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Home Economy
A Currency Upheaval Is Coming
TOPICS:BankingBitcoincryptocurrencyCurrencyForeign PolicyJeffrey A Tucker
By Jeffrey A. Tucker
Sometimes forces line up in just the right way to mark the end of an era. That era is dollar supremacy.
Colin Lloyd has marshaled some impressive evidence that the dollar's status as the global reserve currency may not last. Indeed, its status is weakening. Should it come to lose its monopoly status, the place of the U.S. on the world stage will undergo a substantial change. The ability to call the shots, as it has done in the entire postwar period, will be weakened. Monetary policy will no longer be able to presume infinite markets abroad for dollar creation. The market for U.S. currency could come into question. All the implications here are impossible to foresee.
Let's consider five trends that make the prospect very real.
The Trans-Pacific Partnership Pullout
One of the first actions of the Trump administration was to pull out of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (January 23, 2017). The pact involved 12 nations including Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, and Vietnam. There was plenty wrong with the agreement – and I would list its burdensome treatment of intellectual property to top the list. However, that's not why Trump pulled out. His problem was that the U.S. has a technical (but inaccurate) "trade deficit" with some of these countries, from which he concludes that "they" owe "us" money, so no deal.
The presumption of this walkout was that the agreement would die. Not so. Later in the year, the remaining 11 carried on and struck a deal without the U.S. The great irony is that the deal was immediately made better by virtue of the U.S withdrawal. The intellectual property provisions that had been such an imposition were made far less threatening and more friendly to market innovation. The new deal was actually quite radical: it removes more than 98 percent of tariffs for trade between Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, Malaysia, Vietnam, Singapore, Brunei, and Peru. It covers 500 million people and represents 13 percent of global trade.
The end result was exactly what had been predicted: a huge gain for China and a loss of export markets by the U.S. As just one example, the Los Angeles Times points out that "Australian wine entering Japan is taxed at 5.6% and will eventually drop to zero. There's no duty at all for wine from the EU and Chile. But for California, it's 15%." As it turns out, all these countries did have other options besides complying with every demand by the U.S. and dealing only in U.S. dollars. The loss from the pullout: forgone gains of $131 billion and a direct loss of $2 billion due to advantages remaining partners enjoy by trading with each other.
The Libra and the Bitcoin Rally
Cryptocurrency keeps being declared dead, even from the time Bitcoin was worth less than $1. Even the "crashes for the history books" result in new gains over time. The crypto sector in general is now sporting a $330 billion market capitalization. These are non-state money-like assets that are not just tradable in dollars but any money, good, or service. They are also global assets not restricted by the geographic lines of the nation-state. They are uncontrolled by any nation's central bank. Whether Bitcoin or some other crypto can emerge as a serious global power is the stuff of speculation. But that these market-based tools have a future is no longer in doubt.
A key indication of this is the introduction of the new global currency connected with the Facebook platform, the Libra. Those of us who have long followed the crypto markets know with confidence that money can emerge from outside the state and be well managed by protocols that operate without human volition. For mainstream opinion, this is still quite the shock. They are appalled even.
Matt Stoller writes in the New York Times:
A permissionless currency system based on a consensus of large private actors across open protocols sounds nice, but it's not democracy. Today, American bank regulators and central bankers are hired and fired by publicly elected leaders. Libra payments regulators would be hired and fired by a self-selected council of corporations. There are ways to characterize such a system, but democratic is not one of them…. The way we structure money and payments is a question for democratic institutions. Any company big enough to start its own currency is just too big.
What's funny about this claim is that anyone can create a currency right now. You don't have to be a big company. Giving it market value is another matter. And yes, there are a gazillion scams out there. The Libra will not likely be among them. This author seems completely lost in the new world of private money.
Remember that central banking (and monetary central planning) is premised on the idea that everyone in a jurisdiction uses the same money, it flows through regulated banks, and those regulated banks report to the same central bank, which manages the whole system. It's a monopoly by design. Even a 5 percent penetration of that market with a private currency breaks that control and can upset and destabilize central bank control. The money that the centralized system controls loses its weight and power to influence macroeconomic outcomes. That is the world to which we are headed.
Protectionist USA
For a government to be responsible for managing the world reserve currency is an awesome privilege. With it comes certain responsibilities for engaging the world economy and helping to become ever more open with ever fewer barriers. The U.S. right now is going in the other direction with ever more tariffs, random threats, bad-faith negotiations, and a president that celebrates tariffs as the key to prosperity. The U.S. has even created a watchlist of countries that is basically a list of targets that include Ireland, Germany, Mexico, Vietnam – as if any country running a trade deficit owes the U.S. money. It's utterly preposterous but some people believe it. Reversing the flows of trade here is the equivalent of the Soviet plan to reverse ocean currents.
Moreover, the U.S. imposes sanctions against many countries, including Russia, Burma, Ivory Coast, Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Venezuela, Syria, Liberia, Sudan, Belarus, Congo, Zimbabwe, Iraq, and Congo. The list keeps growing. The world is to the point of ignoring them, because, in the end, there are assets and there are markets, and people have the need and right to trade. U.S. sanctions policy has, in the old phrase, "jumped the shark" to the point that traders are seeking alternatives to both the dollar and U.S.-controlled systems of payment and settlement. This has further weakened the dollar.
The tightening of sanctions against Iran are further incentivizing the search for the workaround. The Wall Street Journal reports on the Instex system:
Planning in Europe began after the U.S. threatened action against Swift—the Belgium-based system that banks use to communicate with each other about money movements—unless it cut off Iran's banks. In response, Germany, France and the U.K. decided to set up Instex, an acronym for Instrument in Support of Trade Exchanges.
The system, which isn't yet operational, will be based on the euro, the second-most-used currency in international trade. Initially, it will allow for trade with Iran of goods not covered by new U.S. sanctions, such as consumer products and medicine. It is needed because U.S. sanctions bar dollar transactions with Iranian banks, even on deals for unsanctioned goods. Once operational, Instex's members could expand it to cover any trade with Iran.
Technology Blacklists
The attack on Huawei takes this a big step further. Digital technology is a knowledge-based industry, and knowledge doesn't like borders. The imposition of blacklists could end up being devastating to 5G technology in a way that directly harms American consumers and producers. American tech firms have been forced not to use the products and systems of one of the world's most advanced and developed firms. Where previously there had been mutually beneficial cooperation there are now violence-based rules. This would have been unthinkable even a few years ago. This can't be good for the status of the dollar.
Talk of Devaluation
The Trump administration is convinced that foreign countries benefit from gaining export markets by currency devaluation. This is not true. But if you believe it, you might be tempted also to believe that devaluing one's own national currency is a good trade strategy. This partially accounts for why the Trump administration has been aggressively and loudly demanding that the Fed adopt a loose monetary policy, thinking that this will help exports and reverse the trajectory of trade flows. The actual result is exactly what the policy intends: the weakening of the dollar and the shrinking of markets willing to hold dollars.
American Natural Superfood - Free Sample
It's not a far-flung prediction that the Trump administration will continue to work toward dollar devaluation. It follows from the policy presumptions behind a mercantilist trade policy. However, one can't both pursue such a course and expect that it will not affect the dollar's status on the world stage. It's not shocking that Reuters reports that "the U.S. dollar remains the world's dominant reserve currency but central banks around the globe appeared to continue to diversify their reserves away from the greenback."
The IMF reports that the dollar share of global reserves has fallen for three straight quarters. Fifteen years ago, the dollar's share was 71.5 percent; today it is down to 61.7 percent and falling. Globalization of commerce is the single most prescient change in the world economy over the last quarter century. If the managers of the dollar instead seek isolation, protection, sanctions, blacklisting, and devaluation, powerful market forces will continue to seek alternatives.
No one of these factors will do the deed. But all five combined could fundamentally reshape the global monetary order, away from dollar centralization toward a wild mix of trading zones relying on non-dollar-based strategies and a melange of crypto-based private tokens that allow markets to continue to function despite every attempt of the U.S. government to control them.
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Jeffrey A. Tucker is Editorial Director for the American Institute for Economic Research. He is the author of many thousands of articles in the scholarly and popular press and eight books in 5 languages, most recently The Market Loves You. He speaks widely on topics of economics, technology, social philosophy, and culture. He is available for speaking and interviews via his email. Tw | FB | LinkedIn
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Reduce your risk
See all cancer information
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Genes and cancer
Family cancer syndromes
See topics
Blood and bone marrow
Endocrine system and hormones
Female sex organs and reproductive system
Male sex organs and reproductive system
How cancer starts, grows and spreads
Types of tumours
Stage and grade
Prognosis and survival
Some conditions are linked to an increased risk of cancer because of an inherited gene mutation. These conditions are called family cancer syndromes or inherited (hereditary) cancer syndromes. Most family cancer syndromes are rare. Family cancer syndromes can lead to cancer in both children and adults, but it usually affects people at a younger age than normal.
Not everyone with an inherited cancer syndrome develops cancer. But people who know they have a family cancer syndrome and have a higher risk of developing cancer may choose to be screened for certain types of cancer or have preventive treatment, such as prophylactic surgery.
Who's at risk?
Anyone who is concerned about having an inherited cancer syndrome in their family should talk to their doctor to see if they should meet with a genetic counsellor. Genetic counsellors see patients and their families who are suspected of having a family cancer syndrome and can help determine who is at risk and who should have testing. They also arrange the testing if it's recommended.
There are more than 30 family cancer syndromes caused by mutations in different genes but these syndromes are rare. They may be suspected:
in families who seem to have cancer more often than would be expected by chance
when the cancer happens at a young age
when certain subtypes of cancer are found
when there is a clustering of certain cancers (cases of breast, ovarian and prostate cancer in a family)
when a person has been diagnosed with more than one type of cancer
People from certain ancestries, such as Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry, also have higher rates of family cancer syndromes.
How are family cancer syndromes inherited?
Most family cancer syndromes are inherited in what is called an autosomal dominant pattern. We all have 2 copies of every gene – 1 from our mother and 1 from our father. For conditions with autosomal dominant inheritance, having a mutation in 1 copy of the gene is enough to increase a person's risk of developing cancer. In this case, the risk that their children will have the syndrome is 50% (1 out of 2). But some family cancer syndromes are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. This means a person needs to have a mutation in both copies of the gene to increase their risk of cancer. In this case, both parents need to pass the mutated gene to a child.
There are also some family cancer syndromes that develop because of a gene mutation on the X sex chromosome (the chromosomes that determine a person's sex). This is called an X-linked inherited pattern.
Some examples of family cancer syndromes are listed below.
Ataxia-telangiectasia affects the nervous system, immune system and other body systems. It can cause a loss of balance, poor coordination (ataxia), frequent infections, red eyes (due to widening of blood vessels) and abnormal eye movements. Ataxia-telangiectasia increases the risk of leukemia, lymphoma and breast cancer. It is caused by a mutation of the ATM gene, which normally repairs damage to DNA.
Unlike most types of family cancer syndromes, this is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. This means a mutation in both copies of a gene is needed to develop the condition. But those with only one mutation (called carriers) have an increased risk of breast cancer.
Basal cell nevus syndrome
Basal cell nevus syndrome is also called Gorlin syndrome or nevoid basal cell carcinoma syndrome. It is usually caused by a mutation in PTCH1, a tumour suppressor gene. This syndrome causes different problems with the skin, eyes, nervous system, endocrine glands and jawbone. People may also have a larger head size than average (called macrocephaly). Basal cell nevus syndrome increases the risk of non-melanoma skin cancer, brain and spinal cord cancer and soft tissue sarcoma.
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome causes the body to grow more than it should or unevenly (asymmetrically) during development and into childhood. Newborns may have hypoglycemia (low blood sugar). Children with Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome have an increased risk of developing Wilms tumour (a type of kidney cancer that affects children), hepatoblastoma (a rare type of liver cancer that affects children), neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma and adrenal gland cancer.
Bloom syndrome
Bloom syndrome is caused by a BLM gene mutation that changes the way chromosomes interact with each other. People with Bloom syndrome are usually smaller than average, have a high-pitched voice and easily develop skin rashes (especially over the nose and cheeks) after being in the sun. Having Bloom syndrome increases the risk of acute leukemia, lymphoma, breast cancer, colon cancer, bone cancer and Wilms tumour.
Carney complex
Carney complex causes changes in the colour of the skin, blue moles (nevi) and growth of a specific type of tumour called a myxoma in the skin, breast or heart. It increases the risk of endocrine gland tumours like thyroid and adrenal gland cancers and nerve sheath tumours. Carney complex is caused by a mutation in the PRKAR1A gene.
Cowden syndrome
Cowden syndrome causes many non-cancerous tumour-like nodules, or lumps (called hamartomas), to develop in the skin, breast, thyroid, colon, small intestine and mouth. Cowden syndrome is caused by a mutation in the PTEN tumour suppressor gene. It increases the risk of breast, thyroid, uterine, colorectal and brain cancers. When the PTEN gene is mutated in certain types of brain cancer, the condition may also be called Lhermitte-Duclos syndrome.
Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP)
Colon cancer is common and happens in about 6% of the general population. About 1% of colon cancers are caused by an inherited cancer syndrome called familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). FAP is usually caused by a mutation of the APC gene. FAP causes hundreds to thousands of adenomatous polyps to develop on the inner lining, or mucosa, of the colon, rectum, small intestine and stomach. People with FAP may also have abnormal teeth, jaw cysts and tumours that start in muscle called desmoid tumours. FAP is highly linked to colorectal cancer and small intestine cancer. It also increases the risk of stomach, adrenal gland and thyroid cancers. People with FAP who don't have treatment will almost always develop cancer.
Another gene linked to FAP is called the MYH gene. Two copies of this gene mutation (an autosomal recessive pattern) are needed to increase the risk of cancer.
Familial atypical multiple mole melanoma (FAMMM) syndrome
People with familial atypical multiple mole melanoma (FAMMM) syndrome have many moles (50 more moles than the average person). FAMMM is caused by a mutation in one of several genes including the p16 tumour suppressor gene. People with FAMMM have a very high risk of developing melanoma, a type of skin cancer. FAMMM also increases the risk of melanoma of the eye (a type of eye cancer) and pancreatic cancer. FAMMM is also called dysplastic nevus syndrome.
Gardner syndrome
Gardner syndrome is related to familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). People with Gardner syndrome develop many polyps in the colon but also have tumours outside of the colon. Like FAP, Gardner syndrome is caused by a mutation in the APC gene. People with Gardner syndrome have an increased risk of colorectal cancer, soft tissue sarcoma and thyroid cancers.
Hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) syndrome
Breast cancer is common. It happens in 1 out of every 8 women. But only about 5% to 10% of women develop breast cancer because of an inherited cancer syndrome called hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) syndrome. The syndrome is caused by a mutation in one of several genes. In about half of people with HBOC, the mutated genes are BRCA1 or BRCA2. HBOC increases the risk of breast, ovarian, prostate, fallopian tube and pancreatic cancers. People of Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry have about a 2.5% chance (about 1 out of 40) of having a mutated BRCA gene. This is much higher than in the general population.
Hereditary retinoblastoma
Retinoblastoma is a type of eye cancer that affects children. Hereditary retinoblastoma is caused by an inherited RB1 gene mutation or an RB1 gene mutation that happens in the egg or sperm before conception and is passed on to the child. Children with hereditary retinoblastoma will usually develop retinoblastoma in both eyes and also have an increased risk of developing bone cancer, soft tissue sarcoma and melanoma later in life.
Li-Fraumeni syndrome
Li-Fraumeni syndrome is caused by a mutation in the p53 (Tp53) tumour suppressor gene or a mutation in the CHEK2 tumour suppressor gene. Normally, these genes help to prevent cancer by stopping cells from growing and dividing too quickly.
Li-Fraumeni syndrome increases the risk of several different types of cancer, including soft tissue sarcoma, osteosarcoma (a type of bone cancer), leukemia, brain cancer, adrenal cancer and breast cancer. These cancers tend to happen most often during childhood, except for breast cancer, which happens in young adults or later. And people with Li-Fraumeni syndrome can develop more than one type of cancer during their lifetime. They also tend to be more likely to develop a second cancer after having radiation therapy, so doctors try to avoid this treatment when they can.
About 2% to 3% of colorectal cancers are caused by Lynch syndrome. People with Lynch syndrome (also called hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer, or HNPCC) have a mutation in 1 out of 4 genes that normally correct mistakes when DNA is copied during cell division. These genes are called DNA mismatch repair (MMR) genes.
People with Lynch syndrome have a high risk of colorectal cancer. When colorectal cancer develops in people with Lynch syndrome, it usually happens before age 50. Lynch syndrome also increases the risk of endometrial cancer (a type of uterine cancer) as well as pancreatic, ovarian, stomach and small intestine cancers.
Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN)
Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) affects the endocrine system. People with MEN often develop tumours in more than one endocrine gland. There are 2 types of MEN. MEN type 1 (MEN1) is caused by a MEN1 gene mutation and is linked to adrenal gland cancer, islet cell pancreatic cancer, parathyroid gland cancer and pituitary gland cancer. The first sign of MEN1 is often high levels of parathyroid hormone in the blood due to cancer in one or more of the parathyroid glands. MEN type 2 (MEN2) is caused by a RET gene mutation and is linked to thyroid gland and parathyroid gland cancers and a type of adrenal gland cancer called a pheochromocytoma. Some people with MEN2 may be unusually tall and have enlarged lips.
Neurofibromatosis type 1
Neurofibromatosis type 1 is caused by a mutation in the NF1 gene. People with neurofibromatosis type 1 have patches of skin that have a different colour from the rest. The patches of skin are called café-au-lait spots that can be smooth or raised and from beige to dark brown. On lighter skin, the spots are the colour of coffee with lots of cream. On darker skin, they can be the colour of rich black coffee.
People with neurofibromatosis type 1 also develop tumours (called neurofibromas) along the nerves. Most tumours are non-cancerous but some can become cancerous over time. Neurofibromatosis type 1 increases the risk of several types of cancer including brain cancer, adrenal gland cancer, rhabdomyosarcoma, neuroblastoma, neuroendocrine tumours, soft tissue sarcoma and leukemia.
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome
Peutz-Jeghers syndrome is caused by a mutation in the STK11 (also called LKB1) tumour suppressor gene and causes a very large number of polyps to develop in the gastrointestinal tract. It also causes dark spots on the lips, inside the mouth and on other mucous membranes. Peutz-Jeghers syndrome increases the risk of colorectal, stomach, pancreatic, small intestine and breast cancers. It also increases the risk of getting a blockage in the intestines (called a bowel obstruction).
Turcot syndrome
Turcot syndrome is related to Lynch syndrome and familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP). People with Turcot syndrome develop many polyps in the colon. Turcot syndrome is caused by a mutation in the APC, MLH1 or PMS2 gene. It increases the risk of colorectal cancer and brain cancer.
Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) syndrome
Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) syndrome is caused by a mutation in the VHL tumour suppressor gene. People with VHL syndrome develop tumours and cysts in different parts of the body. These tumours are called hemangioblastomas and are made of abnormal blood vessels. Hemangioblastomas can happen in the back of the eye (retina), brain, spine and other organs. These tumours are non-cancerous but VHL increases the risk of kidney cancer, brain cancer, a type of adrenal gland cancer called pheochromocytoma and islet cell pancreatic cancer.
Werner syndrome causes premature aging that begins during the teenage years. It is caused by a mutation in the WRN gene. People with Werner syndrome have an increased risk of developing bone cancer, melanoma, soft tissue sarcoma and thyroid cancer.
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome affects blood cells and cells of the immune system. People with Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome have lower numbers of platelets, which can cause them to bruise and bleed easily. They also have a higher risk for infection because their immune cells (such as T cells and B cells) don't work properly. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome increases the risk of leukemia and lymphoma and is caused by mutations in the WAS gene.
Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP)
Xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) affects the skin so it can't repair sun damage as well as usual. When someone has XP, their skin is more sensitive to ultraviolet radiation from the sun. People with XP have a high risk of developing melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers. XP is linked to mutations in several genes including the XPC, ERCC2 and POLH genes.
More information on hereditary and genetic conditions
For more information on these and other hereditary and genetic conditions that increase the risk of cancer, go to Genetics Home Reference, GeneReviews or Cancer.net.
Expert review and references
American Cancer Society. Family Cancer Syndromes. 2014: http://www.cancer.org/cancer/cancercauses/geneticsandcancer/heredity-and-cancer.
American Society of Clinical Oncology. Hereditary Cancer-Related Syndromes. 2016: http://www.cancer.net/navigating-cancer-care/cancer-basics/genetics/hereditary-cancer-related-syndromes.
Aplan PD and Khan J . Molecular and genetic basis of childhood cancer. Pizzo, P. A. & Poplack, D. G. (Eds.). Principles and Practice of Pediatric Oncology. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2011: Chapter 3: pp: 38-77.
Hassen E, Eggert, Loud JT . Genetic risk and hereditary cancer syndromes. Yarbro CH, Wujcki D, Holmes Gobel B, (eds.). Cancer Nursing: Principles and Practice. 8th ed. Burlington, MA: Jones and Bartlett Learning; 2018: 6: 135-168.
Matloff ET, Bonadies DC . Genetic counseling. DeVita VT Jr, Lawrence TS, Rosenberg SA. Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology. 10th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2015: 35: 389-397.
National Cancer Institute. Genetic Testing for Hereditary Cancer Syndromes. 2013: https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/genetic-testing-fact-sheet.
Genetic conditions: cancers. National Institutes of Health. Genetics Home Reference. Bethesda, MD: U.S. National Library of Medicine;
National Library of Medicine (NLM). GeneReviews. Bethesda, MD: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/GeneTests/static/about/content/reviews.shtml.
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All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, West Yorkshire, England
Andrew and Harriet Pagdin (née Oglesby)
Harriet Oglesby (d. 20 Apr 1937)
Andrew Pagdin (d. 24 Feb 1941)
Herbert and Fanny Pagdin (née Crookes)
Fanny Crookes (d. 18 Mar 1947)
Herbert Pagdin (d. 27 Nov 1923)
James William and Florence Ellen Oates (née Mould)
Florence Ellen Mould (d. 4 Jun 1947)
James William Oates (d. 12 Aug 1939)
Ralph and Anna Mary Pagdin (née Crowcroft)
AnnaMary Crowcroft (d. 08 Apr 1950)
Ralph Pagdin (d. 15 May 1936)
Tom and Eliza Pagdin (née Abrams)
Eliza Abrams (d. 08 Dec 1937)
Tom Pagdin (d. 11 Jul 1937)
William Holdridge
1. Abrams, Eliza d. 08 Dec 1937 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748840428
2. Crookes, Fanny d. 18 Mar 1947 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852805
3. Crowcroft, AnnaMary d. 08 Apr 1950 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852749
4. Holdridge, William d. 14 Nov 1891 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I39224
5. Mould, Florence Ellen d. 4 Jun 1947 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I49886
6. Oates, James William d. 12 Aug 1939 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I49885
7. Oglesby, Harriet d. 20 Apr 1937 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852810
8. Pagdin, Andrew d. 24 Feb 1941 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852733
9. Pagdin, Herbert d. 27 Nov 1923 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852737
10. Pagdin, Ralph d. 15 May 1936 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748852739
11. Pagdin, Tom d. 11 Jul 1937 All Saints' Churchyard, Ackworth, Pontefract, West Yorkshire, England I1748847226
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Ratovi dviju ruža, vođeni između 1455. i 1485. godine, bili su isprekidan građanski rat koji se vodio oko engleskog prijestolja između sljedbenika kuće Lancastera i kuće York. Obje kuće bile su ogranak kraljevske kuće Plantagenet, vukući svoje podrijetlo od engleskog kralja Edvarda III. (1327. – 1337.).

Naziv Ratovi dviju ruža nije bio korišten u to vrijeme, ali njegov naziv nastao je naknadno jer su se suprotstavljene strane u ratu predstavljale ružama crvene i bijele boje. Crvena boja ruže je bila boja kuće Lancaster, a bijela boje ruže je bila boja kuće York. Naziv je ušao u opću uporabu tijekom 16. stoljeća na temelju scene iz Shakespeareove (1564. – 1616.) drame ''Henrik VI.'' gdje suprotstavljene strane u drami odaberu različito obojene ruže. Iako su se ruže povremeno koristile kao simboli tijekom rata, ipak se većina sudionika služila grbovima svojih feudalaca.

U Ratovima dviju ruža sudjelovalo je zemljoposjedničko plemstvo i vojska njihovih vazala. Biti pobornik jedne od zavađenih kuća omnogome je ovisilo o bračnim ili rodbinskim vezama između obitelji, obećanim feudalnim titulama i dodjelama zemljoposjeda. Tako je vođa kuće Lancaster jedno vrijeme imao titulu grofa od Richmonda, a vođa kuće York titulu grofa od Cambridgea. Kuća Lancaster većinu je saveznika našla na sjeveru i zapadu zemlje, dok je Yorku potpora stizala uglavnom s juga i istoka.

Uzroci sukoba

Uzroci sukoba nalazili su se u suparništvu između dviju ogranaka dinastije Plantagenet, dviju dinastičkih kuća Lancaster i York, a koje je počelo padom engleskog kralja Rikarda II. kojeg je s vlasti srušio njegov bratić Henry Bolingbroke, vojvoda od Lancastera, 1399. godine, a koji je bio unuk Edvarda III. po njegovom trećem sinu Johnu od Gaunta. Kako je krunu Edvarda III. trebao prema redu prvenstva naslijediti drugi sin Lionel, vojvoda od Clarencea, pobornici kuće York smatrali su da, po toj osnovi, kući York pripada jače pravo na englesko prijestolje. Stoga je pravo Henryja Bolingbrokea (kasnije okrunjenog kao Henrik IV.) na englesko prijestolje, prema mišljenju pobornika kuće York, stajalo na vrlo slabim temeljima. Vladavinu Lancastera pobornici Yorka su trpili sve dok na vlast nešto kasnije nije došao izrazito nepopularani i duševno bolesni kralj Henrik VI. Međutim, unutar tog razdoblja bilo je nekoliko ustanaka, koji su suzbijeni, a u kojima su Yorkisti isticali svoje pravo na krunu.

Počeci sukoba

Kada je 1413. umro kralj Henrik IV. naslijedio ga je njegov sin i nasljednik Henrik V. koji je bio veliki vojnik i koji je postigao velike vojne uspjehe protiv Francuske u Stogodišnjem ratu koji su ga učinili popularnim vladarem, što mu je omogućilo da ojača položaj Lancastera u odnosu na kuću York.

Henrik V. vladao je kratko, a 1422. naslijedio ga je duševno bolesni i nesposobni sin Henrik VI. koji je bio okruženim nepopularnim regentima i savjetnicima. Najpoznatiji među njima su bili Edmund Beaufort, drugi vojvoda Somerseta i William de la Pole, prvi vojvoda od Suffolka, koji je bio okrivljen za loše vođenje vojnih operacija protiv Francuske u Stogodišnjem ratu.

Tijekom vladavine Henrika VI., svi raniji teritorijalni dobitci i engleske vojne pobjede u Francuskoj (za vrijeme Henrika V.) bile su anulirane i izgubljene. Henrika VI. se doživljavalo kao slabog i neučinkovitog kralja. Povrh toga, on je patio od povremenih nastupa duševne bolesti koju je vjerojatno naslijedio od svoga djeda Karla VI., kralja Francuske. Kako su pripadnici kuće York smatrali da je Henrik VI. nesposoban za vladavinu počeli su postavljati pitanje njegova legitimiteta kao kralja i isticati svoje pravo na krunu po osnovi podrijetla od već spomenutog Lionela od Clarencea, drugog sina kralja Edvarda III. Plantageneta.

Neslaganja na dvoru odražavala su se u cijeloj državi, gdje je jačao partikularizam plemstva, a plemenitaške obitelji ulazile su u sukobe zbog privatnih zavada pri čemu su određene obitelji jačale i pokazivale sve manje poštovanja prema dvoru i vlasti kralja. To doba je upamćeno po mnogim osobnim ratovima vođenim među obiteljima što je stvorilo anarhičnu situaciju u zemlji i u konačnici pobunu protiv Henrika VI. U ove zavade osobito su bili uključeni vojnici poražene engleske vojske u Francuskoj.

Rastuće društveno nezadovoljstvo, otimanje hrane stanovništvu od strane plemića s privatnim vojskama, te korupcija na Henrikovom dvoru stvorili su sazrelu klimu za izbijanje građanskog rata.

Tijekom 1453. Henrik je trpio prvi od nekoliko nastupa duševne bolesti, pa je slijedom novonastale situacije imenovano Regentsko vijeće, na čelu s moćnim i popularnim Rikardom Plantagenetom, vojvodom od Yorka kao Lordom Protektorom. Rikard je uskoro politički i fizički pasivizirao Lancastere na dvoru. Nakon što se Henrik 1455. oporavio, Rikard je istjeran s dvora na nagovor Henrikove žene Margarete Anžuvinske.

Oružani sukobi

Kako je Henrik VI. bio neučinkovit i slab vođa, moćna, energična i agresivna kraljica Margaret Anžuvinska postala je de facto vođa lancasterskog klana. Margareta je izgradila savez protiv Rikarda od Yorka koji je bio prisiljen vojno mu se suprotstaviti, što je dovelo 1455. do prve bitke u ratu dviju ruža, prve bitke kod St. Albansa koja je označila početak glavnog razdoblja oružanog sukoba u Ratovima dviju ruža između 1455. i 1489.

Rikard, vojvoda od Yorka vodio je male vojne snage prema Londonu i s Henrikovim snagama susreo se kod St.Albansa, sjeverno od Londona. 22. svibnja 1455. gdje se odigrala relativno mala prva bitka kod St.Albansa, ali je bila prvi otvoreni sukob građanskog rata. Cilj Rikarda je bio tobože ukloniti "loše Henrikove savjetnike". Rezultat je bio lancasterski poraz. Nekoliko istaknutih lancasterskih vođa je poginulo, a kuća York i njihovi saveznici vratili su svoj utjecaj, i neko vrijeme se činilo da su obje sukobljene strane šokirane bitkom koja se odigrala i činili su sve da bi se pomirile nastale političke razlike.

U trenucima kada je Henrik trpio drugi nastup svoje duševne bolesti, Yorkisti su ponovo imenovali Lorda Protektora, a Margareta je bila gurnuta po strani zaokupljena skrbi i njegom za svoga muža. Nakon prve bitke kod St.Albansa kompromis između sukobljenih strana imao je određeni uspjeh, a Yorkisti su do Henrikovog oporavka imali dominantnu ulogu u regentskom vijeću.

No problemi koji su uzrokovali sukob uskoro su se ponovno pojavili, a osobito narazjašnjeno pitanje tko će naslijediti Henrika na prijestolju, Rikard, vojvoda od Yorka ili Henrikov sin Edvard. Margareta je odbijala prihvatiti bilo koje rješenje koje bi njezinu sinu oduzelo pravo na nasljedstvo. Samo vojna premoć kuće York održavala je status quo na dvoru. No, gospodarske poteškoće i loš položaj na vanjskopolitičkom planu učinili su svoje. Kralj i kraljica, da bi zaštitili svoju poziciju, prvi puta su u engleskoj povijesti uveli su novačenje u vojsku. U međuvremenu yorkistu Rikardu Nevilleu, grofu od Warwicka (kasnije nazvanom "Kingmaker") rasla je popularnost u Londonu, naročito kod snažno rastućeg trgovačkog staleža.

Neprijateljstva su se nastavila 23. rujna 1459., u bitci kod Blore Heatha u Staffordshireu, kada velika lancasterska vojska nije uspjela spriječiti Yorkiste predvođene lordom Salisburyem da se spoje s drugim snagama Yorka u Dvorcu Ludlow.

Dvadesetak dana poslije odigrala se sljedeća bitka kod Ludford Bridgea u kojoj su snage Lancastera odnijele pobjedu. Rikard od Yorka, Salisbury i grof od Warwicka su nakon bitke morali pobjeći prema Calaisu. Kuća Lancaster je tada potpuno preuzela sveukupnu kontrolu, a Yorkisti su između 1459. i 1460. počeli seriju napada iz pravca Calaisa na englesku obalu izazivajući pri tome kaos i nered.

1460. Rikard od Yorka, Salisbury i Warwick izvršili su invaziju Engleske, i brzo našli saveznike u Kentu i Londonu, gdje su i ranije uživali široku podršku. U nakanama ih je podržao i papinski izaslanik, te su tako ohrabreni i vojno ojačani marširali na sjever. Henrik VI. je vodio vojsku na jugu dok je Margareta sa sinom princom Edvardom ostala na sjeveru. Bitka kod Northamptona koja se odigrala 10. srpnja 1460. i pretrpljeni poraz bili su katastrofa za kuću Lancaster. Vojska Yorkista predvođena grofom od Warwicka, zbog izdaje u lancasterskim redovima, teško je porazila vojsku Lancastera, pri čemu je bio zarobljen kralj Henrik VI. i odveden kao zatvorenik u London Tower.

Zakon o suglasju
Ohrabreni ovim velikim vojnim uspjehom, Yorkisti su sada otvoreno istakli svoje pravo na prijestolje. Vojska Yorkista ušla je u London na čelu s Rikardom od Yorka s ceremonijom koja je obično priličila vladaru. Parlament se bio okupio i Rikard od Yorka je istakao svoje pravo na prijestolje. Ali njegovi najveći saveznici lordovi Warwick i Salisbury nisu se slagali s njegovim zahtjevom parlamentu. Oni u ovom trenutku nisu imali namjeru potpuno ukloniti Henrika nego ukloniti samo njegove utjecajne savjetnike iz klana Lancaster.

Sljedeći dan Rikard od Yorka je kao dokaz svojeg prava iznio detaljna rodoslovlja svoje obitelji koja upućuju na to da on vuče podrijetlo od Lionela od Clarencea, drugog sina Edvarda III. Parlament je pristao uzeti u razmatranje njegov zahtjev, ali je ipak izglasao da Henrik VI. treba ostati kralj. Kompromis je postignut u listopadu 1460. donošenjem Zakona o suglasju (Act of Accord), koji je propisao da će nakon Henrikove smrti Rikard od Yorka naslijediti krunu te je oduzeo pravo nasljedstva Henrikovu sinu Edvardu. Rikard od Yorka je prihvatio ovaj kompromis.  On mu je dao mnogo od onoga što je i sam tražio, a osobito je bilo važno da je za Henrikova života dobio položaj Zaštitnika kraljevstva (Protector of the Realm) što mu je davalo moć upravljanja u Henrikovo ime. Henrikova žena Margareta je zajedno sa sinom Edvardom bila izgnana iz Londona. ''Zakon o suglasju'' je bio neprihvatljiv za pobornike Lancastera, koji su se okupili oko Margarete te na sjeveru Engleske okupljali veliku vojsku.

Rikard od Yorka zajedno s lordom Salisburyjem napustio je potkraj 1460. London kako bi utvrdio svoje položaje prema lancasterskim snagama na sjeveru, koncentrirajući se blizu grada Yorka. Rikard od Yorka je predvodio obrambene položaje pored dvorca Sandal blizu Wakefielda na Božić 1460. Iako lancasterska vojska predvođena Margaretom brojem dvostruko nadmašivala Rikardove snage 30. prosinca 1460., Rikard je zapovijedio napuštanje dvorca i napad svim snagama. Njegova vojska u bitci je razdvojena i potpuno poražena. Ova bitka je kasnije nazvana Bitkom kod Wakefielda. Rikard od Yorka, Salisbury i mlađi Rikardov 17-godišnji sin poginuli su u bitci. Margareta je zapovijedila da se glave sve trojice istaknu na ulazu u York.

Edvard IV.

Zakon o suglasju i događaji kod Wakefielda su 18-godišnjeg Rikardova najstarijeg sina Edvarda, grofa od Marcha, učinila vojvodom od Yorka i prijestolonasljednikom. Salisburya je naslijedio grof od Warwicka kao najveći zemljoposjednik u Engleskoj.

Margareta je nakon tih događaja otputovala u Škotsku pregovarati o mogućoj škotskoj pomoći. Marija, kraljica Škotske je pristala vojno pomoći Margareti pod uvjetom određenih teritorijalnih koncesija i pod uvjetom udaje njezine kćeri za Henrikovog i Margaretinog sina Edvarda. Margareta je pristala na te uvjete.

Edvard od Yorka je u međuvremenu pristigao sa svojom vojskom iz Walesa i porazio vojsku Lancastera u bitci kod Mortimer's Crossa u Herefordshireu. Margaret se sa svojom vojskom kretala prema jugu uz put pljačkajući i pustošeći zemlju. U Londonu grof od Warwicka nije uspio prikupiti vojsku za sukob s Margaretom, te joj se bez Edvarda nije mogao suprotstaviti nadomak Londona u drugoj bitci kod St.Albansa. Margareta je u toj bitci izvojevala glatku i po svemu sudeći presudnu pobjedu nad snagama Yorka. Snage Yorka su pobjegle i napustile London te iza sebe ostavile čak i zatočenog kralja Henrika VI., kojeg su neozlijeđenog pronašli pod jednim drvetom.

Kako su snage Lancastera napredovale prema jugu, u Londonu je rastao strah od odmazde, a glasine da će grad biti opljačkan su se širile gradom. Stanovništvo Londona zatvorilo je gradske ulaze i odbilo Margaretinoj vojsci dostaviti hranu, pa je uslijedila pljačka okolnih krajeva, Hertfordshirea i Middlesexa.

U međuvremenu Edvard od Yorka je napredovao prema Londonu sa zapada gdje je bio udružio snage s poraženim grofom od Warwicka što je koincidiralo s Margaretinim povlačenjem prema Dunstableu.
To je omogućilo Edvardu od Yorka i grofu od Warwicka da uđu s vojskom u London gdje su bili oduševljeno dočekani te opskrbljeni opremom i novcem.

Nakon smrti njegova oca Rikarda i mlađeg brata u bitci kod Wakefielda i nakon ulaska u London Edvardovi apetiti su se povećali i on je za sebe počeo zahtijevati englesku krunu bez ikakvih uvjeta. Edvard je sada trebao neki autoritet koji će potvrditi njegove aspiracije, pa je londonski biskup tražio od stanovnika Londona mišljenje o tome na što su navodno stanovnici Londona odgovorili aklamacijom i povicima "Kralj Edvard!". To je ubrzo potvrdio i Parlament pa je Edvard bio neslužbeno okrunjen u žurno pripremljenoj ceremoniji u Westminsterskoj opatiji uz veliko slavlje. Osnovni argument Parlamenta za prihvaćanje Edvarda za kralja je bilo to što se Margareta pobunila protiv zakonitog nasljednika krune, pokojnog Rikarda od Yorka, pa je stoga bio prekršen Zakon o suglasju. Ali situacija na terenu je nalagala Edvardu da će svoju krunidbu morati potvrditi na bojnom polju.

Stoga su Edvard i grof od Warwicka krenuli na sjever, predvodeći veliku vojsku i kod Towtona se susreli s isto tako impresivno velikom lancasterskom vojskom predvođenom kraljicom Margaretom. Bitka kod Towtona, pokraj Yorka, bila je do tada najveća bitka Ratova dviju ruža. Procjenjuje se da je u bitci sudjelovalo 40.000 – 80.000 ljudi i u jednom danu (koliko je bitka trajala) poginulo je preko 20.000 ljudi. U bitci kod Towtona pobjedu su izvojevali Edvard i njegova vojska. Vojska Lancastera bila je desetkovana a većina njihovih vojskovođa je poginula. Henrik VI. i njegova žena Margareta koji su za vrijeme bitke bili u Yorku, kada su čuli za rezultat bitke pobjegli su na sjever. Većina lancasterskih plemića prisegnula je na vjernost Edvardu. Nakon bitke Edvard je krenuo prema Yorku gdje su još uvijek bile istaknute odsječene glave njegova oca i mlađeg brata koje je zamijenio glavama omrznutih lancasterskih vođa.

Bijeg Henrika VI. i vladavina Edvarda IV.
Henrik i Margareta pobjegli su prema Škotskoj gdje su ih primili na dvoru Jakova III., odakle su neuspješno pokušali napad na Carlislea kasnije iste godine.

Službena krunidba Edvarda IV. dogodila se u mjesecu lipnju 1461. gdje je oduševljeno prihvaćen kao novi kralj Engleske. Edvard IV. je nakon toga vladao u relativnom miru sljedećih desetak godina.

Godine 1464. došlo je prvih ustanaka poraženih lancasterskih plemića. Da bi ih suzbio Edvard IV. je morao angažirati znatne snage. Najjači sukobi odigrali su se u bitkama kod Hedgeley Moora 25. travnja i kod Hexhama 15. svibnja u kojima su Edvardove snage izvojevale pobjede. Oba neuspješna ustanka bila su pod vodstvom Johna Nevillea, prvog markiza od Montagua, inače brata velikog Edvardovog saveznika, grofa od Warwicka.
Godine 1465. na sjeveru, Edvard IV. je uspio zarobiti svog prethodnika Henrika VI., zatočio ga u London Tower i postupao s njim prilično blago.

Razdoblje od 1467. do 1470. je bilo označeno zahlađenjem odnosa i političkim sukobom između Edvarda i njegovog mentora i dotadašnjeg saveznika, moćnog Rikarda Nevillea, grof od Warwicka, zvanog "Kingmaker". Bilo je nekoliko uzroka za ovaj sukob a jedan je bio što se Edvard 1464. potajno, (protivno grofovim savjetima i željama da oženi pripadnicu francuske kraljevske obitelji iz razloga savezništva s Francuskom), oženio s udovicom Elizabetom Woodville, te omogućio rođacima svoje nove supruge veliki utjecaj na vlast, čak dajući prednost na dvoru Woodvilleovima pred Warwickom. Drugi faktori za ovaj sukob bili su Edvardovo poticanje savezništva s Burgundijom a ne s Francuskom te nevoljkost Edvarda da omogući kćerima grofa od Warwicka da se udaju za Edvardovu braću Georgea i Rikarda. Nadalje, Edvardova opća popularnost je u to doba već polako iščezavala zbog uvođenja viših poreza te narasle korupcije i bezakonja.

Godine 1469. grof od Warwicka urotio se protiv Edvarda i dobrog saveznika u tome našao je u Edvardovom ljubomornom bratu Georgeu. Oni su okupili vojsku nezadovoljnika koja je Edvarda IV. porazila u bitci kod Edgecote Moora. Pri tome je Edvard zarobljen i zatočen u dvorcu Middleham u Yorkshireu. Grof od Warwicka je, prethodno ga zarobivši, zapovijedio pogubljenje kraljičina oca, Rikarda Woodville, prvog grofa Riversa. Nakon toga prisilio je Edvarda da sazove parlament u Yorku na kojem će Edvard biti proglašen nezakonitim kraljem, a krunu bi preuzeo Edvardov brat George, vojvoda od Clarencea, u zemlji u kojoj su vladali metež i anarhija. Edvard IV. je u međuvremenu uspio pozvati na lojalnost svoga brata Rikarda, vojvodu od Gloucestera i veliku većinu plemića. Rikard je okupio značajnu vojsku, porazio grofa od Warwicka u bitci kod Losecote Fielda 12. ožujka 1470. i na čelu vojske oslobodio Edvarda iz zatočeništva.

Kratki povratak Henrika VI. na vlast

Grof od Warwicka i Edvardov brat George, vojvoda od Clarencea su oglašeni izdajnicima i bili su prisiljeni pobjeći u Francusku. U međuvremenu je, 1470. godine, Henrikova žena Margareta vršila pritisak na francuskog kralja Luja XI. da joj pomogne izvršiti invaziju na Englesku i vratiti Henrika VI. na prijestolje.

Luj XI. je predložio savez između, do tada najvećih neprijatelja, grofa od Warwicka i Margarete, čemu su se u početku opirali ali na kraju pristali. Margareta se nadala vratiti sina Edvarda na prijestolje a grof se nadao vladati pomoću Henrika VI. kao marionete. Čak je i dogovoren brak između mladog Eduarda i grofove kćeri. Rezultat dogovora bilo je uključivanje Francuske u sukob i invazija Engleske u jesen 1470.

Eduard IV. nije bio vojno spreman za tako veliku invaziju i bio je prisiljen pobjeći nakon što su ga izdali ključni saveznici te podržali grofa od Warwicka. Eduard IV. i njegov brat Rikard, vojvoda od Gloucestera, pobjegli su u Nizozemsku, a nakon toga u Burgundiju. Plan Margarete i grofa od Warwicka bio je pred ostvarenjem. Henrik VI. je kao osloboditelj prošao ulicama Londona i u listopadu 1470. ponovno vraćen na prijestolje. Eduard IV. i Rikard oglašeni su izdajnicima.

Povratak Eduarda IV.

No uspjeh grofa od Warwicka je bio kratkotrajan. Precijenivši svoje mogućnosti, predložio je francuskom kralju Luju XI. zajednički napad na Burgundiju u kojoj je bio Edvard IV. Međutim Karlo Burgundski, koji je bio Edvardov šogor i njegov domaćin u Burgundiji, iskrcao se s Edvardom u Engleskoj te u bitci kod Barneta 14. travnja 1471. porazio grofa Warwicka, a preostale je lancasterske snage porazio i potpuno raspršio u bitci kod Tewkesburyja, 4. svibnja 1471. u kojoj je poginuo i Henrikov sin Edvard, lancasterski prijestolonasljednik. Edvard IV. je ubrzo dao pogubiti Henrika VI. (21. svibnja 1471.)

Povratak na vlast Edvarda IV. 1471. godine bio je kraj jedne faze građanskog rata. Mir je bio obnovljen te je stvorena određena stabilnost, ali kada je on naglo umro 1483., politički i dinastički sukobi i metež ponovno su se razbuktali.

Rikard III.

Naime, u vrijeme njegove preuranjene smrti, njegov nasljednik i sin, Edvard V. je bio star samo 12 godina, pa je došlo do sukoba oko toga tko će upravljati zemljom kao regent mladog kralja. S jedne strane svoje pravo isticala je obitelj kraljeve majke Woodville (koja je među plemstvom smatrana skorojevićkom obitelji), a s druge strane svoje pravo istaknuo je brat pokojnog Edvarda IV. Rikard, vojvoda od Gloucestera, koji je tvrdio da mu je pravo Lorda protektora namijenio na samrtnoj postelji brat Edvard.

Uz pomoć Williama Hastingsa i Henrya Stafforda, vojvode od Buckinghama, Rikard je oteo Woodvilleima mladog kralja Edvarda V. te ga zarobio i zatočio u London Toweru, gdje mu se nešto kasnije pridružio i mlađi brat, 9-godišnji Rikard. Uz pomoć Henryija Stafforda, vojvode od Buckinghama (koji je imao osobni i obiteljski sukob s Edvardovom majkom Elizabethom Woodville) Rikard je pred Parlamentom pokrenuo postupak kojim je želio dokazati da njegov nećak nema legitimitet naslijediti englesku krunu. 25. lipnja 1483. godine Parlament je proglasio mladog Edvarda V. i njegovog mlađeg brata Rikarda, (ostala djeca bila su ženskog spola), nelegitimnim nasljednicima krune, jer je dokazano da je Rikardov pokojni brat Edvard IV., prije nego što se oženio s Elizabetom Woodwille već bio oženjen s Lady Eleanor Butler, pa je stoga brak s Elizabeth bio nevaljan i djeca rođena u tom braku nezakonita. Kako su druga Rikardova braća umrla prije pokojnog Edvarda IV., Rikard je bio jedini zakoniti nasljednik krune jer nije imao protukandidata za prijestolje. Zatočeni mladi kralj Eduard V. i njegov brat Rikard (znani kao Prinčevi iz kule) nikada više nisu viđeni. Najvjerojatnije su ubijeni, a za što se optuživalo Rikarda i vojvodu od Buckinghama, ali bez dokaza, što je ostalo kao jedna od najvećih enigmi u engleskoj povijesti. Rikard se, slijedom navedenih događanja, dao 6. srpnja 1483. okruniti za engleskog kralja pod imenom Rikard III.

Rikarda III. su smatrali jednim od najboljih vojnih zapovjednika na strani Yorka pa su ga zbog toga lakše prihvatili jer su držali da će zbog svojih sposobnosti i energičnosti moći održati kuću York na vlasti, prije nego mladi Edvard V. i Regentsko vijeće.

Henrik Tudor

Lancasterski pobornici su, s druge strane, sve svoje nade polagali na Henrika Tudora, čiji je otac Edmund Tudor bio nezakoniti polubrat Henrika VI., a potjecao je iz velške obitelji Tudor iz Penmynydda. Edmund Tudor bio je za života oženjen Henrikovom majkom Margaretom Beaufort, nasljednicom bočne srodničke linije klana Lancaster koja vuče podrijetlo od Johna od Gaunta, drugog sina Edvarda III.

Novi vođa kuće Lancaster Henrik Tudor se, kako bi ugrozio Rikarda III., obratio za prvo za pomoć Franji II, vojvodi od Bretanje koji mu je pomogao u prvom, neuspješnom pokušaju invazije na Englesku u kojem je Rikard III. Henrikove snage odbacio nazad. U tome trenutku Henrik Tudor obratio se za pomoć Francuskoj kako bi opskrbio svoje snage dodatnom vojskom i opremom za novi pokušaj invazije na Englesku u kolovozu 1485.

Henrik Tudor se iskrcao s vojskom od nekih 5.000 vojnika na englesko tlo. Pojačan snagama odanim klanu Lancaster u samoj Engleskoj, 22. kolovoza 1485. u bitci kod Boswortha teško je porazio i ubio na bojnom polju Rikarda III., kojeg su u ključnom trenutku izdali najvjerniji saveznici. Ovom bitkom poražena je kuća York.

Henrik Tudor se silom vojne pobjede okrunio za kralja Engleske pod imenom Henrik VII. Ubrzo je uznastojao ojačati svoj položaj sklopivši godine 1486. brak s kćerkom Edvarda IV., Elizabetom od Yorka (bez obzira na to što su odlukom Parlamenta za vrijeme Rikarda III. sva djeca Edvarda IV. oglašena nezakonitom) čime je pridobio na svoju stranu mnoge pripadnike klana York ili je barem otupio oštricu njihove borbenosti. Time je simbolično ponovno sjedinio dvije suparničke kraljevske kuće, stapajući Lancastersku ružu crvene boje i bijelu boju ruže Yorka u novu Tudorsku ružu crvene i bijele boje.

Mnogi povjesničari smatraju dolazak na vlast Henrika VII. krajem Ratova dviju ruža, dok ostali dokazuju da su Ratovi dviju Ruža konačno završeni tek s bitkom kod Stokea godine 1487. u kojoj je Henrik VII., porazio Lamberta Simnela, samozvanog pretendenta na englesko prijestolje koji je svoj zahtjev, zbog fizičke sličnosti, potkrijepljivao tvrdnjom da je on unuk grofa od Warwicka (zvanog "Kingmaker"), pa bi time, u tome trenutku, bio jedini kandidat kuće York za prijestolje. Plan pretendenta je bio raskrinkan od samog početka, jer mladi je grof bio živ i u Henrikovom zatočeništvu. Stoga je bilo općepoznato da je Simnel obični šarlatan. Nakon što je bio poražen, Simnela je Henrik VII. pomilovao i poslao da radi u dvorskoj kuhinji. Još jedna, doduše manja pobuna, ugrožavala je Henrika i to ona Perkina Warbecka koji se 1491. izdavao za Rikarda, mlađeg sina Edvarda IV. i jednog od "Prinčeva iz kule". Njega je 1499. godine Henrik zarobio i dao pogubiti.

Kraj Ratova dviju ruža doveo je do konačnog i nepovratnog pada dinastije Plantagenet s povijesne engleske scene te do inauguriranja nove dinastije Tudor koja će dinastički obilježiti naredni period engleske povijesti. Rat je imao katastrofalne posljedice za tada već opadajući utjecaj Engleske u Francuskoj jer su teritorijalni gubitci doveli do toga da je u engleskoj vlasti ostao još samo grad Calais s okolicom isključivo zahvaljujući činjenici što su u njemu prebivali isključivo Englezi.

Henrik VII. je tijekom svoje vladavine oštro suzbijao sve partikularističke težnje visokog plemstva i te je nastojao, vrlo uspješno, smanjivanjem opskrbe i naoružavanja, onemogućiti jačanje privatnih plemićkih vojski vazala koje su, u najvećoj mjeri i generirale sukobe tijekom Ratova dviju ruža. Uveo je čvrst sustav rješavanja međusobnih plemićkih prijepora autoritetom vladara i njegovih odluka.

Posljedice

Surovost i velika stradavanja u ratovima dviju ruža ostavila su teške i traumatske posljedice u engleskom društvu što je omogućilo Henriku VII. da, djelujući mirotvorno, uguši nove pojave pobune i donese toliko željeni mir Engleskoj. Posljedice rata manje su se odrazile na stalež trgovaca i druge staleže koji su živjeli od svoga rada jer su se bitke odvijale uglavnom u manje naseljenim dijelovima zemlje, a sve iz razloga što bi obje strane, vodeći rat u naseljenim područjima, naštetile samima sebi i imale što izgubiti, pa su tražile rješenje sukoba kroz brze i nesmiljene bitke među vojskama.

Doba Ratova dviju Ruža, čiji su rezultat bile velike žrtve među plemstvom, bilo je doba velikih društvenih promjena u feudalnoj Engleskoj. Ovo razdoblje je oslabilo utjecaj Engleske na kontinentalni dio Europe, slabilo je snagu i utjecaj plemstva i jačalo druge staleže u društvu kao na primjer sve jači trgovački stalež.

Ono je navijestilo kraj srednjovjekovnog razdoblja u Engleskoj i početak novog vijeka i renesanse.

Bitke ratova dviju ruža

 Prva bitka kod St.Albansa –  22. svibnja 1455. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Blore Heatha – 23. rujna 1459. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka of Ludford Bridgea – 12. listopada 1459. (Pobjeda Lancastera )
 Bitka kod Northamptona – 10. srpnja 1460. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Wakefielda - 30. prosinca 1460. (Pobjeda Lancastera )
 Bitka kod Mortimer's Crossa - 2. veljače 1461. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Druga bitka kod St.Albansa - 22. veljače 1461. (Pobjeda Lancastera )
 Bitka kod Towtona – 29. ožujka 1461. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Hedgeley Moora - 25. travnja 1464. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Hexhama - 15. svibnja 1464. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Edgecote Moora - 26.srpnja 1469. (Pobjeda Lancastera )
 Bitka kod Losecote Fielda - 12. ožujka  1470. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Barneta - 14. travnja 1471. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka kod Tewkesburyja - 4. svibnja 1471. (Pobjeda Yorka )
 Bitka na Bosworthskom polju - 22. kolovoza 1485. (Pobjeda Lancastera )
Bitka kod Stokea - 16. lipnja 1487. (Pobjeda Lancastera )

Bilješke

Vanjske poveznice

 Rat dviju ruža - Proleksis enciklopedija
 Wars of the Roses - Britannica Online
 The War of the Roses - History.com

Građanski ratovi
Povijest Engleske

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Oswego County AmeriCorps is currently accepting applications for summer positions. AmeriCorps members get paid while learning valuable skills and earning money for college.
Oswego County AmeriCorps is currently accepting applications for 300-hour summer positions at libraries, recreation programs, museums and human service agencies. Applicants must be 17 years of age. There is no upper age limit.
Applicants must have a high school diploma or GED or be in the process of receiving one. Some of the sites are looking for applicants with additional experience or education.
Summer sites in Oswego County include Constantia Recreation, Cornell Cooperative Extension, Department of Social Services, Fort Ontario, Fulton CYO, Fulton YMCA, H. Lee White Marine Museum in Oswego, Harborfest, Housing Visions Consultants, Leadership Oswego County Youth, Pulaski Public Library, Safe Haven Museum in Oswego, Sandy Creek Recreation and Town of Schroeppel Community Services. Due to the receipt of an American Recovery and Reinvestment Act grant, additional sites are being developed.
For a 300-hour summer AmeriCorps position, members receive a living allowance of $1,973. They also receive an education award of $1,000 at the end of their term of service.
"In the past, the summer AmeriCorps positions have been very attractive to college students, as they provide hands-on experience in addition to the stipend and educational award," said Andolina.
For applications and additional information call Andolina at the Oswego City/County Youth Bureau, weekdays at 349-3451 or 1-800-596-3200, extension 3451. The member application can be downloaded at www.oswegocounty.com/youth/application.pdf.


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NCOP Hosts Local Government Week 2020
Parliament, Monday, 7 September 2020 – The National Council of Provinces (NCOP) will from tomorrow, 8 to 11 September host a virtual Local Government Week (#LGW2020).
This year's #LGW2020 programme, to be held under the theme "Ensuring capable and Financially Sound Municipalities," will focus mainly on how the national and provincial spheres of government intend to assist the local sphere of government in improving service delivery, financial management, and governance.
DETAILS OF THE VIRTUAL SESSION:
Date: Tuesday, 08 to Friday, 11 September 2020
Venue: Virtual platform
Parliamentary sittings are open to the media and the public. Journalists wishing to cover these (including receiving links to virtual meetings) should send their cellphone numbers to Mlindi Mpindi on email mmpindi@parliament.gov.za for inclusion in the Parliamentary Communication Services WhatsApp Group, where such information is shared. Journalists must send these requests using their official email addresses (no private emails).
Members of the public may follow sittings live on Parliament TV (DSTV Channel 408), via live stream on Parliament YouTube channel and Twitter page on the links below. You may subscribe to the Parliament YouTube channel to receive instant notification of live feeds.
Twitter: https://twitter.com/ParliamentofRSA
Facebook: https://facebook.com/ParliamentofRSA
YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/ParliamentofRSA
ISSUED BY THE PARLIAMENT OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA
Enquiries: Moloto Mothapo 082 370 6930
The seat of Parliament is in Cape Town, but it could be moved by an Act of Parliament supported by a majority of the members of the National Assembly.
Ms Mbali Dlamini
Economic Freedom Fighters on the provincial list for the province of Mpumalanga
mbdlamini@parliament.gov.za
Select Committee on Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, Water and Sanitation and Human Settlements
Select Committee on Security and Justice
Select Committee on Petitions and Executive Undertakings
Select Committee on Transport, Public Service and Administration, Public Works and Infrastructure
Select Committee on Trade and Industry, Economic Development, Small Business Development, Tourism, Employment and Labour


A culinary guide to eating well the healthy way.
Ayurveda, a holistic science, has a distinct food culture which stresses the underlying unity among the three principal humours in the body-vata, pitta and kapha. The humours, responsible for all the physical and mental functions, are derived from the five elements of nature-ether, air, fire, water and earth. Our food in the form of various rasas or tastes is also made from these five elements. A balance has to be struck between the five elements of the body and the five elements of the body and the five elements of the food we eat. Eating Right the Natural Way: Ayurvedic Recipes for a Healthy Life explores these and dwells on the relationship between an individual's constitution and factors like food, climate and stress. It shows how vital it is to eat the correct combination of food products to achieve balance in the body and rejuvenate it.
Eating Right the Natural Way: Ayurvedic Recipes for a Healthy Life stresses that food cooked according to the Ayurvedic way is neither insipid nor boring. By planning meals intelligently, and with the judicious addition of specific herbs and spices, one can eat anything and everything and yet not compromise on nutrition.
Informative and accessible, the book contains a wealth of recipes, from beverages to main course to desserts. Together with traditional recipes, the author has included many others that she has improvised and perfected over the years: Paprika, Broccoli and Ginger Rice, Endive Salad with Nuts, Mixed Herb Chutney and Chena Mithai, to name only a few. Based on Ayurvedic principles, the recipes are meant not only to delight the palate but also to create a sense of harmony in the body.


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LOS ANGELES, CA, May 20, 2014 /24-7PressRelease/ — The online directory for small business sponsorship, Speaker Sponsor, also features a crowdfunding for speakers section for those speakers who have a cause topic. Cause speakers are able to raise donation money through the Speaker Sponsor platform. All money goes straight to the speaker with no fees attached. Speaker Sponsor welcomes several veteran cause speakers who use their crowdfunding donations to bring womens veterans issues to light.
Speaker Sponsor CEO, Julie Austin, says "Speaker Sponsor is happy to welcome these brave women military speakers. We hope that the public gets behind them in their crowdfunding efforts so that they can spread the word about military causes".
Linda Maloney was one of the first women in U.S. history to join a combat military flying squadron and is a retired military aviator and officer. She's won numerous military awards including the distinguished air medal for combat. She's a tireless mentor to young people, especially young women, and shares her amazing stories of flying military jets and setting goals in life.
Valerie Ormond served as a leader in naval intelligence for 25 years. She was one of the first women assigned to combatant aircraft carriers and won the distinguished National Intelligence Reform Medal. Valerie uses her speaker donations to speak about the value military veterans bring to their communities.
Graciela Tiscareno-Sato served onboard the KC-135R refueling tanker as aircrew member and instructor. She flew multiple combat sorties over Baghdad and earned her crew the prestigious Air Medal. Graciela supports various Latino causes including literacy, where she donates a portion of her book sales.
Karen Baetzel is a former naval aviator and has flown helicopters, propeller and jet aircraft. Karen donates 100% of her book sales to Wounded Warriors and Fisher House.
All of these women military speakers are members of the National Women Veterans Speakers Bureau and accept crowdfunding donations through the Speaker Sponsor platform.
Speaker Sponsor continues to be the leader in sponsorship for speakers, creating opportunities for speakers and marketing partnerships for the small business and corporate community.
All of these women can be reached through Speaker Sponsor at https://www.speakersponsor.com/causes/. For more info, go to https://www.speakersponsor.com
Speaker Sponsor is the only online directory that matches speakers with small business sponsorship and includes crowd funding for cause speakers.
LOS ANGELES, CA, February 12, 2014 /24-7PressRelease/— Allen and Sheryl Hill never expected when they sent their son Tyler off to Japan for a student ambassador trip of a lifetime that they would never see him again. They just wanted their son to see the world, and they trusted that he would be safe.
What started off as a dream trip turned into a nightmare when Tyler Hill passed away on June 29, 2007 at the Japanese Red Cross Medical Center. His death could have been prevented if he had received proper medical treatment.
Every year millions of American middle, high school, and college students travel abroad through student programs. Though laws exist for foreign students coming to the U.S., no such laws are in place that protect American students in other countries. It's estimated that about 25% of female students are raped on these trips. Other students are injured, abandoned, or killed. And to make matters worse, the families are often forced to sue just to get the information they are entitled to about their children.
Sheryl has turned her tragedy into a mission in Tyler's honor. She formed the non-profit Clear Cause to inform and educate others about the dangers of student travel, study programs, and cultural exchanges. She is also lobbying to get tougher laws to regulate this 20+ billion dollar industry to help keep kids safe.
Julie Austin, CEO of Speaker Sponsor says "Speaker Sponsor is happy to include Sheryl as one of our cause speakers. She works tirelessly to get the word out about student travel safety."
Anyone who shares the passion for Sheryl's cause of student safety abroad can donate through her Speaker Sponsor crowdfunding website profile. And corporations interested in sponsoring her as a speaker will be aligning themselves with a passionate speaker with an important topic that appeals to parents everywhere.
Sheryl Hill can be reached through Speaker Sponsor at https://www.speakersponsor.com/causes/.
For more info, go to https://www.speakersponsor.com
Speaker Sponsor is the only online directory for speakers seeking small business sponsorship.
SAN DIEGO, CA, October 15, 2013 /24-7PressRelease/ — Ugg Boots founder Brian Smith will be kicking off the Speaker Sponsorship 101 seminar in San Diego, Oct. 26th at Marina Village.
They say a great salesman is someone who can "sell ice to eskimos". If that's true, Brian Smith is one of the best. He literally started his Ugg Boots brand by selling sheepskin boots to Southern California surfers. A surfer himself, Smith knew once the surfers tried them, they would fall in love with them. And he was right. Now the iconic brand is sold all over the world, and Smith credits part of that to the fact that he sponsored surfing contests when his brand was just getting started. "To compete against the big guys, you have to be different", says Smith. "Sponsorship is one way small businesses can compete."
As a brand owner he knew the value of sponsorship in reaching his target market. Now as a speaker, he sees that same value, and will share his knowledge of sponsorship with speakers at the seminar.
Speaker Sponsorship 101 is the brainchild of Speaker Sponsor CEO, Julie Austin. Also a speaker, Austin got tired of the sheer number of meetings and conferences that weren't able to pay speakers, either through budget cuts or other reasons. So, she created an online directory for speakers looking for sponsorship from the small business community, and now teaches speakers how to apply the innovative techniques she's used as a speaker to get paid from small businesses for representing their brands.
"As the sponsorship director on a TV pilot, I literally went door to door looking for sponsors for the show", says Austin. "As a speaker, I realized the small business community was an untapped goldmine. Big corporations have been doing it for years, but most in the small business community have never even heard of it. So now I'm on a mission to educate both about how valuable sponsorship is."
The seminar will end with a panel discussion of industry experts on how to find speaking jobs. On the panel will be Jan Jones of the Jan Jones Speaker's Bureau. Jan is an international speaker's agent, handling such speaking giants as Richard Branson and Donald Trump, Jr. Before that she spent years as an assistant to Tony Robbins. Also on the panel will be Holli Catchpole of Speaker's Office, a management service for speakers. For over 25 years Holli has managed the careers of some of today's top speakers.
Brian Smith is available for interviews and can be reached at brian@uggfounder.com.
Julie Austin is available for interviews and can be reached at 310-444-7788 or info@speakersponsor.com.
"Speaker Sponsorship 101 – How to Make Six Figures a Year as a Speaker…Using Other People's Money" – San Diego, CA – October 26th, 2013 – 12:00 – 4:00pm, registration opens at 11:30 am
1936 Quivira Way
Related resources: http://www.sponsorshipevents.com//
www.creativeinnovationgroup.com//
Speaker Sponsorship 101 Seminar is a co-venture between Speaker Sponsor, the only online directory for speakers looking for small business sponsorship, and the San Diego Speaker's Guild.
NEW SPEAKER WEBSITE CONNECTS SPEAKERS WITH SPONSORS
LOS ANGELES, CA, May 01, 2013 — If you've been to a conference lately you've no doubt seen a fair number of speakers, from the keynote to breakout speakers, to panel speakers, and MCs. But behind the scenes many of these speakers are being asked to work for free.
Professional innovation speaker Julie Austin began using her innovation and inventing background and came up with a better way. After hearing for the hundredth time that the meeting planner wasn't paying speakers, she started asking if she could just get her own sponsor. And that's what she did.
"It worked like a charm", said Julie. "The audience got a great content rich speech, the sponsor got their message in front of a targeted market, the meeting planner looked like a hero, and I got paid. What could be better?"
But getting a sponsor was a long, tedious process. That's when Speaker Sponsor was born. Speaker Sponsor puts everything in one place, so the speakers can showcase opportunities they need sponsors for and the sponsors get to view a wide range of speaking opportunities that they can sponsor. Voila! No more speaking for free.
Check them out at:
www.speakersponsor.com
Julie Austin is available for interviews and can be reached at 310-444-7788 or info@speakersponsor.com
http://www.createforcash.com
Speaker Sponsor is a speaker directory and training resource for speakers who want to get paid for their time on the stage through corporate sponsorship. Speaker Sponsor matches them with the perfect sponsor for them.
HR PROFESSIONALS MAGAZINE PARTNERS WITH SPEAKER SPONSOR
LOS ANGELES, CA, July 31, 2013 — Reaching busy HR professionals these days isn't easy. But HR Professionals Magazine editor Cynthia Thompson has discovered an innovative way to reach a large targeted audience at the Austin Human Resource Management Association "Playbook for Success" Conference in Austin, Texas, August 2nd, 2013.
Founder and CEO of Speaker Sponsor, Julie Austin (no relation to the city), found a niche in the speaking industry by being a liason between speakers with unpaid speaking engagements and small businesses who could benefit by sponsoring those speakers in order to get in front of their audience.
For example, Julie found herself on the other end of an unpaid speaking engagement recently when asked to speak at the Austin Human Resources Conference in Austin, Texas. That's where HR Professionals magazine comes in.
"We're pleased to be sponsoring Julie Austin at the conference, where she'll be giving a speech entitled 'What Great Leaders Know About Storytelling: How to Draw People in With Your Message'.
"Human resource professionals use storytelling every day, whether they know it or not. Communicating with your employees as a leader requires a level of trust in what you say", says Julie. "If you want them to listen to you and follow you, you have to be able to show them the big picture vision and what's in it for them. They have to have faith in you that you know what you're talking about."
AHRMA Annual Conference, Omni Austin Hotel at Southpark, 4140 Governors Row, Austin, TX 78744
August 2, 2013 – 8:00 a.m. – 6:00 p.m.
For more information on HR Professionals Magazine go to www.hrprofessionalsmagazine.com or call Cynthia at 901-598-0123, email at cynthia@HRProsMagazine.com
For more information on Speaker Sponsor, go to www.speakersponsor.com or call Julie Austin at 310-444-7788, email info@speakersponsor.com
FAIRFIELD, IA (PRWEB) MAY 31, 2013
Alex Cequea will attempt to break the current Guinness World Record and will attempt to continually speak from 12 p.m. on Saturday, June 8th to 10 p.m. Sunday, June 9th. The entire event will last approximately 34 hours. The current record stands at 30 hours and 6 minutes.
Breaking a world record for the world's longest speech is an enormous feat in itself, but even more so for someone who was once terrified of public speaking. "I want to encourage others to tackle their own fears as I've done tackling mine about public speaking," said Alex. "I'm fascinated by the resilience of the mind and body, and the lengths humans are able to go to."
For visual aid support, Alex will be using Prezi, an online-based zooming presentation software that is a popular choice among seasoned presenters in venues such as TED. Prezi is a sponsor of the event, and will also help to promote it.
Other sponsors include Viva Vitamins, Miami Public Speakers, and Speaker Sponsor, an innovative service that matches speakers with sponsors. Also, in case Alex needs it, Red Bull kindly offered to send a whole lot of Red Bull.
"We support Alex and his brave attempt to break the world record", says Speaker Sponsor CEO and fellow speaker Julie Austin. "We'll be rooting for him all the way."
Breaking a Guinness World Record is #3 on Alex's bucket list of "things to do before I die." The speech will cover all of Alex's life, including his family's incredible journey from poverty in Venezuela to realizing the American Dream. The event fittingly takes place on Alex's birthday.
The event will be streamed live on http://www.publicspeakingguy.com . Viewers will be able to ask questions via Alex's Twitter feed (@alexcequea), and Alex is allowed to answer them during several short Q&As sprinkled throughout the 34-hour presentation.
Alex Cequea is available for interviews and can be reached at 319-541-0205 or alex(at)publicspeakingguy(dot)com


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UWM-CBU Concrete Materials Technology Series Program No. 55
UWM Center for By-Products Utilization
Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
College of Engineering and Applied Science
FHWA's Concrete Pavement Technology Program
By Suneel Vanikar, P. E.
Transferring New Concrete Technology into Practice �
FHWA's Approach
By Jon I. Mullarky, P. E.
August 28, 2002 10:50 A.M - 12:00 P.M.
Room 588, EMS Building, UW-Milwaukee
3200 N. Cramer Street, Milwaukee, WI
Working with industry, FHWA has developed an ambitious program of research, development, and technology delivery activities to improve performance and cost-effectiveness of concrete pavements. The program, known as CPTP, has four goals that address the needs of state Departments of Transportation, the concrete pavement industry, and the highway user, while supporting the FHWA's strategic goals to improve the mobility, productivity, and safety of our nation�s highway system. Approximately fifty specific projects are underway or contemplated as part of the CPTP. Mr. Vanikar will provide a brief overview of the work in progress.
Normally it takes up to 15 to 20 years for new concrete technology to gain acceptance. In an effort to bridge the gap between research and the field, as well as to speed-up the acceptance process, FHWA operates a Mobile Concrete Laboratory, MCL, that is task with the mission of introducing to federal, state, and local transportation personnel to the state-of-the-art technology in concrete materials selection, mixture design, and testing. Mr. Mullarky will describe the MCL, highlight some of its recent activities and other cooperative technology transfer activities being conducted by FHWA's Office of Pavement Technology.
Mr. Vanikar and Mr. Mullarky are with the U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration�s Office of Pavement Technology, Washington, D.C.
To register or for further information, please call Tarun Naik or Rudi Kraus at
Suneel Vanikar, P. E.
Office of Pavement Technology
Mr. Suneel Vanikar is Concrete Group Leader, Office of Pavement Technology, FHWA, Washington, D. C. He is responsible for concrete pavements and materials related activities including policy, guidance, and technology transfer. He has been with FHWA for over 20 years; and, he is a member of ACI, ASCE, and TRB and their technical committees. He is actively involved with Fast Track Paving, Non-destructive Testing of Concrete, and High-Performance Concrete. He is author of numerous publications and a frequent speaker at national and international meetings.
Jon I. Mullarky, P. E.
Mr. Jon Mullarky is assigned as a consultant to FHWA�s Office of Pavement Technology as a member of the Concrete Team. The Concrete Team is responsible for FHWA�s concrete research and technology transfer activities, including the FHWA Mobile Concrete Laboratory. He has over 30 years experience in construction and concrete materials. He is a member of many technical committees and panels of ACI, ASCE, ASTM, and NCHRP. He is a Fellow of ACI. He has served with the NRMCA and as an officer in the U.S. Navy�s Civil Engineer Corps.
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ULTIMATE WEDDING Giveaway: FACTS and FAQs!
How to enter: All entries must be submitted via this form and be received by June 15, 2015.
How the winner is chosen: Golden Girls Workshops will choose ten couples from the entries received. The top ten will be listed in a gallery on the Golden Girls Facebook page. Fans will vote for their favorite story/couple, narrowing entries down to a Top Five, then a Top Three and finally choosing the winner. Voting begins on July 1, 2015 and closes in August 2015.
Timeline: Entry period ends on June 15, 2015. Voting begins July 1, 2015. The winner will be announced in August 2015. Consults and planning will begin shortly thereafter. The ceremony/reception will take place early 2016, with the exact date to be announced soon.
Location: The ceremony and reception will both take place at Loft .84 in Riverside, CA.
1. Do we have to already be married to enter?
No! This is a contest for any couple, legally married, engaged, whatever.
2. Is there a limit to the number of guests we can invite?
Yes. The event will be limited to 50 guests. Think of it as an intimate gathering for you and your favorite people!
3. Do we have a say in the flowers, cake, etc?
Yes. We will have vendors hired already, but the winning couple definitely gets to plan their day and pick their color scheme, cake flavor... all that fun stuff!
4. Can we pick the date?
Unfortunately, the date has already been selected and is not able to be changed.
5. Does the winning couple supply their own attire?
No! We will supply the bride's dress and the groom's tux... unless, of course, the couple already owns what they would like to wear.
6. Can we have a bridal party?
Totally up to the bride and groom! Unfortunately, we are not able to supply bridal party attire, that will be the bridal party/couple's responsibility.
7. Will we have an "engagement" photo session beforehand?
Yes! The winning couple will have a photo session shortly after the winner has been announced.
8. Will the winning couple have to participate in any other activities as part of this giveaway?
The winning couple will be awarded the "engagement" photo session and the wedding ceremony/reception. As part of the planning process, the couple will have to be available to meet with Golden Girls Workshops and various vendors on a few different occasions before the official wedding day.
Golden Girls Workshops will also be inviting a selected number of photographers to participate in the engagement session, planning and wedding day festivities, as part of a photography workshop. The workshop attendees will be unobtrusive and will observe/assist in the photography aspect of this event. The winning couple must agree to the workshop participation.
Have a question that's not listed here? Send it to hello@goldengirlsworkshops.com and we'll get back to you right away!


text: Q: Как подружить mongodb и connect-history-api-fallback для совместной работы SPA на vue mode: 'history' + сервер на express хочу подключить mongo, но без connect-history-api-fallback роуты на сервере работают некорректно, а с ним не работают запросы к бд, по отдельности все работает, есть ли обходные пути, от чего отказатся, возможно нужны другие настройки для корректной работы SPA?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Point/Counterpoint
POINT: The Irish are a Team of Destiny
Will Notre Dame become a Team of Destiny, or will Alabama remind them of the natural order of college football?
Steven Baer, Sports Reporter
READ CAMERON KRITIKOS' COUNTER-OPINION ON THE BCS CHAMPIONSHIP
When most people think of Notre Dame football, they think of a vertically challenged leprechaun, Rudy, and a football program that thinks it's better than everyone else. Notre Dame's refusal to join a conference, their multi-million dollar contract with NBC, and their countless traditions have resulted in a nationwide mob of Notre Dame haters who are almost more passionate about having the Irish lose than having their own team win.
For years Notre Dame has kept everyone happy, putting together season after season of mediocre records, losing games to below average teams like South Florida, Syracuse and Navy. This season however, the Irish have brought back a tradition that hasn't been seen in South Bend since 1988: winning. That's right, for the first time since your dad had a full head of hair, Notre Dame is relevant in the college football world. Not only are they relevant, they are good, really good. On November 24, Notre Dame beat USC to finish up a 12-0, undefeated season. With their win against Southern Cal, the Irish punched their ticket to the National Championship and a matchup with the defending champion Alabama.
The Irish defense, led by Heisman runner-up Manti Te'o, ranked no. 1 in the nation letting up only 10.3 points per game. Their offense, led by redshirt freshman Everett Golson, has had its ups and downs all year, but throughout the season they've shown that they can step up in the big situations. When the Irish traveled to Norman, Oklahoma to take on the Sooners, everybody was talking about how Notre Dame's mediocre offense wouldn't stand a chance against Oklahoma's stout defense. Well, Notre Dame went ahead and hung 30 on them.
Throughout the season, however, Notre Dame has played down to its competition, squeaking by Pitt in 3 OTs, and beating BYU and Purdue only by field goals. Although this is a trait that Notre Dame could live without, the experience has taught them how to win close games. Time after time this past season, the Irish have had their backs up against the wall, and time after time they have found ways to win. When the Irish played Stanford, they were trailing for the first time all season, 10-3. They overcame adversity, battled back and won it in overtime. When Notre Dame went up against BYU, they were trailing going into the fourth quarter, but bounced back and won, 17-14.
Alabama, however, has been in few close games this season. Their first tight game came against LSU where an emotional AJ McCarron led them on a last-minute scoring drive that gave the Tide a 21-17 victory. The very next week, Alabama went up against Heisman Trophy winner Johnny Manziel, and the then 15th ranked Texas A&M. It was a tight game throughout, but with a few minutes to go Alabama was trailing 29-25, and knocking on the door of A&M's goal line. McCarron succumbed to the pressure and threw an interception inside the red zone, which led to Alabama's first loss of the season. Although The Tide did win a nail-biter of an SEC championship game against Georgia, their inability to capitalize in the big time situations—albeit rare, is uncharacteristic of a championship team.
I don't particularly like using the cliché "team of destiny", but that is certainly an accurate way to describe Notre Dame this season. When Notre Dame narrowly escaped with a win in triple overtime against Pittsburgh, it inspired most folks around the nation to dismiss the Irish in the national championship conversation. For me it did the complete opposite.
When Notre Dame was trailing 20-6 going into the fourth quarter, I'm sure there were plenty of Notre Dame haters throughout the country with huge grins of their faces thinking, 'I knew they would find a way to blow it.' Or on the flipside of things, when Pitt was lining up to kick a 33 yard chip shot in double overtime that would end Notre Dame's undefeated season, there were certainly loads of Notre Dame fans watching in agony, as their national title hopes were about to be shredded into bits, just like every other season.
This, however, hasn't been every other season. Pitt missed the field goal, and Notre Dame went on to win in triple overtime. The Irish's uncanny, ability to win games has been the story of their season. There is something special about this Notre Dame football team, and it goes way beyond the stat line. People hate to hear it, but Notre Dame is indeed a team of destiny.
If all of that super natural mumbo-jumbo didn't touch base with you, that's okay, I'm not naïve and I know there is still a game to be played on the field, I know that just because the Irish feel like they're supposed to win doesn't mean they will. Notre Dame isn't just a team of destiny though; they are also a team that led the nation in fewest points allowed per game, and although the Irish front seven face a tough task in 'Bama's duo of voracious backs, TJ Yeldon and Eddie Lacey, ND has had the fourth best rushing defense in the nation this season and the no. 1 goal line defense in the country letting up only five touchdowns all season long, only one of which was a rushing touchdown. Not only does Notre Dame's defense prevent teams from scoring in goal to go situations, they actually send opposing rushers the opposite way. Notre Dame's opponents have a combined negative 28 yards rushing in goal to go situations. For those of you new to the sport of football, that is what we fans call, 'Really good'. The Fighting Irish's offense is facing a very difficult task, as they take on Alabama's monstrous defense, which ranked no. 2 behind the Irish in points allowed per game. With players like award winning tight end Tyler Eifert, explosive running backs Cierre Wood and Theo Riddick, and the much improved quarterback Everett Golson, Notre Dame's offense can certainly compete with Alabama's very impressive defense.
While both offenses are very good, the tale of the national championship game will be told by the defenses, and I truly believe that the Irish's defense will lead them the past Crimson Tide. Notre Dame will capture that ever so elusive national title which the Fighting Irish have been searching for since 1988, and on January 7, 2013 Notre Dame will hoist the crystal football, and they will be national champions.
My pick: Notre Dame 17, Alabama 13
Steven Baer, Editor-in-Chief
My goal is to be a better Editor-in-Chief than Ronald Reagan, Michael Jordan and Lisa Leslie combined.
Steven can be reached at [email protected]
Morgan Anderson
Salem	• Jan 22, 2013 at 5:21 pm
I think you're the greatest writer who ever lived! Your words not only educate me, but they also inspire!
https://rbclarion.com/sports/2013/01/07/point-the-irish-are-a-team-of-destiny/#comment-21738


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Steely Dan: "Any Major Dude Will Tell You"
In Brené Brown's video, she discusses the difference between sympathy and empathy. She breaks empathy down into four components, as I have documented in another entry. Brown distinguishes sympathy from empathy. She does this according to characteristic behaviors and effects associated with sympathy vs. empathy, but Brown does not identify the fundamental characteristics of sympathy to distinguish it from empathy, whose fundamental characteristics she does identify. I think the distinction lies in the last two characteristics she identified with empathy: the ability to connect with feelings in oneself which are the same as that experienced by the person with whom we are empathizing, and the ability to communicate those feelings to the other person. I think sympathy shares the first two: perspective taking, and ability to stay out of judgment, with empathy, but unlike empathy, sympathy lacks the latter two.
Empathy fuels connection but sympathy drives disconnection precisely because the latter is lacking the components of self-empathy and communication. In fact, I believe that people act from sympathy rather than empathy because they fear identifying a feeling in themselves similar to what the other person is feeling. They want to evade these feelings, or more importantly, some knowledge associated with these feelings. Sympathy is the desire to get the object of our sympathy to disown and dissociate themselves from the feelings they are feeling because those feelings threaten us with the realization that we have felt the same way and we are trying to avoid feeling those feelings in ourselves.
In the video, what is the deer character trying to accomplish in communicating with the fox character? She is trying to get the fox to change her perspective and stop feeling what she is feeling. Why? Is it just because the deer doesn't want the fox to suffer from a negative emotional state? No. The deer is avoiding (evading) her own feelings. She wants the fox to stop feeling what she is feeling because fox's feelings threaten to cause deer to experience those feelings as well. Deer's inner guardians are trying to protect deer from experiencing those feelings again, so they try to control or otherwise influence fox to drop her feelings and adopt new ones that do not threaten deer. Deer does not want to identify with those feelings in herself.
I spoke to Shannon this afternoon. She's talking with some sort of therapist. She said that he is providing her with some "coping tools." She told me that she told him that she was keeping herself occupied with all sorts of things that make her busy, like her knitting, her job, the search for a second job, learning Japanese, and baking. He approved. She said that a lot of people wouldn't hit on that coping strategy, and that it is a good one. I'm not sure what to make of that. It would seem that making a lot of busy work for yourself would not be conducive to learning anything about what is going on inside yourself. I didn't argue with her. I told her that it was good that she had decided to talk to someone. I tried to explain to her some of the stuff in the paragraphs above, but there was just too many things happening on her end of the conversation. Apparently, she was "supervising" her friend and housemate, Trevor, while he worked under the car. I did manage to tell her that I had been "cut off" from some of my inner people and feelings by things with which I had to deal as a child and that this sometimes impacted my ability to feel empathy and connect with she and her sister when they were growing up. I apologized for this. She sounded like she had received new information, so I hope that she considers this.