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Oil Palm and Land Use
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Land Use and the Oil Palm Industry in Malaysia
Abridged report produced for the WWF Forest Information System Database
by Teoh Cheng Hai B-3-1 Tiara Tower, Mont Kiara Astana, Jalan 3/70C, 50480 Kuala Lumpur. E-mail: chteoh@tm.net.my
Report Produced Under Project MY 0057 Policy Assessment of Malaysian Conservation Issues Project MYS 406/98 WWF Partners for Wetlands, Malaysia: Kinabatangan Floodplain
This abridged report was originally produced for WWF Malaysia under the title "Land Use and the Oil Palm Industry in Malaysia" and has been adapted for the WWF International Forest Information System Database. This report is meant for reference purposes only. Any use of this report must receive the prior written permission of WWF Malaysia.
LAND USE AND THE OIL PALM INDUSTRY
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 2. Background Objectives Scope Approach i v vii ix x 1 1 1 1 2 5 5 5 13 16 16 17 21 22 23 23 25 30
THE OIL PALM INDUSTRY FACTS & FIGURES 2.1. Palm Oil in the Global Oils and Fats Scenario 2.1.1 Present Scenario 2.1.2 Future Scenario Oil Palm in Malaysia 2.2.1 Planted Area 2.2.2 Production & Productivity 2.2.3 Contribution to the Malaysian Economy 2.2.4 Challenges for the Oil Palm Industry Oil Palm and the Environment 2.3.1 2.3.2 2.3.3 Awareness and Concern of the Industry Impact of Oil Palm on the Environment Environmental Management in Plantations
LAND USE BY OIL PALM 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. Present Land Use Future Land Use for Oil Palm Land Use in Relation to Conservation Areas 3.3.1 Priority Areas 3.3.2 Priority Areas Peninsular Malaysia 3.3.3 Priority Areas Sabah 3.3.4 Lower Kinabatangan Floodplains Land Use Options 3.4.1 Issues and Questions 3.4.2 Enhancing Productivity 3.4.3 Alternative Plantation Crops 3.4.4 Plantation Forestry and Agroforestry 3.4.5 Monoculture vs. Mixed Culture 3.4.6 Forests in Plantations Best Practices for Sustainable Development in Oil Palm 3.5.1 Identification of Best Practices 3.5.2 Land Use Planning 3.5.3 Land Evaluation 3.5.4 Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Treatment 3.5.5 Environmental Management System
33 33 41 44 44 49 50 51 55 55 55 58 60 63 65 67 67 70 71 73 74 75 75 77 77 78 79 80 81 81 82 83 84 85 85 85 ii
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS BY WWF MALAYSIA 4.1. 4.2. Overview Partners for Wetlands Kinabatangan Floodplains 4.2.1 Forging a Shared Vision 4.2.2 Flood Mitigation 4.2.3 Rehabilitation of Riparian Reserves 4.2.4 Minimising Water Pollution Promoting Conservation and Sustainable Land Use 4.3.1 Putting Forward the Case for Conservation 4.3.2 Policy on Land Alienation 4.3.3 Land Use Planning 4.3.4 Monitoring of Land Use Charges 4.3.5 Promoting Forests in Plantations Promoting Sustainable Development Practices 4.4.1 Closing the Productivity Gap
4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 4.5.
Encouraging Implementation of Environmental Management Systems Promoting Best Practices Promoting Agroforestry
Partners for WWF Malaysia 4.5.1 Plantation Industry Organisation 4.5.2 Plantation Companies 4.5.3 Research Organisations & Universities 4.5.4 Consultants
CONCLUSION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS REFERENCES APPENDICES Appendix II Appendix III Appendix IV : : : WWF Malaysia Land Use Survey Identifying Environmental Impacts and Assessment Matrix SES Advanced Integrated Wastewater Treatment System
Driven by a strong global demand for oils and fats, the past few decades have seen a rapid growth of the oil palm industry in Malaysia. This has led to the conversion of large tracts of land for oil palm cultivation. The spread of oil palms has seen the clearing of many lowland forests, some of which are ecologically sensitive, such as the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains in Sabah. In view of concerns of the way future developments could affect the remaining forest areas in the country, WWF Malaysia commissioned this study on land use and the oil palm industry in Malaysia. The primary objective is to study the various impacts of oil palm conversion on land use, focusing on issues pertaining to current conversion of land for oil palm cultivation and the projected future demand for land to meet the projected growth of the industry. In areas that have already been converted to oil palms, this study also examines best practices to ensure sustainable development and management of oil palms. Among the 17 major oils and fats, palm oil has made impressive and sustained growth in the global market over the past four decades. In 1999, palm oil accounted for 21% of world production of oils and fats; it is projected that palm oil will become the leading oil in the world around the year 2016. Malaysia is the worlds largest producer and exporter of palm oil; in 1999 it produced about 10.55 million tonnes of palm oil, which is equivalent to 54% of world production. It is projected that average annual production of palm oil in the country will reach 15.4 million tonnes in the period 20162020. Unless there is a very significant improvement in its productivity per hectare, it can be expected that the projected increase in national production of palm oil will inevitably have to be met by increasing the total planted area of oil palm. Currently, about 3.31 million hectares of land are under oil palm cultivation in Malaysia ; 62% being located in Peninsular Malaysia while Sabah and Sarawak account for 28% and 10% of the total area respectively. In view of diminishing availability of suitable land in Peninsular Malaysia, the last decade has seen a rapid expansion of oil palm planting in Sabah and Sarawak and the trend is expected to continue for the foreseeable future. For instance, it has been projected that Sarawak will have about one million hectares of oil palm by the year 2010. With the most suitable areas already converted to oil palms, new areas for expansion are likely to be in less ideal environments such as hilly to steep terrain or deep peat soils which would be far more challenging from the point of view of sustainable development. Various land use options were considered with the view to reducing the pressure to open up new land as well as to minimise the dependence on the monoculture of a single crop. An effective approach towards meeting the increasing global demand for palm oil is to increase the productivity of existing oil palm areas. There is currently a wide gap between actual production per hectare and what is considered achievable yield. Assuming that the average national yield of 20 tonnes of fresh fruit bunches per hectare could be raised by 20%, the anticipated increase in production per annum would be equivalent to the output from more than 400,000 hectares of land. As oil palm is essentially an export-oriented crop, the possibility of alternative or complementary crops that could generate similar economic returns was considered with due regard to the objectives and v
rd strategic directions of the 3 National Agricultural Policy (NAP3). While a number of crops such as mangosteen and new products in the New Products and Future Industry Group of NAP3 are capable of generating attractive financial returns, considerable research and development, infrastructure support and market research would be required to support commercial development. Based on economic analyses and experiences reported to date, forest plantations and possibly agroforestry are potential options for diversification. Between the two approaches, agroforestry would be a more sustainable approach as plantation forestry would still be a monoculture system, and besides, it could result in an increased demand for new land.
In areas that are already converted to oil palms, the study considered best practices that can support sustainable development and management in oil palm plantations. Over the years, the oil palm industry has developed and implemented many sound practices that are consonant with sustainable development. However, there is still scope for improvement in some areas such as a systematic approach towards land use planning and implementation of environmental management systems. Specific actions for improving environmental performance have been given in this report. Recommendations for interventions by WWF Malaysia with regard to policies on land use, promoting the conservation of areas under the threat of conversion and advocating sustainable development practices in existing oil palm areas are given in the last section of this report. Potential partners who could collaborate with WWF Malaysia in implementing these recommendations have also been identified.
Page Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 : : : : : : : : : : : : : World Production of Oils and Fats (000 tonnes) Comparative Yields for Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds (1997/98) World Exports of Oils and Fats (000 tonnes) Per Capita Consumption of 17 Oils & Fats (1998) (kg) World Production of Palm Oil (000 tonnes) Major Exporters of Palm Oil (000 tonnes ) Palm Oil Production & Exports by Malaysia and Indonesia Major Importers of Palm Oil (000 tonnes) Growth in Area Planted with Oil Palm in Malaysia Projected Production of Palm Oil (20002020) (million tonnes) 17 Oils & Fats World Disappearance Shares (%) Production of Crude Palm Oil in Malaysia (tonnes) 5-Year Average for FFB and CPO Yield/ha, OER and Immature Areas Export Value of Malaysian Primary Commodities (RM million) Editorials on Environment in The Planter Mean Runoff and Soil Loss under Different Covers Level of Utilization of Oil Palm Biomass Residues in Malaysia (1998) Inputoutput in Cultivating Oil Palm and Oil Seeds Public Complaints on Air and Water Pollution Total Forested Area and Area under Tree Crops Compared to Total Land Area in Malaysia (million hectares) 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 15 16 19 20
Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17
: : : :
Table 18 Table 19 Table 20
Page Table 21 Table 22 Table 23 : : : Distribution of Oil Palm Area by State (hectares) Distribution of Oil Palm Area by Agencies (hectares) Replanting, Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Programmes by Agency (19962000) A Priority Conservation Areas in Peninsular Malaysia 35 36 44
Table 24 Table 25 Table 26 Table 27 Table 28
A Priority Conservation Areas in Sabah : Oil Palm Yields and Yield Potential : OER Performance of Palm Oil Mills (1999) : Undeveloped Land Retained as Conservation Areas by Selected Companies Best Practices for Sustainable Development in Oil Palm Plantations Summary of Recommendations for Interventions by WWF Malaysia 66 57 55
Table 29 Table 30
Page Figure 1 : World Production of Oils & Fats (1999) (Total Production: 108.8 million tonnes) World Consumption of Oils & Fats (1999) Oil Palm Area (ha) in Indonesia 17 Oils & Fats World Production 5-year Averages Oil Palm Area (ha) in Malaysia Annual Malaysian Production of Oil Palm Products (tonnes) Yield of Fresh Fruit Bunches & Crude Palm Oil (tonnes/ha) and Oil Extraction Rate (%) Area Planted under Industrial Crops Existing and Potential New Oil Palm Areas in Sabah Existing and Potential New Oil Palm Areas and Peat Soil Areas in Sarawak Priority Areas for Conservation in Peninsular Malaysia Priority Areas for Conservation in Sabah Improvement in OER after Implementation of Quality Improvement Process (QIP) at Bukit Benut Oil Mill A Schematic Diagram Showing the Inter-relationship between the Factors and Criteria of Land Evaluation for Oil Palm 6
Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7
: : : : : :
Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10
Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13
AAR BOD CAP COD CPO DID DOE EFB EIA EMPA FELCRA FELDA FFB GMO ICRAF IPM IRR ISP JKAS KER LCA MARDI MEOA MOPGC MoU MPOA MPOB NAP3 NCR NGO NREB OER
Applied Agriculture Research Sdn. Bhd. bio-chemical oxygen demand Common Agricultural Policy chemical oxygen demand crude palm oil Department of Irrigation and Drainage Department of Environment empty fruit bunches Environmental Impact Assessment East Ma laysia Planters Association Federal Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Authority Federal Land Development Authority fresh fruit bunches genetically modified organism International Centre for Research on Agroforestry integrated pest management internal rates of return Incorporated Society of Planters Jabatan Konservasi Alam Sekitar kernel extraction rate Life Cycle Assessment Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute Malaysian Estate Owners Association Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council memorandum of understanding Malaysian Palm Oil Association Malaysian Palm Oil Board 3rd National Agricultural Policy Native Customary Rights non-governmental organisation Natural Resources and Environment Board oil extraction rate x
PfW PKO POME PORIM PORLA QAEC QIP RGA RISDA SAFODA SALB SALCRA SC SES SFI SLDB SSSB TQEM TQM UMS UPAM UPM WWFM
Partners for Wetlands palm kernel oil palm oil mill effluent Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia Palm Oil Registration and Licensing Authority Quality and Environment Council Quality Improvement Process Rubber Growers Association Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority Sabah Forest Department Authority South American leaf blight Sarawak Land Rehabilitation and Consolidation Authority solid content Sustainable Environmental Solutions Sdn. Bhd. Sabah Forest Industries Sabah Land Development Board Sabah Softwoods Sdn. Bhd. Total Quality and Environment Management total quality management Universiti Malaysia Sabah United Planting Association of Malaysia Universiti Putra Malaysia World Wide Fund for Nature Malaysia
The past few decades have seen the rapid growth of the oil palm industry in Malaysia, in terms of cultivated area and volume of production. Today, oil palm dominates the landscape throughout the country and the industry has become a major contributor to Malaysias export earnings, particularly during the 1997/98 Asian financial crisis. The increase in palm oil production has been driven by strong and increasing global demand for oils and fats. This has led to the conversion of large tracts of land for oil palm cultivation, the expansion in recent years being more pronounced in East Malaysia as the availability of suitable land in Peninsular Malaysia diminished. The spread of oil palm has seen the clearing of many lowland forests, some of which are ecologically sensitive, such as the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains in Sabah. There are concerns over how future developments in this sector will affect the quality of the environment, especially of the remaining forest land in the country. It is in this context that WWF Malaysia commissioned this study on land use and the oil palm industry in Malaysia. This study is jointly funded by the Policy Assessment of Malaysian Conservation Issues (MY 0057) and the WWF Partners for Wetlands, Malaysia. (MYS 406/98).
1.2 Objectives
The objectives of this study are assessing the impacts and implications of large-scale oil palm plantation conversion on land use. The study is focused on issues pertaining to current conversion of land for oil palm planting and the projected demand of land for expansion vis-vis the need for conservation of forest areas. It will gather information on land use types and options in order to make informed decisions on the need to convert natural forest or degraded land, rubber plantations, etc. into oil palm plantations. The study will also identify and recommend best practices for the sustainable development of oil palm in existing areas already converted from forest and other crops.
In line with its General Terms of Reference, the study covered the following main areas: Facts and figures on the oil palm industry: -Palm oil and the global oils and fats scenario -Oil palm in Malaysia -Oil palm and the environment Land use by oil palm -Present land use 1
-Future land use -Land use in relation to conservation areas -Land use options Best practices for sustainable development Recommendations for interventions by WWF Malaysia -Partners for Wetlands Kinabatangan floodplains -Promoting conservation and sustainable land use -Promoting sustainable development practices -Partners for WWF Malaysia
1.4 Approach
The study took into consideration publications from various sources, including papers presented at the International Planters Conference 2000 on Plantation Tree Crops in the New Millennium The Way Ahead that was held in Kuala Lumpur on 1820 May 2000. Some work done by WWF Malaysia on issues related to land conversion and oil palm plantations were also referred to. These references are listed in Section 7. Statistics on the oil palm industry were obtained mainly from various issues of the Palm Oil. Registration and Licensing Authority (PORLA) Palm Oil Statistics and Oil World Monthly (ISTA Mielke GmbH). Data on other crops were obtained from Statistics on Commodities by the Ministry of Primary Industries.
Views of various stakeholders, particularly those from the plantation industry, were obtained through interviews, most of which were conducted during the International Planters Conference. The list of people interviewed/contacted is given in Appendix I. A questionnaire survey was also conducted to obtain information on land use by plantation companies and the survey form is attached as Appendix II. Unfortunately, the survey did not obtain its expected results in terms of the level of returns and quality of responses. For instance, the survey did not obtain useful feedback on Best Practices some respondents left the question unanswered while others provided non-committal remarks like agronomic practice or follow general estate practice. In view of this, the full results of the survey are not presented, but references have been made in this report to relevant information arising from the survey. The study included a visit to Sabah by the consultant and Mr. Andrew Ng, Environmental Policy Analyst, WWF Malaysia, from 811 May 2000; with the view to seeing developments and problems in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains. Areas visited included flood-affected oil palm areas, the pilot forest rehabilitation initiative between WWF Malaysia and Asiatic Development Berhad along the Tenegang Besar River and the proboscis monkey habitat along the Menanggul River. The visit also provided us with the opportunity to meet staff of the Partners for Wetlands Project, the Acting District Officer of Kinabatang District, representatives of the plantation 2
industry in Sandakan, including the Chairman of the East Malaysia Planters Association. In Kota Kinabalu, discussions were also held with senior management of Sawit Kinabalu Bhd., the commercial entity of the Sabah Land Development Board as well as with a representative of the newly established Jabatan Konservasi Alam Sekitar (JKAS) in Sabah. In this report, oil palm refers to the palm Elaeis guineensis Jacq., which produces two types of oil palm oil from the fibrous mesocarp and palm kernel oil, a lauric oil from the palm kernel. Depending on the context, the industry has been called the oil palm industry or the palm oil industry. As this study is focused on land use by the crop, the former term is used throughout this report.
The Oil Palm Industry Facts and Figures
2.1 Palm Oil in the Global Oils and Fats Scenario
2.1.1 Present Scenario
Among the 17 oils and fats in the world market, palm oil has made impressive and sustained growth in the past four decades. In 1999, palm oil, together with palm kernel oil accounted for 20.9% of the worlds production of oils and fats (Table 1 and Figure 1). During the 20-year period from 1980 to 1999, annual palm oil production increased about 4.5 times from 4.54 million tonnes to 20.23 million tonnes compared with the 1.9 times growth in soybean oil production over the same period.
Table 1: World Production of Oils and Fats (000 Tonnes) Commodity Soybean Oil Palm Oil Rapeseed Oil Sunflower Oil Groundnut Oil Cotton Oil Coconut Oil Olive Oil Palm Kernel Oil Corn Oil Linseed Oil Sesame Oil Castor Oil Total Vegetable Oils Tallow & Grease Butter Lard Fish Oil Total Animal Oils/Fats Grand Total 1980 13,382 4,543 3,474 5,024 2,864 2,992 2,716 1,701 571 866 764 502 349 39,748 6,283 5,746 4,691 1,214 17,934 57,682 1990 16,097 11,027 8,160 7,869 3,897 3,782 3,387 1,855 1,450 1,477 653 612 438 60,704 6,813 6,500 5,509 1,378 20,200 80,904 1995 20,426 15,477 10,952 8,572 4,397 3,901 3,350 1,888 1,948 1,851 701 587 483 74,535 7,510 5,717 8,689 1,318 20,234 94,769 1999 24,755 20,277 12,936 9,237 4,705 3,811 2,499 2,425 2,518 1,989 721 689 433 86,995 8,133 5,819 6,609 1,201 21,762 108,757
Source: Oil World PORLA Directorate General of Estate ( Min. of Agri. Indonesia ), cited by PORLA
Figure 1: World Production of Oils & Fats (1999) (Total Production: 108.8 million tonnes)
Sunflower (8.5%) Other Oils (15.9%)
Rapeseed (11.9%) Palm & Palm Kernel Oil (20.9%)
Animal Oils & Fats (20.0%) Soybean (22.8%)
The rapid rise in prominence of palm oil as a major vegetable oil is attributable to its high productivity coupled with the expansion in planted area. Oil palm is capable of producing more than three tonnes of oil per hectare, which is seven times higher than the productivity of soybeans. Compared to rapeseed and cotton seed, oil palm is respectively five and 16 times more productive (Table 2).
Table 2: Comparative Yields for Vegetable Oils and Oilseeds 1997/98
Average Oil Potential Content Oil Content (%) (%) 19.1 43.8 18.5 47.5 19.0 42.5 42.5 66.5 25 49 20 50 20 45 45 68 Average Yield (tonnes/ha) 15.96 0.84 2.28 0.94 1.02 1.42 1.20 0.54 Calculated Yield of Oil (tonnes/ha) 3.05 0.37 0.42 0.45 0.19 0.60 0.51 0.36
Oil Palm* Oil Palm Soybean Groundnut Cotton Seed Rapeseed Sunflower Coconut
Palm oil Palm kernel Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Copra
Source: PORLA PORIM Oil World Annual
* Refers to Malaysia Hybrid DxP Variety
While palm oil is second to soybean in production, it is the worlds most widely traded oil, accounting for 13.24 million tonnes or 39.2% of the total volume of export of oils and fats in 1999 (Table 3).
Table 3: World Exports of Oils and Fats ('000 tonnes) Commodity Palm Oil Soybean Oil Sunflower Oil Rapeseed Oil Coconut Oil Palm Kernel Oil Olive Oil Corn Oil Groundnut Oil Cottonseed Oil Linseed Oil Castor Oil Sesame Oil Total Vegetable Oils Total Animal Oils/Fats Grand Total
Source: Oil World PORLA
1990 8,195 3,294 2,126 1,614 1.617 904 287 360 318 302 184 178 22 19,401 3,659 23,060
1995 10,173 5,691 2,962 1,898 1,704 793 385 598 266 272 188 302 22 25,254 4,201 29,455
1999 13,527 7,545 2,981 1,682 1,104 1,213 568 658 243 155 136 235 22 30,069 3,775 33,844
World consumption of oils and fats follows the pattern of production, with the highest consumption being for soybean oil (22.8%) followed by palm oil and palm kernel oil (20.4%) as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: World Consumption of Oils & Fats 1999
Animal Fats (20.2%)
Sunflower (8.5%)
Rapeseed (12.0%) Palm/Palm Kernel (20.4%)
Others (16.1%)
Soybean (22.8%)
Source: Oil World
The per capita consumption of oils and fats is generally related to the stage of national development; industrialised countries such as the USA, Canada and the European Union consumed more than 43.0 kg of fats and oils per person during 1998 while the volume for lesser developed countries was generally below 16.0 kg, the lowest consumption being recorded in Bangladesh (Table 4).
Table 4: Per Capita Consumption of 17 Oils & Fats (1998 Kg) Country Algeria Argentina Australia Bangladesh Brazil Cameroon Canada Chile China P.R. Colombia Costa Rica Cote dIvoire Cuba Ecuador Egypt Ex-USSR Per Capita Consumption 14.9 23.5 32.6 5.0 24.1 13.4 43.0 23.9 12.0 18.5 23.2 19.0 12.6 24.6 16.6 13.8 Country Kenya Korea, South Kuwait Malaysia Mexico Morocco Myanmar New Zealand Nigeria Pakistan Peru Philippines Saudi Arabia Senegal South Africa Sudan Per Capita Consumption 8.5 17.3 20.0 22.0 22.3 16.5 12.4 27.9 10.6 16.2 13.8 7.3 15.3 22.9 21.2 7.4 8
India Indonesia Iran Iraq Japan Jordan
Syria Taiwan Tunisia Turkey USA Venezuela EU-15
In 1999, the world production of palm oil was 20.28 million tonnes with Malaysia, as its largest producer contributing about 10.55 million tonnes or 52.0% of total volume, while Indonesia produced about 6.06 million tonnes or 29.9% (Table 5). Malaysia is also the worlds largest exporter of palm oil, exporting about 8.80 million tonnes or 65.1% of the total volume in 1999 (Table 6).
Table 5: World Production of Palm Oil (000 tonnes) Country of Origin Malaysia Indonesia Nigeria Colombia Cote dIvoire Thailand Ecuador Papua New Guinea Cameroon Honduras Ghana Brazil Costa Rica Others Grand Total 1990 6,095 2,413 580 226 270 232 120 145 140 78 85 66 62 355 10,867 1995 7,811 4,480 660 387 285 354 180 223 125 76 102 76 97 621 15,477 1999 10,554 6,060 720 424 282 410 220 270 140 75 112 90 105 815 20,277
Source: Oil World PORLA Min. of Agric., Indonesia (cited by PORLA)
Table 6: World Major Exporters of Palm Oil ( 000 tonnes ) Country Malaysia Indonesia Papua New Guinea Cote dIvoire Singapore* Hong Kong* Others* Total
1990 5,727 1,163 143 156 679 51 276 8,195
1995 6,513 1,856 220 120 399 275 790 10,173
1999 8,802 3,183 264 75 270 94 738 13,527
* includes re-exporting countries
As Malaysia has a relatively small population, most of its palm oil is exported, while Indonesia which is the world's fourth most populous country, has a big domestic market. However, with the increase in production volume, Indonesia has been steadily increasing its share of world exports of palm oil, as shown in Table 7.
Table 7: Palm Oil Production & Exports by Malaysia and Indonesia
% Share 1990 Malaysia Palm Oil Production Palm Oil Export 56.1 70.0 Indonesia 22.2 14.2 1995 Malaysia 50.5 64.0 1999
Indonesia Malaysia Indonesia 28.9 18.2 52.0 65.1 29.9 23.5
Table 8 lists the major importers of palm oil in 1990, 1995 and 1998; the most important importers being the European Union, India, the Peoples Republic of China and Pakistan. Collectively, they accounted for 57.2% of the worlds imports in 1998.
Table 8: Major Importers of Palm Oil (000 tonnes) Country China, P.R. EU Pakistan Egypt India Japan Malaysia Turkey South Korea Myanmar USA Bangladesh Indonesia South Africa Saudi Arabia Kenya Ex-USSR Other Countries Total
1990 1,133 1,556 683 NA 668 276 NA 182 217 134 130 82 27 NA 128 158 202 3,052 8,736
1995 1,595 1,738 1,122 353 863 351 38 201 156 305 102 53 55 128 169 177 57 2,882 10,345
1998 1,373 2,059 1,114 373 1,672 357 86 166 151 249 116 93 25 160 178 178 68 2,451 10,869
Malaysia and Indonesia produced more than 80% of the worlds supply of palm oil in 1999; production had increased exponentially following the rapid expansion in planted area. The growth in the planted area in Indonesia is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Oil Palm Area (ha) in Indonesia
Source: Directorate General of Estate (1966) Cited by Potter & Lee (1999)
The estimated planted area of oil palm in Indonesia in 1998 was 2.4 million hectares and the projected area for the year 2000 is between 2.7 and 2.9 million hectares (Potter and Lee, 1999). However, it is not certain if this target can be achieved in view of the continuing economic and political uncertainties in Indonesia. In Malaysia, the expansion in oil palm planting in Peninsular Malaysia commenced in the late 1950s/early 1960s while development of the oil palm industry in Sabah and Sarawak started in 1970. The growth in planted area during the past four decades is shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Growth in Area Planted with Oil Palm in Malaysia Year 1960 1970 1980 1990 1999 Total Planted Area (ha) 54,638 261,199 1,023,306 2,029,464 3,338,273 478% (1960/70) 392% (1970/80) 198% (1980/90) 165% (1990/99) Growth Rate (%)
Land use and oil palm cultivation are discussed further in Section 3.
2.1.2 Future Scenario
In developing their forecasts on the supply, demand and prices of the worlds oils and fats up to the year 2020, ISTA Mielke GmbH (1999) considered the following basic factors that will influence the growth of world agriculture and their impact on oils and fats. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) World population set to rise another 1.5 billion people by 2020. World economy set to expand from 2000 onwards. Prices set to continue to fluctuate heavily, but 5-year averages to remain high. Per capita and total consumption of oils and fats to keep rising sharply. Five-year average growth of livestock product demand and output are likely to slow again in the next two decades. Arable land and water resources are getting scarce. Politics and agricultural policies will play a decisive role for oilseed and grain plantings and yields. The 1999 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) will set new cornerstones for EU oilseed and grain production. Improved technology will be decisive for higher yields; more frequent and more intense El Ninos and La Ninas will also affect yields. Different demand growths will determine production in oils and fats and livestock products (meals and grains).
(vi) (vii)
(viii)
(ix)
Among the foregoing factors, those that are likely to have significant impact on the future of the oils and fats industries in general and palm oil in particular are: (i) Although the overall popula tion rate in the world has been declining since 1998, this decline has been mainly in developed countries. For instance, even negative population growth rates were recorded in EU countries and Japan. However, the highest population growth is expected to come from the low and middle-income developing countries; it has been projected that these countries will collectively contribute 42% of the global population growth over the next two decades. This trend will have a positive impact on the oils and fats industries considering that These developing countries are expected to achieve the highest income growth.
Their per capita consumption of oils and fats is still low, as shown in Table 4.
The global economy will expand from the year 2000; the current economic recession is expected to be shortlived as the US economy has remained strong and the economies in East and South East Asia, particularly South Korea, Malaysia and Thailand are quickly recovering from the financial crisis of 1997/98. Considering that the projected increases in demand for oils and fats are unlikely to be met by increases in their productivity, there will be increasing pressure to expand the world planted area of oil seeds and grains. But there is a growing scarcity of suitable land as well as water resources globally. Furthermore, environmental pressures will lead to more efforts to conserve land in many countries such as the USA and EU members. As such, the world is likely to depend on some exporting countries that still have adequate reserves of arable land, notably Brazil, Argentina, Malaysia, Indonesia, Australia and the former USSR. Changes in world weather patterns will have very significant impacts on the annual production of oil crops, as can be demonstrated from the effects of the 1996/97 El Nino which was largely responsible for the 6.5% drop in world palm oil production in 1998. The ISTA Mielke Study (1999) assumed that the El Nino and La Nina occurrences would be more frequent and more intense in the next 20 years. On technology, the best prospect for increasing production is through improving the genetic potential of planting materials. Biotechnology will play a big role in this direction and it is likely to have a greater immediate application in oil seeds such as soybean and rapeseed, despite current consumer and NGO resistance to genetically modified organisms (GMOs), particularly in Europe and the USA.
Taking the various factors that will shape the future into consideration, ISTA Mielke (1999) forecasts that the world production of the 17 oils and fats is likely to grow by 70% to 175.8 million tonnes annually in 201620 compared with 19962000. World disappearance of these oils and fats will also increase at the same rate to reach 175.3 million tonnes annually during 201620. The composition of oils and fats production will also change significantly; palm oil is expected to become the worlds leading oil in the next decade (Figure 4). Malaysia and Indonesia will continue to dominate world production of palm oil; Malaysia will remain the biggest producer until around 2012 after which Indonesia could become the leading producer. During 201620, projected production by Indonesia is 18,000 million tonnes or 44% of world production of 40,800 million tonnes while Malaysias estimated output will be 15,400 million tonnes or 37.7% (Table 10).
Figure 4 : 17 Oils & Fats World Production 5-Year Averages
Source: World Oil 2020
Table 10: Projected Production of Palm Oil (20002020) (million tonnes) Year Annual Production 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Five-year Averages 19962000 20012005 20062010 20112015 20162020
Source: Oil World 2020
World Total
10,100 (49.3%) 10,700 (48.1%) 10,980 (48.4%) 11,050 (47.7%) 10,900 (45.6%) 11,700 (45.6%)
6,700 (32.7%) 7,720 (34.7%) 7,815 (34.5%) 8,000 (34.6%) 8,700 (36.4%) 9,400 (36.6%)
20,495 22,253 22,682 23,149 23,901 25,666
9,022 (50.3%) 11,066 (47.0%) 12,700 (43.4%) 14,100 (40.2%) 15,400 (37.7%)
5,445 (30.4%) 8,327 (35.4%) 11,400 (39.0%) 14,800 (42.2%) 18,000 (44.1%)
17,932 23,530 29,210 35,064 40,800
( % ) = % of world total
In view of its high productivity and lower production costs, palm oil is highly competitive when compared to soybean oil. In her comparative analysis, Stringfellow (2000) stated that costs of 15
producing palm oil were significantly lower than those of soybean oil. Depending on the outcome of the next round of WTO talks this year, the competitiveness of palm oil could be enhanced if the USA is required to reduce the subsidies to soybean growers.
Table 11: 17 Oils & Fats World Disappearance Shares (%) 5-year averages (%) Major Oils/Groups 19761980 Palm Oil Soy Oil 9 other seed oils (a) 6 other oils & fats (b)
19962000 17% 22% 36% 24%
7% 21% 34% 38%
Palm kernel, cotton seed, groundnut, sunflower seed, rapeseed, coconut, castor, sesame, linseed oils Butter, lard, tallow, fish oil, olive and cotton oils
The composition of disappearance (consumption) of oils and fats will follow the trends for their projected production; the most impressive gain is expected for palm oil, rising from an average share of 7% during 197680 to 23% in 201620. While the share of world disappearance for soybean and other seed oils is likely to remain around 55%, the consumption of animal fats and oils, along with that of olive and cotton seed oils will account for only 25% share to total disappearance during 201620 (Table 11).
2.2 Oil Palm in Malaysia
2.2.1 Planted Area
Although commercial planting of oil palm began in 1917 on Tennarmaram Estate, large-scale cultivation commenced only around the 1960s following the Governments crop diversification programme to reduce the countrys dependence on rubber. Growth in planted area of oil palm is shown in Figure 5. In 1999, 3,313,393 hectares were planted with oil palm with 2,051,595 hectares (61.9%) in Peninsular Malaysia, 941,322 hectares (28.4%) in Sabah and 320,476 hectares (9.7%) in Sarawak (See also Table 21).
Figure 5: Oil Palm Planted Area (Ha) in Malaysia
3,600 3,200 2,800 2,400 '000 Ha P.Malaysia 2,000 1,600 1,200 Sabah 800 400 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 Sarawak 1994 1996 1998 Total
Year Source: PORLA
The last decade has seen rapid expansion in oil palm planting in Sabah and Sarawak while its development in Peninsular Malaysia slowed down on account of a shortage of suitable land and increasing shortage of manpower. Further development of new oil palm areas is expected to continue in East Malaysia, where there is greater land availability. Land use for oil palm is discussed further in Section 3.
2.2.2 Production & Productivity
Following the rapid expansion in planted hectarage, the annual production of palm oil and palm kernel in Malaysia increased very significantly (Figure 6). In 1999, the total crude palm oil (CPO) production, at 10.55 million tonnes, was ten times the volume produced in 1975. The marked decline in production in 1998 could be attributed to the effects of the prolonged El Nino conditions in 1996/97 as well as its natural decline during the biological cycle of the palm.
Figure 6: Annual Malaysian Production of Oil Palm Products (Tonnes)
12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000
'000 Tonnes
PKO = Palm Kernel Oil
Table 12 provides the production of CPO by the various states between 1980 and 1999; Sabah became the state with the highest CPO production in 1999, contributing 2.67 million tonnes (25.3%) of the total CPO production. Johor, which hitherto was the leading producer, contributed the second highest volume at 2.43 million tonnes (23.0%) while Pahang produced 1.87 million tonnes (17.7%). In the last 20 years, Sarawak recorded the highest increase in CPO production, followed by Sabah. This trend is expected to continue as more planted areas reach maturity.
Table 12: Production of Crude Palm Oil in Malaysia (tonnes) State Johor Pahang Perak Selangor N. Sembilan Terengganu Kelantan Kedah & Perlis P. Pinang Malacca P. Malaysia Sabah Sarawak Total
Source: PORLA
1980 737,674 460,669 368,609 445,350 168,198 107,307 27,034 11,932 41,721 25,830 2,394,324 156,471 22,378 2,573,173
1990 1,681,428 1,264,547 779,352 630,122 337,827 299,540 125,010 80,262 73,088 36,800 6,094,622 678,995 107,651 6,094,622
1995 1,847,764 1,571,236 997,161 614,707 393,088 307,311 163,225 102,473 53,657 43,938 6,094,560 1,493,623 222,363 7,810,546
1998 2,021,349 1,450,708 1,001,546 525,168 343,906 335,899 151,174 90,209 37,445 36,474 5,993,878 2,015,733 310,071 8,319,682
1999 2,425,163 1,867,127 1,220,920 618,858 452,398 410,048 215,723 128,701 46,086 42,836 7,427,860 2,666,518 459,667 10,554,045
The national average yield per hectare in terms of fresh fruit bunches (FFB) and crude palm oil (CPO) as well as the oil extraction rate (OER) are shown in Figure 7. FFB yield and CPO per hectare vary from year to year and are influenced by several factors such as weather and the natural biological cycle. Similarly, OER is affected by many factors in the plantation as well as the oil mills, as elucidated by Gan (1998). However, if we examine the 5-year averages since 1975 (Table 13), a declining trend is apparent for the three parameters over the last 15 years, in spite of the fact that there was a decline in the proportion of the immature area.
Figure 7: Yield of Fresh Fruit Bunches & Crude Palm Oil (tonnes/ha) and Oil Extraction Rate (%)
20 Tonnes/ha 15 10
10 5 1975 1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999
Source: Dept. of Statistics (cited by PORLA) PORLA
Table 13: 5-Year Average for FFB and CPO Yield/ha, OER and Immature Area FFB/ha (tonnes/ha) 16.89 19.33 19.70 18.68 18.44 CPO (tonnes/ha) 3.46 3.81 3.90 3.55 3.46 OER (%) 20.46 19.62 19.69 19.12 18.75 Immature Area (%)* 42.1 33.5 22.4 16.9 12.9
* % Immature area for the preceding 5-year period
Period 1975/79 1980/84 1985/89 1990/94 1995/99
Comparative statistics for production of palm oil by estates, federal and state development schemes and smallholders are not readily available. However, Chandran (2000) noted that there is a wide gap in productivity between plantations and smallholders; some well-managed estates have obtained 4.55.0 tonnes of oil per hectare while production by the smallholder sector was much lower than the national average.
% OER
2.2.3 Contribution to the Malaysian Economy
The oil palm industry has been a major contributor to Malaysias export earnings and its role became particularly significant during the 1997/98 financial crisis which caused a marked decline in the gross domestic product of Malaysia. In 1998, exports of palm oil and palm oil products (palm olein, palm stearin, palm kernel cake, palm fatty acids, etc.) amounted to RM22.65 million or 7.9% of the nations total export earnings (Table 14). It became the top export earner, exceeding the contributions from crude petroleum and petroleum products and forestry by a wide margin. The 1998 earnings from palm oil were 178% higher than those of the previous year and this was attributed to sharp increases in CPO prices. In 1998, CPO fetched an average FOB price of RM2,360.07 per tonne compared with RM1,412.69 in 1997, an increase of 167%.
Table 14: Export Value of Malaysian Primary Commodities (RM million) % of Total Export Earnings 5.78 3.27 0.30 0.14 0.03 6.66 16.18 0.52 7.53 % of Total Export Earnings 7.90 2.99 0.27 0.13 0.02 4.93 16.27 0.37 5.63
Primary Commodities
Palm Oil and Palm Oil Products Natural Rubber & Rubber Manufactures Cocoa and Cocoa Products Pepper Canned Pineapple and Juice Forestry Products
12, 758.4 7,217.8 666.8 300.2 70.5 14,721.3 35,735.0
22,648.5 8,567.8 770.5 362.6 53.5 14,248.1 46,651.0 1,071.5 16,134.2
Minerals Crude Petroleum, Petroleum Products & LNG TOTAL EARNINGS FROM PRIMARY COMMODITIES & PRODUCTS TOTAL EXPORT EARNINGS
Source: Ministry of Primary Industries
1,140.1 16,640.3
The oil palm industry has also played a key role in poverty eradication through land development agencies such as the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA), the Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) and various state development 21
agencies. The contribution by FELDA is documented in FELDA3 Decades of Evolution by Tunku Shamsul & Lee (1988). To date, FELDA has emplaced more than 109,000 settlers who were previously landless and living below the poverty line. The population of residents in FELDA settler schemes is about 547,000 at present (Syed Sofi, pers. com.).
2.2.4 Challenges for the Oil Palm Industry
Major issues and challenges faced by the oil palm industry in Malaysia have been a topic in many seminars and conferences, the most recent being the Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP) Conference 2000 and publications such as The Planter. They are also covered in Chapter 9 of the 3rd National Agricultural Policy (NAP3). Commonly cited challenges are as follows: Labour shortage is the most serious constraint and presently the industry is highly dependent on foreign workers. While efforts have been made to mechanise various field and mill operations, overall progress has been rather slow, particularly for harvesting fresh fruit bunches, the most labour-intensive operation. Land availability for further expansion is limited, particularly in Peninsular Malaysia where the cost of land is also substantially higher. While Sarawak has relatively more land availability, land tenure associated with Native Customary Rights (NCR) could pose a problem for further oil palm development. Productivity gap. A major concern is the large gap between the actual production of palm oil per hectare and the crops genetic potential. The gap has been widening with time as plant breeders have continued to improve the inherent productivity of oil palm but the yields realised have remained static or even declined. Cost of production continues to increase. The Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Councils (MOPGC) production cost survey for the period 198197 showed that the average cost of producing one tonne of CPO increased from RM612.90 in 1981 to RM762.83 in 1995, RM865.32 in 1996 and RM780.55 in 1997 (Tan, B.H., pers. com.). Total cost would be considerably higher if marketing expenses, duty and cesses had been included in the survey (Khoo, K.M., pers. com.) Competition. The Malaysian oil palm industry faces increasing competition from lower cost producers like Indonesia, the worlds second largest producer of palm oil. Chandran (2000) stated that the cost of production of well-managed plantations in Indonesia is only US$100120 per tonne oil, which is equivalent to RM380460 per tonne oil. The industry also faces competition from other fats and oils produced at a lower cost.
Technological challenges include the need to diversify from basic commodities to value added downstream products in food and non-food applications such as antioxidants, oleochemicals and biofibre composites. Environment. Increasing pressure from importing countries and various stakeholders requires the industry to take more positive action on promoting sustainable development. Bek-Nielsen (1995) stated that whether we like it or not, we cannot avoid to pay attention to the environmental issues which have become of worldwide importance to this world focus. Yusof (1999) encouraged the industry to take advantage of the ISO 14000 series of standards for environmental management as they have become a reference point for acceptable environmental corporate governance. The sustainable development challenge was also highlighted at the ISP International Planters Conference held in May 2000.
In addition to the above challenges, Bek-Nielsen (1995) has raised concerns over increasing difficulty in maintaining discipline among the workforce and the shortage of dedicated executives and officers. These have a negative impact on the efficiency of plantation management.
2.3 Oil Palm and the Environment
2.3.1 Awareness and Concern of the Industry
A review of the publications and activities of major organisations associated with the oil palm industry such as the Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP), Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) (which became part of the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) in May 2000), and the former Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council (MOPGC) could provide an indication of the industrys level of awareness and concern for the environment. The ISP is a good indicator organisation as it is a professional organisation founded in 1918 to represent and promote the interests of the planting community. Today, the Society has more than 4,300 individual members from 42 countries. The ISP publishes a monthly magazine, The Planter the main channel for keeping members abreast with technical and non-technical issues. The interest and position of the ISP on the environment is reflected in various editorials over the years; these are listed in Table 15.
Table 15: Editorials on Environment in The Planter Editorial Title Bukit Takun A National Treasure Agro-Industrial Waste Theme Issue The Environment Conservation Tropical Rainforests Carbon Dioxide and the Single Planet Post-Rio Forestry & Woodlands: Are They Relevant to the Plantation Industry? The Environment Biocontrol with Bioherbicides Encouraging Biodiversity in the Estate Sector Sustainable Development Biodiversity and Its Importance Changing Weed Population and Judicious Use of Pesticide The Planter Issue (No) 48 (556) 51 (595) 53 (619) 59 (692) 62 (719) 62 (727) 68 (800) 71 (828) 71 (834) 72 (848) 73 (854) 73 (859) 75 (877) 76 (889) July 1972 September 1975 October 1977 November 1983 February 1986 October 1986 November 1992 March 1995 September 1995 November 1996 May 1997 October 1997 April 1999 February 2000 Date
The Planter has published two theme issues on the environment: the October 1977 No.53(619) issue was published prior to the gazetting of the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977 to familiarise planters with the requirements of the new regulations. The second theme issue Volume 59(692) of November 1983 focused on conservation. In 1992/93, The Planter serialised the monograph A Manual on the Conservation of Malaysias Renewable Resources by Dr. P.R. Wycherley. This was published as Conservation in Malaysia in eight parts covering Climate, Agriculture, Biological Communities, Threatened Species, National Parks, Nature Reserves and Conclusions. PORIMs (now MPOBs) interest and efforts in oil palm and the environment are documented in the PORIM Bulletin , occasional papers and proceedings of conferences and seminars. Recent publications devoted to environmental management are as follows. (i) Proceedings of the 1999 2nd National Seminar on ISO 14000 Series for Environmental Management Standards for Oil Palm and Related Industries (August 1999). 24
Proceedings of the National Seminar on the Development, Applications and Implications of ISO 14000 Series of Environmental Standards on Oil Palm and Related Industries in the 21st Century (August 1998). Proceedings of the 1993 PORIM International Palm Oil Congress Update & Vision: Special Joint Session on Life Cycle Assessment (September 1993).
The most comprehensive publication by the industry to date is Oil Palm and the Environment: A Malaysian Perspective published by the Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council in November 1999. Contributions by authors from the industry, PORIM and relevant Government Departments were presented under the following headings. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) Oil Palm and the Rain Forest Biomass Resources Sustainable Field Practices Effluent Treatment Nutrient Recycling and Soil Conditions Bulk Lignocellulosic Materials for Industrial Users By-products for Animal Feed and Other Uses Biofuel Environmental Regulations.
2.3.2 Impact of Oil Palm on the Environment
The effects of replacing natural forests with oil palms were reviewed by Henson (1994) with respect to the potential impact on biodiversity, climate, hydrology, soil erosion, soil physical and chemical properties and specific management aspects. He concluded that oil palm cultivation in general poses little direct environmental impact per se; rather it is during the forest clearing operations where problems arise. The main impact of the latter is the loss of biodiversity. A number of publications (Salleh & Ng, 1983; Henson, 1994; Mohd. Hashim et al., 2000) have quoted the work of Wycherley (1969) to support this point. Forest disturbance initially causes loss of canopy fauna, followed by ground fauna, which are progressively replaced by species from the open. The number of mammalian species recorded in various vegetation types was as follows.
Vegetation Primary forest Disturbed forest Secondary forest Oil palm in rubber Scrub land Grass land Lalang
No. of Mammalian Species 75 32 11 13 11 7 4
Salleh and Ng (1983) stated that monocultural plantations create an environment that is very different from that of natural forests; the uniformity of plantation crop and its regularity in spatial distribution creates a monotonous environment impoverished in variety and life. These authours favoured greater species diversity in plantations and suggested that in contrast to monoculture, a harmonious integration in a agroforestry system which is ecologically more stable, may be in the long run be more sustainable. (The issue of oil palm monoculture and mixed culture is discussed further in Section 3.4.5.) In situations where land development for oil palm results in fragmentation of natural habitats, particularly of large mammals, the well-being and survival of these animals become a cause for concern. A case in point is in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplain where the development of contiguous blocks of oil palm has impeded the movement of elephants. This has led to incursion of the animal into oil palm plantations, causing damage to the crop in the process. Displaced animals may become a nuisance to residents in land schemes and towns in the vicinity of disturbed forests. For instance, periodic reports in the local Press have documented incidents of attacks by tigers and other carnivores on humans and domestic animals. A recent case which appeared in the New Straits Times on 27 May 2000 reported on the capture of a male black panther that had been terrorising workers in an oil palm plantations adjacent to the Chini forest reserve. It was also reported that this panther had mauled 13 cattle reared by the settlers in Felda Terapai Satu, Pekan, during the past year. Fortunately, this panther was sedated by the relevant authorities and will find a new home in the Melaka Zoo. Clearing of forests for whatever reason obviously leads to the loss of native plant resources, many of which are sources of traditional medicines and health food products. It has been estimated that 75% of 121 commonly prescribed drugs are derived from medicinal plants and that about 25% of them are extracted directly from plant materials (Ng & Azizol, 1999). Many of these are currently collected from the forests, including the famous tongkat ali (Eurycoma longifolia ). Another major consequence of clearing or disturbance of forests is changes in the hydrology and soil erosion. It is pertinent to note that new oil palm plantations are developed mainly from logged-over forests after economic timber species have been extracted by timber concessionaires. Nevertheless, the extraction of timber and land clearing for cultivation will 26
have adverse impacts unless appropriate mitigation measures are taken. Pushparajah (1983), citing Tang et al. (1979), stated that while sediment yield under undisturbed forest conditions in a study area in Kelantan was 100 m3 /kg/year, logging of 3040% of the catchment area increased it to 300m3 . Logging of the entire catchment raised the sediment yield to 2,500m3 , a 25-fold increase over the natural state! Estimates by Daniel & Kulasingam (1974) (cited by Pushparajah, 1983) indicated that runoff during peak storms from a catchment with rubber and oil palm during a 13-month period was twice that from a similar area under jungle. Ling et al. (1979) showed that in new clearings, runoff and soil loss can be reduced significantly if the ground is protected by natural covers or legume cover crops (Table 16). While well-managed plantations generally plant legume covers soon after land preparation and terracing, it usually takes at least six months for the exposed ground to be fully covered. During this period, there would be significant runoff and loss of top soil.
Table 16: Mean Runoff and Soil Loss under Different Covers Treatment Runoff (mm) 236 70 61 Runoff (% Rainfall) 15 5 3 Soil Loss (t/ha/yr) 79 11 10
Bare Legumes Natural Covers
Source: Ling et al. (1979)
With regard to the carbon cycles of natural forests and oil palms, Henson (1999) stated that in spite of the substantial removal of biomass in the form of FFB, the net carbon fixation of oil palm is similar to that of lowland forests. However, as oil palms are replanted about 25 years after planting, the carbon in standing biomass will not be able to match that of a forest. Over the years, the oil palm industry has developed many sound practices to minimise the negative impacts; in well-managed plantations, the following are regarded as standard operational practices. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Construction of terraces for soil and water conservation in undulating to hilly terrain. Zero burning during replanting. Establishment and maintenance of leguminous cover crops. Integrated pest management, combining biological control and the judicious use of pesticides. 27
Discriminatory fertiliser usage based on diagnosis of nutrient requirements from soil and foliar analyses. Organic waste recycling with empty fruit bunches (EFB) and land application of digested palm oil mill effluent (POME). Treatment of POME to 100 mg/l or less for discharge into waterways or below 5000mg/l where land application is permitted by the Department of Environment.
The adoption of the zero burning technique for replanting on a commercial scale since 1989 (Mohd. Hashim et al, 1993) and in new plantings (Jamaludin et al, 1999; Ramli, 1999) has been a major factor in minimising air pollution by plantations in Peninsular Malaysia. Hitherto, the clean clearing method which involves burning of the old crop or timber stand had been the most commonly used method for oil palm cultivation. In contrast, it has been reported that opening burning for land clearing by oil palm plantation in Indonesia contributed to the forest fires in 1997/98 and the transboundary haze and atmospheric pollution (Wakker, 1999). The implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) reduces the use of pesticides in plantations. Wood and Corley (1990) estimated that about one per cent of the oil palm planted area is treated with pesticides every year. IPM also promotes the more judicious use of more selective pesticides and safer application methods, such as trunk injection of insecticides. Nevertheless, some stakeholders are still concerned over potential chemical contamination, particularly in the groundwater. So far, there are apparently no published studies on this aspect with regard to oil palm, but it is encouraging to note that MARDI and the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) have recently initiated a research project to study the short- and long-term impacts of pesticide usage in oil palm plantations on soil and water contamination. Pesticides under investigation are deltamethrin, cypermethrin and endosulfan. MARDI is also collaborating with an agrochemical company to study the environmental impact from the use of metsulfuron, a commonly used herbicide (Cheah U.B., pers. com.). In the last decade, there has been an increasing awareness of the use of by-products and wastes from palm oil milsl with the dual objective of reducing their environmental impacts and enhancing the economic viability of the crop. Teoh & Chia (1993) reviewed the recycling aspects of oil palm cultivation and palm oil processing and provided an indication of the present and future use of oil palm biomass. Gurmit (1999) gave an updated level of biomass utilization (Table 17), current applications being mainly for organic fertilisers and fuel. The ultimate aim is towards zero waste and producing value added products in the process (Yusof and Ariffin, 1996). Abdul Rahman (1996) provided the vision and road map for maximising the utilisation of oil palm biomass through the zero emissions philosophy.
Table 17: Level of Utilisation of Oil Palm Biomass Residues in Malaysia (1998) Quantity Quantity Produced Utilised (million tonnes) (million tonnes) 27.20 1.38 25.83 1.10 % Utilisation 95 80 Method of Utilisation Mulch Mulch
Pruned fronds Trunks & fronds at replanting Fibre Shell POME
Fuel Fuel Nutrient source & organic fertiliser Mulch & bunch ash
EFB Total
2.20 35.00 Level of utilisation = 89%
Source: Gurmit (1999)
Compared with other major seed oil crops, oil palm is more efficient in utilisation of land resources and inputs such as fertiliser and energy and is less polluting to the environment. As discussed in Section 2.1.1, (Table 2) production of palm oil per hectare is seven times more than that of soybean. Wood and Corley (1991) showed that the output:input energy value for oil palm was 9.5 times for oil palm compared with 3.0 and 2.5 for rapeseed and soybean respectively. A FAO study cited by Pusparajah (1998) showed that oil palm has a lower requirement of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphates) and pesticides/herbicides per tonne oil than soybean, sunflower and rapeseed (Table 18). It also has the lowest soil and water emissions in respect of nitrogen, phosphorus and pesticides/herbicides.
Table 18: Inputoutput in Cultivating Oil Palm and Oilseeds Inputs per tonne of oil by crop Item and unit Palm oil Seed/fruit for extraction (kg) Inputs i. Nitrogen (kg N) ii. Phosphate (kg P 2 05 ) iii. Pesticides and herbicides (kg) iv. Others (kg) v. Energy (Gj) Outputs a) Emission to soil and water i. Nitrogen ii. Phosphates iii. Pesticides/herbicides b) Emission to air (kg) - NOx - SO - CO - Pesticides/herbicides 4500* Soybean oil 5000 Sunflower oil 2500 Rapeseed oil 2500
47 8 2 88 0.5
315 77 29 117 2.9
96 72 28 150 0.2
0.5 0.2 32 0.1
Source: FAO (1996) as cited by Pushparajah (1998)
*Fruit bunches
2.3.3 Environmental Management in Plantations
Although the discussion in the preceding section shows that the oil palm industry as a whole has a favourable environmental profile, particularly when compared with the major seed oil crops, there is much scope for improving the environmental performance of individual plantations. For instance, black smoke emission by palm oil mills continues to remain a problem; the level of compliance to the relevant environmental regulations is estimated to be about only 5060%. There is also concern that zero burning has not been practised by many estates in Sabah and Sarawak (Rosnani, pers. com.). Although the level of regulatory compliance in respect of discharge of treated effluents into waterways is generally good (above 90%), some mills in more remote areas of Sabah and Sarawak are not able to comply. The Department of Environment (DOE) hope to achieve 100% compliance in the year 2000. Public complaints sent to the DOE provide further evidence of the need for the palm oil industry to improve its environmental performance (Table 19). 30
Table 19: Public Complaints on Air and Water Pollution 1997 Pollution Palm Oil Mills Air Pollution Water Pollution 80 (2.5%) 17 (4.5%) Total Complaints 3,355 382 Palm Oil Mills 35 (1.8%) 18 (4.8%) Total Complaints 1,995 377 1998
Source: Dept. of Environment (1997, 1998)
Based on interviews conducted during the course of this study, companies generally do not adopt a systematic and holistic approach towards environmental management that involves the whole company. There is no assurance that the numerous sustainable plantation practices developed over the years are applied through the industry; the extent and effectiveness of their implementation is dependent on the level of commitment and competence of the man on the ground the planter. It is to be noted that labour shortages and rising costs may make it more difficult to apply some of the good practices such as the establishment and maintenance of leguminous cover crops for ground protection and enhancement of soil fertility. Companies that have put in place an environmental management process have a clear commitment to improve their environmental performance, two examples being Palmol Plantations Sdn. Berhad (a subsidiary of Unilever) and Golden Hope Plantations Berhad. Palmols commitment is a reflection of Unilevers global policy to improve the sustainability of their operations by minimising the environmental imprint of their activities throughout the world (Anderson, 1997). In the environmental policy of Golden Hope that has been published in its corporate annual reports, the company declares that We at Golden Hope recognise our responsibility to safeguard the environment in the course of conducting our business operations will be a primary consideration in all aspects and at all stages of our business. Effective implementation of environmental management requires proactive leadership and involvement of top management. These two companies have established appropriate structures to make this happen. Palmol Plantations have a Sustainable Agriculture Committee with its membership comprising the Managing Director and Heads of all departments including Human Resources and support services (V. Rao, pers. com.), while Golden Hope has the Quality and Environment Council (QAEC) which is headed by the Group Chief Executive. The QAEC is responsible for spearheading and implementating the Groups environmental policy and programmes (Teoh, 1995). Among its responsibilities, Palmols Sustainable Agriculture Committee monitors the companys performance against targets set for 10 parameters covering economic, social and environmental aspects.
In spite of the efforts by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board to promote the adoption of the ISO 14000 environmental management standards, only a few oil palm companies have implemented the recommended standards. Companies that have to-date achieved certification for the MS ISO 14001 Environment Management System include: Golden Hope Plantations Berhad (Sepang Oil Mill and Dusun Durian Oil Mill) Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad (Tanah Merah Oil Mill) Sime Darby Berhad (Tennamaram Oil Mill) Pan Century Edible Oils Sdn Bhd (Pan Century Oil Refinery)
Other companies interviewed during the study indicate that they are unlikely to implement the ISO 14001 standards in the near future as they are considered onerous, requiring extensive documentation. While companies realise the potential importance of the standards for facilitating international trade, they do not see the immediate relevance to day-to-day operations.
Land Use by Oil Palm
3.1 Present Land Use
Land use by perennial tree crops compared with forested area in Malaysia is shown in Table 20. The tree crop area in 1998 was 15.2% of the total land area while 61.5% was covered by forests.
Table 20: Total Forested Area and Area under Tree Crops Compared to Total Land Area in Malaysia (million hectares) Year 1980 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Total Land Area 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 32.9 Forested Area 20.5 19.4 19.2 19.2 19.1 19.0 19.2 18.9 20.6 20.2 % 62.3 59.0 58.4 58.4 58.1 57.8 58.4 57.4 62.6 61.5 Tree Crops* 3.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.8 4.7 4.8 5.2 4.8 5.0 % 10.6 14.0 14.0 14.0 14.6 14.3 14.6 15.8 14.6 15.2 Forested & Tree Crops Area 24.0 24.0 23.8 23.8 23.9 23.7 24.0 24.1 25.4 25.2 % 72.9 72.9 72.3 72.3 72.6 72.0 72.9 73.3 77.2 76.7
* Rubber, oil palm, cocoa and coconut area only
Among the industrial crops, oil palm covered the largest area 3.31 million hectares or 10.1% of the total land area in 1999. A comparison of land usage by oil palm, rubber, cocoa and coconuts from 198098 is shown in Figure 8. Expansion of commercial planting of oil palm started in the 1960s (Figure 5) at the time when rubber prices remained depressed and there was an increased awareness that the national export earnings were too dependent on a single crop. While the oil palm hectarage expanded, the area under rubber declined gradually; in 1998, the planted area was only 1.56 million hectares compared with peak area of 1.99 million hectares in 1982. Most of the rubber areas have since been replanted with oil palm. Poor commodity price and demand for lauric oils also saw a decline in the area under coconuts. With regard to cocoa, good economic returns resulted in an increase in the crop hectarage from 1990, after which there was a shift from this crop on account of declining commodity prices and high incidence of pests and diseases, particularly the vascular streak dieback and cocoa pod borer.
Figure 8: Area Planted with Industrial Crops
3.5 Oil Palm 3.0 2.5
Ha (million)
2.0 1.5 1.0 Cocoa 0.5 1980 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
The change in planted area of the four major tree crops from 1980 to 1998 was as follows.
Crop Rubber Oil Palm Cocoa Coconuts
Change in area (ha) -448,100 +2,054,810 +9,831 -154,500
Assuming that most of the rubber and coconut areas were replaced by oil palm, an additional 390,000 hectares of new land would have been developed for the crop. Table 21 provides the distribution of oil palm planted area by state while Table 22 gives the area planted by various agencies. In 1999, the largest oil palm growing states were Sabah, Johor and Pahang, accounting for 63% of the total planted area. The rate of oil palm planting in Sabah was impressive, considering that commercial planting commenced only in 1970. In 1999, the state had 941,322 hectares under oil palm, i.e. 28.4% of the total area.
Table 21: Distribution of Oil Palm Area by State (hectares) State (ha) Johor Kedah Kelantan Melaka N. Sembilan Pahang P. Pinang Perak Selangor Trengganu P. Malaysia Sabah Sarawak E. Malaysia MALAYSIA
1980 (%) (27.0) (1.1) (1.7) (1.1) (4.6) (25.8) (0.8) (11.5) (9.4) (6.3) (ha)
1990 (%) (26.3) (1.4) (3.0) (1.3) (4.3) (21.7) (0.7) (11.6) (7.4) (6.0) (83.7) (13.6) (2.7) (16.3) (ha)
1999 (%) (18.4) (1.6) (2.4) (1.2) (3.6) (16.4) (0.4) (9.2) (4.0) (4.7) (61.9) (28.4) (9.7) (38.1)
288,883 11,211 18,238 12,184 49,337 276,464 8,116 122,610 100,875 67,589 955,507 90,000 24,000 114,000
532,866 29,296 60,490 26,856 86,523 439,663 14,149 236,385 149,489 122,781
587,686 37,166 70,834 36,278 103,887 498,417 15,174 265,427 148,242 140,060 1,903,171 518,133 118,783 636,916
612,708 52,558 80,407 39,596 118,781 542,855 13,968 303,089 132,149 155,484 2,051,595 941,322 320,476 1,261,798
(89.3) 1,698,498 (8.4) (2.3) (10.7) 276,171 54,795 330,966
1,069,507 (100.0)
2,540,087 (100.0) 3,313,393 (100.0)
Table 22: Distribution of Oil Palm Area by Agencies (hectares) Agency (ha) Estates P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia FELCRA Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak P.Malay sia Sabah Sarawak
Source : PORLA
1980 (%) (ha)
1999 (%)
491,039 60,840 5,780 557,659 316,550 0 0 316,550 18,851 0 0 18,851 20,472 0 0 20,472 40,129 27,900 17,500 67,281 68,466 1,260 720 70,446 955,507 90,000 24,000 1,069,507 (100.0) (6.6) (8.0) (1.9) (1.8) (29.6) (52.1)
758,913 132,906 20,312 912,131 511,715 88,506 7,879 608,100 118,512 0 0 118,512 32,582 0 0 32,582 100,021 484,477 25,958 174,456 176,755 6,282 646 183,683 1,698,498 276,171 54,795 2,029,464 (100.0) (9.1) (8.6) (1.6) (5.8) (30.0) (44.9)
876,033 323,487 55,946 1,255,466 550,926 116,083 8,383 675,392 129,400 0 2,798 132,198 41,571 0 0 41,571 82,283 60,529 50,656 193,468 222,958 18,034 1,000 241,992 1,903,171 518,133 118,783 2,540,087 (100.0) (9.5) (7.6) (1.7) (5.2) (26.6) (49.4)
1,009,983 704,393 228,076 1,942,452 542,114 124,642 8,192 674,948 116,343 4,682 11,329 132,354 41,561 0 0 41,561 100,936 67,345 67,281 235,565 240,655 40,260 5,598 286,513 2,051,595 941,322 320,476 3,313,393 (100.0) (8.7) (7.0) (1.3) (4.0) (20.4) (58.6)
RISDA
State Schemes
Smallholdings
In Peninsular Malaysia, oil palm was initially planted in the coastal areas where the soils were deemed more fertile and suitable for the crop, Subsequently, planting was extended to inland soils areas, except in drier districts in Negeri Sembilan and on very steep terrain. In Sabah, oil palm was developed on alienated forest land and land converted from other crops, particularly cocoa. Planting was concentrated in the Sandakan and Tawau districts, accounting for 52.3% and 45.4% respectively of the total oil palm area in the state in 1996. The Kinbatangan area is a major oil palm area, occupying about 28% of the total planted hectarage in the state (Cheng, 1999). Oil palm plantations in Sarawak are located mainly in the Bintulu division (Abang Helmi, 1998) hile FELDA schemes have been developed in Gugusan Sampadi, 66 km west of Kuching. The approximate location of the present oil palm areas in Sabah and Sarawak are shown in Figures 9 and 10.
Figure 9: Existing and Potential New Oil Palm Areas in Sabah
Existing oil palm area Potential new oil palm area
Figure 10: Existing and Potential New Oil Palm Areas as well as Peat Soil Areas in Sarawak
Existing oil palm area
Peat soil
Potential new oil palm area
The estate sector has led the way in cultivation of oil palm since the 1960s. In 1999, it was responsible for 58.6% of the total planted area in Malaysia. In Sabah and Sarawak, the private sector developed 74.8% and 71.2% of the oil palm hectarage respectively. Major players include Golden Hope Plantations Berhad, Kumpulan Guthrie Berhad, Sime Darby Berhad and United Plantations Berhad which have contributed significantly towards the early development of the industry. IOI Corporation Berhad, PPB Oil Palm Berhad, Hap Seng Consolidated Berhad and Austral Enterprises Berhad are among the many companies responsible for oil palm development in East Malaysia. Public sector agencies, particularly FELDA, have also played a significant role in the growth of the industry. In 1999, the total oil palm area in FELDA schemes and plantations was 674,948 or 20.4% of the total planted area in the country. FELDA which has the responsibility for uplifting the socio-economic condition of settlers commenced planting of oil palm on 8,100 ha in Taib Andak Complex in Peninsular Malaysia in 1961. It spread its activities to Sabah in the early 1980s and has developed complexes at Umas and Kalabakan near Tawau and the Sahabat complex in the Dent Peninsula east of Lahad Datu (Tunku Shamsul & Lee, 1980). The total area developed to date was 124,642 hectares or 13.2% of the total oil palm area in Sabah. Following a change of strategy in the 1980s, FELDA has developed more than 350,000 ha as commercial plantations, using wage-earning workers rather than settlers. However, there has been no significant land development by FELDA for many years and the major activity has been replanting of the older schemes in Peninsular Malaysia; the total area replanted from 1995 to 1999 was 39,490 ha. It is of interest to note that the total oil palm area in FELDA has declined in recent years from 675,392 ha in 1995 to the current area of 642,928 ha, a reduction of 5%. The decline was due to the withdrawal of some settler areas from the FELDA system following the transfer of land ownership to individual settlers and the conversion of some areas for industrial development (Leong, C.W. pers. com.). During the mid-term review of the 7th Malaysia Pla (7MP), it was reported that expansion of the productive hectarage contributed to the continued growth in palm oil production; the increase in oil palm planted area came mainly from replanting of rubber and cocoa. New land development accounted for only 25% of the increase in planted area (Prime Ministers Dept., 1999). New land development was carried out by the private sector; 49,300 hectares were developed during 1996 98, which was 75% of the total new land area.
3.2 Future land use for oil palm
The Third National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) (Ministry of Agriculture, 1999) forecast that there would be 3.5 million ha under oil palm cultivation in Malaysia in 2005 and 3.6 million ha in 2010. However, this could possibly be an underestimate as the current hectarage is already 3.3 million ha compared with 3.1 million ha projected for the year 2000 in NAP3. In view of the scarcity of land in Peninsular Malaysia, the expansion of new planting of oil palm will be mainly in Sabah and Sarawak. More rapid growth is expected in Sarawak; it has been forecast that the 41
oil palm area in the state will increase from about 320,000 ha at present to one million ha in the year 2010 (Abang Helmi, 1998). In Sarawak, about 2.5 million ha are considered suitable for agricultural development (Abang Helmi, 1998), but they are mainly on hilly or steep terrain or peat swamps. Areas with more than 25o slopes are unsuitable for oil palms. A survey conducted by PORIM in 1995 indicated that about 599,000 ha are suitable for oil palm cultivation in Sarawak; 75% of this is located in Division 4. About 3.38 million ha have been classified as marginally suitable, of which 1.55 million ha or 46% is peat soil. The survey also showed that 89% of the peat swamp is under deep peat. The distribution of the peat swamps is shown in Figure 10. Utilisation of peat soils is more challenging as it requires much more intensive inputs in respect of infrastructure (eg. roads), drainage and agronomic requirements resulting in higher costs of development. Cheng (1995) estimated that the costs of developing plantations on peat soil could be 50% higher than on ideal (mineral) soil. According to Abang Helmi (1998), the Sarawak Government is making efforts to improve the infrastructure (roads and drainage) in the coastal belt which is mainly under peat swamps. It is planned to have trunk drainage networks in Lower Saribas, Balingian and in Lawas, which when completed would make about 30,000 ha of peat swamps available for oil palm cultivation. In view of the higher costs of development and the greater demands for agronomic and management inputs, planting of oil palm on peat should be considered a marginal proposition and priority should be given to its development on suitable mineral soils. While it can be argued that companies such as United Plantations Berhad (Gurmit et al, 1987), have cultivated oil palms under deep peat, the total area developed is comparatively small in relation to the total potential area in Sarawak. As these peat swamps form an extensive wetland ecosystem, a macro environmental impact assessment should be undertaken before proceeding with any large-scale agricultural development. Most of the suitable land for oil palm cultivation in Sarawak is claimed under the Native Customary Rights (NCR). It has been estimated that there are about 1.5 million ha of land under the NCR category. However, most of this land is low in productivity or has been left vacant or abandoned as the consequence of shifting agriculture. Recognising the need to raise the income of NCR land owners, the state government has introduced an innovative NCR land development concept which involves the participation of the private sector. Two pilot projects were launched in 1996 covering a total area of 40,000 ha. It is envisaged that implementation of the new concept will create new land banks of about 5,00010,000 ha each (Abang Helmi, 1998). Development of oil palm in this manner is a more sustainable proposition from the economic point of view as well as that of social development. In Sabah, most of the suitable soils have already been planted with oil palm, particularly in Tawau and Sandakan Divisions and new land development will likely be on poorer soils, either on hilly/steep terrain or lowland areas that are prone to flooding. In the 27 March 1998 edition of the Daily Express (cited by Cheng, 1999), the Sabah Government announced its intention of a three-fold expansion of the oil palm area in the Interior Division from about 8,000 ha to 24,895 42
ha which would be undertaken by public land development agencies and the private sector. However, based on the feedback from interviewees for this study, many of these areas are on marginal soil and/or on steep terrain. Areas that may be developed by the private sector in the near future are likely to be in the vicinity of the Sugut and Paitan Rivers and some interior areas like Tongod. In its 1998 Annual Report, Sawit Kinabalu Berhad, the corporatised entity of Sabah Land Development Board (SLDB) announced its intention to increase the companys planted area from 59,213 ha to 150,000 ha by the year 2005; about 39,000 ha in the Tawau, Kudat and Sandakan regions are currently at various planning stages for development. The distribution of existing oil palm areas and potential areas that might be developed in Sabah and Sarawak is given in Figures 9 and 10. It should be noted that these are composite maps based on information from interviews in this study, publications and company annual reports. Thus, the information on land distribution is not precise, but it provides an indication of present and future land use for oil palm in East Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, suitable land for new oil palm development is limited except perhaps in Pahang; furthermore, land is considerably more expensive than in East Malaysia. Replanting of oil palms after they have completed the economic cycle of about 25 years will be the main land development activity. Assuming an average replanting rate of 3%, about 62,000 ha of oil palm in Peninsular Malaysia will be replanted annually. In the mid-term review of the 7th Malaysia Plan (Prime Ministers Dept., 1999), it was projected that in situ land development during the last two years of the Plan (19992000) would cover about 120,000 ha, of which 98,400 ha will be for replanting while another 22,000 ha will be under land consolidation and rehabilitation (Table 23). The replanting programmes would be undertaken by FELDA, RISDA and various state land development agencies while land consolidation and rehabilitation would be done mainly by FELCRA and SALCRA (Sarawak Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority). In view of the higher financial returns from oil palm, increased conversion to this crop can also be expected.
Table 23: Replanting, Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Programmes by Agency (1996-2000)
7MP Programme/Agency Target Replanting Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority Federal Land Development Authority Sarawak Land Development Board Sabah Land Development Board Sabah Rubber Fund Board Department of Agriculture, Sabah Malaysian Pineapple Industry Board Department of Agriculture 60,000 97,100 8,300 12,400 6,000 40,000 4,900 2,500 139,000 43,000 111,400 9,200 9,100 8,100 4,100 600 79,000 19,800 7,300 5,500 5,500 6,600 2,100 300 60,000 23,200 4,100 3,700 3,600 1,500 2,000 300 231,000 Revised 224,500 Actual 1996-1998 Actual 1999-2000
Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Federal Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Authority Sarawak Land Consolidation & Rehabilitation Authority Rural Development Corporation* Department of Agriculture Total
Source: Prime Ministers Dept. (1999)
15,000 9,000 2,500 3,000 260,000
24,000 16,400 11,000 900 276,800
14,000 6,900 8,900 500 156,400
Note: * Includes joint ventures with the private sector
3.3 Land Use in Relation to Conservation Areas
3.3.1 Priority Areas
For their next Five-Year-Plan, WWF Malaysia has identified several priority areas that require greater effort for conservation in Malaysia. Selection of these areas was based on the following criteria (Ng A., pers. com.). Main criteria : 1. General knowledge of habitat/ecosystem condition. An area should be a viable habitat for flora and fauna; 2. The area is significant as a representative habitat of Malaysias biodiversity; and 44
3. Threats towards the habitats that can seriously damage a particular area. Secondary criteria : 1. No conservation work currently exists in a particular Priority Area by other organisations or governmental agencies; 2. WWFM has traditionally worked on a particular area and sees future work in that area; and 3. On-going projects with funding exist for work at particular area. No scoring had been done to differentiate the individual areas by a priority ranking; however, areas have been grouped broadly under A and B priorities, based on knowledge of the onthe-ground issues, threats and significance for conservation. Areas placed under A priority have a higher level of concern, urgency and/or significance for conservation than B priority areas. The locations of A and B priority areas in Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah are shown in Figures 11 and 12.
Figure 11: Priority Areas for Conservation in Peninsular Malaysia
Figure 12: Priority Areas for Conservation in Sabah
3.3.2 Priority Areas - Peninsular Malaysia
A priority areas in Peninsular Malaysia are described in Table 24.
Table 24: A Priority Conservation Areas in Peninsular Malaysia
Map Ref.
Krau, Pahang
Lowland & Hill Dipterocarp
Special features/interest One of last remaining virgin lowland forests, high biodiversity, elephant sanctuary, seladang rehabilitation.
Virgin forest, renowned for very high biodiversity, large mammals , Rafflesia
Ulu Belum, Perak
Hill Dipterocarp
Ulu Muda, Perak Main Range, Perak Gunung Benom, Pahang
Hill Dipterocarp Montane Montane
Virgin forest, high biodiversity Water catchment, high endemism Connects to Krau, continuity of lowland to highland ecosystems
Nakawan Range, Perlis
Limestone formations & semidecidous
Protected area, high biodiversity serow, white-handed gibbon anf short-tailed macaque
Langkawi, Kedah
Mangroves, limestone formation & semi-decidous
Unique limestone habitat, same age as Nakawan, high endemism Water catchment, KLs green lung, longest quartz ridge outcrop
Klang Gates, Selangor
Quartz Ridges
Kuala Setiu, Trengganu
Heath & Gelam and mangroves Coastal Low Hill
Water catchment, prospects for wildlife sanctuary, mountain river terrapins Turtle sanctuary, pristine area for green turtle breeding
MaDaerah, Trengganu
Merbok, Kedah Perak/Bernam Estuaries, Perak
Mangroves Mangroves and peat swamp
Nursery grounds for fisheries in Kedah Large mangrove ecosystem, important to migratory bird populations
Kuala Paka, Trengganu
Significant river terrapin populations
Source: WWF Malaysia
3.3.3 Priority Areas - Sabah
A priority areas in Sabah are presented in Table 25.
Table 25: A Priority Conservation Areas in Sabah
Lowland Dipterocarp, Peat Swamp, Freshwater, Lowland Rivers & Streams and Natural Lakes
Special features/interest
Malaysias Gift to the Earth, wildlife sanctuary, high mammalian density, proboscis monkeys, elephants (See Section 3.3.4) Protected area
Crocker Range
Hill Dipterocarp, upland rivers and streams
Ulu Pads
Montane to Hill Dipterocarp, Heath, Upland Rivers & Streams
High plant biodiversity/orchids and endemism, second to Kinabalu
Bukit Silam Kulamba Likas
Forest on Ultra Basic Rock Peat swamp & Freshwater Man made lakes
High endemism Rhino population and large mammals Bird sanctuary, urban education centre
Among the A priority areas, the Kinabatangan area has seen extensive development. As mentioned earlier, about 28% of the total oil palm area in 1996 in Sabah is located along the. Kinabatangan River, particularly in the Lower Kinabatangan area. The unique features of the floodplains and their biodiversity have attracted an increasing number of ecotourists, the main destination being Sukau, where several tourist lodges have been built over the past 10 years. Developments, issues and concerns over the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains are discussed under Section 3.3.4. Other A priority areas do not seem to be under immediate threat from development for oil palm cultivation, but it should be noted that the Kulamba (Map Area 9) and Bukit Silam (Map Area 7) are in proximity to existing oil palm plantations. Among the B priority areas, the. Sugut River (Map Area 11) and Lower Segama (Map Area 13) are likely to see further development of oil palm. A number of companies are already operating along the. Sugut River. Feedback from an interviewee indicated that currently about 20,000 ha in Sugut are being offered for sale for oil palm development.
3.3.4 Lower Kinabatangan Floodplains
The floodplains of the. Kinabatangan River are a unique ecosystem of wetland rainforest and freshwater lakes. Its rich biodiversity is reflected in the fact it is one of only two places on earth to have 10 primate species, including the orang utan, proboscis monkey and the Borneo gibbon. It is also home to more than 50 mammal species, including the Asian elephant and Sumatran rhinoceros and at least eight hornbill species. The Kinabatangan River, which is the longest in Sabah (560 km), is a source of livelihood for the local population and provides the water supply for Sandakan. The last few decades have seen rapid development in the Lower Kinbatangan, starting with commercial extraction of timber and subsequently the development of oil palm plantations. It has been estimated that in 1996, more than half of the dipterocarp forest in the Lower Kinabatangan had been converted by these activities. Currently, the landscape is dominated by oil palm plantations. In view of the global importance of the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains and the commitment of the government towards preservation of natural heritage, the Chief Minister of Sabah declared on 16 November 1999 that the remaining 27,000 ha of forests in the floodplains would be gazetted as the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary under the jurisdiction and protection of the Sabah Wildlife Department. As there is a need to maintain a sustainable balance between economic development and the preservation of the integrity of the proposed sanctuary, WWF Malaysia took the initiative to establish Partners for Wetlands in collaboration with the oil palm industry, the Sabah Forestry Department, Sabah Wildlife Department and other state agencies in mid-1998. The vision of the partnership is a varied landscape supporting a thriving and diverse economy that offers opportunity and choice to local people and businesses. Where mutual co-operation ensures good environmental management of the natural capital on which all partners depend. A landscape in which agriculture and nature conservation are united by their common source of vitality water. An uninterrupted corridor along the Kinabatangan River, connecting the coastal mangrove swamps with the upland forests where wildlife, farming, nature-based tourism and local forest industries thrive and support each other (WWF Malaysia Partners for Wetlands brochure). Several initiatives are at various stages of implementation to promote sustainable land use and ecotourism. These have arisen from a number of concerns; those relevant to land use include: Impact of logging and land clearing on flooding and water quality of the. Kinabatangan River. Potential water pollution from oil palm plantations and palm oil mills. Disturbance of habitats of wild animals, particularly of the Asian elephant. 51
Flooding is a common occurrence along the. Kinabatangan River, bearing in mind that it has an extensive water catchment area of about 16,800 km3 which is in the North-Easterly Monsoonal climate area. The mean annual rainfall is about 3,000 mm, heaviest precipitation being recorded between October and March. Major floods were recorded in 1963, 1967, 1971, 1986 and 1996 (Balamurugan, 1999) and the most recent occurrence was in January/February 2000. It has been estimated that about 10,000 ha were inundated for about 22 days, most of the area being oil palm plantations along the. Kinabatangan River and its tributaries. The swollen. Kinabatangan River was able to breach the 7-m long bund system that was built after the 1996 floods at a cost of RM1.4 million. It was also estimated that about 80% of the wildlife sanctuary was flooded. Although floods are a natural phenomenon along the. Kinabatangan River, their intensity and impact are influenced and aggravated by human activities. According to Dr. Balamurugan at the Partners for Wetlands meeting on 10 March 2000, the frequency of floods has not changed as there has been been no significant change in rainfall patterns; however, there has been a change in the magnitude of floods. While the causes for this are subject to debate, the most commonly cited reasons are the impacts of logging and land clearing for oil palm cultivation. These activities have caused serious compaction, reducing infiltration and creating faster and more extensive surface flows. Some of the interviewees of this study also raised the issue of siltation; deposition of sediments over the years along the river bank and especially at the estuary have impeded the discharge of the. Kinabatangan River into the sea. Apparently there has been no maintenance of the river, for example desilting of the banks and estuary by the relevant government agencies. Contrary to regulatory requirements, riparian reserves have been cleared by many plantations for oil palm planting. Without protection by the strip of natural vegetation, there will be increased runoff from the plantation into the river as well as higher risk of erosion or collapse of the riverbanks. Some plantations do not take basic soil conservation measures during the land clearing and the planting phase, resulting in soil erosion, as shown in the example in Plate 5.
In its Partners for Wetlands brochures, WWF Malaysia has raised concern over potential water pollution from palm oil mill effluents, fertilisers and agrochemicals contamination of surface water and possibly ground water sources through the use of insecticides, herbicides and fertilisers could lead to the deterioration of water quality. Considering that for every tonne of crude palm oil produced, there would be about 2.5 tonnes of palm oil mill effluent (POME) produced, with a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ranging from 10,000 to 25,000 mg/l, palm oil mills are indeed a serious source of pollution unless the raw POME is properly treated. In fact, discharge of raw POME was the major source of pollution in many rivers in Malaysia in the 1970s. However, a concerted effort by the Government and industry has resulted in the development of effective technologies to treat POME in order to meet stringent standards before the final discharge into waterways. The operations of oil mills and effluent treatment plants are 52
regulated under the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977. Among other requirements, oil mills must submit a monthly return on the performance of their effluent treatment plant to the Department of Environment. There are about 20 palm oil mills in the Kinabatangan floodplains. In his study on the hydrology and water quality of the Lower Kinabatangan, Balamurugan (1999) reported that a number of oil mills have not been able to meet the DOE requirements. In view of the risk of pollution by oil mills, regular monitoring of the discharges from effluent treatment plants into the river, if possible by Partners for Wetlands, would be desirable. Contamination of surface water by pesticides and fertilisers is much more difficult to detect in view of the dilution effect. Analyses of the 12 water samples collected by Balamurugan (1999) did not reveal the presence of five common pesticides at a detection level of 0.0001 mg/l except for aldrin in one sample. It is disturbing to note that dieldrin, DDT and aldrin have been listed as common pesticides used in plantations; this claim has to be validated as the use of these three pesticides, which are persistent organic pollutants, is prohibited in Malaysia under the Pesticides Act, 1974. It is pertinent to note that herbicides account for the bulk of agrochemicals used by the oil palm industry in Malaysia; in terms of active ingredients used per ha per year, the most commonly used herbicides are glyphosate (1.15 l/ha/year ), paraquat ( 0.44 l/ha/year) and 2.4.D Amine (0.25 l/ha/yr) (Periyasamy et al., 1998) The water sampling exercise by Balamurugan (1999) detected high nutrient levels in the. Teneggang Besar River (3 oil mills), Koyah River (4 mills) and Pin River (2 mills); this was probably due to ineffective treatment of POME rather than contamination by fertilisers. With regard to potential contamination of ground water, the movement of pesticides in the soil is usually studied by the respective companies as part of their protocol for pesticide development, but apparently no studies have been done to date to monitor the residual effects of commonly used pesticides in oil palm plantations. However, recently MARDI and MPOB began jointly investigating the effects of three insecticides in ground water. On contamination by fertilisers, Chew and Pushparajah (1995) showed that at present rates of fertiliser usage and management practices, pollution of ground water is unlikely.
Wildlife Habitats
The Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary consists of 10 separate blocks, many of which are separated by oil palm plantations and other land uses. The fragmented nature of the reserve has hindered the movement of elephants in the locality. A study being conducted by Universiti Malaysia Sabah in collaboration with WWF Malaysia and the Sabah Wildlife Department established that there is a herd of 73 elephants in six family groups in the Kinabatangan area. The elephants move together in a passage or corridor along the river banks and lowland forests from Sukau to Batu Putih and back to Sukau. However, their movements have been restricted where there is no continuous forest passage. The main bottlenecks identified are the road at Bukit Garam and near Morisem Estate where a barrier of tyres has blocked their access to the 53
adjoining forest area. When movement is impeded, elephants traverse oil palm areas, causing damage to the palms in the process. This problem was discussed at a Partners for Wetlands meeting on 17 February 2000, when various options were considered. One option is to link the separate blocks of forests to create an elephant corridor throughout the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary. Initiatives by WWF Malaysia Through the Partners for Wetlands programme, WWF Malaysia has undertaken a number initiatives to address the foregoing environmental concerns; the principal activities undertaken under the Land Use Module include: Establishment of pilot tree planting projects to rehabilitate the riparian reserves along the. Kinabatangan River and its subsidiary, Tenangang Besar River. Proposed business development plan on tree planting in flood-prone land Assessment of soils in the Lower Kinabatangan area. Study on hydrology and water quality in the Lower Kinabatangan wildlife sanctuary. Study on the movement of elephants in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains with the view to ensuring their conservation.
WWF Malaysia signed MoUs with Asiatic Development Berhad and Pontian United Plantations Berhad on 20 December 1999 and 25 April 2000 respectively to establish pilot projects for the re-establishment of riparian reserves. These projects are designed primarily to serve as model demonstration projects on the feasibility of restoring forest vegetation cover in degraded riparian reserves and low-lying plantation land that is considered unsuitable for supporting oil palm. WWF Malaysia also commissioned a study to develop a business plan to encourage plantation companies in flood-prone areas to plant forest species as a commercially viable alternative to oil palm. In addition to the above activities, WWF Malaysia has been conducting awareness sessions to promote the objectives of Partners for Wetlands and has held dialogues with potential partners and stakeholders on current problems such as the recent floods and elephant management.
3.4 Land Use Options
3.4.1 Issues and Questions
Growth of the palm oil industry in Malaysia has been driven by strong global demand. As discussed in section 2.1.2, per capita and total consumption of oils and fats will continue to rise, with the most rapid growth being projected for palm oil. Malaysia is expected to remain the worlds leading producer of palm oil for the next decade or so. This will mean the opening of new land for oil palm cultivation unless the projected demand is met by significant improvements in productivity per hectare. As palm oil is largely an export-oriented commodity, it would be desirable to determine if the country should continue to be over-dependent on a single crop for its export earnings, or if it is timely to make a concerted search for alternate crops that could be as profitable as oil palm? With 3.3 million hectares planted, what are the risks of extensive monoculture from pest and disease outbreaks? These issues and questions are considered in this section.
3.4.2 Enhancing Productivity
The pressure to open new land for oil palm to meet projected global demand could be reduced by maximising the productivity of existing oil palm areas. There is currently a wide gap between actual projection per hectare and the genetic potential of oil palm that are available now (Table 26). It should be noted that apart from a few years in the mid-1980s, the national FFB yield per hectare has been less than 20 tonnes/ha since 1995. The rapid rise in palm oil production in Malaysia (Figure 6) had been achieved mainly through expansion in the planted area alone rather than through improvements in its productivity.
Table 26: Oil Palm Yields and Yield Potential
FFB yield (t/ha/yr) Average national yields Good commercial yields Experimental yields (Current planting naturals)
Source: Henson (1990)
Oil Yield (t/ha/yr) 3.7 5.0 6.0 8.6
The prospects for significant improvements in FFB yield per ha in the immediate future are very realistic. Many commercial areas have been able to produce more than 30 tonnes FFB/ha/yr. 55
For instance, Lee & Toh (1990) reported that commercial DxP yields recorded in 1989 in coastal soil areas ranged from 37.3 to 40.5 tonnes FFB/ha while oil palms on inland soils produced 34.7 to 41.7 tonnes/ha. It was also reported that through improved agronomic practices, 40 46 tonnes FFB/ha had been achieved in Melaka Tong Bee Estate in Serkam, Melaka (ISP, 1996). The crude palm oil (CPO) produced per ha depends on the inherent oil content of the FFB Oil to Bunch Ratio and how efficiently it is extracted (Oil Extraction Rate). Although the oil to bunch (O/B) of planting materials had improved from 20.0 22.0% in the sixties to about 26.0% in the eighties (Jalani, 1998), the actual oil extraction rate (OER) has remained well below 20% in the last two decades (Figure 7); the disconcerting fact is OER levels have been deteriorating in recent years, the level recorded for 1999 was only 18.6% The large yield gap and declining OER performance are a course for grave concern and they have been the subject of numerous meetings and conferences in the industry, including the recent International Planters Conference 2000. The ISP voiced its concern in an editorial in The Planter headlined Are we complacent (ISP, 1998). If these issues are not addressed, Malaysias competitive position as the leading palm oil producer in the world would be eroded. Numerous probable reasons for the poor performance have been put forward, including shortage of labour , low level of mechanisation, droughts caused by El Nino etc. Bek-Nielsen (2000) attributed the low FFB yield per hectare to failure of the industry to adhere to a rational replanting policy, advising that there is a need to replace all areas yielding less than 18 tonnes FFB/ha. A national seminar was organised by PORIM in December 1993 to address the problems and issues related to oil extraction rates; but unfortunately, the OER performance of the industry remained in the doldrums. Gan (1998) reviewed the findings presented at the seminar and other published work. He estimated OER losses according to unavoidable factors (such as environmental, climatic and biological factors) and avoidable factors (such as management). In the field, avoidable losses are mainly operationally related, accounting for a loss of about 1.5% OER and 0.16% KER (Kernel Extraction Rate). In respect of processing, oil mills have established standards for acceptable losses for various operations, amounting to 1.60% OER and 0.29% KER. However, actual performance of palm oil mills is highly variable as shown in Table 27. Overall, 123 oil mills representing 38% of the total number in Malaysia have an OER performance of below 18% in 1999 while 149 mills (68%) are operating below 19% OER. Oil mills in Sabah and Sarawak have comparatively better performance as many have been built in recent years, incorporating improved designs and efficiencies.
Table 27: OER Performance of Palm Oil Mills (1999)
16.99% & below P. Malaysia Sabah Sarawak Malaysia
17.00 17.99% 113 2
18.00 18.99% 90 8
19.00 19.99% 24 32 4
20.00 20.99% 6 23 4 33
21.00% & above 1 5 6 12
Total Mills 242 70 14 326
While the need for increased productivity and efficiency in the oil palm industry is recognised, there seems to be inadequate concerted action to address these issues. Productivity improvements through utilisation of new planting materials, better agronomic practices and increased mechanisation are strategic directions for the oil palm industry in the NAP3. Arshad (2000) stated that in order to get returns from investment in oil palm, a mean yield of 22 tonnes FFB/ha or 4.0 tonnes oil/ha must be realised. Captains of the industry have also realised the need for greater efficiency. In an interview reported in The Star on 10 April 2000, Dr. Radzuan Abdul Rahman, Managing Director of Island & Peninsula Bhd. stated that the countrys plantation industry is not as efficient as it should be and there is room to consolidate and enhance efficiency. There is potential to substantially improve the value of output by at least RM8 million if we put in more efforts to optimise our resources and improve on the processes. The potential for higher output can be measured in the oil extraction level at 19% against 25% achieved in Indonesia. While the cause for concern has been recognised, the perplexing question is why there has been no greater excitement or initiative by the oil palm industry as a whole to resolve the productivity problem. Prof. P.B. Tinker, a keynote speaker at the International Planters Conference 2000 was surprised to note how calmly the industry has accepted the potential loss of at least 20% in yield. In terms of total quality management (TQM), such losses would have been regarded as a cost of poor quality i.e. it is an avoidable loss due to non-attainment of quality. In manufacturing environments, such losses are often a reflection of the inefficiency of the management and remedial actions and targets are set to recover the losses. Golden Hope Plantations Berhad has adopted the TQM approach to solve the problem of low OER. Using the cross-functional Quality Improvement Process (QIP), a 1-3% improvement in OER from one oil mill was obtained, as shown in Figure 13, resulting in an additional revenue of RM5.8 million over a three-year period.
Figure 13. Improvement in OER after implementation of Quality Improvement Process (QIP) at Bukit Benut Oil Mill
OER (%)
17.0 Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Before QIP 1995/96
After QIP 1996/97
Source: Beh et al (2000)
From the land use perspective, if the oil palm industry could close the yield gap and raise productivity by approximately 20%, the additional crop harvestable from the present areas would be about 2.1 million tonnes of CPO or about 10.5 million tonnes of FFB. Assuming an average yield of 24 tonnes FFB/ha, this would be equivalent to the production from about 438,000 hectares of land!
3.4.3 Alternative Plantation Crops
Although the oil palm industry has contributed significantly to the Malaysian economy, further expansion in the cultivated area should be considered against the risks of the country being overdependent on a single crop, as in the case of rubber in the 1960s. As a primary commodity, it is subject to the vagaries of the weather and fluctuations and prices in the international markets. Furthermore, there is always the risk of inadvertent introduction of exotic pests and diseases that have been endemic and problematic in other palm oil-producing countries, particularly in Africa and South America. While the Golden Crop will continue to play a prominent role in the Malaysian economy, it is timely to consider diversification into other crops. The search for the next crop that could be as profitable as oil palm is a perennial question that has yet to be answered. The ISP attempted to discuss those other plantation crops in a theme issue of The
Planter in July 1989, but only managed to attract articles on coffee, tea, sugar cane and forest plantations. When evaluating potential alternate crops, due consideration should be given to the objectives and strategic directions of the 3rd National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) 19922010. The overall objective of NAP3 is the maximisation of income through the optimal use of resources, including land, while its specific objectives include the enhancement of food security, increasing productivity and efficiency and promoting sustainable development. To achieve these objective, the NAP3 has adopted two strategic approaches: the agroforestry approach and product-based approach. In view of the increased scarcity of resources, including land availability, the agroforestry strategy aims to integrate agriculture and forestry development, making them mutually compatible and complementary. In the product-based approach, market demand and preferences would drive the integrated development of key products under the following industry groups: Food products group (rice, fruits, vegetable, livestock, fishery products) Industrial crops, forestry and wood-based products group New products and future industry group (e.g. biotechnological products, specialty natural products, floriculture) Other economic crops product group (coconut, pepper, tobacco, etc.)
At the national level, maximisation of income would require continued growth in export earnings from industrial crops such as oil palm as well as reduction in the countrys food import bill through greater self-sufficiency in our food requirements. It is alarming to note that the food import bill rose from RM3.5 billion in 1985 to RM10.0 billion in 1997, an almost three-fold increase. Compared with the industrial crops, the food sub-sector has not been able to attract much private sector investment. Only a few companies have ventured into food production, such as the growing of aeroponic vegetables by Sime Darby (Gan et al., 2000) and Cavendish bananas by Eastern Plantations (Ong et al., 2000), pink guava puree production by Golden Hope and integration of livestock with oil palms by Johor Tenggara Oil Palms (Fawzi & Abdul Wahab, 1998) and ESPEK Sdn. Bhd. (Gopinathan, 1998). A challenge for NAP3 is to encourage greater involvement of the plantation sector in food crop production. The choice of alternate crops was discussed with many interviewees in this study but invariably, it seem the alternative to oil palm is oil palm. The possibility of replanting of rubber to meet the rising demand for Hevea wood does not appear to be economically viable as the financial returns per hectare are much lower than those from oil palm (Chandran, 2000). However, the planting of plantation forests or agroforestry seem promising and should be considered. This is discussed in the next section.
In peat swamps and areas that are prone to flooding, the planting of sago merits consideration. This is one of the crops recommended for commercial development under NAP3. Starch produced from sago is important for food as well as the feedstock for industrial products such as biodegradable plastics and biopolymers. There is much potential demand for starch, both locally and globally. Malaysias current production of sago starch is about 60,000 tonnes per annum, which is less than one per cent of the worlds annual production of starch. While a number of crops such as mangosteen and new products, particularly those in the New Products and Future Industry Group of NAP3, are capable of generating attractive financial returns, considerable research and development, infrastructure support and market research would be required to support commercial development. Some products such as biotechnological products may be capital intensive while others may have relatively small global markets. For example, the worlds annual export market of guava puree is about 15,000 tonnes, 20% of which is supplied by Golden Hope from 3 guava plantation areas of about 300 hectares (Sabri, A. pers. com.).
3.4.4 Plantation Forestry and Agroforestry
In view of the declining supply of timber from natural forests coupled with growing international pressures for sustainable forest management, forest plantations and agroforestry enterprises can be expected to play an important role in meeting the raw material demand for wood-based industries. Commercial forest plantations started in 1973 in Sabah with the establishment of Sabah Softwoods Sdn. Bhd. (SSSB), a joint venture between the Sabah Foundation and North Borneo Timber. To date, the company has planted about 37,000 ha of Acacia mangium, Paraserianthes falcataria and other species for pulp wood production (Tan and Mohd Hatta, 2000). The other major plantation forest agencies are Sabah Forest Department Authority (SAFODA) which has planted about 40,000 ha, mainly with Acacia mangium and Sabah Forest Industries (SFI) with 14,000 ha, mainly in the Mendolong area near Sipitang to supply wood for its pulp and paper mill. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Compensatory Forest Plantation Project launched by the Forestry Department in 1982 saw the establishment of 60,000 ha of forest plantations, with 80% of the area being planted with A. mangium. Forest plantation establishment in Sarawak commenced in 1981 and to-date 10,000 ha have been planted, with the dominant species also being A. mangium (Chey & Jurie, 2000). Based on the experience of Sabah Softwoods, economic returns from forest plantations with fastgrowing species, namely A. mangium, P. falcataria and Camelina arborea have been encouraging; the internal rates of return (IRR) are 13.3%, 19.7% and 19.3% respectively (Tan and Mohd Hatta, 2000). The prospects for investment in forest plantations for pulp production 3 are very bright considering that the current domestic demand for pulp is about 9 million m annually. There is also an increasing demand in the Asia-Pacific region; the estimated volume of pulp imports by the Peoples Republic of China, Japan, Taiwan and others in the year 2003 is 5.5 million tonnes compared with 2.4 million tonnes in 1993 (Tan, 1998). It is of interest to note that the Government of Sabah and the Peoples Republic of China agreed in August 1999 to
plant 220,000 ha of A. mangium at Kalabakan near Tawau in a proposed RM4.56 billion joint venture project (Chey and Jurie, 2000). The projected financial returns from other tree species for the production of sawn timber are also attractive. Krishnapillay et al (1998) estimated that the IRRs for teak (Tectonia grandis) and sentang (Azadirachta excelsa) plantations as 17.3% and 16.4% respectively while Lim and Leong (1996) projected that teak would have a significantly higher IRR than oil palm at various prices for land. However, these assessments should be regarded as provisional as they have been based on assumed growth performance, prices etc. Although Sabah Softwoods have demonstrated the financial viability of investment in forest plantations, companies in the plantation sector have generally not ventured into this business. It is known that a number of companies have undertaken feasibility studies and established experimental areas of various timber species but what is preventing them from moving ahead with commercial plantation forestry? Based on responses from interviewees of this study and publications (Mohd. Shahwahid, 1992, Morris, 1995, Khamis, 1996, Abdul Razak et al., 2000), the issues and constraints in respect of forest plantations are as follows. Forest plantations require large land areas for operational and financial viability. For the production of sawn timber and furniture manufacturing, an area of 15,00020,000 ha is needed, while softwood plantations of between 60,000 and 150,000 ha are required for production of chips or pulp wood. The land for the latter should preferably be in a contiguous block or in a few parcels in the vicinity of the mill. In contrast, the economic size of an oil palm plantation that can support an oil mill is about 5,000 ha. A forest plantation integrated with pulp and paper production is capital intensive, requiring an investment of around RM1 billion. Besides the high initial capital, forest plantations have a long gestation period and negative cash flows during their development phase. The production cycle varies from about 7 years for pulp, fibre and wood chips to more than 15 years for plantations for sawn timber production. The land acquisition process is long and bureaucratic; usage is strictly compartmentalised to either forestry or agriculture. However, the situation in Sarawak has improved following the revision of its Forest Ordinance. Private investors are now allowed to use 25% of the forest land concession for agricultural activities such as oil palm cultivation for 25 years. The existing investment incentives such as Pioneer Status and Investment Tax allowance are considered inadequate to encourage private sector investment in forest plantations. Furthermore, there are no specific investment incentives for forestry.
Apart from Acacia mangium, which is accepted as the main species for pulpwood plantations, more information is required on other tree species in relation to their land use, end use and economic viability.
Agroforestry is a relatively new concept that has received more attention following the launch of the 3rd National Agricultural Policy (NAP3) in 1999. The agroforestry approach promotes the integration of agriculture and forestry, allowing production of agricultural and forestry products on the same land, thus maximising the use of this resource. This approach is also consonant with sustainable development. While the term agroforestry is set to become a new buzzword, there appears to be insufficient common understanding of the concept or definition. According to the International Centre for Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF), agroforestry is a dynamic, ecologically based natural resources management system that, through the integration of trees on farm and in the agricultural landscape, diversifies and sustains production for increased social, economic and environmental benefits for land users at all levels. In the Malaysian context, agroforestry can be seen as the planting of agricultural crops and/or livestock farming with timber and/or non-timber forest species in the same land management unit (Mahmud, 1999a). The progress of implementation of NAP3s agroforestry approach was discussed at the recent International Planters Conference 2000. However, it raised more questions than answers: for example, there was uncertainty on how to integrate agriculture and forestry, planting patterns and choice of tree species. For agroforestry to move ahead, Mahmud, A.W. (pers. com.) recommends that the Government should formulate a national policy on agroforestry and establish a one-stop agency such as a National Agroforestry Centre to assist potential investors and land owners. Various criteria have been used by plantations for the evaluation of new crops; their performance being normally compared with oil palm in terms of financial returns, labour requirements, etc. In their analysis of the prospects for integrating timber production into agricultural plantations, Radzuan and Roselina (1989) recommended that proposals for crop diversification must meet the following criteria: The diversification plan should generate returns equal to or greater than the returns from existing business; a general guide is an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of about 15% and a reasonable payback period. The new business must have the capacity for growth and make perceptible contributions to the companys profit. The new business should not be too divergent from the present core business, i.e. it should be consistent with the existing corporate culture. The company should be able to fully manage the new business within a reasonable period of time.
Based on the economic analyses and experiences published to date, forest plantations, and possibly agroforestry, are potential options for crop diversification. Planting of tree species is in synergy with the management culture and practices for perennial crops such as oil palm and rubber. Furthermore, the labour requirements for forest trees would be lower than those of the current tree crops. However, the constraints mentioned earlier must be addressed in order to stimulate investments in forest plantations and agroforestry.
3.4.5 Monoculture vs. Mixed Culture
A popular view prevailing is that vast expanses of monoculture agriculture are not desirable and may not be sustainable in the long term. Salleh and Ng (1983) stated that plantation crops lack a multi-layered structure and are low in biodiversity. While monoculture is neater, it is to be considered ecologically unbalanced and regular inputs of fertilisers and chemicals are required. A major concern is the potential risks of outbreaks of pests and diseases. By virtue of its perennial nature, the oil palm is host to numerous pests, the most serious being bagworms and nettle caterpillars. Outbreaks are usually sporadic as the pests are normally kept in check by natural enemies. But outbreaks can become frequent and recurrent when natural biocontrol breaks down, as was observed in many situations in the late 1960s and early 1970s; the causes included the use of broad-spectrum long residual contact organochlorine insecticides. From the 1970s research and development has focused on the search for more sustainable approaches to maintain the natural pest-predator balance. Initial efforts were based on the selection of safer and more selective insecticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis formulations and systemic insecticides. Further R&D led to the development of integrated pest management (IPM) approaches (Wood et al., 1977; Wood, 1979; Wood, 1981). Today, the IPM culture is widely accepted in the oil palm industry. While there have been no major outbreaks of pests and diseases in spite of the vast areas under oil palm in Malaysia, the oil palm industry cannot afford to be complacent as there is always the risk of the inadvertent introduction of exotic pests and diseases, such as the Fusarium wilt disease from West Africa and bud and spear rot from South America. Such risks have increased in recent years with the availability of more direct air links among South-South countries, as well as the export of oil palm materials from South America to South East Asia. It is important that contingency plans are established at the national and regional levels to combat any unwanted entry of exotic pests and diseases. The approach adopted against Microcyclus ulei, the pathogen that causes the debilitating South American leaf blight (SALB) of rubber could serve as a good model. At the national level, a committee comprising representatives from the Ministry of Primary Industries, Ministry of Agriculture, Lembaga Getah Malaysia, Dept. of Civil Aviation, Royal Malaysian Police etc. would activate a contingency plan when presence of this dreaded disease is detected. At the regional level, the focus is on strengthening and harmonising phytosanitary measures to check transboundary movements of the disease (Singh, 1978).
In order to reduce the monotony of monoculture and increase biodiversity; Salleh and Ng (1983) suggested the integration of plantation crops with other tree species such as mahogany, teak or meranti or the establishment of an agroforestry system. While a mixed stand may be preferable to monoculture, it does present some practical limitations. For example, Sabah Softwoods initially established mixed planting of different tree species within the same block on the basis that it would be more ecologically sound. However, this created problems during harvesting as it was very difficult to selectively harvest the marketable species. Harvesting all species at the same time would result in wastage of the species that could not be sold (Chia, 1996). From this consultants experience with rubber cultivation, polyclonal plantings of 810 different clones were established in the 1960s and 1970s to minimise the risk of using new high-yielding cultivars against disease infections. Unfortunately, clones that are inherently susceptible to diseases such as pink disease and Corynespora leaffall are infected selectively even though they are in a mixed population along with other cultivars. Awareness of the need to have greater biodiversity in plantations is increasing. In the Editorial of the May 1997 issue of The Planter, the ISP encouraged greater efforts on biodiversity in the estate sector. An example of measures taken to improve biodiversity can be seen at the Bukit Cheeding Estate in Selangor where difficult and dissected areas, steep slopes and waterlogged swamps have been planted with timber species such as jelutong (Dyera costulata), merbau (Instia palembanica) and ramin (Gonstylalus bancanus) for their eventual sale to pencil and furniture manufacturers, while native shrubs and trees such as mahang ( acaranga sp) and M Ficus trees are allowed to colonise the areas around the commercial tree species (ISP, 1977). Some plantations are also planting beneficial plants such as Euphorbia heterophylla , Ageratum spp. and Antigonon leptopus in oil palm areas in order to enhance the population of natural predators against bagworms and nettle caterpillars (Ho, 1998). Medicinal plants such as hempedu bumi (Andrographis paniculata), pegaga (Cantella asiatica) and tongkat ali (Eurycoma longifolia) are also potential species for increasing the biodiversity in plantations (Ng and Azizol, 1999). Taking a broader perspective, Mohd. Hashim et al (2000) adopted a multifaceted approach towards biodiversity encompassing conservation efforts (e.g. forest reserves, riparian reserves) on the one hand and the enhancement of biodiversity through planting of beneficial plants, biological control and integration with agroforestry on the other hand. Another land use option that is raised occasionally is whether small-scale or smallholder agriculture would be more sustainable than plantations. While the former would have greater diversity, they have been experiencing problems with low productivity and uneconomic size of holdings. In view of this, the NAP3 has recognised the need to transform the smallholder sector into a more commercial one. In the effort to achieve better economies of scale and enhance financial returns, the Government has, over the years, encouraged the replanting and management of smallholdings and mini-estates. The total area of mini-estates under RISDA, FELCRA and FELDA amounts to 250,000 ha (PMs Dept., 1999). FELDA, which is responsible for developing land for the landless, initially created land schemes for individual settlers but following a change in strategy in the mid-1980s, it has since developed new land as 64
commercial scale plantations. Similarly, the Sabah Land Development Board (SLDB) is now developing oil palm plantations through its corporatised entity, Sawit Kinabalu Berhad.
3.4.6 Forests in Plantations
In October 1997, the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development of Sabah organised a workshop on Forest retain forest areas within their properties as a step towards environmental conservation. The basis for this proposal arose from a study on the ecology of leopard cats, civets and small mammals in the Tabin Wildlife Reserve conducted by WWF Malaysia and the Sabah Wildlife Dept. from January 1993 to December 1995. The Tabin Reserve consists of about 120,000 hectares of forest and more than half of its boundary is surrounded by oil palm plantations. Traps were set in the forests and oil palm plantations around the Tabin Reserve to study the diversity and populations of faunal species in these two environments. Among the significant findings was the observation that there were very few rats caught in the oil palm areas and there was also minimal rat damage to the crops. This led the researchers to suggest that rat population could have been kept in check by their predators such as the leopard cat, marbled cat, crested serpent eagle, etc. that were found in the forest. Based on this hypothesis, the Ministry, under its Sabah Biodiversity Conservation Project, proposed that at least 5% of the land in plantations be retained under natural forests, with the minimum area of each forested area being 50 hectares. This approach would contribute positively to biodiversity conservation and would also have direct economic benefits for the plantation owners. Although the discussions at the aforesaid workshop concluded that there was insufficient evidence to prove that the retention of forest areas within oil palm areas could reduce rat populations, the workshop participants who came from a wide cross-section of the plantation industry in Sabah were in general concurrence that such forest retention could be beneficial from a conservation point of view. The workshop also identified several practical problems and issues that have to be addressed to facilitate the retention of forest in plantation. Recommendations covering actions to be taken by the Sabah Government and relevant stakeholders have been documented in the Workshop proceedings (Payne, 1997) but it is understood that little progress has been achieved to date. The land use survey conducted for this study showed that a number of plantation companies have voluntarily left land uncultivated for conservation purposes; some examples are listed in Table 28. In line with its policy of not clearing steep unplantable land, PPB Oil Palm Berhad has retained about 10% of its total land areas as jungle reserves, including a 600-ha forest ridge adjacent to the Tabin Wildlife Reserve near Lahad Datu (Khoo, K.M., pers. com.).
Table 28: Undeveloped Land Retained as Conservation Areas by Selected Plantation Companies
Conservation Area (ha) P. Malaysia Asiatic Development Berhad Austral Enterprise Berhad Golden Hope Plantations Bhd. Hap Seng Consolidated Bhd. Johor Tenggara Oil Palm Berhad PPB Oil Palm Berhad
% = Percentage of total land area
Sabah 649
(%) (1.9) (0.1) (0.4)
51 1311*
(0.1) (6.6)
* Swamps
Conservation areas under Asiatic Development Berhad include animal sanctuaries in Bata plantation (300 ha), Bukit Bahagia (60 ha) and Sri Landworthy (30 ha). Golden Hope Plantations Berhad declared in its 1999 Annual Report that a total of 608 ha was plantations/property land left undeveloped as green/forest reserve in line with our environmental policy. Conservation areas on a number of plantations are steep land that is unplantable and hence left undisturbed. Assessment and monitoring of the resident faunal species are not dcarried out except for casual observations. For instance, orang utan have been seen in all the forest patches in Asiatic Development Berhad. All species of Bornean hornbills except the white-crested hornbill have been recorded in these forest reserves (Rajaratnam, 1997). Relatively small areas of forests retained in plantations are capable of supporting abundant wildlife, as observed by Bennet and Caldecott (1981) in a 75-ha forested area that was left undisturbed within Socfins Lima Belas Estate in Perak when the estate was opened in the 1930s. The authors, who visited the forest regularly for more than a year, reported that the reserve was home to a wide variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and stream fishes and thousands of plant species. Of the larger animals, 6 species of primates, 7 frugivores (fruit eating), 1 insectivore, 4 squirrels and 5 predators were recorded. Rare and protected animals like the white-handed gibbon (Hylobates lar) and slow loris (Nycticebus coucang) were also seen. As more and more forests are converted for agriculture, the authors suggested that as many patches of original forests as possible, perhaps on marginal or steep hills, be retained and protected from all forms of disturbance.
Another approach towards forest conservation is the revitalisation of natural habitats through forest reversion, i.e. allowing some agricultural land, particularly areas in proximity to disturbed wildlife habitats to be left alone and turned into rejuvenating forest (Hafidzi, 1995). This approach should be applicable to the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary area where land alienation for agriculture has resulted in fragmentation of the forested areas and has disrupted the natural habitats for elephants. Considering the potential benefits from retention of forests in oil palm plantations and the conversion of less productive agricultural lands to forest reverts, efforts should be made to encourage plantation owners to adopt these approaches. At present their level of awareness is generally low, and many people have expressed concern over the possibility of crop damage by wildlife from the forested patches. In addition, there is also the issue of economic losses. Although results of the simulated financial analysis by Cheng (1999) suggests that oil palm plantation companies could set aside 1030% of the total land area for forest conservation without jeopardising their expected financial returns, representatives of plantation companies interviewed maintained that such an assumption was totally unrealistic. It was pointed out that many published financial analyses do not reflect the full cost of production. For instance, the MOPGCs costs of production surveys do not include marketing expenses, duty and cesses. If these are considered, the costs of production in Peninsular Malaysia would be about RM966 per ton of CPO in 1999/2000, about 24% higher than the MOPGCs cost (Khoo, K.M., pers. com.).
3.5 Best Practices for Sustainable Development in Oil Palm Plantations
3.5.1 Identification of Best Practices
As mentioned in Section 2.3.2, the oil palm industry has developed and implemented many sound practices that support sustainable development. In the days before environmental management came into vogue, such practices were regarded as good management practices, such as the construction of contour terraces and the establishment of legume cover crops for soil enrichment and minimising runoff. These plantation practices have been documented in numerous publications, the most comprehensive of which is MOPGCs book Oil Palm and the Environment : A Malaysian Perspective. With regard to plant protection, Golden Hope Plantations Berhad has published a practical advisory booklet Integrated Pest Management in Oil Palms (Golden Hope, 1997) which has been distributed within the oil palm industry and to other stakeholders. Based on published information, feedback from interviewees in this study and this consultants own experience, the practices which are considered important for sustainable development are listed in Table 29. This list is by no means exhaustive, but it provides an overview of the good practices at various stages of operations.
In the land use survey, respondents were requested to share their experiences on the three best practices that supported sustainable development in their respective companies. Unfortunately, this question was not well answered; however, among those who provided constructive feedback, the following were identified as good practices:
Retention of areas for forests and conservation areas where oil palm cannot be planted (3 respondents). Implementation of zero burning during planting or replanting (5 respondents).
Table 29: Best Practices for Sustainable Development in Oil Palm Plantations Practice Planning Phase Conduct of preliminary environmental appraisal or formal Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) prior to development of new plantations or change of cultivars. Land evaluation using a practical framework encompassing physical, environmental, social and financial factors. Development Phase Conservation of forest areas that are unsuitable for oil palm cultivation. Retention of riparian reserves or buffer zone. Zero burning during land preparation. Construction of contour terraces in undulating to hilly terrain. Establishment of legume cover crops for ground protection and enhancement of soil fertility. Minimising runoff and soil erosion between land clearing and full ground coverage with vegetation. Planting of Vetiver grass (Vetiver zizanoides) to prevent soil erosion. Production Phase Ground cover management with judicious use of herbicides and maintenance of legume covers. Existing High Existing Existing Existing Existing Low Low High High Existing Low Existing or New Practice? Level of Implementation/ Compliance
Low-Moderate
Practice Placement of pruned fronds along interrows for organic recycling and soil and moisture conservation. Application of empty fruit bunches (EFB) for nutrient recycling. Land application of treated POME for nutrients and moisture. Discriminatory application of fertiliser based on nutrient needs assessment by soil and foliar analyses. Integrated Pest Management practices - Biological control of rats with barn owls - Biological control of leaf-eating pests: bagworms, nettle caterpillars Mechanisation of field operations to increase productivity and reduce physical load on workers. Reduction of oil mill smoke emissions to comply with Environmental Quality (Clean Air Regulations 1978). Effective treatment of POME to comply with Environmental Quality (Prescribed Premises) (Crude Palm Oil) Regulations 1977. Implementation of zero discharge effluent treatment system.
Existing or New Practice? Existing
Level of Implementation/ Compliance High
Existing Existing Existing Existing
Moderate-High Moderate Moderate-High High
Downstream value-added utilisation of biomass and Existing and waste (e.g. biogas). New Corporate governance Formulation and deployment of a company-wide environmental policy. Implementation of environment management systems e.g. ISO 14001 EMS. Establishment of practices to ensure the safety and wellbeing of workers under the provisions of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994. Existing
Moderate-High
Elaboration on some of the practices that need further attention by oil palm plantation companies and stakeholders are given in the following subsections.
3.5.2 Land Use Planning
From a sustainable development point of view, the process for land use planning and development is generally weak at the State Government level, as well as by individual plantation companies. Although the Government has a vision for the conservation of the nations forest resources, the actual process for alienation of land for development, particularly for logging and plantation agriculture does not appear to be effective. This view was corroborated by feedback from several interviewees of this study. At the Forest in Plantations workshop in 1997 (Payne, 1997), some participants recommended that the Government should be more transparent with the [Sabah] States general land use plan. There do not seem to be clear government land use planning procedures nor any Government endorsed land use plan.
The decision to acquire new land for oil palm development by the private sector is driven mainly by economic considerations and, in many cases, insufficient foresight has been given to its potential social and environmental impacts. Under the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987, a project proponent is required to conduct an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for 19 prescribed activities. Conditions of the EIA that are relevant to the oil palm industry are as follows:
Land development schemes covering an area of 500 hectares or more in order to bring forest land into agricultural production ; Agricultural programmes necessitating the settlement of 100 families or more; Development of agricultural estates covering an area of 500 hectares or more which involve changes in type of agricultural use ; Conversion of hill forest to other land use covering an area of 50 hectares or more ; Conversion of mangrove swamps for industrial, housing or agricultural use covering an area of 50 hectares or more.
Although the EIA is designed to be a planning and management tool, most companies see it as a bureaucratic requirement for land approval. Many perceive the EIA as a stumbling block to development, and reports are often without adequate coverage of options for siting projects, technology and mitigation measures, reducing the EIA process to a mere formality (Rosnani, 2000). Enforcement of the EIA Order in Sabah is weak and with few exceptions, EIA studies have not been undertaken in the state. In contrast, enforcement has been stringent in Sarawak since the establishment of the Natural Resources and Environment Board (NREB). It is likely that the situation in Sabah will improve following the setting up of the Jabatan Konservasi Alam Sekitar (JKAS) (Department of Environmental Conservation) in August 1998. Among its duties, the JKAS is responsible for implementing the Conservation of Environment (Prescribed 70
Activities) Order 1999. It is encouraging to note that the JKAS has put in place a transparent process for disseminating information and interacting with stakeholders through their website (www.sabah.gov.my/jkas) Information on EIA guidelines, terms of reference and detailed EIA reports processed by the JKAS are accessible on-line and the public can submit comments directly via e-mail.
When used properly, the EIA csn help a project proponent to identify potential environmental impacts and develop management plans to mitigate the adverse effects. Companies that have made effective use of the EIA process include Palmol Plantations Sdn. Bhd and Golden Hope Plantations Bhd. Palmol undertook an EIA for the development of its Nangoh Scheme oil palm plantation in the Labuk District, Sandakan in 1995 as well as the proposed 20,000-ha Sagut Oil Palm Joint Venture Project in the Labuk and Sagut districts in 1998. In the preliminary report of the latter (Palmol, 1998), it was stated that the assessment was done in conformance of its parent companys (Unilevers) Ecological Charter, one of the objectives being to use environmental resources in an ecologically sustainable manner. The Sugut report covers an assessment of the existing environment, potential environmental impacts, mitigation measures, cost benefit analysis and environmental monitoring and management plans for the proposed development. The process for conducting an EIA was described by Ahmad Sarwani et al. (1999) in respect of Golden Hopes proposed development of a 12,000-ha oil palm plantation project in the Bintulu District, Sarawak in 1994; the approach for identifying and assessing environmental impacts is reproduced in Appendix III.
The use of the EIA as a planning tool was demonstrated in Golden Hopes proposal to establish a palm products facility in Kunak, Sabah. Based on preliminary in-house environmental appraisal of three potential sites, an area near Kunak town was finally selected. Although the proposed project was not a prescribed activity under the EIA order of 1987, Golden Hope proceeded to commission a preliminary EIA study to comply with its own corporate environmental policy. In their final EIA report, the consultants (UNIMAS, 1997) concluded that with the incorporation of appropriate mitigation and abatement measures the proposed project was not likely to result in significant adverse environmental impacts. However, Golden Hope decided not to proceed as coastal land reclamation work involved could affect the coral reefs in Darvel Bay.
3.5.3 Land Evaluation
Besides economic considerations, assessment of land for oil palm cultivation has been based mainly on suitability of soil, terrain and climate. Recently, Paramanathan et al. (2000) proposed a practical framework for land cultivation (hereafter referred to as the framework approach) that took into consideration physical, environmental, social and financial factors; the interrelationship between these factors and selected evaluation criteria as shown in Figure 14. 71
Figure 14: A Schematic Diagram Showing the Inter-relationship between the Factors and Criteria of Land Evaluation for Oil Palm
Physical properties Terrain Slope length Depth FIGURE 15 HERE Laterite Consistency Structure Texture Climate Rainfall Temperature Humidity Sunshine Wind
Erosion hazard
Nutrient status Physical factor Pest and disease
Environmental factor
Biodiversity Land Evaluation
Population Capacity Displacement
Social factor Economic IRR Payback Benefit Cost
Financial factor
Food security Wages Source: Paramanathan et al, 2000 Stability
Land Tenure Rights
Productivity Yield/ha Cost/ha Cost/t
Source: Paramanathan et al, 2000
The environmental impacts of oil palm cultivation are focused on soil and water resources; including, for example, the risk of soil erosion, landslides and siltation. According to Paramanthan et al (2000), there is a need to review and refine the criteria for the environmental factors.
Application of the framework approach to evaluate an area proposed for oil palm development in the Sugut area in Sabah indicated that it is a practical approach, even though it seems data intensive and onerous. The framework approach could be used for assessing new areas, as well as for re-evaluating existing oil palm areas when they are scheduled for replanting or in problematic areas such as the flood-prone areas in Lower Kinabatangan.
3.5.4 Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME) Treatment
More than 85% of the palm oil mills in Malaysia use the ponding system for the treatment of POME. This approach is relatively cheap to implement, but requires a large land area. The other widely used system is the open tank digester with extended aeration where POME is treated in tanks in a two-phase anaerobic digestion process, followed by extended aeration in a pond (Ma, 1999a). While both systems are capable of treating POME to meet the Department of Environment standards for discharge into public waterways, they release significant quantities of biogas during the anaerobic phase. This could be minimised by either a closed tank digester with biogas recovery or the incorporation of a decanter drier system to reduce the amount of effluent generated. United Plantations Berhad, which pioneered the development of this technology (Jorgensen and Gurmit, 1984), have since developed an integrated approach where the sludge cake from the decanter is processed into granulated organic fertiliser (Gurmit and Toh, 2000).
In view of the increasing pressures to minimise the pollution of rivers, the oil palm industry faces a challenge to improve the efficiency of its POME treatment systems, with the ultimate aim being zero discharge. An innovative technology towards meeting this objective was reported in a UNEP publication on clean technology (UNEP, 1994). This treatment system is essentially an upward flow clarification system with integrated filtration and aeration features that makes use of both physiochemical and biochemical processes to reduce the chemical oxygen demand (COD), the bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD) and the solid content (SC) of the effluent. This system has since been improved on and commercialised as the SES Advanced Integrated Wastewater Treatment System (Chang, pers. com.). The features of this new system are presented in Appendix IV.
Another zero discharge approach developed recently by the Malaysian Palm Oil Board is the Evaporation Technology for recovering water and solids from POME (Ma, 1999b). The system consists of multiple stage evaporation to separate and recover water and solids from POME, with the former for reuse in the oil mill itself while the latter is raw material for fertiliser or other value-added products. It is reported that the technology has undergone pilot plant trials and that a commercial-scale plant is under construction. Compared to conventional ponding systems which need about 6 ha of land, the evaporation system needs only 0.25 ha of land.
3.5.5 Environmental Management Systems
As mentioned in Section 2.3.3, few companies have implemented environmental management systems such as the ISO 14000 environmental management system. Although there is now a higher level of awareness of the ISO standards and of the potential benefits to be derived from their use, companies generally feel that the certification process is onerous and requires extensive documentation. It is apparent that there is inadequate understanding of the scope and relevance of the environmental standards in oil palm plantations. At the International Planters Conference 2000, participants were briefed on the development of the ISO 14000 family of 22 standards and their application with regard to product and organisational performances (Chan, 2000). However, it is unclear to managers which of these standards are directly applicable to their operations. From the practical point of view, they should be encouraged to use the philosophy and framework of the ISO 14001 Environmental Management System as the basis for improving environmental performance. This will necessitate a review of all aspects of their operations, identification of significant environmental impacts and development of appropriate environmental management plans to mitigate these impacts. For effective implementation of environmental management, it is desirable for plantation companies to have an environmental policy that is deployed throughout the company.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INTERVENTIONS BY WWF MALAYSIA
This section presents recommendations for possible interventions by WWF Malaysia on various aspects to: Promote the conservation of areas under threat from conversion to oil palm plantations. Advocate environmentally sound and sustainable development and management of oil palms in areas already converted from forests or other crops. Make policy recommendations for land use decisions.
Recommendations on potential partners for collaboration with WWF Malaysia are also provided. A summary of the various recommendations are presented below (Table 30).
Table 30: Summary of Recommendations for Interventions by
WWF Malaysia Issue Recommendations
Partners for Wetlands Kinabatangan Floodplains Forging a shared vision among partners WWFM to review its present partnership with the plantation sector with the view to enhancing participation. (i) WWFM to support DIDs proposal for the Integrated Catchment Management study in the Kinabatangan.
(ii) To reassess oil palm land in the floodplains for their suitability for the crop, using the framework approach. Rehabilitation of riparian reserves WWFM to initiate collaborative efforts with plantation owners to rehabilitate damaged riparian reserves. (i) WWFM to initiate and co-ordinate a collective effort towards monitoring water
Minimising water pollution
Recommendations quality in the Kinabatangan.River (ii) WWFM to encourage oil mills to adopt zero discharge effluent treatment systems.
Promoting Conservation and Sustainable Land Use Putting the case for conservation WWFM to establish closer rapport with the oil palm industry and form win-win partnerships. (i) WWFM to pursue adoption of the land use planning process developed by the 1997 Forest in Plantations workshop. WWFM to identify priority areas for conservation in Sarawak WWFM to consider conducting a series of workshops to raise awareness on the use of EIA as a management tool. To promote the use of the framework approach of land evaluation.
Policy on land alienation
Monitoring land use charges
WWFM to consider collaboration on the potential use of remote sensing for monitoring charges in land use and their impacts. WWFM to lobby for appropriate economic incentives to encourage retention of forests in plantations.
Promoting Forests in Plantations
Promoting Sustainable Development Practices Closing the productivity gap Encouraging implementation of environmental management systems Promoting best practices No direct WWFM intervention recommended. WWFM to consider promoting and participating in a national LCA study on palm oil products. WWFM to lobby for the establishment of national contingency action plans to address accidental entry of exotic pests and diseases into Malaysia .. (Specific recommendations on best practices are given under the relevant issues.) WWFM to play a key role in promoting agroforestry, with the initial priority being formulation of a national policy and multidisciplinary coordinating agency.
Promoting agroforestry
4.2 Partners for Wetlands (PfW) Kinabatangan Floodplains
4.2.1 Forging a Shared Vision
WWF Malaysia, through Partners for Wetlands, has developed a clear vision for preserving the integrity of the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains, while recognising that nature conservation must co-exist with the oil palm industry. The need for close co-operation with this sector to solve existing problems and to promote the sustainable use of land resources is well established, with the emphasis being on partnerships to achieve win-win situations. However, based on interviews and the minutes of past meetings between PfW and plantation owners, the partnership appears rather unbalanced, with high levels of proactivity being seen among PfW staff while plantations appear to play a rather passive role. Understandably, their main concern is solving the immediate problems of flooding and damage caused by elephants rather than conservation per se. The impression gained is that PfW is largely a WWF Malaysia initiative and it is expected to provide solutions to current problems. For example, a plantation company indicated that it has suspended further planting of oil palm in a flood-prone area covering about 10,000 hectares and that it was awaiting advice from WWF on suitable alternative crops or forest species. Although PfW has made an excellent effort in publicising its objectives and activities in the floodplains through its brochures, newsletters and a dedicated website, it is uncertain if the oil palm industry truly appreciates the purpose and significance of the various PfW initiatives. A possible reason for this is that the industry has not been directly involved in the process of formulating PfWs vision and strategies. A few representatives of plantation companies interviewed stated that PfW appeared to be biased against the oil palm industry with regard to environmental problems faced in the region. Recommendation: It is timely for WWF Malaysia to review the progress and effectiveness of the PfW partnership with the oil palm industry so as to encourage it to take greater interest in PfWs vision and to be an equal partner in seeking lasting solutions and in turning constraints into investment opportunities, now and in the future. Engagement of the industry should be elevated to include more policy makers from plantation companies and industry organisations such as the East Malaysia Planters Association (EMPA), the Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP) and the Malaysian Palm Oil Association (MPOA)
4.2.2 Flood Mitigation
Various mitigation measures were discussed at the PfW meeting with representatives of oil palm companies and other stakeholders in early March 2000; however, no effective or permanent solutions were identified. Efforts to raise the height of bunds followed by replanting of oil palms or replanting palms on raised platforms may be somewhat of a calculated risk. Long-term and lasting mitigation measures must be sought to solve the flood problem in the entire Kinabatangan river basin rather than ad hoc remedies by individual plantation companies. It is encouraging to note that Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID) has put forward a proposal to study Integrated Catchment Management in the Kinabatangan and a budget of RM6 million has been requested for inclusion in the 8th Malaysia Plan. In the search for solutions it is essential that the root causes of the flood problem be established in the first instance. Oil palm plantation companies in flood-prone areas continue to persevere with replanting of affected areas as there appears to be no other immediate options. There have been suggestions of replanting with alternate crops or forest species, but there is inadequate information on the recommended species and planting systems. When considering alternative land use, it is recommended that land along the Kinabatangan River be reassessed for its suitability for oil palm cultivation. It is of interest to note that in a study of soils in the Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary area commissioned by WWFM-PfW, Paramanathan (1999) concluded that 46.5% of the soils in lowlands and 5% on steep slopes were not suitable for agriculture. The main limitations in the lowlands are poor drainage, flooding and low fertility of the soils. On the hilly and steep terrain, soils are shallow and erosion can be a major problem. Another case to note is FELDAs evaluation of the Kinabatangan area for oil palm planting. In 1979, the Sabah Government offered FELDA a 36,000-ha parcel in the mid-Kinabatangan River basin for development, but FELDA found that only 9,000 ha were suitable, the balance being inaccessible, too prone to flooding or subject to local land disputes (Tunku Shamsul and Lee, 1998). Recommendation: (i) Assuming that WWF Malaysia has the opportunity to participate and influence the process of developing the 8th Malaysia Plan, efforts should be made to support DIDs proposal for an Integrated Catchment Management study in Kinabatangan. Oil palm land in the floodplains should be reassessed for its suitability for the crop, preferably using the framework approach described in Section 3.5.3. Such an assessment should delineate areas deemed unsuitable for sustainable development of oil palm and alternate uses must be sought. The current WWF Malaysia development of a business plan for tree planting can be expected to provide some investment options. In the event that some of the lowland areas area are still considered unsuitable for alternate economic crops, there is little choice but to allow these areas to regenerate as forest reverts. Such land reversion would reduce the pressure on habitats for wildlife, particularly elephants. As oil palm companies have made substantial capital investments on land, they are 78
unlikely to surrender land for reversion unless they are duly compensated, either in monetary terms or allocation of land in another location. Perhaps WWF Malaysia could play a role in facilitating the process with relevant Government agencies or departments.
4.2.3 Rehabilitation of Riparian Reserves
The riparian reserves along the. Kinabatangan River and its tributaries in a number of oil palm plantations have been damaged by excessive clearing. One of the major activities under the Land Use Module of PfW is the rehabilitation of these reserves by replanting them with tree species that can withstand a high water table and floods. PfW has signed MoUs with Asiatic Development Berhad and Pontian United Plantations to establish pilot projects with the following objectives: To demonstrate the maturity of restoring degraded riverine wetland habitat; To serve as model projects for the rehabilitation of riverine and wetland habitat; To encourage large-scale forest rehabilitation in the Kinabatangan area; and To enhance knowledge of the silviculture of selected tree species.
Observations made during this consultants visit to the first pilot project in Sri Layang Estate indicate that the project did not have a good start, with the area being inundated soon after planting in January 2000. Management inputs appeared inadequate and the newly established seedlings faced severe competition from weeds, particularly Paspalum conjugatum and sedges. Being the first project of its kind in the country, there is understandably a lack of adequate expertise and experience in respect of the selection of species to be planted, as well as nursery and field maintenance. Considering that it may take a few years for the two pilot projects to demonstrate the usefulness of this approach, it is desirable for PfW to review its strategy to ensure that various strips of damaged riparian reserves are rehabilitated as soon as possible. Recommendation: PfW should initiate action plans to rehabilitate all damaged riparian reserves now. The collaboration and participation of plantation companies should be sought. A gotong royong (self-help) approach might be adopted whereby each company commits to rehabilitate the riparian reserve along its boundary could be considered. PfW, with assistance from the Forest Research Centre and the Forestry Department, could source/supply the planting materials required. Demonstration of the economic viability of planting alternate crops (e.g. bamboo, sago palms, fruit trees) on land reassessed as being unsuitable for oil palm requires a different approach. For instance, it may be necessary to establish larger trial plots than those of the first two pilot 79
projects in order to allow management to gain practical experience with the new crops and also to provide data for financial analyses.
4.2.4 Minimising Water Pollution
As mentioned in Section 3.3.4, a water quality sampling exercise in early 1999 indicated that a number of palm oil mills located in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains have not been able to comply with the regulatory requirements for discharge of effluents into waterways. Regular water sampling and analysis are desirable for monitoring the water quality in the Kinabatangan River and its tributaries. In this context, PfW has engaged Universiti Malaysia Sabah to undertake water quality monitoring at three sampling points along the Kinabatangan River and at one near the pilot rehabilitation project in the Tenegang River. In view of the ecological significance of the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains, it would be desirable to impose stricter standards for effluent discharge or even install zero-discharge systems. As stated in Section 3.5.4, two new effluent treatment systems capable of meeting the requirements have been developed recently; one of these is already commercially available .. It is of interest to note that this system, the SES Advanced Integrated Wastewater Treatment System (Appendix IV) will be installed in the Malaysian Palm Oil Board Experimental Oil Mill at Labu. The Department of Environment, Sarawak has also recently approved this system for the Derawan Palm Oil Mill, Bintulu to achieve a final discharge BOD level of 20 mg/l or less and suspended solids of 50 mg/l or less (Chang, S. pers. com.). Recommendation: (i) PfW could play a significant role in monitoring the water quality in the Kinabatangan River and its tributaries. This could be done in a collaborative effort with plantation owners, particularly those with palm oil mills. Sampling could be done by independent laboratories at about three-monthly intervals and results made available by PfW to all stakeholders. PfW should encourage oil palm plantation companies to adopt more efficient systems for the treatment of POME such as the SES Advanced Integrated Wastewater Treatment System.
4.3 Promoting Conservation and Sustainable Land Use
4.3.1 Putting Forward the Case for Conservation
While WWF Malaysia has prioritised several areas for conservation in Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah, the rationale for their selection is not known to their stakeholders. It will be rather difficult to gain support for conservation of these areas if people do not know the reasons for doing so. Thus there is a need for communicating the case for conservation, providing compelling reasons for the conservation effort. Further, it is desirable to raise the level of awareness on the need for conservation among planters. While awareness and concern for protection of the environment at the industry level are generally high (See Section 2.3.1), it is uncertain if this has been effectively cascaded down to the individual planter and staff at the estate level. According to Mr. Emerson Liau, Chairman of the Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP), the current level of awareness at the ground level is generally low, and hence WWF Malaysia could play a useful role in raising consciousness on sustainable development. He indicated that the ISP would be keen to collaborate with WWF Malaysia on conducting awareness programmes for its members. At this juncture, it may be pertinent to reflect on the perception of the oil palm industry on the environmental movements in general and the role of WWF Malaysia in particular. Over the years, the plantation industry has been subjected to a variety of criticisms by various organisations such as workers and trade unions, human rights organisations and environmental groups. Unfortunately, some of these campaigns have been motivated by less honoirable intentions, the classic example being the anti-tropical oil campaign in the early 1990s by the American soya bean lobby together with the American Heart Association which projected palm oil as being hazardous to human health on account of its high content of saturated fats. This claim was later found to have insufficient scientific basis and it led the US Food and Drug Authority (FDA) to pass a ruling making it illegal for manufacturers to make misrepresentations of nutritional facts in their labels like No Palm Oil. More recently, there has been increasing pressure on the oil palm industry to respond to environmental issues such as ecolabelling and other certifications, global warming, deforestation etc. In general, the oil palm industry has responded by trying to project the positive attributes of the crop in relation to the issues at hand through various publications, seminars etc. With regard to sustainable development, a number of articles have been published to project the green image of the oil palm, e.g. The Oil Palm A Very Environment Friendly Crop (Pushparajah, 1998). Some members of the industry have been rather emotional in their personal response to these campaigns. Bek-Nielsen (1995) said Malaysia can measure up to the challenges by certain countries, who have the audacity to declare that Malaysia is destroying the lungs of the world. This is rubbish which is often used by some industrialized countries who are polluting the world by excessive CO2 discharge, chemical and waste water pollution. In the latest issue of The Planter, Piggott (2000) claims that we are bullied by environmentalists and harassed by conservationists. While such statements may be
unduly reactive or defensive, perhaps it is a reflection of the frustration faced by the oil palm industry in handing these pressures. Piggott (2000) felt that insufficient efforts have been made by the industry to challenge unfounded allegations and recommended that the industry speak with one voice with the help of public relations specialists and lobbyists. While this approach may be have its merits, in the long run, this consultant feels that it would be far more constructive for the oil palm industry and relevant environmental NGOs to engage in stakeholder dialogues and establish win-win partnerships in promoting sustainable development. With the foregoing in mind, one can expect the oil palm industry to be rather cautious about working with environmental NGOs. This was reflected in the responses from a number of interviewees in this study. An oil palm plantation company chief executive said that there was a rather negative perception of WWF Malaysia and there was an apparent need for WWF Malaysia to improve its profile and relationship with the industry. Some others felt that WWF Malaysia has been unduly biased against the industry, particularly in Sabah where the problems faced in the Lower Kinabatangan floodplains have been perceived to be due largely to the development of oil palm in the region. On the positive side, some interviewees were of the view that WWF Malaysia is among the more constructive environmental NGOs which has international clout and resources to make a difference in conservation efforts. The general feedback was that the industry is willing to work in collaboration with WWF Malaysia on issues of common concern, provided the ground rules for partnership are clearly established. Recommendation: There is clearly a need for WWF Malaysia to have closer rapport with the oil palm industry with a view to establishing partnerships in working on win-win solutions in respect of sustainable development and management of oil palms. Potential partners include the Malaysian Palm Oil Association (MPOA), the Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB), Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP) and the East Malaysia Planters Association (EMPA). The PfW project could serve as an initial focal point for WWF Malaysias engagement with the oil palm industry In addition, WWF Malaysia should consider working with the ISP to organise activities aimed at raising awareness on conservation for planters and estate staff; priority should be given to locations where areas selected for conservation may be under threat from conversion to agriculture or agroforestry
4.3.2 Policy on Land Alienation
The most effective approach towards preventing the conversion of selected forest conservation areas into oil palm cultivation is not to alienate the land in the first instance. At the Forest in Plantations Workshop in 1997, a proactive approach towards land use planting for new oil palm areas in Sabah was recommended (Payne, 1997); it called for regional land use plans to be drawn up for all regions, in respect of their potential development of oil palm areas, including Sugut82
Paitan, Keningau-Dalit-Nahawan and Beaufort areas. The Workshop also provided a proposed procedure (including an anticipated time frame) for introducing and implementing land use planning in new oil palm development regions. Unfortunately, this recommendation has not yet been taken up by the relevant State Government agencies, in spite of the fact that the Workshop was organised by the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development, Sabah. Considering that another 700,000 ha of land in Sarawak are likely to be converted for oil palm cultivation within the next decade, WWF Malaysia should examine and identify if any of the areas earmarked for alienation should be considered as priority areas for conservation. As mentioned in Section 4.2, most of the new oil palm areas are expected to be on deep peat which is not an ideal environment for the crop. As peat swamps form an extensive wetland ecosystem, it would be desirable to undertake a macro environmental impact assessment before proceeding with any large-scale land conversions. Recommendation: (i) WWF Malaysia should encourage the relevant Sabah State Government agencies, particularly the Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development, Sabah, to adopt and implement the 1997 Forest in Plantations Workshop recommendation on the land use planning process for new oil palm areas in Sabah. WWF Malaysia should examine and identify priority areas for conservation in Sarawak, particularly in respect of the deep peat swamps.
There is a need to improve the land use planning process by plantation companies. Currently, decisions on the development of new oil palm projects depend heavily on economic considerations and there appears to be insufficient focus on potential impacts vis--vis sustainable development. The use of the EIA is often regarded as a regulatory requirement rather than a planning tool. WWF Malaysia could play a positive role in encouraging the oil palm industry to adopt a much more comprehensive approach towards land use planning through the use of either the EIA process and/or the holistic framework approach for land evaluation (see section 3.5.3). There is a need to change the oil palm industrys mindset on the EIA process from being considered as a formality to being treated as a planning and operational tool to ensure sustainable and environmentally sound development and management of the project. The practical framework for land evaluation can be used in conjunction with an EIA study or as a separate planning tool for selecting suitable land for new oil palm projects or re-evaluation of less suitable land that is currently planted with oil palms, as is the case of many oil palm plantations in the Lower Kinabatangan. Being a relatively new approach, there is a need to refine the methodology, particularly in respect of the criteria and measurements of the 83
environmental component of the framework. WWF Malaysia can make a useful contribution in this area. Recommendation: (i) One approach WWF Malaysia could consider for promoting better land use planning is through a series of seminars designed to raise the level of awareness on the use of the EIA as a planning and management tool and on the application of the framework approach for facilitating more sustainable and appropriate land use decisions. Such awareness sessions could be conducted at two levels; one as an executive briefing for policy makers in the plantation industry and related agencies while a more comprehensive programme could be developed for project implementrrs. The sessions could be organised in collaboration with DOE, NREB in Sarawak, JKAS in Sabah and Param Agriculture Soil Survey Sdn. Bhd. WWF Malaysia could promote the use of the framework approach for land evaluation and consider collaborating with Dr. S. Paramanathan and Applied Agriculture Research Sdn. Bhd., the proponents of the methodology to refine the environmental aspects of the framework.
4.3.4 Monitoring of Land Use Changes
Remote sensing could be a useful tool for WWF Malaysia to monitor land use changes in relation to priority areas identified for conservation as well as to assess the impact of these changes on the environment. The usefulness of satellite sensors such as the Landsat Thematic Mapper has been demonstrated in some collaborative projects by the University of Manchester. One project monitored the land use changes from forests to plantation agriculture in a 3,400-sq. km area in Sabah from 197089 using a combination of Landsat images and GIS (McMorrow et al., 1994). A project called INOFORUS used remote sensing to detect forest gaps and forest biomass. This study included modelling soil erosion under different disturbance systems including logging in Sabah (Foody et al., 2000). The use of remote sensing for the management of oil palm was shown in a collaborative project between Applied Agricultural Research Sdn. Bhd. and the University of Manchester (McMorrow & Tey, 2000). According to Ms. Julia McMorrow from the University of Manchester, U.K., remote sensing could be used for studying the extent and impact of flooding over time. Sediment plumes can also be detected in water. Ms. McMorrow and her colleagues are considering a basin-wide study of land use charge and its impact on the hydrology in Sabah, particularly along the Segut and Kinabatangan Rivers. Ms. McMorrow has indicated keen interest to collaborate with WWF Malaysia in conducting this study.
Recommendation: It would be beneficial for WWF Malaysia to consider the potential of using remote sensing, with emphasis on studying the changes in land use and its impact on the hydrology of the Lower Kinabatangan flood plains.
4.3.5 Promoting Forests in Plantations
From a conservation point of view, it would be desirable to retain patches of forest areas within oil palm plantations, but currently this practice is limited to relatively few plantations which voluntarily leave areas of steep or unsuitable land uncultivated. Possible reasons for not doing so are the lack of awareness and, more importantly, the potential loss in revenue. Economic incentives would be necessary to encourage plantation owners to retain land for conservation. Among the policy instruments suggested by Cheng (1999) in his economic analysis, Land Repurchase Guarantee and Environmental Tax Rebate merit further consideration. The former instrument would allow the plantation owner to recover the cost of land retained as forest areas at the end of the lease period. Alternatively, a swap guarantee could be considered, whereby land left for conservation could be exchanged. The Environmental Tax Rebate could be in the form of an income tax rebate for conservation efforts, and should offset the opportunity cost of leaving land uncultivated. Recommendation: WWF Malaysia should consider playing a more active role in lobbying for appropriate economic incentives to promote the retention of forest areas within oil palm plantations, e.g.. at the annual pre-Budget dialogue of the Minister of Finance.
4.4 Promoting Sustainable Development Practices
4.4.1 Closing the Productivity Gap
One of the most effective ways of reducing the pressure to open new land for oil palm cultivation is for the industry to increase its production efficiency in terms of yield per ha and oil extraction rate. As discussed in Section 3.4.2, a 20% increase in national productivity could provide the equivalent production of about 438,000 hectares of land. Recommendation: The need to improve productivity is well established and recognised but the oil palm industry needs to make concerted efforts to realise the available crop potential. It is unlikely that WWF Malaysia could make useful interventions in this area, although indirectly the potential loss of revenue to the Government could be a cause for public concern.
4.4.2 Encouraging Implementation of Environmental Management Systems
As discussed in Sections 2.3.3 and 3.5.5, only a few companies have implemented the environmental management system according to the MS ISO 14001 Standards. As application of the system is site-specific, it would facilitate identification of significant environmental impacts of various operations in the plantation or oil mill and the development of appropriate action plans to mitigate these impacts. Considering that the ISO standards provide a systematic framework for continuous improvement of environmental performance, greater efforts should be made for the adoption of this approach. In the ISO 14000 family of standards, the ISO 14040 standard provides the framework and guidance for conducting Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This is the cradle-to-grave approach for assessing the environmental profile and performance of a product from sourcing of raw materials to its final disposal after the useful life of the product. An LCA study has three main phases Life Cycle Inventory, Life Cycle Impact Assessment and Life Cycle Interpretation. Application of the LCA methodology to the oil palm industry would provide an assessment of the potential environmental impacts of all inputs and outputs throughout the production chain from the planting of the oil palm seed to the consumption of the final processed product. While a few LCA case studies have been undertaken (Kluppel, 1993; Zulina et al., 1999), there have been no comprehensive studies on LCA of palm oil products. It should be noted that LCA studies are challenging and data intensive. In their study, Zulina et al. (1999) found that much of the necessary information was not available. In view of their complexity, LCA studies are unlikely to be undertaken by individual oil palm companies or organisations; instead, they should be a collaborative effort at the industry level involving the key players and stakeholders such as the MPOB. Recommendation: (i) As the MPOB is already actively engaged in promoting the adoption of the MS/ISO 14001 EMS standards by the industry, it may not be necessary for WWF Malaysia to make direct interventions in this area, but it could still influence its adoption process through the supply chain, eg. along the lines of the Forest Stewardship Councils (FSC) Chain of Custody. WWF Malaysia should consider promoting, as well as getting involved in, a national study on the LCA of palm oil products, along with MPOB and Universiti Putra Malaysia. Results of this study would provide an objective basis for better environmental performance of the oil palm industry.
4.4.3 Promoting Best Practices
Among the best practices listed in Table 29, greater attention must be given to those where the current level of implementation or compliance are noted as low or moderate; areas of concern in this context include: Conduct of environmental impact appraisals or assessments prior to land development. Retention of areas unsuitable for oil palm as conservation areas. Retention of riparian reserves and buffer zones. Minimising the runoff and soil erosion during the period between land clearing and full coverage by legumes and other plants. Implementation of environmental management systems.
Oil palm plantations should also be encouraged to adopt new practices as the framework approach for land evaluation and the new integrated wastewater treatment system (see 3.5.3 and 3.5.4). Although integrated pest management (IPM) has been widely practised to maintain an acceptable pestpredator balance, the industry might not be sufficiently prepared to handle outbreaks from inadvertent introductions of exotic pests from other oil palm growing regions (See 3.5.4). Thus, it is highly desirable to develop national and national action plans to handle such contingencies. Recommendation: Recommendations for WWF Malaysias intervention on selected best practices have already been covered in the preceding sub-sections. With regard to plant protection risks, WWF Malaysia should impress upon the relevant authorities, particularly the Ministry of Primary Industries and the Ministry of Agriculture the need to establish national contingency action plans to handle the accidental entry of exotic pests and diseases into the country.
4.4.4 Promoting Agroforestry
When considering land use options with the view to reducing dependence on large-scale monoculture of oil palms, various alternative plantation crops have been examined. Based on economic analysis and experiences reported to date, forest plantations and possibly agroforestry are potential options for crop diversification. Of the two, agroforestry seems a more sustainable
approach, as plantation forestry would still involve a monoculture system and besides, it could result in an increased demand for new land. Being a relatively new concept in Malaysia, the development of agroforestry has many challenges, including the lack of infrastructure support. Currently, institutions and organisations dealing with agriculture and forestry are generally focused on specific sectors or specific crops and are not equipped to promote agroforestry which requires a multi-disciplinary approach. A one stop agency would be desirable to assist landowners and investors in the development of agroforestry (Mahmud, 1999b). Recommendation: Considering that agroforestry is a major strategic thrust for NAP3, WWF Malaysia should consider playing an active role in promoting the development of this sustainable land use system. A priority area for intervention would be the formulation of a national policy on agroforestry and the formation of a multidisciplinary body or agency to co-ordinate the implementation of this policy. Considerations should also be given by WWF Malaysia towards working with Prof. Mahmud Hj. Abd. Wahab, University Malaysia Sabah who is a strong advocate for agroforestry development.
4.5 Partners for WWF Malaysia
A number of potential partners for possible collaboration with WWF Malaysia have been identified in various sections of this report. Their particulars and potential areas for collaboration are covered in this section.
4.5.1 Plantation Industry Organisations
(i) Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB) The MPOB was formed in May 2000; it has combined the responsibilities and functions of the former Palm Oil Research Institute of Malaysia (PORIM) and the Palm Oil Registration and Licensing Authority (PORLA). Potential Areas for Collaboration: (a) Promotion and implementation of ISO 14000 Environmental Management standards (b) LCA study on palm oil products (c) Development of sustainable development practices (eg. zero effluent discharge). (ii) Malaysian Palm Oil Association (MPOA) The MPOA was formed in March 1999 as the central organisation to represent and serve the interests of the plantation industry, with particular emphasis on oil palm. Its formation arose from a combination of the functions and membership of three producer 88
organisations; namely, Rubber Growers Association (RGA), Malaysian Oil Palm Growers Council (MOPGC) and United Planting Association of Malaysia (UPAM). The total area under MPOA membership is about 1.6 million hectares.
Potential Area for collaboration Policy issues on sustainable development in oil palms and land use. (iii) Incorporated Society of Planters (ISP) The ISP is the professional organistion founded in 1918 to represent and promote the interests of the planting community. It has more than 4,300 members from 41 countries. Potential Area for Collaboration Education and awareness programmes on conservation and sustainable development for plantation executives and staff. East Malaysia Planters Association (EMPA) EMPA was formed in 1989 to represent the plantation industries in Sabah and Sarawak; it has 128 member companies. Potential Areas for Collaboration: (a) Partners for Wetlands projects in Lower Kinabatangan. (b) Education and awareness programme on conservation and sustainable development.
4.5.2 Plantation Companies
(i) Golden Hope Plantations Berhad Golden Hope is a conglomerate involved in plantations, resource-based manufacturing, property development and international business. It has a total planted area of 133,006 hectares in Peninsular Malaysia (65%), Sabah (23%), Sarawak (78%) and Kalimantan (4%). It has a strong orientation towards the environment and has implemented Total Quality and Environment Management (TQEM) throughout the Company. Potential Areas for Collaboration: (a) ISO 14001 Environmental Management System (b) Promoting biodiversity in plantations (c) Integrated Pest Management (ii) PPB Oil Palm Berhad (PPBOP) PPBOP has a total land area of 76,664 hectares, of which 56,662 hectares have been planted with oil palms in Sabah (61%) and Sarawak (39%). PPBOP adopts the policy of leaving steep forested areas uncultivated; this accounts for about 10% of the total land area.
Potential Area for Collaboration: Forests in Plantations (iii) Sawit Kinabalu Berhad Sawit Kinabalu is the corporatised entity of the Sabah Land Development Board. It has a total area of 59,213 hectares under oil palm cultivation in Sabah and plans to achieve 150,000 planted hectares by the year 2005. Potential Areas for Collaboration: (a) Rehabilitation of riparian reserves. (b) New land use and investment strategies in flood-prone areas along Sg. Kinabatangan. (iv) Pamol Plantations Sdn. Bhd. (Pamol) Pamol is a subsidiary company of Unilever plc. In line with its corporate policy, Pamol adopts a sustainable agriculture approach in its plantations in Johor and Sabah. Potential Area for Collaboration: Sustainable agriculture best practices.
4.5.3 Research Organisations & Universities
(i) Applied Agriculture Research Sdn. Bhd. AAR is a plantation crops research company under the joint ownership of Kuala Lumpur Kepong Berhad and Boustead Estates Agency Sdn. Bhd. AAR has undertaken a number forward-looking R&D projects such as precision agriculture and a systematic framework approach of land use evaluation. Potential Areas for Collaboration: (a) Framework approach for land use evaluation (b) Precision agriculture (ii) University of Manchester, U.K. The School of Geography of the University has considerable expertise on the application of remote sensing and some of its staff have experience in assessing the potential use of remote sensing for management of oil palms and studying land use changes in Malaysia. Potential area for collaboration Use of remote sensing for monitoring land use changes and that impacts on hydrology and conservation efforts in the Lower Kinabatangan.
Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) The Centre for Environmental Technology and Natural Resource Management (CETNaRM) of UPM is actively engaged in the teaching and use of environmental management systems and methodologies based on the ISO 14000 series of standards. Potential Areas for Collaboration (a) Education and training on ISO 14001 Environment Management System. (b) Life Cycle Assessment of palm oil products
Universiti Malaysia Sabah (UMS) The School of Science and Technology of UMS has been promoting the development of agroforestry, particularly through Prof. Mahmud Abd. Wahab. Potential Area for Collaboration: Agroforestry development of national policy and infrastructure.
4.5.4 Consultants
(i) Param Agricultural Soil Survey (M) Sdn. Bhd. This consultancy is managed by Dr. S. Paramanathan who has considerable experience in soil surveys and land use classification and evaluation. He conducted the assessment of soils in the Lower Kinabatangan area on behalf of WWF Malaysia in February 1999. Dr. Param is one of the proponents of the framework approach for land use evaluation. Potential Area for Collaboration: Application of the framework approach for evaluating land suitability for oil palm cultivation. (ii) C.H. Plantation Management En. Christopher Hoh of C.H. Plantation Management is a consultant and planting adviser to several plantations in Sabah, including Sawit Kinabalu. He has expressed support for the work being undertaken by PfW on the cultivation of alternative crops on the flood-prone areas and has recommended that Sawit Kinabalu establishes a MoU on tree planting with PfW. Potential Area for Collaboration: MoU between WWF Malaysia and Sawit Kinabalu for the cultivation of alternative crops in Sg. Pin Estate, Kinabatangan. (iii) Sustainable Environmental Solutions Sdn. Bhd. (SES) SES has developed the Advanced Integrated Wastewater Treatment System features of which are described in Appendix IV.
Potential Area for Collaboration: Adoption of zero discharge palm oil mill effluent treatment systems, particularly in ecologically sensitive areas.
In view of the projected 70% increase in the world production of oils and fats between now and 2020, Malaysia is expected to increase its share of palm oil production from its current level of about 10.55 million tonnes to an annual average production of about 15.4 million tonnes during 201620. Unless there is a very significant improvement in the productivity per hectare, the increased demand for palm oil would require the opening of new land, particularly in Sabah and Sarawak. As many of the areas available, for instance deep peat swamps, might be less than ideal environments for oil palm cultivation, it is vital than proper land use planning and assessments of potential environmental impacts be done at the state and plantation company level prior to its development. On the prospects for reducing the pressure of opening new land for oil palm, a significant avenue would be for the oil palm industry to increase its production efficiency in terms of yield per hectare and oil extraction rate. Assuming the annual national production could be increased by 20%, the additional oil palm crop harvestable would be equivalent to the production from more than 400,000 hectares of land. With regard to alternative industrial crops, there does not appear to be any that could match oil palm in terms of its export earnings. However, plantation forestry, and possibly agroforestry, could be prospects for crop diversification from oil palm..
6. Acknowledgements
This consultant would like to thank WWF Malaysia for the opportunity to work on this project; special appreciation is due to Mr. Andrew Ng, WWFMs Environment Policy Analyst, for his support and assistance. The response of various plantation companies and FELDA to the questionnaire survey on land use and the participation of individuals from various sectors in the interviews conducted are gratefully acknowledged. He would also like to thank Mr. M.R. Chandran and Mr. B.H. Tan of MPOA for their help with statistics on the oil palm industry and Dr Martin Abraham of UNDP for his painstaking critique of the draft report.
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8. APPENDICES
WWF Malaysia Tabung Alam Malaysia 49 Jalan SS 23/15 Taman SEA 47301 Petaling Jaya Selangor Malaysia Tel: + (603) 703 3772 Fax: + (603) 703 5157 E-mail: wwfmal@wwfnet.org Website: www.wwfmalaysia.org
Dato' Mikaail Kavanagh Executive Director Dir/Programme/OilPalm
Our Ref:
WWF Malaysia is conducting a study on Land Use and the Oil Palm Industry in Malaysia. This study arose from WWF Malaysias concern that the rapid expansion in oil palm development has seen the clearing of many lowland forest areas. WWF Malaysia has appointed Mr. Teoh Cheng Hai as an independent consultant, who has both the relevant experience and a balanced view. His task is to provide relevant facts and figures on the present and projected land use for oil palm development, consider alternative land use options and identify best practices for the development and management of oil palm. The output of the study will have two main applications; first, to provide WWF Malaysia a better understanding of the oil palm industry and second, to recommend strategies and interventions for WWF Malaysia, working with potential stakeholders to:
Promote the conservation of protected areas under consideration for conversion to plantations. Promote sustainable development and management of oil palm in areas already converted from forest cover or other crops.
As part of the data-gathering effort, Mr. Teoh is conducting a survey of land use in plantation companies and public sector agencies such as FELDA. I am writing to seek your kind co-operation to complete the
President: Prof Ruud Lubbers Vice-President: Rodney Wagner Director General: Dr Claude Martin President Emeritus: HRH The Duke of Edinburgh
Registered as: WWF-World Wide Fund for Nature WWF-Fondo Mondialeper la Natura WWF-Fondo Mundial para la Naturaleza WWF-Fonds Mondial pour la Nature WWF-Welt Natur Fonds
Also known as World Wildlife Fund
enclosed questionnaire and return it to Mr. Andrew Ng at WWF Malaysia by 28th July, 2000 who would also be available to answer any queries you may have.
Thank you and I hope that I may look forward to your response.
Mr Teoh Cheng Hai Dr. Geoffrey Davison - Director, Sabah Operations Ms. Wendy Yap - Head, Conservation Policy Unit Mr. Andrew Ng - Environmental PolicyAnalyst
1. Name of Company:
2. Planted Crop Area (Hectares)
Please enter the total planted area for the company for 1990, 1995 and 2000.
Crop Oil Palm Rubber Cocoa Coconut Fruit Crops Others
Area (Ha) 1995
3. New Planting and Replanting per year (Hectares)
Please enter the total area for each year that have been replanted from other crops (Replant) or new plantings from previously uncultivated land eg logged over forest or primary forest (New Plant)
1995 New Plant P. Malaysia Sabah Sarawak Replant
1996 New Plant Replant
Area (Hectares) 1997 New Plant Replant
4. Land Left Undeveloped/Unplanted in 2000
Please enter the land area that have been left uncultivated or undeveloped for various reasons eg steep land , conservation area such as riverine buffer zones etc
Reason Steep Land Unsuitable Soil Peat Swamp Conservation Area
P.Malaysia
Area (Ha) Sabah Sarawak
5. Best Practices
Please list your 3 best practices that support sustainable development encompassing economic, social and environmental considerations. If your "best practice" is unique to your company, kindly provide a brief description.
Best Practice # 1
Completed by: Name: Designation: Phone/e-mail:
Kindly send the completed form by 13th May 2000 to: Andrew Ng WWF Malaysia 49 Jalan SS 23/15 47301 Petaling Jaya
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