text:
Q: Convert struct of structs to array of structs pulling struct field name inside I'm trying to convert the following schema:
 |-- a: struct (nullable = true)
 |    |-- b: struct (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
 |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)
 |    |-- c: struct (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
 |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)

into this:
 |-- a: array (nullable = true)
 |    |-- element: struct (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- struct_key: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
 |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)
 |    |-- element: struct (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- struct_key: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
 |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
 |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
 |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)

Really just trying to get the struct key and convert it into a string and add it into a column. The b/c structs in the dataset are numerous, so will need some wildcard to convert them.
I'm using Spark 3.2.1.
The data is generated from JSON, so is read like this:
df = spark.read.json(json_file)

A: here's an approach where you first add the struct_key within the inner structs and then create an array using them.
# input
data_sdf = spark.createDataFrame([(((1, 2), (3, 4)), 'foo', 'bar')],
                                 'a struct<b: struct<foo: int, bar: int>, c: struct<foo: int, bar: int>>, col2 string, col3 string'
                                 )

# +----------------+----+----+
# |               a|col2|col3|
# +----------------+----+----+
# |{{1, 2}, {3, 4}}| foo| bar|
# +----------------+----+----+

# root
#  |-- a: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |-- b: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- foo: integer (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- bar: integer (nullable = true)
#  |    |-- c: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- foo: integer (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- bar: integer (nullable = true)
#  |-- col2: string (nullable = true)
#  |-- col3: string (nullable = true)

# processing
data_sdf. \
    selectExpr('a.*', *[c for c in data_sdf.columns if c not in ['a']]). \
    selectExpr(*['struct("{0}" as struct_key, {0}.*) as {0}'.format(c) for c in data_sdf.selectExpr('a.*').columns],
               *[c for c in data_sdf.columns if c not in ['a']]
               ). \
    withColumn('a', func.array(*data_sdf.selectExpr('a.*').columns)). \
    drop(*data_sdf.selectExpr('a.*').columns). \
    show(truncate=False)

# +----+----+----------------------+
# |col2|col3|a                     |
# +----+----+----------------------+
# |foo |bar |[{b, 1, 2}, {c, 3, 4}]|
# +----+----+----------------------+

# root
#  |-- col2: string (nullable = true)
#  |-- col3: string (nullable = true)
#  |-- a: array (nullable = false)
#  |    |-- element: struct (containsNull = false)
#  |    |    |-- struct_key: string (nullable = false)
#  |    |    |-- foo: integer (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- bar: integer (nullable = true)

A: I prefer this approach, as often we need to retain other columns which are present in the original dataframe. This method doesn't remove other columns.
dtype = df.schema['a'].dataType[0].dataType.simpleString()
df = df.withColumn('a', F.map_values(F.transform_values(
    F.from_json(F.to_json("a"), f'map<string,{dtype}>'),
    lambda k, v: v.withField('struct_key', k)
)))

df.schema['a'].dataType[0].dataType.simpleString() navigates to the inner struct and extracts its schema in DDL format.
F.from_json(F.to_json("a"), f'map<string,{dtype}>') converts the inner struct into map. The field name of the struct becomes map's key, while the struct itself becomes map's value. This conversion is useful, because it makes it easier to access the field name.
F.transform_values(..., lambda k, v: v.withField('struct_key', k)) adds the map's key into map's value (i.e. into the struct).
F.map_values() extracts the values of the map, thus making an array of structs.

Test input:
from pyspark.sql import functions as F
df = spark.createDataFrame(
    [(9, ((1.1, [], '', True),(2.2, [], '', True),),)],
    'x int, a struct<b:struct<one:double,two:array<string>,three:string,four:boolean>,c:struct<one:double,two:array<string>,three:string,four:boolean>>')

df.show(truncate=0)
# +---+--------------------------------------+
# |x  |a                                     |
# +---+--------------------------------------+
# |9  |{{1.1, [], , true}, {2.2, [], , true}}|
# +---+--------------------------------------+
df.printSchema()
# root
#  |-- x: integer (nullable = true)
#  |-- a: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |-- b: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
#  |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)
#  |    |-- c: struct (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
#  |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)

Result:
dtype = df.schema['a'].dataType[0].dataType.simpleString()
df = df.withColumn('a', F.map_values(F.transform_values(
    F.from_json(F.to_json("a"), f'map<string,{dtype}>'),
    lambda k, v: v.withField('struct_key', k)
)))

df.show(truncate=0)
# +---+--------------------------------------------+
# |x  |a                                           |
# +---+--------------------------------------------+
# |9  |[{1.1, [], , true, b}, {2.2, [], , true, c}]|
# +---+--------------------------------------------+
df.printSchema()
# root
#  |-- x: integer (nullable = true)
#  |-- a: array (nullable = true)
#  |    |-- element: struct (containsNull = true)
#  |    |    |-- one: double (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- two: array (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |    |-- element: string (containsNull = true)
#  |    |    |-- three: string (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- four: boolean (nullable = true)
#  |    |    |-- struct_key: string (nullable = false)


text:
Liubce (în ) este o comună în raionul Rojîșce, regiunea Volînia, Ucraina, formată numai din satul de reședință.

Demografie

Conform recensământului din 2001, majoritatea populației satului Liubce era vorbitoare de ucraineană (%), existând în minoritate și vorbitori de alte limbi.

Note

Liubce, Rojîșce, Volîn
Liubce, Rojîșce, Volîn
Liubce, Rojîșce, Volîn

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


I had noticed right aways that the trackpad on my Yoga 2 Pro looks oily/shiny/blotchy after a little use, and have been trying to track down a source for a vinyl or skin to protect it. So far I haven't found much other than full device skins.
In doing so I decided to use a piece of clear packing tape to clean the trackpad and was surprised that not only does it remove dust, but it makes the trackpad look like new removing any oil/buildups on it.


In Don DeLillo's novel White Noise Jack and Murray, two academics, take a trip to see The Most Photographed Barn in America. On arriving there are indeed many people taking photographs. The academics stand to one side, Murray theorising about the meaning of this process while the Jack remains steadfastly silent.
How many of those pictures of Gaudi's cathedral will remain perfectly stored in the digital purgatory of a never accessed memory card? Not that this matters because the point is not the image itself but the act of capturing the image. The object gains authority in proportion to this act and as tourists we were happy to reinforce the building's authenticity by taking part in the collective theatre of imaging. The principal factor being that the object of our capturing was easy to find because it resides in a fixed location which is relatively straightforward for a great number of people to visit.
"Nobody sees the barn anymore," he said finally.


text:
Transcript: John Bolton, NIE. Dec 5th 2007
Dec. 11, 2007 5:27 am
By georgevap
Thom interviewed former ambassador John Bolton about his views on the recent National Intelligence Estimate (NIE).
Thom Hartmann interviews John Bolton, 05 December 2007
[Thom]: Former ambassador John Bolton is with us. His new book, "Surrender Is Not an Option". We had the ambassador on when his book came out some weeks back [transcript]. He's with the American Enterprise Institute, aei.org for more of his writings and goings on. Ambassador, welcome to the program.
[Bolton]: Thank you. Glad to be back.
[Thom]: And thank you for being with us. How are you guys who are in favor of attacking Iran, if I'm accurately characterizing your position, going to convince the American people that we actually need to attack Iran in the face of this National Intelligence Estimate?
[Bolton]: Well, I certainly don't hope that we come to the point of attacking Iran. I've always felt it was useful as a last resort, but you know, this intelligence estimate I think is the result of politicization within the intelligence community of supposed intelligence analysts really putting their own policy preferences forwards disguised as intelligence judgements. Because many of the people who were involved in writing this I knew when they were at the State Department. They're not intelligence community professionals; they are foreign service officers, and what they say in this NIE they could have said 5 or 6 years ago.
Here's the key point: even this NIE makes it plain that Iran did have a military program and has only moderate confidence that in fact that program remains suspended, but even more importantly says quite obviously, as we all know, that Iran continues to enrich uranium. And that is critical to either a civilian or a military program because if you're going to decide to go for nuclear weapons, at some point you have to have highly enriched uranium.
[Thom]: Or, if you're going to run a nuclear reactor and generate electricity, you have to have 3 percent enriched uranium, which is apparently what they are doing, according to the IAEA.
[Bolton]: Right, that's all that they're doing now. But, you know, even though you need enrichment to 90% of U-235 isotope, when you get to 3 to 5 percent, you've done two thirds of the work needed to get to highly enriched uranium. So they're building up an inventory that gives them the potential to break out at a time and a manner of their choosing. The irony of this report is that while it says that diplomatic pressure works, the effect of the report is to dissipate the Bush administration's own diplomatic efforts. This is a clear signal to Teheran, they can do what they want to do, in effect.
[Thom]: Are you suggesting that this is essentially a coup within the intelligence community, or within the state department, or both, by an unelected cabal in the intelligence community? And then, some time back of course we had, you know, the head of CENTCOM saying all this discussion about bombing Iran is not productive. The military seems to be pushing back. The intelligence, this was John Abizaid saying, you know, this is not a good thing. Are they, why are they pushing back? Is this a coup?
[Bolton]: No I think, as I say, in terms of the intelligence community, they're not supposed to be making policy prescriptions.
[Thom]: No, but they work for Bush. I mean, he's their employer. How...?
[Bolton]: They don't, well that's part of the problem, is, they don't think they do work for Bush, and this is something that has developed over time, over a number of administrations but particularly in this administration; the intelligence community is not an independent agency.
[Thom]: So you're suggesting that their alliance is to, or their allegiance, rather. is to a particular ideology rather than to the truth? What is that ideology?
[Bolton]: Well I think given the background of many of the people who wrote this, that they never favored a strong policy toward Iran's nuclear program from the get go. So I think they're trying to spin the intelligence in a way that makes it harder to take a tough line. But again, I want to emphasize; even if you took them at face value that diplomatic pressure would work, the impact of this report is to prevent Bush from assembling any diplomatic pressure.
[Thom]: So you're suggesting that these guys are doing something that's essentially treasonous; they're harming the ability of the United States to function in a dangerous world.
[Bolton]: Well, I think they've made it, if you look at press reaction, government reactions around the world, the Chinese have already said there is no need for a third security council sanctions resolution. Now I've never felt these sanctions resolutions were going to dissuade Iran from pursuing nuclear weapons to begin with, but even such minimal steps, as in other security council resolutions, now looks to be essentially impossible.
[Thom]: So, to phrase the question in a positive: I said, what is the agenda of these guys if this is a cabal that's essentially, you know, executed a coup within the executive branch, apparently? And you said that their agenda is to not have what you described as a strong confrontation with Iran. How would you describe that in positive terms? And I don't mean positive in a moral sense, I mean in a behavioral sense. What is it that they are trying to accomplish, as opposed to what is it that they're trying to prevent?
[Bolton]: Well, you know, it's, I would say with a medium amount of confidence, to use intelligence jargon, that they're hoping this makes it much harder for the president to engage in either regime change or the use of force and, you know, that's a position that a person can legitimately take, reasonable people can argue about it, but what I'm concerned about is that under the guise of a supposedly objective intelligence estimate they have infected it with their own policy biases, and I think that's impermissible.
[Thom]: Isn't that a crime?
[Bolton]: It's not, I don't think it's a crime as, no, I don't think it's a crime, but I think it's a violation of their obligation.
[Thom]: Should Bush fire them?
[Bolton]: If he could. You know, part of the problem here is that the career system makes it very hard to fire people, and the president himself, I have to say, yesterday looked completely stunned at this news, and I don't think there's going to be much of a response.
[Thom]: Yeah, interesting. Ambassador John Bolton, American Enterprise Institute, aei.org the web site. His book, "Surrender Is Not an Option: Defending America At The United Nations And Abroad". Ambassador Bolton, thank you for sharing your thoughts with us today.
[Bolton]: Well, thanks once again for having me. Appreciate it.
[Thom]: Good talking with you.
The morning of the Obama inauguration, 2009
Dad, Thom, Stan, Steve, John, Mom
"Thom Hartmann's book explains in simple language and with concrete research the details of the Neo-con's war against the American middle class. It proves what many have intuited and serves to remind us that without a healthy, employed, and vital middle class, America is no more than the richest Third World country on the planet."
—Peter Coyote, Actor and author of Sleeping Where I Fall
"Thom Hartmann seeks out interesting subjects from such disparate outposts of curiosity that you have to wonder whether or not he uncovered them or they selected him."
—Leonardo DiCaprio, actor, producer, and environmental activist

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The LG Optimus 3D P920 running on the Android 2.2 Froyo will be available in India, pretty soon. The LG Optimus 3D P920 houses a dual core 1 GHz processor with a 4.3 inch touch screen with 3D capabilities and a 5 megapixel camera with flash. Features are good but this handset is way overpriced.
The main highlight of course is the 3G feature that LG Optimus 3D P920 is all about. If the Android 2.2 which this handset comes loaded with is bothering you then let me tell you it is upgradable to the Android 2.3 Gingerbread. Go through the LG Optimus 3D P920 features which are quite impressive especially the 3D part however when you check the price, the excitement seems not worth it.
The Optimus 3D is the first to launch a 3D smartphone in India. With this smartphone you will be able to view and even record videos in 3D without having to wear those 3D glasses. Well the surprise does not end here. The LG 3D P920 also supports 3D Augmented Reality (AR) browser but this does not come pre-installed, you will need to download it for free from LGWorld.
The P920 is powered by the 1 GHz dual core processor (ARM Cortex-A9) and PowerVR SGX540 Graphics. OS used is a bit outdated i.e. Android 2.2, but can be upgradable to Gingerbread 2.3.
The LCD capacitive touchscreen display is 4.3 inches supporting resolution WVGA @ 480×800 pixels with 16 million colours. The LG Optimus 3D is of 68×128.8×11.9mm dimension and weighs 168 grams.
LG 3D P920 houses a 5 megapixel camera with LED flash. You can shoot videos in HD and full HD mode. Other camera features are auto focus, geo tagging and Stereoscopic photos. Apart from the primary camera there is a secondary camera for making video calls.
8 GB of internal storage memory and 512 MB RAM comes built in on the LG Optimus 3D with micro SD support up to 32 GB.
LG Optimus 3D is a 3G phone with GPRS and EDGE supported. Other connectivity options are USB, Wi-Fi, GPS with A-GPS, Bluetooth 2.1 and Wi-Fi hotspot tethering.
The LG Optimus 3D P920 can play MP3, WAV, eAAC+ audio files and MP4, DivX, XviD, H.264, H.263, WMV video files. There is a HDMI port to connect with HDTV, so you can watch phone content on high definition TV. Audio Jack 3.5mm is also present.
This handset houses Accelerometer sensor, Gyro sensor, Digital Compass and Proximity sensor. Voice input and full flash 10.1 also supported. Not to mention you get access to host of Google services and Android market place to download additional apps.
This phone comes with 1500 mAh Li-ion standard battery that gives a standby time of 450 hours on 2G network and 13 hours talktime on 2G and 9 hours of talktime on 3G network.
This LG handset comes with 1 year warranty and a 6 months warranty for accessories included in the box pack.
As you can see the handset is way overpriced and no doubt you are paying more for the 3D technology.


Top 14 Low Carb Chips, For All Your Crunchy Cravings!
Life is SERIOUSLY better with low carb chips, because game-day, road trips, and appetizers are pretty darn boring without 'em.
So, I tasted and recipe-tested around, until I came up with this list of the most satiating and crunchy low carb chips imaginable! Surely there are low carb chips on this list just for you!
The problem with most low carb chips and crackers is they're not as "crispy" as the store bought versions we crave. Which is why I paid special attention to the crunch factor when creating this low carb tortilla chips recipe. Turning off the oven with the chips still inside helps to crisp your new favorite low carb chips into delicious, crunchy perfection!
If you haven't tried parmesan crisps yet, then you're gonna love me for this one. Parmesan crisps are essentially no carb tortilla chips, made of, you guessed it, parmesan! Mix in some herbs and spices to compliment whatever you'll be serving these low carb chips with and you'll never want another crispy treat.
It's hard to get tired of baked cheese chips, especially when they're combined with sauteed onions and crispy bacon. Your low carb chips game just got that much more impressive. You're welcome.
Bake cheese chips into whatever shape you'd like — you can form small mounds, or cut them with a pizza cutter to create a sharp, triangular shape.
Looking for crunchy low carb veggies to scoop your low carb appetizers? Unfortunately, most of the vegetables used to make veggie chips are high in carbs: sweet potatoes, beets, and parsnips are the obvious chip alternatives.
Eggplant chips are significantly lower in carbs, and every bit as craveble. Psst — these low carb chips are covered in BBQ seasoning, need I say more?
Class up your low carb chips cravings with these buttery low carb crackers. Baked with fresh herbs inside, these low carb crackers are the perfect vehicle for whatever cheese and charcuterie you're craving.
Personal bias, these fathead crackers are my favorite low carb chips on the list. Made of cream cheese, mozzarella and almond flour, coated in a crust of "everything but the bagel seasoning". They're slice and bake, easy to make, and ridiculously addicting.
Similar to the parmesan crisps above, these no crust pizza chips have a pepperoni stashed in the center, for a portable, crunchy, pizza – low carb chips keto concoction you'll love.
Think of the tastiest low carb foods baked into low carb chips, and you've got these pesto parmesan chips. Pesto, parmesan and sun dried tomatoes — you don't have to be eating low carb or keto to love 'em!
Oh ya friends, you can totally make your own low carb chips from pepperoni. Just bake until crispy and dip your pepperoni chips in whatever you have on hand! Sprinkle with parmesan, and dip in low carb pizza sauce for the win.
Bacon chips use the same logic as the low carb chips above. If you're not a fan of cooking bacon in the oven, I think you'll be pleasantly surprised at bacon's dipp-ability once cooked into a crispy, crunchy vehicle. Psst, I've heard rumors of bacon chips dipped in low carb chocolate, thoughts?
When you want a chip, you want a chip. And sometimes you don't have time (or the desire) to chop ingredients and preheat the oven for keto chips. In that case, here are some delicious low carb chips to buy! Grab most of these low carb chips at Walmart!
I didn't believe it was possible, but these protein low carb chips are surprisingly good! Nice and crunchy with a variety of flavors, they get my stamp of approval!
Perfect for when you're craving cheese crisps, but don't feel like making them. They're slightly more expensive, but dang, they're good.Side note, Whisps are the reason for my cheese crisp obsession. The grocery store stopped selling them, and I started making them!
I don't know how they do it, but these things are goooood. 100% cheese, light, airy. If you're a low carb hiker they're perfect for your pack, they've got tons of protein and weight nothing!
Pork RindsI'm not a huge pork rind-on-their-own-gal (although I use them in my low carb breadcrumbs). My opinion aside, these are the textbook low carb snacks on the go.
I prefer the Epic brand of pork rinds — they're antibiotic free and are MUCH tastier.
Betcha didn't think no carb chips were possible! Well friends I have exciting news, there are virtually no carbs in cheese — making any sort of cheese chip concoction as close to no carb chips as they come!
One of the best ways to satisfy a low carb chips craving is with some homemade veggie chips. Yes, veggies are carbs — but when you stick to keto vegetables, they're much lower in carbs and calories than traditional chips.
That means skip the potatoes, sweet potatoes and other starchy veggies. In fact, potatoes fried in oil (either as chips or french fries) are on the list of foods most strongly associated with gaining weight!
Psst, if your goal is low carb chips for dipping, use a julienne to cut your veggies for thin and even slices.
I get it, the chip-craving-struggle is real.
Luckily, there are plenty of low carb chips to swap that processed, carb-y snack with! I hope you found the low carb chips you've been searching for on this list, to help curb your cravings. Leave me a note in the comments below if I missed your favorite low carb chips!
Can lentils be considered as a low carb bean.
Can gram flawer be used in Keto!


Evaqua is the world's first breathing circuit technology that minimizes mobile condensate in the expiratory limb by allowing water vapor to diffuse through the tubing wall.
Evaqua technology allows water vapor to diffuse out through the expiratory limb wall before it has an opportunity to condense into liquid water within the circuit limb or the ventilator. The result is an easy-to-use system which is designed so that the breathing circuit can remain closed and free of clinician intervention. This, in turn, benefits both the patient and the clinician.
Evaqua™ is the world's first breathing circuit technology that minimises mobile condensate in the expiratory limb by allowing water vapor to diffuse through the tubing wall.
The MR850 humidifier is part of a complete system designed to deliver optimally humidified gas to adult and infant patients.


We have created a 2019 ranking of the best colleges in Pennsylvania that offer Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician degrees to help you find a school that fits your needs. Each school's ranking is based on the compilation of our data from reliable government sources, student surveys, college graduate interviews, and editorial review. In addition, you can view our entire list of all 17 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician schools located within Pennsylvania. We also provide reviews, facts, and questions and answers for schools on our site and offer you access to get valuable information from colleges and universities today.
Carnegie Mellon University offers 2 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a large private university in a large city. In 2015, 15 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 14 Master's degrees, and 1 Doctoral degree.
Thaddeus Stevens College of Technology offers 1 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree program. It's a small public college in a small city. In 2015, 13 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 13 Associate's degrees.
Delaware County Community College offers 2 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a large public college in a large suburb. In 2015, 2 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 1 Associate's degree, and 1 Certificates degree.
Community College of Allegheny County offers 2 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a large public college in a large city. In 2015, 10 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 6 Associate's degrees, and 4 Certificates degrees.
Luzerne County Community College offers 2 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a medium sized public college in a large suburb. In 2015, 3 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 3 Associate's degrees.
Community College of Philadelphia offers 2 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a large public college in a large city. In 2015, 2 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 2 Associate's degrees.
Northampton County Area Community College offers 1 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree program. It's a large public college in a large suburb. In 2015, 4 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 4 Associate's degrees.
Berks Technical Institute offers 0 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree programs. It's a small private college in a large suburb.
YTI Career Institute-York offers 1 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree program. It's a small private college in a mid sized suburb. In 2015, 25 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 25 Associate's degrees.
Butler County Community College offers 1 Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician Degree program. It's a medium sized public college in a outlying town. In 2015, 2 students graduated in the study area of Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician with students earning 2 Associate's degrees.
What Cad/cadd Drafting And/or Design Technology/technician degree programs were earned in Pennsylvania?


text:
Spotlight on Occupied Palestine
August 16, 2011	by occupiedpalestine 0 Comments
By Lawrence Davidson * | Sabbah Report | http://www.sabbah.biz | Aug 16, 2011
Education as indoctrination
Over the last 10 years there have been periodic outbursts of rage over the alleged anti-Semitic nature of Palestinian textbooks. Most of these episodes have been instigated by an Israeli based organization called the Centre for Monitoring the Impact of Peace (also known as the Institute for Monitoring Peace and Cultural Tolerance in School Education).
According to Israeli journalist Akiva Eldar, the centre does sloppy work. It "routinely feeds the media with excerpts from 'Palestinian' textbooks that call for Israel's annihilation … [without] bothering to point out that the texts quoted in fact come from Egypt and Jordan". The centre's conclusions have been corroborated only by other Israeli institutions such as Palestinian Media Watch.
Not surprisingly, almost all independent investigations of the same issue have come up with very different conclusions. Non-Zionist sources such as The Nation magazine, which published a report on Palestinian textbooks in 2001, the George Eckert Institute for International Textbook Research, reporting in 2002, the Israel/Palestine Centre for Research and Information, reporting in 2004, and the US State Department Report of 2009 all found that Palestinian textbooks did not preach anti-Semitism. Nathan Brown, a professor of Political Science at George Washington University, who did his own study on the subject in 2000, set out the situation this way: Palestinian textbooks now in use, and which replaced older ones published in Egypt and Jordan, do not teach anti-Semitism. However, "they tell history from a Palestinian point of view". It might very well be this fact that the Zionists cannot abide and purposefully mistake for anti-Semitism.
Here is another not very surprising fact. When it comes to choosing which set of reports to support, which set to take a public stand on, American politicians will almost always go with the Zionist versions. Take then Senator Hilary Clinton who, in 2007, denounced Palestinian textbooks. They "don't give Palestinian children an education, they give them an indoctrination". How did she know? Well, Israel's Palestinian Media Watch told her so, and she did not have the foresight to fact-check the assertion before going public. How typical. And, how analytically shallow. While the Palestinian textbooks don't teach hatred of Jewish Israelis, the reality of daily life under occupation surely does. Those "facts on the ground",and not the textbooks, supply the most powerful form of education for Palestinian youth.
Although in 2009 the US State Department found that Palestinian textbooks were not the products of anti-Semites, there will be yet another State Department-sponsored "comprehensive and independent" study in 2011. This time around the investigation will look at "incitement caused by bias in both Israeli and Palestinian textbooks. When this happens, one can only hope the investigators take a look at the work of the Israeli scholar Nurit Peled-Elhanan. She is a professor of language and education at Hebrew University in Jerusalem and also the daughter of the famous Israeli general-turned-peace-activist, Matti Peled.
Peled-Elhanan has recently written a book titled Palestine in Israeli School Books: Ideology and Propaganda in Education. The book will be published this month (August) in the United Kingdom. The work covers the content of Israeli textbooks over the past five years and concludes that Palestinians are never referred to as such "unless the context is terrorism". Otherwise, they are referred to as Arabs. And Arabs are collectively presented as "vile and deviant and criminal, people who do not pay taxes, people who live off the state, who don't want to develop … you never see [in the textbooks] a Palestinian child or doctor or teacher or engineer or modern farmer".
In contrast she finds that Palestinian textbooks, even while telling history from a Palestinian point of view, "distinguish between Zionists and Jews". They tend to take a stand "against Zionists, not against Jews".
Peled-Elhanan makes a link between what Israeli children are taught and how they later behave when drafted into the country's military services. "One question that bothers many people is how do you explain the cruel behaviour of Israeli soldiers towards Palestinians, an indifference to human suffering, the inflicting of suffering… I think the major reason for that is education." Historically, the mistreatment of Palestinians and even their periodic massacre is taught to Israelis as something that is "unfortunate" but ultimately necessary and "good" for the survival of state. On the other hand, this behaviour of Israelis toward Palestinians must also have its consequences. In Peled-Elhanan's opinion, Palestinian terrorist attacks are "the direct consequence of the oppression, slavery, humiliation and the state of siege imposed on the Palestinians".
This Israeli process of educating children to hate and prejudice is, of course, exactly what the Zionists accuse the Palestinians of doing. It turns out that all this time, while levelling charges of incitement at the Palestinian educational process, they themselves have been practising the same sort of indoctrination on their own children. This revelation fills Peled-Elhanan with despair – "I only see the path to fascism" for Israel.
Education and making choices
Keeping our theme of education in mind, let us shift attention to the unprecedented protests now going on in Israel. For the last two weeks massive demonstrations have hit all of Israel's major cities. "Tent cities" have sprung up in some 40 locations. All of these protests are demanding "social justice". What, in this case, does social justice mean? It means addressing all the legitimate, standard of living problems that beset most of the demonstrators: soaring costs of food and housing, declining social services and the like. All the predictable consequences of unregulated capitalism and neo-liberal governments.
A significant number of Israelis have decided that this lack of social justice has gone far enough. A recent poll shows that 88 per cent of the citizenry supports the protests. However, this is not entirely a good thing. In order to maintain such support, coming as it does from almost all sections of Israeli political life, the protest leaders now endeavour to remain "non-political" and "rooted squarely in the mainstream consensus". This is, of course, naive. They live in an albeit skewed "democratic" political environment. The government, which is a right-wing affair, is not going to acquiesce to their demands, except to throw them an occasional bone, unless they can command the votes to shape the outcome of elections. Like it or not, that is the way their system works.
There are other problems. Also in order to be "rooted in the mainstream consensus" the protest leaders are staying away from the issue of social justice for the Palestinians. In Israel proper, that means turning their backs on the plight of over 20 per cent of the population. What sort of social justice is that? Well, it is social justice as defined by people educated in the system described by Nurit Peled-Elhanan. That is why the protest leaders can happily solicit the support of Naftali Bennett, the thoroughly despicable leader of the colonial/settler movement, but not any of the leaders of the Arab-Israeli community.
By not taking a social justice for all stand the protest movement leaders have registered their acceptance of the "justice for Jews only" system to which they were educated. This in itself is a political act which will make them vulnerable to being picked apart with pseudo solutions that offer some of them a little while denying others a lot. Already, as reported by Haaretz, "dozens of MKs [Members of the Knesset]' have petitioned Prime Minister Binyamin Netanyahu to "solve the housing crisis by building in the West Bank". Soon thereafter the government announced approval for "1,600 more settler homes" in East Jerusalem, with 2,700 more to come later. That is the sort of solution this protest movement will get unless their leaders can overcome their education/indoctrination and go into politics in a way that applies social justice to all citizens.
In all societies there are two major goals for education: one is vocational and the other is acculturation. So, one important reason for education is to prepare young people for the job market. The other is to educate them to be "good citizens". What this latter goal means depends on the society one is raised in. In the old Soviet Union becoming a good citizen meant being acculturated to a nationalist brand of communism, as is still the case today in China. In the United States it means becoming a believer in the American version of freedom, both political and economic. And, in Israel, being a good citizen means becoming a believing Zionist.
The objective of acculturation means that education always has, and probably always will have, a strong dose of indoctrination attached to it. That the Zionists should find it shocking that the Palestinians want to use education for their version of indoctrination and acculturation is sheer double standards. And, finally, that the leaders of the on-going protest movement in Israel so pointedly exclude the plight of the Palestinians, is testimony to the success of their own education/indoctrination within the apartheid model.
You see, most of us really are what we are educated to be.
* Lawrence Davidson is professor of history at West Chester University. He is the author of numerous books, including Islamic Fundamentalism and America's Palestine: Popular and Official Perceptions from Balfour to Israeli Statehood.
Last 5 posts by Lawrence Davidson
Americans: facing the world and facing ourselves – July 19th, 2011
On flotillas and the law: civil society versus Israel lobbies in US and Europe – July 10th, 2011
Reasonable Conjecture on Israel's Changing Demographics – June 15th, 2011
International law and the problem of enforcement – June 5th, 2011
Who is Embarrassing the United Nations? – March 26th, 2011
Israel, israeli, Occupation, Palestine, Zionism
anti-Semitism, gaza, gazan, israel, israeli, Occupied, palestine, palestinian, version, zionism, Zionist
81 House Members Enjoy Hiatus In Israel
Settlers Torch Dozens Of Dunams Near Homesh Former Settlement In Nablus


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Q: PuTTY sending extra garbage before each Telnet command I'm trying to establish a Telnet connection to my 3d printer with PuTTY. It connects, but when I send a command I get echo:unknown command followed by the correct command I tried to send, in the correct format. Looking at the printer terminal it appears to be receiving a bunch of additional characters before the command that I'm sending

How do I get rid of the "ÿûÿû ÿûÿû'ÿýÿûÿý?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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"Earlier this week, the Colorado legislature passed landmark legislation, HB1202, which provides paid leave for employees who would like to become a living organ donor. This legislation will provide private employers with a voluntary tax credit of 35% of an employee's salary to cover up to 10 business days of paid leave."
"The National Kidney Foundation applauds the Colorado legislature for taking this proactive step to increase living organ donation in the state. The passage of the Living Organ Donor Support Act will remove a significant barrier for organ donors who may not step forward if they are afraid to lose their job or income during their recovery period after surgery."
"The National Kidney Foundation is proud to have supported this legislation through policy assistance, grassroots advocacy efforts and support from our local Colorado office. We commend American Transplant Foundation for spearheading this initiative and for ensuring its successful passage."
"Living organ donation not only saves lives, it saves money. Each year, Medicare spends $87,000 per dialysis patient and less than half, $32,500, for a transplant patient. Offering paid leave to employees who give the gift of life to another human being is not only the right thing to do, but a worthwhile investment. The National Kidney Foundation strongly encourages all states to follow Colorado's lead in supporting living organ donors."
THE BIG ASK: THE BIG GIVE platform, which provides nationwide outreach, is designed to increase kidney transplantation through training and tools that help patients and families find a living donor. It includes direct patient and caregiver support through our toll-free help line 855-NKF-CARES, peer mentoring from a fellow kidney patient or a living donor, online communities, an advocacy campaign to remove barriers to donation, and a multi-media public awareness campaign. All of these resources are free and designed to teach kidney patients, or their advocates, how to make a "big ask" to their friends, loved ones, or community to consider making a "big give," a life-saving living organ donation. For more information visit www.kidney.org/livingdonation.
In the United States 30 million adults are estimated to have chronic kidney disease--and most aren't aware of it. 1 in 3 American adults are at risk for chronic kidney disease. Risk factors for kidney disease include diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity and family history. People of African American, Hispanic, Native American, Asian or Pacific Islander descent are at increased risk for developing the disease. African Americans are 3 times more likely than Whites, and Hispanics are nearly 1.5 times more likely than non-Hispanics to develop end stage renal disease (kidney failure).


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Anime at the Cinema, 2019
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As is known by a number of months, manga series My Hero Academia, written and illustrated by Kohei Horikoshi on "Weekly Shonen Jump", live for the second time on a new adventure on the big screen of the cinema with an animated movie produced by Bones Studio.Exactly as the first project, the author Kohei...
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One Piece – Stampede: new key visual and the first images of the film
It emerges online, the new key visual, promotional dedicated to One Piece: Stampede, the new animated feature film in production at Toei Animation to celebrate the 20 years of the animated series, One Piece, and that will be released in japanese on August 9, 2019. Here she is to you with the components...
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Dynit and Nexo Digital have spread the theatrical trailer of 5 centimeters per second – a series of short stories about the distance between them (Byousoku 5 Centimeter – a chain of short stories about their distance), the animated film of the master Makoto Shinkai who, after previous publication, directly...
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N.C. Central, Prairie View A&M are both playing for new coaches in MEAC/SWAC Challenge
This interconference matchup will be in Atlanta through 2020
Zarrian Holcombe of Prairie View A&M catches a pass for a touchdown in the second quarter defended by Jorian Clark (left) of the Rice Owls and Brandon Douglas-Dotson (right) at Rice Stadium on Aug. 25. Photo by Tim Warner/Getty Images
By John X. Miller	@xman1955
The MEAC/SWAC Challenge, now in its 14th year, will be played in its new home in Atlanta on Sunday. The early-season matchup, which features a team from the Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference (MEAC) against a foe from the Southwestern Athletic Conference (SWAC), will make Atlanta its home until 2020.
The game Sunday at Pete Petit Field at Georgia State Stadium will be between Prairie View A&M of the SWAC and North Carolina Central of the MEAC and will serve as an appetizer to the season-ending Celebration Bowl, also in Atlanta.
The N.C. Central Eagles open their 2018 campaign with new head coach Granville Eastman, who worked under former head coach Jerry Mack as assistant head coach, defensive coordinator and safeties coach for four seasons. Mack is now the offensive coordinator at Rice University.
Under Eastman, the defense was one of the best in the MEAC. It's led by one of the best players in historically black college and university (HBCU) football, Davanta Reynolds, the preseason MEAC Defensive Player of the Year. On Sunday, he'll be facing a Prairie View A&M offense that proved last week that it could score, putting up 28 points against FBS opponent Rice University before losing 31-28 on a last-second field goal by the Owls.
It's likely that Reynolds will be matched up against Prairie View Panthers receiver Tristen Wallace, an Oregon transfer who had five catches for 147 yards and a touchdown versus Rice. Quarterback Jalen Morton completed 16 of 28 passes for 244 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
Prairie View coach Eric Dooley, who took over after coming from Grambling State, is 0-1 but looking for redemption Sunday. He'd also like to avoid a repeat of Prairie View's first appearance in the MEAC/SWAC Challenge in 2011, when it lost to Bethune-Cookman.
The MEAC/SWAC Challenge started in 2005 in Birmingham, Alabama. Here are some top moments from previous games:
2017: Southern University 14, South Carolina State 8
Ace W. Mumford Stadium – Baton Rouge, Louisiana
What we remember: Southern won the close game behind the work of quarterback Austin Howard and running backs Devon Benn and Herbert Edwards. S.C. State All-American linebacker Darius Leonard also became the school's all-time leading tackler during the game.
2016: Alcorn State vs. Bethune-Cookman
Municipal Stadium – Daytona Beach, Florida
What we remember: The game was suspended in the second quarter because of the weather.
2015: S.C. State 35, Arkansas – Pine Bluff 7
Citrus Bowl – Orlando, Florida
What we remember: The South Carolina State defense allowed just 140 total yards to help the Bulldogs overcome five turnovers and beat Arkansas-Pine Bluff. Senior defensive end Javon Hargrave was the star, posting seven tackles, 4.5 tackles for loss and 2.5 sacks while picking up MVP honors.
2014: North Carolina A&T 47, Alabama A&M 13
Bright House Networks Stadium – Orlando
What we remember: The North Carolina A&T State Aggies sprinted for touchdown runs of 26, 59 and 80 yards as well as a 95-yard kickoff return by junior Tony McRae, all in the first half, to cruise to a 47-13 win. Tarik Cohen was named the game's MVP after rushing for 166 yards and two touchdowns on 11 carries.
2013: Florida A&M 27, Mississippi Valley State 10
Citrus Bowl – Orlando
What we remember: Damien Fleming, Omari Albert and Al-Terek McBurse of the Rattlers ran for touchdowns as Florida A&M beat Mississippi Valley State 27-10. Fleming passed for 110 yards and ran for 38 before leaving in the third quarter because of leg cramps.
2012: Bethune-Cookman 38, Alabama State 28
What we remember: Alabama State scored on three of its first four possessions to take a 21-0 second quarter lead. Broderick Waters threw two touchdowns and ran for another as Bethune-Cookman erased the three-touchdown first-half deficit to defeat Alabama State.
2011: Bethune-Cookman 63, Prairie View A&M 14
What we remember: Jamarr Robinson ran for two touchdowns and passed for another to lead Bethune-Cookman past Prairie View A&M 63-14. Isidore Jackson and Anthony Jordan scored two touchdowns each for the defending MEAC co-champs.
2010: Southern 37, Delaware State 27
What we remember: Dray Joseph threw for 162 yards and a touchdown and Southern scored 21 fourth-quarter points for a 37-27 victory against Delaware State. The victory gave Southern coach Stump Mitchell a successful debut as Jaguars coach.
2009: S.C. State 34, Grambling 31
What we remember: South Carolina State quarterbacks Malcolm Long and Derrick Wiley combined to throw three touchdowns to lead the Bulldogs to a 34-31 win over Grambling.
2008: Hampton 17, Jackson State 13
What we remember: Hampton converted a pair of second-half turnovers into touchdowns to rally past Jackson State. Jackson State's Trae Rutland hit Rodney Gray with a 31-yard scoring pass on the Tigers' first possession of the game. But the SWAC team didn't score again until the middle of the fourth quarter. Three turnovers in the third quarter destroyed the Tigers.
2007: Southern 33, Florida A&M 27
Legion Field – Birmingham, Alabama
What we remember: Bryant Lee completed 22 of 29 passes for 215 yards and one touchdown and Darren Coates rushed for 142 yards and two scores to lead the Southern Jaguars to a 33-27 victory over the Florida A&M Rattlers.
2006: Hampton 27, Grambling 26 (OT)
Legion Field – Birmingham
What we remember: Derius Swinton blocked Grambling State's PAT in overtime to preserve Hampton's 27-26 victory.
2005: S.C. State 27, Alabama State 14
What we remember: South Carolina State quarterback Cleveland McCoy took home MVP honors in the inaugural game in front of an announced crowd of 18,452 at Legion Field in Birmingham, Alabama. Alabama State quarterback Tarvaris Jackson threw for 255 yards and two touchdowns to take MVP honors for the Hornets.
John X. Miller is senior editor for news and commentary for The Undefeated. He's a father, jazz aficionado and diehard UNC basketball fan.
This Story Tagged: North Carolina Central Eagles MEAC/SWAC Football Challenge HBCU Football NCF Prairie View Panthers


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Media regulation in the Republic of Singapore is carried out by the Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) and effected by various laws.

Films and videos

History
Over the years, Singapore has gradually moved away from film censorship to film classification. This means that the Board of Film Censors (BFC) now classifies content into age-appropriate ratings. Classification allows films to be suitably rated for different audiences so the public can have greater access to a wider range of media choices without compromising on the need to protect young children from undesirable content.

The importing, making, distributing or exhibiting of films in Singapore is governed by the Films Act of 1981.

Prior to 1991
Film censorship started out strict before the gradual introduction of an official film classification system. As a result, many films were either simply censored to be approved for commercial screening or banned in the past. Films like A Clockwork Orange (1971), Last Tango in Paris (1972), The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974) and Saint Jack (1979) were previously banned. In the late 1980s, The Accused (1988) had a five-minute gang rape scene cut, while the fake orgasm sequence in When Harry Met Sally... (1989) was excised. Martial arts related films were also censored from 1973 onwards in attempt to restrain the growth in popularity of martial arts.

1991 to 1998

The first attempt at classification ratings started in 1991 which included the now defunct "R18" and "R(A)" ratings to allow mature audiences to watch such films containing more graphic sexual content and the presence of nudity. The focus of these early content ratings was mainly on sex/nudity content in non-pornographic films in the beginning of Singapore's film classification attempts and thus, other objectionable content such as graphic violence and coarse language were able to slide pass the censors and be accepted under a mere "PG" rating. To prevent the release of further softcore sexploitative films that managed to somehow get by the censors when the film classification system began, The "R18" rating was later revised in the same year to the more stringent "R(A)" or "Restricted (Artistic)" rating and the age limit was raised from 18 to 21. In 1992, "R(A)" movies were restricted to screening in downtown venues only.

R18: Movies that has sex/nudity, graphic violence and coarse language or other mature content, and meant for 18 and above. A sizable amount of softcore pornography, especially from Hong Kong, entered the market and were released uncut under this rating. Public backlash soon followed.
R(A): Several months after public backlash, R18 was replaced by "Restricted (Artistic)", which signaled only non-pornographic material would be accessed, and is meant for 21 and above.

1998 to 2004

In 1993, an "NC16" rating was introduced for films that lacked adult content such as sex and nudity scenes but was still deemed thematically unsuitable for children such as strong graphic violence in a war setting which exceeded the then "PG" guidelines. However, the "NC16" rating was only used five years later in 1998 with the release of the graphic war drama, Saving Private Ryan (1998). Back then, violent content in movies released in Singapore were not held to the same standards as sexual content which enabled "Saving Private Ryan" to get a lower age-restricted film rating than the "R(A)" rating despite containing multiple scenes of strong graphic war violence. Content standards informally changed in the next few years when brief scenes of sexually related or non-sexually related upper body female frontal nudity/breast nudity and moderate sexual scenes without nudity or other details were gradually allowed under the "NC16" rating with films like "Gosford Park" (2001) while other films such as "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre: The Beginning" (2003) and "Kill Bill Vol 1" (2003) received an "R(A)" rating solely for graphic violent content for the first time.

2004 onwards
In 2004, film classification became more organised and consumer advisories for titles were added. An "M18" rating was added to provide more choices for young adults and the "R(A)" rating was done away. Violent content in films started to be held to a stricter standard, which resulted in Saving Private Ryan (1998) being re-rated "M18" for its prolonged and intense sequences of graphic war violence under the new classification guidelines. Another example was Gladiator (2000), which would be rated "NC16" under the new guidelines instead of its previous "PG" rating. On the other hand, standards for sexual content in films was being liberalised. Many titles that were previously rated "R(A)" for graphic sex scenes/nudity were re-rated "M18". American Beauty (1999), Lost in Translation (film) (2003) and Shakespeare in Love (1998) were some examples. Titles that still exceeded the guidelines for an "M18" rating were re-rated under "R21", another rating introduced in 2004 which was the maximum age limit for films. Some films that received the "R21" rating were Basic Instinct (1992) and Kill Bill Volume 1 (2003). Home video classification for films up to an "M18" rating was also introduced in the same year.

Before 2004, some age-restricted shows were unfairly edited to meet the then 'PG" classification guidelines to release it as "PG" rated shows for theatrical release by distributors. Such examples included Starship Troopers (1997), Enemy at the Gates (2001) and The Green Mile (1999). They were also edited or disallowed  for home video releases as only "G" and "PG" rated titles were allowed on home videos previously. A "PG13" rating was later added in July 2011 on the recommendation of the Censorship Review Committee for titles that were deemed unsuitable for young children but not strong enough to warrant an "NC16" rating.

Today, the Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) utilises a proper and consistent system of age-appropriate film classification, assigning films different ratings for different groups of audiences. They also released the official set of film classification guidelines to the public online in 2010, which included a thorough explanation of what sort of content and themes is allowed under each film rating.

The latest classification system as of 2011 consists of the following:

Age-Advisory ratings
These three ratings have no restriction in ages.
 G (general) – suitable for all ages. (This classification was introduced in 1991)
 PG (parental guidance) – suitable for most but parents should guide their young. May contain moderate violence without details, mild horror, brief rear nudity, infrequent moderate coarse language (e.g. "asshole", "bastard" etc.), discreet drug references, mild displays of affection (i.e. kissing and caressing) and mild sex references/innuendos. (This classification was introduced in 1991)
 PG13 (parental guidance 13) – suitable for persons aged 13 and above but parental guidance is advised for children below 13. Recommended by the CRC in 2009, the PG13 rating is given to films with content deemed unsuitable for young children but for which a NC16 rating is not warranted. May contain moderate violence with some details and some infliction of pain and injury, moderate gore, some mature themes, more intense and realistic horror, moderate sexual references, sexual innuendoes, sexual imagery, crude hand gestures, sexual humour, rear nudity, side profile nudity, discreet drug use/references, frequent moderate coarse language and infrequent usages of the word "fuck". (This classification was introduced in 2011)

Age-Restricted ratings
In cinemas, these ratings are age-restricted.
 NC16 (no children below 16) – no children below 16 years of age. May contain brief scenes of sexually related or non-sexually related upper body female frontal nudity/breast nudity, moderate sexual activity without nudity or other details, moderate sexual violence, strong sex references, brief same-sex kissing scenes, some homosexual references, graphic violence portraying infliction of pain and injuries with some details of blood and gore, frightening scenes which are more prolonged with disturbing gory images/scenes without strong details, mature themes including (religious themes, homosexual themes and political themes), brief scenes of drug use and strong coarse language (e.g. "motherfucker", "cocksucker" etc.). (This classification was introduced in 1993)
 M18 (mature 18) – for persons 18 years and above. May contain full frontal nudity with moderate detail (sexual & non-sexual context), sexual activity which may feature some details (such as infrequent views of bare breasts) but without stronger details, frequent strong coarse language, drug use with some details, stronger portrayal and exploration of mature themes including (religious themes, homosexual themes/homosexuality as a sub-plot and political themes), implied homosexual activity, occasional displays of affection (i.e. kissing and caressing) between persons of the same gender and prolonged and/or intense sequences that invoke fear and/or terror. (This classification was introduced in 2004)
 R21 (restricted 21) – restricted to persons aged 21 and above. May contain frequent full frontal nudity with strong details (close ups of male/female genitalia) in sexual and non-sexual context, graphic but simulated sexual activity with strong details and could be prolonged/frequent, strong sexual violence, explicit portrayal and exploration of mature themes such as those involving deviant sexual activities (e.g. sadomasochism, bondage, orgies or sex involving violence) or strong homosexual themes including same-sex marriage/parenting as a main theme, homosexual activity with some details, pervasive strong coarse language, strong and realistic depictions of graphic violence and gore, depiction of graphic torture if it is not deemed excessive, hard drug use sequences with strong details and depictions of sustained graphic horror with strong details. (This classification was introduced in 2004). Movies that are classified as R21 are currently excluded from home video releases and suburban theatres. However, as recommended by the latest CRC in September 2010, R21 video-on-demand (VOD) is now allowed on pay TV services. In July 2016, the MDA officially greenlit R21-rated content for Over-the-Top (OTT) services.

Refused classification
In exceptional cases, a film may be refused classification when the content of the film has been deemed to undermine national interest or erode the moral fabric of society. This includes themes that promote issues that denigrate any race or religion, language that denigrates religion or is religiously profane (example: Jesus [expletive] Christ), depiction of real sexual activities/unsimulated sex (e.g. actual penetration, actual ejaculation, actual oral sex, actual masturbation), themes that glorify undesirable and unnatural sexual activities (e.g. bestiality, paedophilia, etc.), content deemed to be exploitative or obscene in nature such as actual pornographic footage containing real sex acts, fetishes or practices which are offensive or abhorrent, explicit promotion and normalisation of homosexual lifestyle, explicit homosexual scenes, materials glorifying and encouraging drug and substance abuse, detailed and instructive depiction of illegal drug use, detailed or gratuitous depictions of extreme violence or cruelty and detailed instructions on methods of crime or killings.

The sale, possession, and exhibition of refused classification material is prohibited in Singapore.

Refused classification material was formerly denoted with the NAR rating.

Examples of movies given several controversies
Movies with "strong homosexual themes" are typically given R21 ratings regardless of other content in the film. The American films Milk, a 2008 biopic starring Sean Penn as gay rights activist Harvey Milk, and Brokeback Mountain, a 2005 romantic drama about two homosexual cowboys played by Heath Ledger and Jake Gyllenhaal, both received R21 rating for depictions of homosexual sexual activities. However, the 2018 film Love, Simon about a gay teenager coming to terms with his identity and finding out which of his classmates is his anonymous online pen pal was given an R21 classification despite having no depictions of sexual activity, because MDA determined that "the theme of homosexuality... forms the main narrative of the film."

Oftentimes, this film classification system compels film distributors to create an alternate, cleaner version of the film to qualify for less restrictive ratings and suburban theatrical screenings for commercial reasons. For example, in 2007, distributor Focus Features released Lust, Caution (2007) in two versions: an edited NC16-rated version that was nine minutes shorter and another that was R21-rated and uncut. At the same time, the MDA allows for "some leeway during classification" for films with "limited screenings". For instance, in 2012, Cathay-Keris Films was told that Shame (2011) would receive an R21 rating for commercial release in mainstream cinemas only if a scene featuring group sex was edited. However, when the film was re-submitted for classification for the Singapore Film Society screening in 2013, the MDA gave it an R21 rating without edits.

Some local films have also encountered censorship difficulties with the MDA. In 2003, filmmaker Royston Tan's gangster-themed "15" (2003) suffered numerous cuts pertaining to national security concerns. In 2007, filmmaker Loo Zihan's homosexual-themed Solos (2007) was subjected to edits involving three scenes of graphic gay sex to meet R21 classification guidelines. In June 2012, the MDA revoked the M18 classification of Singaporean director Ken Kwek's Sex.Violence.FamilyValues (2012) and banned the film a day after its premiere after receiving complaints from Indians who alleged that the "Porn Masala" section of the film contained scenes which were offensive to Singapore's Indian community. The film's director and producers submitted an appeal to Singapore's government-appointed Films Appeal Committee, asking for the ban to be lifted. In January 2013, the Films Appeal Committee overturned the Board of Film Censors' decision and lifted the ban, giving it an R21 rating subject to edits by the filmmaker to a scene which contained particularly racially offensive dialogue.

The film The Wolf of Wall Street (2013) had to have an orgy and threesome scene, as well as religiously profane language edited to secure an R21 rating. Likewise, the French film Blue Is the Warmest Colour (2013) had to have an explicit and prolonged lesbian sex scene sequence considerably edited down to secure the R21 rating. The film Black Swan (2010) was passed with an M18 rating, but only after a mandatory cut was made for a graphic lesbian scene. In 2011, the Oscar-nominated drama The Kids Are All Right (2010) was given an R21 rating with the condition of a one-print theatrical release as the film was deemed to be "explicit in its portrayal of a lesbian family as a normal and acceptable lifestyle" which had exceeded the MDA's Films Classification Guidelines. The restriction served as a signal that the film had gone beyond community values in Singapore.

In September 2014, Singaporean filmmaker Tan Pin Pin's documentary about Communist Party of Malaya (CPM) political exiles, To Singapore, With Love (2013), received an NAR rating, with the MDA claiming that it undermined national security as "the individuals in the film have given distorted and untruthful accounts of how they came to leave Singapore and remain outside Singapore," and that "a number of these self-professed 'exiles' were members of, or had provided support to, the proscribed CPM."

The Yangtze Cinema, built in 1976, was probably the only theatre in Singapore where uncut softcore pornographic films were shown, it has closed its doors on 29 February 2016.

Benedetta was refused classification by the IMDA for insensitive portrayals of the Catholic Church, particularly a homosexual scene between two nuns.

Party political films
The controversial Section 33 of the Films Act originally banned the making, distribution and exhibition of "party political films", at pain of a fine not exceeding $100,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 2 years. The Act further defined a "party political film" as any film or video
 (a) which is an advertisement made by or on behalf of any political party in Singapore or any body whose objects relate wholly or mainly to politics in Singapore, or any branch of such party or body; or
 (b) which is made by any person and directed towards any political end in Singapore
Exceptions are, however, made for films "made solely for the purpose of reporting of current events", or informing or educating persons on the procedures and polling times of elections or referendums.
In 2001, the short documentary called A Vision of Persistence on opposition politician J. B. Jeyaretnam was also banned for being a "party political film". The makers of the documentary, all lecturers at the Ngee Ann Polytechnic, later submitted written apologies and withdrew the documentary from being screened at the 2001 Singapore International Film Festival in April, having been told they could be charged in court. Another short documentary called Singapore Rebel by Martyn See, which documented Singapore Democratic Party leader Dr Chee Soon Juan's acts of civil disobedience, was banned from the 2005 Singapore International Film Festival on the same grounds and See is being investigated for possible violations of the Films Act.
Channel NewsAsia's five-part documentary series on Singapore's PAP ministers in 2005 were not considered a party political film. The government response was that the programme was part of current affairs and thus does not contravene the Films Act .
Since they do not concern the politics of Singapore, films that call out political beliefs of other countries, for example Michael Moore's Fahrenheit 911, are allowed.
Since March 2009, the Films Act has been amended to allow party political films as long as they were deemed factual and objective by a consultative committee. Some months later, this committee lifted the ban on Singapore Rebel.

Print media

Local press
{{Blockquote|The local papers ... are essentially organs of the state, instruments of only the most desirable propagation.|William Gibson|"Disneyland with the Death Penalty", Wired Issue 1.04, September 1993.}}
Singapore's history of a censored local press begins even before its independence. In 1824, Francis Bernard, whom Stamford Raffles appointed Chief of Police and Master Attendant, founded Singapore's premier newspaper, the Singapore Chronicle. In an astoundingly foreshadowing manner that would symbolize the island's relationship to censorship for centuries to come, a legislative stipulation called "the Gagging Act" mandated that each newspaper had to be submitted to Governor Raffles for review before publication. In 1835 the Gagging Act was abolished, coinciding with the founding of new newspaper called the Free Press.

Today, with the sole exception of MediaCorp's daily freesheet Today, all daily newspapers including the flagship Straits Times are printed by SPH Media Trust, whose management shareholders are appointed by the government in accordance with the Newspaper and Printing Presses Act of 1974. While current shareholding structure does not imply direct governmental control on media content, their active presence promotes self-censorship amongst journalists. In 2008, Reporters without Borders ranked Singapore as 144th out of 173 surveyed countries in terms of freedom of the press. The Singapore Government said it is not ashamed of its low rank for press freedom because it has achieved top ratings for economic freedom and prosperity. Instead of subscribing to the Western press model, it believes that a non-adversarial press can report accurately and objectively. A recent Gallup poll found that 69% of Singaporeans trusted their media.

On 30 June 2006, blogger mrbrown wrote an article, titled "TODAY: S'poreans are fed, up with progress!", for his weekly opinion column in Today newspaper concerning the rising income gap and costs of living in Singapore. Three days later, on 3 July, an official from the Ministry of Information, Communications and the Arts published a response letter on the same newspaper calling mrbrown a "partisan player" whose views "distort the truth". On 6 July, the newspaper suspended his column. Fellow blogger Mr Miyagi subsequently resigned from his column for Today. This was followed by Today newspaper chief executive and editor-in-chief Mano Sabnani's resignation in November 2006. The action fuelled anger over the Internet due to the perceived heavy-handedness action taken by the government over criticisms.

Foreign publications
The MDA requires importers to "ensure that the publications/ audio materials brought in for distribution do not feature content which could be considered objectionable on moral, racial or religious grounds, or deemed detrimental to Singapore's national interests". According to the MDA, more than 2 million publications and 300,000 audio materials are imported into Singapore each year under the Registered Importers Scheme. Foreign publications that carry articles the government considers slanderous, including The Economist and the Far Eastern Economic Review (FEER), have been subjected to defamation suits and/or had their circulations "gazetted" (restricted). The sale of Malaysian newspapers in Singapore is prohibited; a similar ban on the sale of newspapers from Singapore applies in Malaysia.

In August 2006, the government announced a tightening of rules on foreign publications previously exempt from the media code. Newsweek, Time, the Financial Times, the Far Eastern Economic Review and the International Herald Tribune will be required to appoint a publisher's representative in Singapore who could be sued, and to pay a security deposit of S$200,000. The move comes after FEER published an interview with Singaporean opposition leader Chee Soon Juan, who claimed that leading members of the Singaporean government had "skeletons in their closets". On 28 September 2006, FEER was banned briefly for failing to comply with conditions imposed under the Newspaper and Printing Presses Act.

Pornography is strictly prohibited in Singapore; this encompasses magazines such as Playboy or Penthouse. However, magazines which are deemed non-pornographic and classified under "Adult Interest Magazines" such as Cosmopolitan are free to be distributed at all stores with a "Unsuitable For The Young" label on its cover.

In December 2008, a Singaporean couple was charged with sedition for distributing the Chick tracts The Little Bride and Who Is Allah?, said "to promote feelings of ill-will and hostility between Christians and Muslims in Singapore".

Television

Singapore's state investment arm, Temasek Holdings, is the parent organisation of MediaCorp which comprises all free-to-air terrestrial local TV channels licensed to broadcast in Singapore, as well as 13 radio stations. In July 2011, Singapore relaxed the Subscription Television Programme Code guidelines allowing Pay TV operators to screen up to M18-rated content programmes containing more graphic content (e.g. sex scenes/nudity, graphic violence, strong language) and mature or sensitive subject matter relating to political issues, racial/religious issues and homosexuality. R21-rated content was still restricted to only Pay TV Video-on-Demand (VOD) services. In July 2016, the IMDA officially greenlit R21-rated content for Over-the-Top (OTT) services.
However, the English language Pay-TV channels currently available for scheduled broadcast in Singapore comprises only Asian regional channels such as Fox Channel Asia, Star World and WarnerTV, which are outside the editorial control of the Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA) as they operate on a regional scale and the same standard of censorship is carried out across the entire region because these channels have to conform with laws from the more conservative areas in Asia, meaning most territories in Asia watch the same censored version. At the moment, only Singapore-owned Video-On-Demand services offer English language programmes that can be regulated by the IMDA and therefore, passed uncut under classification ratings such as NC16, M18 and R21. The popular HBO series Sex and the City was pulled from broadcast originally in the late 90s when the series debuted but the ban was later lifted after an earlier relaxation of guidelines in the Subscription Television Programme Code in 2004. Private ownership of satellite dishes is illegal, though international TV news broadcasts (such as CNN International, BBC World News, Fox News Channel, RT, etc.) are available on services such as Starhub TV and SingTel IPTV Singtel TV.

The Info-communications Media Development Authority (IMDA), through its four Programme Advisory Committees (PAC) for each of the four official languages, monitors and provides feedback on broadcast content.  Permissible content on free-to-air Singaporean TV is regulated by the IMDA's Free-to-Air Television Programme Code. The Free-to-Air Television Programme Code states that "all programmes broadcast between 6am and 10pm must be generally acceptable for family audiences. The transition from family-oriented to more adult programming after the watershed time of 10pm should also be executed gradually" Hence, locally produced dramas aired before 10pm tend to be more family-based, with crime-horror-thrillers; etc. at a minimum. PG13 content, which is allowed only after 10pm to 6am, is the maximum rating available for free-to-air television in Singapore. NC16 and M18-rated content are available only on Pay TV channels under the editorial control of the IMDA such as Singapore channels E City and VV Drama, both of which owned by Starhub. Part 13.3 of the Code states that use of the local English-based creole Singlish "should not be encouraged and can only be permitted in interviews, where the interviewee speaks only Singlish." The popular Singlish sitcom Phua Chu Kang was singled out in a National Day rally speech. The Programmes Advisory Committee for English TV and Radio Programmes also singled out the use of Singlish in local sitcoms in its 2005 annual report, saying they "contain excessive Singlish" and "this should be avoided as it could give the wrong impression, especially among the young, that Singlish is the standard of spoken English in Singapore"
Part 13.4 of the Code states that "All Chinese programmes, except operas or other programmes specifically approved by the Authority, must be generally in Mandarin." Dialects in dialogues and songs may be allowed provided the context justifies usage and is sparingly used. More leeway of dialects is given for Pay TV channels.
In February 2008, the Academy Awards acceptance speech for the short documentary Freeheld'' was censored by Mediacorp in the rebroadcast of the program due to the filmmakers' mention of equal rights for same-sex couples as it violated the Free-to-air TV Programme Code.

Another aspect is the dialects ban which is currently in practice for free-to-air radio and television, which is also criticized in the Speak Mandarin Campaign, Languages of Singapore.

Freedom of press

As of 2022, Singapore is rated at 139 of 180 on the Press Freedom Index and labeled as "partly free" on the Freedom of the Press report. MediaCorp, owned by state investment arm Temasek Holdings, with 7 television channels and 14 radio channels, is by far the largest media provider and the only television broadcaster. SPH Media Trust has a monopoly over the print media. This, combined with the Media Development Authority's ability to regulate all media, led the press to adapt a non-adversarial approach to reporting instead of facing defamation lawsuits.

Overseas media has faced warnings, defamation suits, and contempt of court proceedings filed by Singaporean officials in the local courts, including the International Herald Tribune, Economist, Financial Times, The Wall Street Journal, Bloomberg and the Far Eastern Economic Review. Journalists and human rights groups have commented that the apologies were made to preserve the distribution system and editorial access of their media in the Singaporean market.

In 2014, a new regulatory framework for online news websites came into effect. Online content providers must apply for a licence if they:
 report an average of at least one article per week on Singapore news and current affairs over a period of two months, and
 are visited by at least 50,000 unique IP addresses from Singapore each month over the same period of two months
These sites must also put up a performance bond of $50,000, and individual licenses have to be renewed on a yearly basis. Registered sites are expected to remove content that is in breach of MDA standards within 24 hours, if their content is considered by IMDA as being against the public interest, public security, or national harmony. The move was widely seen as a way of tightening control over non-traditional news reporting and socio-political websites before the 2015 general elections.

Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act

The Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act, (POFMA) and known colloquially as Fake News Law, is a statute of the Parliament of Singapore that enables authorities to tackle the spread of fake news or false information. The law is designed specifically to allow authorities to respond to fake news or false information through a graduated process of enforcing links to fact-checking statements, censorship of website or assets on social media platforms, and criminal charges. The law is controversial and has received criticism both locally and internationally by opposition politicians, human rights groups, journalists and academics, and is thought to further add on to the stringent laws in Singapore.

See also

 Restrictions on freedom of speech and assembly
 Public demonstrations in Singapore
 Human rights in Singapore
 OB marker

References

External links

 Media Development Authority
 Censorship in Singapore – IFEX
 Undated Centre Street Broadcast in which Martyn See and others discuss the film Singapore Rebel
 The 3 tiers of censorship in Singapore, a review of censorship laws and practices. (5 November 2009)

Censorship in Singapore
Freedom of expression in Singapore
Regulation in Singapore


Memorial Day came after the unprecedented carnage after the Civil War. 620,000 men lost their lives during that war. The remembrance of these men started by women who put flowers on the graves of the fallen soldiers both Confederate and Union on April 1866. This was also when 219 Civil War veterans marched through town in Carbondale, Illinois in remembrance. It is there that Union hero Maj. Gen. John A. Logan delivered an address and this observance became the first organized, community led Memorial Day service.
Before it was known as Memorial Day, it was first called Decoration Day. This was because of the practice of the women who would decorate the graves of the fallen soldiers with flower, wreaths and flags. Though Memorial Day dates back to 1882 but many still called it Decoration Day until after World War II.
Many southern states did not observe Memorial Day until After World War I. Those states celebrated Confederate Memorial Day where they honored their soldiers specifically. To this day, there are several southern states that still set aside a day honoring the Confederate dead. Its date varies from state to state.
If it wasn't for World War I or World War II, Memorial Day may have disappeared. The deaths of the remaining Civil War veterans had caused the holiday to slowly fall off the calendar. It wasn't until these huge wars that the country was called to continue to remember our fallen soldiers once again. It was the veterans of these wars that successfully lobbied to make Memorial Day a national holiday in 1968.
While many reported that the famous bugle tune, Taps, came from a Civil War captain who found his son dead among the Confederate bodies this is actually an urban legend. It actually came from Union Brig. Gen Daniel Butterfield during the Civil War who preferred this somber song over the customary firing of three rifle volleys at the end of burials during battle. Historians said that he took the song from the French called Tattoo that was played as their army's lights outs and changed a few notes to make it what is in now.


text:
BooksLanguage and LiteratureTense, A...
Tense, Aspect, and Mood in English and Marathi
Preface I have often been startled by the keen observation, deep insight, and a very good sense of humour in English Linguistics and have wondered if there could be such Linguistics in Marathi also. Since I began to study Linguistics, I was eager to apply its findings to Marathi. The present survey is one of my attempts at it. As I was a teacher of English at the time when I was working on this topic, I thought a comparison of the two languages would also be fruitful. But the bo...
I have often been startled by the keen observation, deep insight, and a very good sense of humour in English Linguistics and have wondered if there could be such Linguistics in Marathi also. Since I began to study Linguistics, I was eager to apply its findings to Marathi. The present survey is one of my attempts at it. As I was a teacher of English at the time when I was working on this topic, I thought a comparison of the two languages would also be fruitful. But the book is by no means a contrastive analysis of English and Marathi.
The book is a slightly revised version of my Ph. D. dissertation submitted in 1974. I am grateful to Dr. Ashok R. Kelkar not only for his guidance-which, I am aware, very few students of Linguistics are fortunate to get-, or his patience with me, but specially for the long continued discussions we have had which broadened my comprehension and made me aware of my limits. In revision I have not altered the basic scheme-I do not think it is necessary to do so. I have added examples, especially from Marathi. I thank my wife, members of my family and my friends for scrutinizing many utterances in Marathi.
I always felt that my thesis should go in print and had always felt it to be impossible because of its bulk. I am extremely grateful to Dr. S.B. Deo, Director of the Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute, Dr. M.K. Dhavalikar, Chairman of the Publication Committee, and Dr. P. Bhaskararao, Head of the Department of Linguistics, Deccan College for encouraging me in this work and making an impossible thing possible. Without their help my work would have sunk into oblivion.
I am happy to publish Dr. R.V. Dhongde's "Tense, Aspect, and Mood in English and Marathi' which, I am sure, researchers in Linguistics would welcome. The book's originality and thoroughness were admired by his referes and though delayed, its publication will be beneficial for students of Linguistics. The institution has always published outstanding works of scholars-this book is a continuation of that tradition. I am aware of the hard work Dr. Dhongde had to put in producing this work and am sure that he would produce such works in future.
The aim of the present survey of the temporal, the aspectual, and the modal notions and their formal expression in English and Marathi is a very humble one, Up to this time many grammarians like Jespersen, Sweet, Poustma, Curme, and a neo-traditional like Hatcher, linguists like Joos, Diver, Twaddell, Halliday, Huddleston, Crystal, Binnick, Jacobson, Robin Lakoff, Ehrman, and many others- who are listed in the Bibliography-have tried to tackle the problem, with reference to English. We will, of course, take into account the invaluable insights provided by them. At the same time, we will try to establish our own framework.
One noteworthy thing about the earlier treatments of English verb inflection and phrases and modal verbs is that the problem is considered either from the formal side or from the side of meaning. And each side criticises the other by pointing out the failures in correlating the two. We have tried to establish the formal mechanisms for English and Marathi in Chapter 1 and to propose a framework of the notional categories in Chapter 2. The establishment of the notional framework, for us, is a challenge, since we are always in the danger of being fools to rush in. But even if this survey makes one aware that Tense, Aspect, and Modal systems cannot be considered without a systematic approach to their meaning part, the aim of this survey will have been achieved. The second aim of this survey is to dispel an assumption that the way from form to meaning or vice versa is a simple, direct way. And this is where the importance of Chapter 3 comes, in which we have taken a survey of relevant conditions necessary for interpreting a given form or expressing a given notion. Almost every Tense or Aspect marker or a Modal verb has different interpretations in different conditions. Again the formal expressions of Time, Aspect, and Mood are entangled with each other. Many previous treatments of Tense, Aspect, or Mood suffer from their decision to confine themselves to one of the three or even to a part of one of the three. The global approach here puts us in a better position to watch and consider the disputes among linguists with interest and understanding.
Chapters 4 and 5 seek to realize our third aim. Given a form, one must be able to find its meaning with the help of our analysis and given a string of notions one must be able to find a proper expression for it. The possible number of formal specifications of the constituent AUX in a sentence in a given natural language is large but finite and hence one entertain some hope of exhausting the domain by offering possible interpretations of those forms. But one cannot make such a claim in respect of the number of notions a language can express. We must be aware of our limits in this respect. Neither do we claim to exhaust nor do we aim at exhausting all the notions related to Tense, Aspect, and Modal systems. Rather we cover such notions as are responsible for some formal distinction at some point if not consistently so.
Our fourth aim is to see what emerges out of the non-historical comparison of the Tense, Aspect, and Modal systems of English and Marathi. The comparison may have three advantages. One it might throw some light on language universals. Second, it will serve to bring out the peculiarities of the two languages. Finally, it will give us better equipment for establishing translation rules between English and Marathi, for identifying teaching points in teaching English to Marathi speakers and vice versa, and for understanding better the mechanisms underlying deviations of tense, aspect, and modals in the English as used by Marathi speakers. Such a comparison is therefore going to be of some practical use. However, a detailed working out of translation rules, contrastive analysis, and error analysis is outside the scope of this study.
And our fifth and final aim is to contribute something to the study of linguistics-especially to the study of Marathi linguistics. No major work has been done after Dr. Kelkar's exhaustive and exhausting analysis of Marathi Phonology and Morphology. In spite of (perhaps I should say, in view of) the complaints that Marathi is a messy language-which can be seen by reading part B of Chapter 1 alone-its study is worthwhile. The intimate study of modern Indian languages by linguists speaking them natively is an urgent need.
While we have made every attempt to present a reasonably adequate picture of the formal and the notional systems taken by themselves, our primary aim is rather to establish correlations-what we call Expression Rules in Chapter 4 and Interpretation Rules in Chapter 5. And therefore, we are not over ambitious in making either the formal system or the notional system rigorous and compact. As a result the analysis offered in Chapter 1 is more of a surface analysis than a deep one. In Chapter 2 also where we deal with notions and diagnostic tests we have followed principles of logic. But that is also as far as it is convenient to our main purpose. We are not trying to generate notional strings. For example, we have not cared to find why there is no back-linking Narrative Cohesion between sentences is Marathi and English, though it is logically possible ('and earlier' replacing the story-teller's 'and then'). We feel that establishing rules for generating notional strings for Time, Aspect, and Mood will be premature at the present stage of our understanding. In short we heartily endorse Robin Lakoff'(1970) slogans 'A Perfect Mystery at Present', 'the Future is Just as Dark', and 'Things are Tough Allover'.
In the sections entitled 'Discussion' at the end of Chapters 1 to 5, we have acknowledged our debt to linguists and grammarians from whom we have drawn a lot of ideas. But there our acknowledgement is restricted by the relevant topic of discussion. The bibliography given at the end, therefore should not be considered only as a list of authors who have worked on the same problem but also as a list of authors who are our secondary sources. Being a non-native speaker of English the author of this survey has drawn, as far as possible, English examples from naive native-speakers or native- speaking analysts. We have quoted at the end of some sentences the names of those who have cited them earlier. Other sentences are checked with the help of some native speakers. In the case of Marathi the author mainly depends on his own idiolect though he has taken help of other when he was in doubt. It is hoped that, though this or that example may be disputed, a fair amount of observational and descriptive adequacy has been achieved.
We have not followed any right method of analysis. We are neither strictly transformationist nor systemic or structuralist. We have collected insights and data from all and tried to put it in some form. The analysis is more data-oriented than mosel-oriented. It is hoped that the result is the evolvement of a somewhat new analysis. As we have already indicated, the grammar of Chapter 1 is basically a grammar of forms and therefore nearer the surface than the grammar as proposed by, say, generative semanticists. The accompanying diagram should indicate the framework implied in the present attempt. We have frankly left out any attempt to set up a mechanism for generating notional strings which can be the input for expression rules. Basically, the output of interpretation rules is the same as the input of expression rules. In the actual process of analysis tentative versions of both types of rules were framed at the same time with extensive cross-comparison, and constant revision. This does not imply, however, that expression rules and interpretation rules are simple mirror images of each other. If thay were, it would of course be trivial to two sets of rules.
Preface vii-viii
Contents xi-xv
0 Introduction 1-14
1 Survey of Available Verbaal Forms 15-97
1 A English
1 B Marathi 48-94
1 C Discussion 94-97
2 Survey of Expressible Notional Categories 98-143
2 A Fremework 99-140
2 B Discussion 140-143
3 Survey of Relevant Conditions 144-193
3 A A English 144-165
3 B Marathi 165-189
3 C Discussion 189-193
4 From Notions to Their Expressions 194-340
4 A English 195-278
5 From Expressions to Thire Interpretations 341-467
6 Extension and Appllcations 468-471
Bibligraphy 472-480
Item Code: NAM133 Author: Ramesh Vaman Dhongde Cover: Paperback Publisher: Deccan College Postgraduate and Research Institute Language: English Size: 8.5 inch x 5.5 inch Pages: 493 Other Details: Weight of the Book: 740 gms
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