4260 (1992).
M. Wang, "The Rayleigh lookup tables for the SeaWiFS data processing: Accounting for the effects of ocean surface roughness," Int. J. Remote Sens. 23(13), 2693–2702 (2002).
M. Wang, "A refinement for the Rayleigh radiance computation with variation of the atmospheric pressure," Int. J. Remote Sens. 26(24), 5651–5663 (2005).
A. J. Brown, "Spectral bluing induced by small particles under the Mie and Rayleigh regimes," Icarus 239, 85–95 (2014).
M. Wang, B. A. Franz, R. A. Barnes, and C. R. McClain, "Effects of spectral bandpass on SeaWiFS-retrieved near-surface optical properties of the ocean," Appl. Opt. 40(3), 343–348 (2001).
M. Wang, P. Naik, and S. Son, "Out-of-band effects of satellite ocean color sensors," Appl. Opt. 55(9), 2312–2323 (2016).
H. R. Gordon, "Remote sensing of ocean color: a methodology for dealing with broad spectral bands and significant out-of-band response," Appl. Opt. 34(36), 8363–8374 (1995).
M. Wang, "A sensitivity study of SeaWiFS atmospheric correction algorithm: Effects of spectral band variations," Remote Sens. Environ. 67(3), 348–359 (1999).
H. R. Gordon, "Atmospheric correction of ocean color imagery in the Earth Observing System era," J. Geophys. Res. 102(D14), 17081–17106 (1997).
H. C. van de Hulst, Multiple Light Scattering (Academic Press, 1980).
C. Cox and W. Munk, "Measurements of the roughness of the sea surface from photographs of the sun's glitter," J. Opt. Soc. Am. 44(11), 838–850 (1954).
P. M. Saunders, "Shadowing on the ocean and the existence of the horizon," J. Geophys. Res. 72(18), 4643–4649 (1967).
G. Thuillier, M. Herse, D. Labs, T. Foujols, W. Peetermans, D. Gillotay, P. C. Simon, and H. Mandel, "The solar spectral irradiance from 200 to 2400 nm as measured by the SOLSPEC spectrometer from the ATLAS and EURECA missions," Sol. Phys. 214(1), 1–22 (2003).
M. Wang and S. W. Bailey, "Correction of the sun glint contamination on the SeaWiFS ocean and atmosphere products," Appl. Opt. 40(27), 4790–4798 (2001).
H. Zhang and M. Wang, "Evaluation of sun glint models using MODIS measurements," J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf. 111(3), 492–506 (2010).
W. A. Hovis, D. K. Clark, F. Anderson, R. W. Austin, W. H. Wilson, E. T. Baker, D. Ball, H. R. Gordon, J. L. Mueller, S. Z. El-Sayed, B. Sturm, R. C. Wrigley, and C. S. Yentsch, "Nimbus-7 coastal zone color scanner: system description and initial imagery," Science 210(4465), 60–63 (1980).
NOAA, NASA, and USAF, U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976 (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976).
Abbott, M. R.
Ahn, J. H.
Anderson, F.
Arnone, R. A.
Austin, R. W.
Ayada, H.
Bailey, S. W.
Baker, E. T.
Balch, W. P.
Ball, D.
Barnes, R. A.
Barton, I.
Bezy, J. L.
Bréon, F. M.
Bricaud, A.
Brown, A. J.
Brown, J. W.
Brown, O. B.
Bruzzi, S.
Buriez, J. C.
Campbell, J. W.
Carder, K. L.
Choi, J. K.
Cikanek, H.
Clark, D. K.
Cox, C.
Deschamps, P. Y.
El-Sayed, S. Z.
Eom, J.
Esaias, W. E.
Evans, R. H.
Evans, R. L.
Feldman, G. C.
Foujols, T.
Franz, B. A.
Garver, S. A.
Gentili, B.
Gillotay, D.
Goldberg, M. D.
Gordon, H. R.
Harding, J. L. W.
Herse, M.
Hodge, F. E.
Hooker, S. B.
Hovis, W. A.
Isaacman, A.
Ishida, J.
Iwasaki, N.
Jiang, L.
Kahru, M.
Katsuyama, Y.
Kilcoyne, H.
Labs, D.
Lee, Z.
Leroy, M.
Letelier, R.
Lim, H. S.
Machida, T.
Mandel, H.
Maritorena, S.
McClain, C. R.
Mehta, A.
Minnet, P. J.
Mitchell, B. G.
Miyachi, Y.
Morel, A.
Mueller, J. L.
Munk, W.
Neumann, A.
O'Reilly, J. E.
Park, Y. J.
Peetermans, W.
Peterson, A. R.
Podaire, A.
Rast, M.
Rausch, K.
Ryu, J. H.
Sato, R.
Saunders, P. M.
Sèze, G.
Shi, W.
Siegel, D. A.
Simon, P. C.
Son, S.
Sturm, B.
Tan, L.
Tange, Y.
Tanii, J.
Thuillier, G.
Voss, K.
Wilson, W. H.
Wrigley, R. C.
Yentsch, C. S.
Zhang, H.
Zimmermann, G.
Appl. Opt. (13)
Deep Sea Res. Part II Top. Stud. Oceanogr. (1)
Icarus (1)
IEEE Trans. Geosci. Rem. Sens. (3)
Int. J. Remote Sens. (3)
J. Geophys. Res. (5)
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Fig. 3 Rayleigh radiance ratio values in L r ( A ) ( λ ) / L r ( E ) ( λ ) for VIIRS spectral bands as a function of the solar-zenith angle with satellite sensor-zenith angles of (a) 20°, (b) 60°, (c) 70°, and (d) 75°, respectively. This is for a case with a relative-azimuth angle of 90° and with a wind speed of 7.5 m/s.
Fig. 4 The TOA Rayleigh radiance ratio L r ( E ) ( λ ) / L r ( A ) ( λ ) , i.e., correction factor, as a function of the air mass M for the VIIRS-SNPP spectral bands of (a) M1 (410 nm), (b) M2 (443 nm), (c) M3 (486 nm), and (d) M4 (551 nm), respectively.
Fig. 5 Evaluation results in L r ( A ) ( λ ) / L r ( E ) ( λ ) for the proposed correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS-SNPP band SRF effect on the performance of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for (a) without applying the correction, (b) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 3 m/s, (c) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 7.5 m/s, and (d) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 10 m/s.
Fig. 6 Evaluation results in L r ( A ) ( λ ) / L r ( E ) ( λ ) for the proposed correction algorithm to account for the VIIRS-JPSS-1 band SRF effect on the performance of the TOA Rayleigh radiance computation for (a) without applying the correction, (b) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 3 m/s, (c) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 7.5 m/s, and (d) after applying the correction for a wind speed of 10 m/s.
Table 1 VIIRS nominal center wavelengths and bandwidths for SNPP and JPSS-1.
Table 2 Fitting coefficients for the correction algorithm as in Eq. (4) for VIIRS.
Table 3 Mean ratio values in L r ( A ) ( λ ) / L r ( E ) ( λ ) (with and without applying the correction) for VIIRS SNPP and JPSS-1 for solar-zenith angles of 70°–80° with wind speed of 7.5 m/s (total data number of 225).
(1) 〈 τ r ( λ i ) 〉= ∫ τ r ( λ ) F 0 ( λ ) S i ( λ )dλ ∫ F 0 ( λ ) S i ( λ )dλ ,
(2) L r ( θ 0 ,θ,Δϕ, λ i )≈ L r ( θ 0 ,θ,Δϕ,〈 τ r ( λ i ) 〉 ),
(3) 〈 L r ( λ i ) 〉= ∫ L r ( λ ) S i ( λ )dλ ∫ S i ( λ )dλ ,
(4) Corr( λ )= a 0 ( λ )+ a 1 ( λ ) log e ( M )
(5) τ r ( λ, P 0 +ΔP )= τ r ( λ, P 0 ) P 0 +ΔP P 0 ,
VIIRS nominal center wavelengths and bandwidths for SNPP and JPSS-1.
VIIRS Band
Wavelengtha (nm)
Bandwidth (nm)
Wavelength✝ (nm)
M1 410 20.5 411 18.2
M8 1238 26.3 1238 26.1
M10 1601 59.5 1604 60.2
I1 638 81.6 642 78.9
I3 1600 59.2 1603 60.7
Fitting coefficients for the correction algorithm as in Eq. (4) for VIIRS.
Fitting Coefficients for SNPP
Fitting Coefficients for JPSS-1
a0(λ)
M1 1.0037 −0.00607 1.0004 −0.00094
I1 1.0030 −0.00338 1.0021 −0.00226
Mean ratio values in L r ( A ) ( λ ) / L r ( E ) ( λ ) (with and without applying the correction) for VIIRS SNPP and JPSS-1 for solar-zenith angles of 70°–80° with wind speed of 7.5 m/s (total data number of 225).
Mean Ratio for SNPP
Mean Ratio for JPSS-1
No Correction
With Correction
M1 1.00702 1.00014 1.00126 1.00003
I1 1.00302 1.00015 1.00192 1.00010


text:
Scotland's V&A museum dedicates exhibition to dancer Michael Clark
Towleroad March 4, 2022 Leave a Comment
Gallery security guard Darren Rout stands alongside artwork by Sarah Lucas featuring a cast of Michael Clark's body, at the preview for the Michael Clark: Cosmic Dancer exhibition at the V&A; Dundee. Jane Barlow/PA Wire/dpa
An exhibition about Michael Clark, who is described as "the David Bowie of dance", opens this weekend at the V&A Dundee, Scotland's museum of design.
"Michael Clark: Cosmic Dancer" spans the dancer and choreographer's career to date and explores his collaborations across the visual arts, music, fashion and film.
Born in Aberdeen in 1962, Clark began traditional Scottish dancing at the age of four and in 1975 left home to study at the Royal Ballet School in London.
He formed his own dance company in 1984 when he was only 22. As a young choreographer he brought together his classical ballet training with London's punk, fashion and club culture to establish himself as one of the most innovative artists working in contemporary dance.
Film, photography, costume and archive material from throughout his career are presented in a series of different rooms in the exhibition, showing Clark as a pioneer who can transcend different disciplines.
Leonie Bell, director of V&A Dundee, said: "Michael Clark is a huge talent who brings new ideas, tradition, energy and amazing skill to dance. So much of his work feels as alive, thoughtful and relevant as it did in the years it was created.
"Michael Clark remains hugely relevant today, challenging convention and reflecting the energy of the world around him, with ideas around gender and sexuality explored in breathtakingly beautiful performances.
"For me, Michael Clark is the David Bowie of dance, an inventor who with grace and energy has found new ways for us all to enjoy and be inspired by dance."
Clark's collaborators have ranged from Leigh Bowery and The Fall to non-professional dancers, while his diverse musical influences include Bowie, Jarvis Cocker, Patti Smith, T.Rex and composers Erik Satie and Igor Stravinsky.
An immersive film and sound installation has been created for the exhibition by Sophie Fiennes and Susan Stenger, which mixes heavy metal music with Clark's radical choreography, while Sarah Lucas has conceived two installations for the show, including a parodying sculpture of Clark's body sitting on a toilet.
Meanwhile a room dedicated to "The Fall" and Clark's landmark performance "I Am Curious, Orange" (1988) features stage props of a huge burger and baked bean cans.
The exhibition has been curated by Florence Ostende of London's Barbican Centre. "I am delighted this exhibition will bring Michael Clark's visionary creativity back to his home country of Scotland," she said.
"Clark is fascinating as a pioneer who brought together different disciplines to completely change contemporary dance and the British cultural landscape, from embracing and celebrating queer culture in the 1980s through to redefining gender representation and stereotypes within the heteronormative tradition of ballet history.
"This exhibition, one of the largest surveys ever dedicated to a living choreographer, presents a comprehensive story of Clark's career." The exhibition runs from Saturday until September 4.
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What is the importance of collective action in delivering humanitarian assistance?
ICVA is a global network of non-governmental organisations whose mission is to make humanitarian action more principled and effective by working collectively and independently to influence policy and practice.
"Through our participation, we really believe that we can change the system for the better, have greater humanitarian access and address some of the problems, especially with a focus on partnership and diversity."


text:
Q: Problem using fl.controls in Flash Builder I have a pure AS3 project created in Flash Builder and I am trying to use fl.controls.Slider. I decided to link the fl library as a SWC. I downloaded one from here and included it in the project Library path. And then I instantiate the slider this way (this is in the main Sprite):
var s:Slider = new Slider();
addChild(s);

No compile error, but when I launch the project, I get the following runtime error:
Main Thread (Suspended: TypeError: Error #2007: Parameter child must be non-null.)
flash.display::DisplayObjectContainer/addChildAt [no source]
fl.controls::BaseButton/drawBackground
fl.controls::BaseButton/draw
fl.core::UIComponent/drawNow
fl.controls::Slider/draw
fl.core::UIComponent/callLaterDispatcher

Any idea what's going on? Is there a better way to use fl components in a pure AS3 Flash Builder environment?
Thanks all!

A: That means that the variable s is null. This is because:

*

*You haven't imported the actual class

*The class doesn't exist in your swc

The first one is pretty obvious. To be sure the actual class exists in the swc you can open the swc with zip/rar program and look in the inclusion xml for the line:
<script name="fl/controls/Slider" mod="... etc

Edit:
Have you tried a different source for the swc? Or even compiled your own swc with the package by doing:

*

*Create a new FLA

*Drag and drop the components

*Export as swc

A: That means that the variable s is null. This is because:
You haven't imported the actual class
The class doesn't exist in your swc
The first one is pretty obvious. To be sure the actual class exists in the swc you can open the swc with zip/rar program and look in the inclusion xml for the line:

Have you tried a different source for the swc? Or even compiled your own swc with the package by doing:
Create a new FLA
Drag and drop the components
Export as swc

A: This is really old, so I am just gonna copy-paste my answer from comment so I can accept it.
I found the answer, it's missing skins after all as mentioned here. So all I have to do is call setStyle on all the available skins of the component and define them, which I need to anyway since I am not going to use the default skin.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Co-production is a way to create a more equal relationship between the people who use public services and those who provide them.
It is based on the idea that everyone has something to offer, and so by working together and drawing on these strengths, we can create a balance of power, and create services that work for everyone.
Co-production shares the same principles as community development. It supports people to use their own experiences and capacity to influence, blurring the boundaries between 'professionals' and 'service users' so that power is shared more equally.
Co-production isn't just about community groups having their voices heard: it's about them being central in shaping services, local partnerships and policy.
At SCDC, we host the Scottish Co-production Network – a free network for anyone who is interested in learning about and developing co-production approaches. The network holds regularly learning events throughout the year, has a wealth of online resources, and facilitates Co-production Week Scotland. You can find out more and sign up to the network here.
Training: Learn about the importance of strong community relationships and networks which support opportunities for co-production with this training.


I'm delighted to offer my first ever calendar featuring my most popular torn painted paper designs. The perfect gift or keep it for yourself.
Printed on thick quality paper which has been wire bound for a professional finish.
*Overseas customers can order via my etsy shop or alternatively, contact me for shipping quote before ordering.


Atlanta Conservation Club is a conservation / gun club located in outside of Atlanta, Indiana. A safe environment is provided for all members to enjoy shooting. The Club does sponsor competitions throughout the year. A link to their web site has been provided explaining member requirements and dates of upcoming events. The Atlanta Conservation Club is open to individuals that do meet the Club requirements which are listed on the website.


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text:
April 23, 1980 | Clip Of 1980 Republican Presidential Candidates Debate This clip, title, and description were not created by C-SPAN.
User Clip: 1980 Republican Debate, TX
July 4, 2016 2016-04-03T10:02:14-04:00https://images.c-span.org/Files/91c/20160403102933003_hd.jpgTX 1980 Republican Debate
TX 1980 Republican Debate
League of Women VotersLeague of Women Voters
American History TV
User Clip: Reagan on the Mexico-US Border policy
User Clip: Bush & Reagan 1980: Vice Presidential Criteria
See all on Republican Party American History TV Road to the White House Rewind
George H.W. Bush 1992 Acceptance Speech
President Bush accepted his party's nomination for the presidency on the final evening of the Republican National…
Presidential Debate, Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan
President Jimmy Carter and Republican presidential nominee Ronald Reagan met in Cleveland, Ohio, for the last of two…
George H.W. Bush Interview in New Hampshire
An interview with Republican candidate George H.W. Bush from the 1980 presidential campaign. Taped by Salem High School…
Ronald Reagan Interview in New Hampshire
An interview with Republican presidential candidate Ronald Reagan from the 1980 presidential campaign. The interview…


text:
Motor Boat Cruise was an attraction at Disneyland in Anaheim, California, in which patrons steer motor boats, which were guided through a hidden track similar to the Autopia ride. It operated from June 1957 until January 11, 1993.

History
Motor Boat Cruise opened in 1957 on the border between Fantasyland and Tomorrowland. The waterways of the Motor Boat Cruise shared space with other attractions such as the Viewliner train and bridges for Junior Autopia.

The design of the boats appears very similar to those illustrated in a "Boat Ride Apparatus" patent filed by Edgar A. Morgan and Karl W. Bacon, of Arrow Development. Arrow Development was involved in the design of many attractions at Disneyland between 1953 and 1973.

Major changes took place in 1959 to the three attractions in the area. The Viewliner and its railroad track were gone, and replaced by the elevated beam of the Disneyland Alweg Monorail. The new Fantasyland Autopia and an expanded Tomorrowland Autopia replaced the Junior Autopia. The lagoon which had once been home to the Phantom Boats was turned into the lagoon of the Submarine Voyage. The Motor Boat cruise remained.

In 1991, as part of the Disney Afternoon Avenue event, the Motor Boat Cruise became the Motor Boat Cruise to Gummi Glen. Plywood characters from Adventures of the Gummi Bears made Gummi Berry juice along the waterway.

On January 11, 1993, the Motor Boat Cruise closed permanently, in part due to the negative reactions to the Gummi Bears overlay, as well as its operating budget being needed for Mickey's Toontown. Its loading platform and landscaped grounds are now called Fantasia Gardens.

In 2001, an attraction considered by WDI to be the true successor to the Motor Boat Cruise, Aquatopia, opened at Tokyo DisneySea in Japan.

Current status
In 2007, the former Motor Boat Cruise waterways were drained during construction of the neighboring attraction, Finding Nemo Submarine Voyage. During this time, around 2/3 of Motor Boat Cruise's former waterways were filled in with landscaping, creating more of a space buffer between the freshwater-based submarine lagoon and the 'green system' water of Motor Boat Cruise's area. During this time, the former tracks that lay hidden beneath the green water were covered up or destroyed. In April 2007, a new dam was built, and water filled back into the area known as Fantasia Gardens (the former Motor Boat Cruise loading dock).  It is expected that the last portion of surviving track around the dock, will also be destroyed (and filled in) whenever Disney decides on what to do with the land. The Motor Boat Cruise's old dock was repurposed into a waterside dining area for the neighboring Edelweiss Snacks, and is used as one of many locations to hand out candy during Mickey's Halloween Party.

Popular culture
 The Motor Boat Cruise was the subject of a running joke in the Freakazoid! episode "The Cloud", in which various characters lament its closure, as well as those of the Skyway and Adventure Thru Inner Space. When Freakazoid learns that the Motor Boat Cruise has been shut down, he cries out "NOOO!!!! NOT THE BOATS!!!!!"

References

External links
  Motor Boat Cruise at Yesterland

Former Walt Disney Parks and Resorts attractions
Walt Disney Parks and Resorts gentle boat rides
Disneyland
Fantasyland
Amusement rides introduced in 1957
Amusement rides that closed in 1993
1957 establishments in California
1993 disestablishments in California

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text:
Home ⁄ The Wire ⁄ GARAGEHOUSE PICTURES IS BRINGING ANDY MILLIGAN'S 'MONSTROSITY' AND 'THE WEIRDO' TO BLU-RAY
GARAGEHOUSE PICTURES IS BRINGING ANDY MILLIGAN'S 'MONSTROSITY' AND 'THE WEIRDO' TO BLU-RAY
Nov 15, 2018 Featured, News	Tagged Andy Milligan, Garagehouse Pictures, Monstrosity, The Weirdo	Comments 0
Once seen, you cannot forget the films of Andy Milligan. Working on shoestring budgets, he delivered grindhouse genre films that were often marked by their melodramatic nature, nihilistic stories, amazing costuming, and sensationalistic titles like THE RATS ARE COMING! THE WEREWOLVES ARE HERE!, BLOODTHIRSTY BUTCHERS, and FLESHPOT ON 42ND STREET. Love the films or hate them, it is impossible to argue that Milligan didn't have a unique vision that he forced on to the screen through sheer will.
In the last decade, Milligan's films (many of which were thought to be lost for all time—and some of them may still be) have slowly been making their way on to DVD and Blu-ray as specialty home video companies have resurrected them. Garagehouse Pictures is the latest to get into the business of rescuing Milligan's films with his late-in-life titles MONSTROSITY and THE WEIRDO.
Both films are being given Blu-ray presentations with copious supplementary material. Street date is December 14, 2018, but you can pre-order the discs at Diabolik DVD.
The full press release from Garagehouse Pictures follows:
Garagehouse Pictures to release two films by legendary grindhouse auteur Andy Milligan – MONSTROSITY and THE WEIRDO – on Blu-ray in December!
For many years, much of the work of Andy Milligan has been unavailable, out-of-print or lost, but lately there's been a resurgence of interest, thanks in large part to Jimmy McDonough's exemplary biography, The Ghastly One. Often maligned and misunderstood by critics and genre movie fans alike, the films of the "Gutter Auteur" have been gaining interest, and Garagehouse Pictures is proud to offer two of Milligan's final features in HD for the first time ever. These robust special edition Blu-ray releases not only serve as the definitive versions of MONSTROSITY and THE WEIRDO, but also offer an exhaustive in-depth look at one of cinemas strangest fringe characters.
MONSTROSITY synopsis (from the Blu-ray disc jacket):
THE BRAIN OF A CHILD. THE BODY OF A GIANT. THE POWER OF AN APE.
ALL PROGRAMMED TO KILL!
After his girlfriend is viciously beaten and murdered by a group of savage L.A. street goons, a med student and his two pals create a modern day 'Golem' from human and animal cadavers, and revive it to take revenge. But they get more than they bargained for when Frankie, their half-human, half-witted creature, meets Jamie, a goofy street girl, and falls in love. Soon Frankie is forced to put his killer training to the test as he goes on a Schwarzenegger/Stallone-inspired rampage against the city's criminals armed with a machine gun and a headband.
Never before available in HD, Garagehouse Pictures is proud to bring grindhouse auteur Andy Milligan's punk rock Frankenstein to life on Blu-ray. Packed with special features, this release includes almost two hours of previously unseen outtakes and two commentaries by The Ghastly One author Jimmy McDonough!
"MONSTROSITY is like no other film you've ever seen, Milligan or otherwise!" – Frank Henenlotter, director of BASKET CASE & FRANKENHOOKER
SPECIAL FEATURES for MONSTROSITY:
Audio commentary with Milligan biographer Jimmy McDonough & Charlie Beesley
Audio commentary with Andrew Repasky McElhinney, Greg Giovanni & Dan Buskirk
Matsui's Monstrosities: An Interview with a Make-Up Man
Still gallery
Andy Milligan trailers
Liner notes by Jason Coffman
Garagehouse Pictures trailers
Cover art by Stephen Romano
Limited edition slip sleeve art by Justin Miller (Limited to 1000 units)
1988 / 92 mins. / Color / Mono / 1.37:1 / Not Rated
THE WEIRDO synopsis (from the Blu-ray disc jacket):
WHY CAN'T EVERYONE BE NICE TO ONE ANOTHER?
How much torment can a young man take? Donny (Steve Burington) is a shy loner who would like nothing more than to be left alone, but his life is little more than endless abuse and harassment. Abandoned by his family, bullied tirelessly by the local roughnecks, Donny seeks refuge in the ramshackle shed in which he lives and lonely walks in the woods. One day Donny meets Jenny (Jessica Straus), a young girl with troubles of her own who sympathizes with Donny, and the two begin an innocent romance. Donny's life seems to brighten for one brief moment, but Donny and Jenny's love is rejected by everyone in town. Then, faced with eviction from his beloved shed, a visit from Donny's destitute, estranged mother – who plans to sell him into slavery (!) – threatens to push the poor "weirdo" over the edge…!
"Boy meets Girl. Boy kills everyone. A love story as only Andy Milligan could make." – Frank Henenlotter, director of BASKET CASE & BRAIN DAMAGE
Garagehouse Pictures is pleased to bring legendary grindhouse auteur Andy Milligan's long out-of-circulation, penultimate feature to Blu-ray for the first time in a painstaking new HD restoration created from the original camera negative!
SPECIAL FEATURES for THE WEIRDO:
Audio commentary with producers Paul Maslak and Neva Friedenn, make-up man Rodd Matsui & actor Patrick Thomas
Audio commentary with film historian Keith Crocker moderated by George Reis
Matsui's Monstrosities: An Interview with a Make-Up Man: Part 2
Restoration comparison
1989 / 91 mins. / Color / Stereo / 1.37:1 / Not Rated
Blu-ray street date: 12/14/2018
Now available for pre-order through www.DiabolikDVD.com
ABOUT GARAGEHOUSE PICTURES
Since December 2015, Garagehouse Pictures has been dedicated to seeking out, restoring and preserving rare and lost horror and cult movies for release on Blu-ray. The more obscure and unknown the film is the better. Their first release was Paul Kyriazi's missing 1984 martial arts comedy NINJA BUSTERS, followed by THE SATANIST, the lost Satanic sexploitation film from Zoltan G. Spencer. THE DISMEMBERED, a forgotten regional Philadelphia-shot horror comedy, was also recently uncovered and released for the first time ever. After nearly 40 years in limbo, THE INTRUDER, the lost horror film from Chris Robinson starring Mickey Rooney, Yvonne De Carlo and Ted Cassidy, was issued in August. In addition to the endangered features, Garagehouse Pictures is also responsible for TRAILER TRAUMA, a popular series of four spectacular volumes (and counting!) of HD trailer compilations.
*For more information about this, or any of the other Garagehouse Pictures releases, please visit our website at www.garagehousepictures.com, or our Facebook page at https://www.facebook.com/garagehousepictures. All press inquiries should be directed to Harry Guerro:harry@garagehousepictures.com
–Matt Wedge (@MovieNerdMatt)
Matt Wedge
Matt Wedge is a writer, film fanatic, cat herder, and Daily Grindhouse news editor whose obsession with the films of Larry Cohen and sticking up for unfairly-maligned cinematic bombs can be read at his site, Obsessive Movie Nerd. You can follow him on Twitter at @MattWedgeDG.
Latest posts by Matt Wedge (see all)
Tags: Andy Milligan, Garagehouse Pictures, Monstrosity, The Weirdo
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text:
Nasa asteroid warning: Eiffel Tower-sized asteroid 'narrowly' missed earth in December
A man was diagnosed with leukaemia after originally mistaking his symptoms for long Covid
Arts and Books
Nirvana: lawsuit refiled as Spencer Elden pursues Nevermind baby album cover case
Spencer Elden alleges that the image of himself as a baby on Nirvana's album amounts to 'child pornography'
By Carly Roberts
Friday, 14th January 2022, 10:09 am
Updated Friday, 14th January 2022, 10:10 am
The man who featured as a naked baby on the cover of Nirvana's 1991 Nevermind album has refiled his lawsuit against the rock band - after is was dismissed by a US judge earlier this month.
Lawyers acting on behalf of Spencer Elden said members of the band had "leveraged the lascivious nature of his image" to promote their famous album.
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The Nineties album saw the grunge band shoot to success (image: Shutterstock)
Mr Elden was four months old when he was pictured in a pool at a swimming centre in Pasadena, California.
Now 30, he alleges that the picture, used by the group on their world famous album, constitutes child pornography as it shows his genitalia.
The lawsuit previously filed by Mr Elden's lawyers was dismissed by a US judge earlier this month after they missed an important deadline - and Mr Elden was given until 13 January to pursue the case and file a second amended complaint.
Documents obtained by the PA news agency, filed on 11 January, claimed Mr Elden would "continue to suffer damages as long as the violations described above persist".
In the original claim, filed in August 2021, lawyers alleged Nirvana "failed to take reasonable steps to protect Spencer and prevent his widespread sexual exploitation and image trafficking". These allegations have now been dropped.
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Nirvana's Nevermind at 30: 10 albums that prove 1991 was the best year for music
What's been said
"During the ten years preceding the filing of this action, each defendant intentionally commercially marketed the child pornography depicting Spencer and leveraged the lascivious nature of his image to promote the Nevermind album, the band, and Nirvana's music, while earning, at a minimum, tens of millions of dollars in the aggregate," the lawsuit said.
In the original claim, filed in August 2021, lawyers alleged Nirvana "failed to take reasonable steps to protect Spencer and prevent his widespread sexual exploitation and image trafficking".
The lawsuit also said Cobain, who took his own life in 1994 aged 27, was "instrumental" in choosing the album cover.
It is claimed Cobain agreed to strategically place a sticker over the baby's private parts - though the cover was ultimately released without any censorship.
On the original album cover the baby was shown naked underwater while appearing to be following a dollar bill being pulled along on a fish hook.
The image has become one of the most famous album covers of all time.
Nevermind, powered by singles including Smells Like Teen Spirit, Come As You Are and Lithium, was a massive critical and commercial success, propelling the grunge band to global stardom.
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Zero carbon ambition for Haringey
Haringey "will become London's first zero-carbon borough" as it bids to lead the way in tackling climate change. The ambitious pledge was made as the fifth annual Haringey Carbon Report was presented to Full Council. Haringey remains the only borough to track and publish its record on reducing local carbon emissions.
Since launching its dedicated carbon reduction drive – Haringey 40:20 – five years ago, the council has led a number of programmes to slash its own carbon emissions as well as those across the borough.
The council's own carbon emissions have tumbled by 45 percent since 2006, including a staggering 19 percent reduction in 2014/15, while borough-wide emissions have fallen nearly 14 percent, above the national average.
Despite a rising population, Haringey emissions per person are 41 percent lower than the greater London average, and 73 percent lower than the UK average.
Council-led schemes that have helped reduce Haringey's wider carbon footprint include:
Smart Homes – grants for home energy efficiency improvements, such as better insulation and boilers
Smart Business – financial support for more than 40 local businesses to install energy efficiency measures
Decent Homes – council house improvements including new boilers, insulation and double glazing
Durham University partnership – joint research on effective measures to reduce carbon
Fuel Poverty – supporting those in fuel poverty, including help managing energy bills and reducing energy use
Transport – encouraging sustainable transport, such as walking and cycling, including through improved facilities
Haringey 40:20 community fund – grants for local organisations to run carbon reduction schemes
Decentralised energy – earmarking regeneration areas where decentralised energy networks could cut carbon and reduce costs for the local community
Innovation Hub – supporting businesses to access new technology to reduce emissions
Planning policy – setting out minimum energy efficiency standards for new developments
Cllr Joe Goldberg, Cabinet Member for Economic Development, Social Inclusion and Sustainability, told last night's meeting that while local carbon reductions have been delivered, reducing carbon emissions is a greater challenge than ever before.
And he called on fellow boroughs, the government and industry to play their part after the government scrapped funding for Green Deal energy assessments, despite Haringey leading the second-most successful pilot scheme in the country.
Cllr Goldberg said:
"I am proud of the progress we have made this year, the success of our projects underlines our commitment to taking carbon reduction seriously. I am determined that Haringey be London's first zero-carbon borough.
"As a council we have led by example, exceeding our carbon reduction targets and challenging ourselves to go further, but we can't meet these ambitions alone.
"Local and national government – and our local communities – must work together to address the very real threats of continued global warming.
"Government policy is increasingly unclear and funding for carbon reduction schemes has been slashed. As we approach the critical COP21 summit in Paris, we must do all we can to drive forward carbon emission reductions and encourage others to learn from Haringey's example."


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Area team takes 2nd in first all-girls national baseball tournament
By Stephen Ruiz
Central Florida Rays manager Josh DeVinney talks to his players during the final of the first all-girls national baseball tournament Thursday at the Fortune Road Athletic Complex. (Stephen M. Dowell, Orlando Sentinel) (Stephen M. Dowell, Orlando Sentinel)
KISSIMMEE — Before Caitlyn Naginey finished rounding the bases after belting a two-run home run Thursday, her brother, Dakota, reacted.
He made his way beyond the fence in left-center field to retrieve the ball, a keepsake from the final of the first all-girls national baseball tournament at the Fortune Road complex.
"She's got this jar at home that she's got all of her home-run balls in,'' Dakota said. "I think she has 14 in there.''
No. 15 sparked the Central Florida Rays, just not enough. They finished second in the 12-team tournament after losing 7-6 to the Carolina Terminators in a matchup of teams of girls ages 10-13.
The Rays, who finished 5-2-1, beat the San Francisco Bay Sox 10-8 in a semifinal earlier in the day.
"We were down several times in this tournament, and they never, ever really gave in,'' Rays manager Josh DeVinney said. "Their attitude changed a little bit, but they always came back. They're just a very gritty, little team.''
The Rays — Naginey, Michelle Miller, Aubrey Evans, Delaney Heaberlin, Grace DeVinney, Izzy LaRoche, Reagan Sienkiewicz, Katie Johnson, Bri Lawson and Kayla Hickey — rallied after surrendering a five-run second inning. The teams exchanged runs in the third, making the score 7-3 before Caitlyn's latest tour de force trimmed the Rays' deficit to two runs.
The Rays put their first two runners on base in the sixth and final inning, but after a runner was thrown out stealing for the first out, Izzy poked a run-scoring sacrifice fly. The game ended on a groundout to second base.
"You want to win every tournament you have, but it's not always in the plan,'' Aubrey said.
As the Rays sat in their dugout afterward — signing souvenir bats for each other, medals around their necks, some emotions as raw as the dirt infield — they took pride in this tournament's significance.
"We finally got to feel what it was like to play against a bunch of girls,'' said Grace, the coach's daughter.
And Caitlyn, who pitched two scoreless innings, will add to her collection.
"It's just a ball,'' she said.
Her brother's actions said otherwise.
sruiz¿@orlandosentinel.com


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Governance Committee receives names of nominated candidates ahead of SAFA's Elective Congress
27 April 2022 – The South African Football Association's (SAFA) Governance Committee has received the names of the candidates that have been nominated ahead of this year's Elective Congress scheduled for 25 June 2022.
The Elective Congress will be held in Johannesburg and SAFA CEO Advocate Tebogo Motlanthe handed over the documents to the members of the Governance Committee in attendance at the briefing held at SAFA House on Tuesday, 26 April.
The Governance Committee was approved by SAFA's National Executive Committee (NEC) at the 30th Ordinary Congress at the Sandton Convention Centre on 26 March. The majority of the NEC members approved the appointment of the committee.
SAFA have announced Dr Victor Mogajane as chairman of the committee, Tumi Dlamini as his deputy, advocate Anzel Laubscher from Western Cape, Abel Ramolotja from Limpopo and Shakespeare Hadebe from the corporate world as the other members of the group.
They have been tasked with dealing with any issues around the candidates, and checking whether they meet the criteria for nomination in terms of the SAFA statutes.
The documents submitted at a Press Conference on Tuesday are of the candidates nominated for the presidency, the NEC and the members on the provincial list.
"We have not done any [background] checks because you know that as administrators we cannot get involved and we are just the Post Office," SAFA CEO Adv Motlanthe said. "We have received [the documents] and we have now handed them over to the Governance Committee chairperson [Mogajane]. I want to emphasise that this is an independent committee, it will do its work without any interference from us as administratotrs or anyone who occupies a position [at SAFA]."
Chairman Dr Victor Mogajane said all the members have availed themselves to provide support and assistance to SAFA, the custodians of the biggest sporting code in South Africa and in the world.
"SAFA has a lot (of) success stories that we can talk about, but we do not want hangovers," he said. "We need to move with the paradigm shift to make things happen on the field, and in the boardroom so that we are able to help the organisation to get to its maximum potential."