"It was a good experience with amazing leaders and I want to do it again!"
The Mountains to Missouri Expedition is an adventurous 12-day course traveling from headwaters on the Continental Divide all the way to the Missouri River. Students will travel by both foot and by packraft while in the backcountry and will develop their leadership and communication skills, and connection to wild spaces. The course begins with a physically challenging backpacking section in the Montana high country followed by a transition to packrafts and paddling a river on the Rocky Mountain Front to its confluence with the Missouri River, along the way learning backcountry living skills and whitewater paddling. This expedition also focuses on Leave No Trace principles, personal growth, and building a positive and supportive expedition community as students face new challenges. For more information about MWS core curriculum and expedition progression see Expedition Life.


text:
Q: Flash/ajax file upload to blobstore? Is it possible to use some enhanced component to upload files to blobstore?
I'm playing with uploadify but facing problems to put it to work. I would like to be able to filter the kind of file before send it to blobstore, as well as the file size and maybe show some progress bar during the upload...
PS: For those who also subscribe the gae-j group, this is a reposting, since nobody answered this question in the group...

A: Check out Plupload, which does pretty much everything you are looking for, and also this post, which demonstrates how to implement Plupload using App Engine.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Ukraine official reports on number of suicides among troops in Donbas
About two or three servicemen have committed a suicide weekly since the start of the Donbas war.
Photo from UNIAN
Ukraine's chief military prosecutor Anatoliy Matios has updated a report on a suicide rate among military servicemen in the area of the Anti-Terrorist Operation (ATO) in Donbas.
According to him, there is "a very sad statistics of suicides among people who have been on a mission in the area of hostilities in Donbas for a long time. On average, it's two or three people a week. It's those who are in the ATO zone," Matios said, according to 112 Ukraine TV channel.
Read alsoATO HQ comments on another non-combat loss in DonbasHe added that over 500,000 people had already taken part in battles in eastern Ukraine.
"Meanwhile, world statistics says that up to 80% of them [troops who have taken part in combat missions] have some signs of a post-traumatic stress disorder, which results in family violence, aggression, and rejection of peaceful life," Matios said.
As reported earlier, a soldier was recently found hanged at a Poltava-based military hospital.
Tags: #Donbas#Ukraine#soldiers#stats#suicide#Matios

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


This section covers Implicit Differentiation.
The right hand side of this equation is 1, since the derivative of x is 1. However, to work out the left hand side we must use the chain rule.
(although it is not strictly correct to do so, at this level you can think of dy/dx as a fraction in the chain rule. In the line above, imagine that you can cancel the "dy" s, leaving d/dx and y3, which is what we had in the previous line).
In this example, method (2) is probably the easiest. However, there are cases when the only possible method is (3).
Differentiate x2 + y2 = 3x, with respect to x.
Differentiate ax with respect to x.
You might be tempted to write xax-1 as the answer. This is wrong. That would be the answer if we were differentiating with respect to a not x.
Put y = ax .


Christopher Ward gladly offers its new C700 Grand Rapide Chronograph watch, designed in the UK and assembled by hand in the brand's workshops in Switzerland.
The new Christopher Ward watch captures attention by its carbon fiber dial. It employs the same supreme material, used in the aerospace industry and the Formula 1 competition.
Endowed with a polished chequered design, the display ensures central hours, minutes and seconds. The chronograph features are presented through a 30-minute sub-dial at 12 o'clock, a 12-hour counter at 6 o'clock as well as a 60-second counter at 9 o'clock. With its guilloche pattern, the latter is inspired by a rev counter design.
The day and date indications are arranged in exhibition windows at 3 o'clock. On the extremity of the dial there is a tachymeter scale. The hands are inlaid with Superluminova compound to make the dial readable when light becomes darkness.
Protecting the face of the new Christopher Ward C700 Grand Rapide Chronograph watch is a convex sapphire crystal with glare-proofed coating. The sapphire glass is also utilized for the case-back, which permits a glance into the Swiss made automatic Sellita SW500 movement.
The caliber is safely hidden inside a hand-polished surgical grade stainless steel case. It is equipped with a screw-in crown. The water-resistance of the case is assured down to 50 meters.
The new Christopher Ward watch is mounted on a stainless steel bracelet. It can be also coupled with a leather or rubber strap. All the versions terminate in an adjustable quick-release butterfly clasp.


From Brazilian favelas to dusty Congolese villages, from neolithic Scottish isles to modern soccer pitches, BOUNCE explores the little-known origins of our favorite sports. As producer and cinematographer, I traveled the world with director and long-time collaborator, Jerome Thelia. Premiered at the SXSW festival.
Inspired by the book, The Ball: Discovering the Object of the Game by another long time collaborator John Fox.
Bounce: Watch a 7 minute excerpt on the ancient game of Ba on the Orkney Islands in Scotland.


text:
\section{Introduction}\label{sec:introduction}

It is well known that black--hole binaries make transitions among several distinct spectral states, mainly depending on their luminosity. Among these transitions, the best recognized are those between the soft and the hard states (e.g., \cite{Remillard06}). Similarly, Neutron--Star (NS) Low--Mass X--ray Binaries (LMXBs), consisting of mass-donating low--mass stars and mass-accreting weakly-magnetized NSs, exhibit transitions between their hard and soft states, which are realized when their luminosities are lower and higher than $\sim 4\%$ of their Eddington value, respectively (e.g., \cite{Asai12}).
\par
Although the two states of LMXBs were often studied independently, broad-band Suzaku data have allowed us to explain the LMXB spectra in both these two states using essentially the same three ingredients \citep{Sakurai12,Sakurai14,Zhang14,Ono16}: a multi-color disk (MCD) emission from an optically-thick accretion disk, a blackbody (BB) component from the NS surface, and a hot electron cloud (a ``corona'') which Comptonizes the BB (or sometimes BB+MCD) photons. In terms of this spectral composition, the two states are distinguished primarily by a marked difference in the Comptonization strength (much stronger in the hard state). Furthermore, the MCD and BB components both have generally larger radii and lower temperatures in the hard state.
\par
In order to further strengthen the above unified view of LMXBs, we can utilize their spectral state transitions. That is, the identification of the spectral ingredients and the spectral decompositions can be made less ambiguous, by continuously tracing whether each spectral component in one state really transfers into the corresponding one in the other state; thus, we will be able to connect the spectral modeling in the less-understood hard state to those in the better-understood soft state. As a result, such attempts have been carried out by many authors \citep{Dai10,Egron13,Seifina15}. Although the studies were often hampered by difficulty to catch such transitions which are rare and generally difficult to predict with a sufficient accuracy \citep{Dai10,Egron13}, some authors successfully detected transitions (e.g., \cite{Church14,Lin07}) utilizing, for example, RXTE, and found continuous changes of the spectral parameters. In the present study, we attempt to update these results using improved instruments.
\par
For the above purpose, the Suzaku observatory, with its broad energy coverage, is particularly suited. We hence searched the Suzaku archive for a suitable data set, and found an ideal one. Namely, a Suzaku observation of Aquila X-1, made on 2011 October 21 for a gross duration of 79.9~ks in a rising phase of an outburst, very fortunately caught a hard-to-soft spectral transition of this typical recurrent LMXB. Aquila X-1 (hereafter Aql X-1) repeats outbursts, in which the 2--10 keV flux increases by a factor of $>200$ \citep{Sakurai12}, and is associated with an optical counterpart with a magnitude of $V=$15--$19$ \citep{Gottwald91}. It exhibits type I bursts, by which the distance has been constrained to be 4.4--5.9 kpc assuming that the burst peak luminosity reaches the Eddington luminosity for an assumed NS mass of 1.4 $M_{\odot}$ \citep{Jonker04}. In the present paper, we analyzed this precious data set, employing a distance of $D=5.2$~kpc \citep{Sakurai12}.

\section{Observation and Data Reduction}\label{sec:obs_and_data}

\begin{figure}[htbp]
 \begin{center}
	\FigureFile(170mm,100mm){xis03_pin_lightcurves4.eps}
 \end{center}
\caption{Background--subtracted light curves of Aql X-1 with 128~s binning obtained with (a) XIS (XIS 0 plus XIS 3) in 0.8--10~keV and (b) HXD-PIN in 15--60~keV. Panel (c) is the HXD--PIN vsXIS hardness ratio. Arrows in panel (a) indicate Type I X-ray bursts. Time 0 corresponds to 2011 October 21 12:51:33}\label{fig:lightcurve}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Observation}\label{sec:observation}
The data set of Aql X-1 to be analyzed here (ObsID 406010020) was acquired from 2011 October 21 12:51:33 UT for a gross duration of 79.9 ks, with the XIS and the HXD onboard. The source was placed at the ``XIS nominal'' position. To reduce pile--up effects, The XIS was operated in the 1/4 window mode with a read--out time of 2.0~s. Furthermore, the burst mode option was employed, in which the data are accumulated only for 0.5~s per the 2.0~s read-out time.

\subsection{XIS data reduction}\label{sec:xis_data_reduction}
We utilized the XIS 0 and XIS 3 events of GRADE 0, 2, 3, 4 and 6. On--source events were accumulated in a circle with a radius of $2'.5$ around the image centroid. To further reduce the pile--up effects down to $<3\%$ \citep{Yamada12}, events in a circle with a radius of $1'$ at the center were discarded. Background events to be subtracted from the on--source data were taken from an annular region with the inner radius of $4'$ and the outer radius of $5'$.
\par
Figure \ref{fig:lightcurve} (a) presents the background--subtracted 0.8--10~keV XIS (XIS 0 plus XIS 3) light curve derived in this way. It shows 9 Type I bursts, while two more were lost after we adjusted the XIS and HXD exposures. Thus, the source clearly brightened up by a factor of $\sim$3 in the XIS band, mainly across $\sim30$~ks from $\sim40$~ks to $70$~ks after the observation started.
\par
As shown in figure \ref{fig:lightcurve}, we define 10 data segments, to be named P0, P1, $\cdots$ to P9, each lasting for $\sim 2$~ks but with the Type I bursts excluded. The net XIS exposure summed over P0--P9 is 6.4 ks, which is much shorter than that with the HXD (see section \ref{sec:hxd_data_reduction}) because of the burst option (section \ref{sec:observation}).

\subsection{HXD data reduction}\label{sec:hxd_data_reduction}
Excluding the Type I bursts, HXD cleaned events were accumulated over the same ten periods, P0--P9, with a summed net exposure of 22.4 ks after dead time correction. We used non-X-ray background (NXB) events distributed by the HXD team, to reproduce NXB spectra \citep{Fukazawa09} which are subtracted from the on--source data. Cosmic-X-ray background (CXB) included in the on--source data was accounted for by adding a fixed CXB model to the spectral models describing the Aql X-1 emission (see section \ref{sec:fit1}). Figure \ref{fig:lightcurve} (b) shows the dead--time--corrected 15--60~keV light curve thus derived with HXD--PIN. There, the NXB contribution, estimated as $\lesssim0.7$~cts s$^{-1}$, was already subtracted. Thus, the HXD--PIN count rate decreased clearly, by a factor of 3--4, in anti--correlation with that of XIS.
\par
Figure \ref{fig:lightcurve} (c) shows the ratio of the HXD-PIN to XIS count rates. It clearly shows a continuous and monotonic decrease, which we take as a convincing signature of a hard--to--soft state transition. The associated spectral change is the most significant across P4--P7. Thus, the present observation fortunately witnessed a very rare occasion of the state transition. For reference, the present episode on MJD 55855, is seen in the long-term MAXI and Swift light curves of figure 3 of \citet{Asai15}, as a rapid rise in the 2--10~keV MAXI/GSC intensity and a drop in the 15--50~keV Swift/BAT count rate.
\par
The source was detected significantly with HXD-GSO over P0--P4, but not in P5--P9. In analyzing the P0--P4 spectra, we hence utilize the HXD--GSO data up to an energy where the signal becomes comparable to that of the systematic NXB uncertainty \citep{Fukazawa09}.

\section{Spectral Analysis}

\begin{figure}[htbp]
	\FigureFile(80mm,80mm){P04679.eps}
\caption{ Background--subtracted XIS 0 plus XIS 3 and HXD spectra of Aql X-1, taken in the time intervals of P0 (black), P4 (red), P6 (blue), P7 (magenta), and P9 (green). They are all normalized by a common power-law, with a photon index of 2.0 and normalization of 1 ph cm$^{-2}$ s $^{-1}$ keV$^{-1}$ at 1~keV.}\label{fig:spectra}
\end{figure}

Figure \ref{fig:spectra} shows XIS+HXD spectra in several time intervals, all normalized to a common power law model with a photon index of 2. The P0 and P4 spectra, with a power law like shape (somewhat harder than the normalizing power-law) and a cut off around 30--40~keV, exhibit characteristics which are typical of the hard state. In contrast, the P6, P7 and P9 spectra show those of the soft state. Therefore, we reconfirm our inference made in section \ref{sec:obs_and_data}, that the observation caught a hard--to--soft state transition. The spectra have a pivot at $\sim$8~keV; the flux density at $\sim$30~keV decreased nearly by an order of magnitude, while that at 3~keV tripled.

\subsection{Continuum modeling}\label{sec:fit1}
To the ten spectra, we applied the model consisting of MCD and Comptonized BB emission using XSPEC (version 12.9.0). As the MCD component, an XSPEC model {\tt diskbb} was utilized.  An XSPEC model {\tt nthcomp} \citep{Zdziarski96,Zycki99} was utilized as the Comptonized BB emission, because it is suitable for Comptonization with optical depths $\tau>2$ \citep{Zdziarski96} which is the case in the soft state \citep{Sakurai12} and presumably at around the transition \citep{Ono16}. The seed photon source was chosen to be the BB arising from the NS surface. The absorption was taken into account by a multiplicative XSPEC model {\tt wabs}, with the column density fixed at $3.6\times 10^{21}{\rm cm^{-2}}$ which was obtained independently by \citet{Sakurai14} and \citet{Gatuzz16}. Thus, the model we used is expressed as {\tt wabs$\times$(diskbb+nthcomp)}. The free parameters are the inner disk temperature $T_{\rm in}$, the MCD normalization corresponding to the inner disk radius $R_{\rm in}$, the BB temperature $T_{\rm BB}$, the BB radius (assuming a spherical geometry) $R_{\rm BB}$, the Comptonizing electron temperature $T_{\rm e}$, and its optical depth $\tau$.
\par
To the continuum model as constructed above, we added an analytical CXB model \citep{Boldt87} expressed as\par
${\rm CXB}(E)=9.41 \times 10^{-3}(\frac{E}{1 \rm keV})^{-1.29}{\rm exp}(-\frac{E}{40 \rm keV})$,
\\where the units are ${\rm photons\ cm^{-2}\ s^{-1} keV^{-1} FOV^{-1}}$, and $E$ is the energy in keV.
 The energy range of 1.7--2.2 keV was ignored to avoid calibration uncertainties associated with the silicon K-edge and gold M-edge. The XIS vs. HXD cross normalization was expressed by multiplying the model for the HXD with the constant factor 1.16 \citep{Kokubun07}.
 \par
The fit was good with $\chi^{2}_{\nu}\sim1.1$ for all the 10 spectra. The fit results for P0, 4, 6, 7 and 9 are shown in figure \ref{fig:residuals1}, together with residuals of all periods. As expected, the softer and harder parts of the continuum were reproduced by the {\tt diskbb} and {\tt nthcomp} components, respectively. In addition, the MCD component clearly became more dominant from P0 to P9, while the Comptonization component became weaker with decreasing cutoff energy, indicating a decrease in $kT_{\rm e}$. The obtained model parameters are summarized in table \ref{table:parameters1} (after incorporating the iron line; subsection \ref{sec:fit2}), and plotted in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} against the time (panels a--d) and the luminosity (e--g). There, the values of $R_{\rm BB}$, describing the seed photon source, were calculated assuming that the Comptonization process conserves the photon number. The value of $R_{\rm in}$ was deduced from the MCD normalization $N_{\rm MCD}$ as\par
$R_{\rm in} = \xi \kappa ^2 \left(N_{\rm MCD}\right)^{\frac{1}{2}}\left(\frac{D}{10~{\rm kpc}}\right)\left(\cos i \right)^{-\frac{1}{2}}$
\\where $D=5.2$~kpc is the employed distance, $i=45^{\circ}$ is an inclination assumed following \citet{Sakurai12}, while $\xi=0.412$ and $\kappa=1.7$ describe effects of the inner boundary condition of the disk, and the color-hardening, respectively \citep{Kubota98}. Panel (d) in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} and table 2 show luminosities of the individual emission components. Here, the seed BB luminosity $L_{\rm BB}$ was calculated from the BB temperature and the 0.1--50 keV photon flux of {\tt nthcomp}, assuming spherical emission. The disk luminosity was obtained by the 0.1--10 keV energy flux of {\tt diskbb} without correction for the inclination. Finally, the luminosity carried by the Comptonization process, $L_{\rm comp}$, was derived by subtracting $L_{\rm BB}$ calculated above from the 0.1--100~keV luminosity of {\tt nthcomp}.
\par
Figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} reveals several important properties of the transition. First, throughout P0--P9, we confirm $R_{\rm BB}<R_{\rm NS}\equiv 12~{\rm km}<R_{\rm in}$ and $T_{\rm in}<T_{\rm BB}<T_{\rm e}$, which makes the model physically reasonable. Second, the parameters from P0--P3 are consistent with those obtained by Sakurai et al. (2014) from Aql X-1 in its hard state, and those from P8--P9 agree with the soft-state parameters of this object \citep{Sakurai12}. Third, the parameters changed continuously and monotonically from the hard to the soft state. Fourth, $L_{\rm BB}$ keeps a constant fraction ($\sim 30\%$) of the total luminosity $L_{\rm t}$, as predicted by the virial theorem (the deviation from the rigorous prediction of 50\% is considered in section \ref{sec:budget}). Finally, the transition is mainly characterized by a monotonic decrease in $L_{\rm comp}$ and the associated increase in $L_{\rm disk}$, as reflected most directly in the increase of the XIS count rate and the decrease of the HXD signal (figure \ref{fig:lightcurve}). This agrees with the theoretical picture of the hard-to-soft transition; the inner accretion flow changes from an optically-thin/geometrically-thick corona to the optically-thick/geometrically-thin disk.
\par
Let us examine whether the transitions are reproducible from one outburst to another, putting aside the hysteresis between the rising and declining phases. Figure 14 in \citet{Lin07} shows that the hard-to-soft state transition of Aql X-1 in 2000 took place within $\sim1$ day which is consistent with our result of $\sim30$~ks ($\sim8$ hours) and with those of \citet{Asai15} (discussed in section \ref{sec:timescale} in detail). In the hard-to-soft transition of \citet{Lin07}, the total luminosity increased from $\sim3\times10^{37}$~erg s$^{-1}$ to $\sim5\times10^{37}$~erg s$^{-1}$, which coincides with the values we obtained in table \ref{table:luminosities}. Furthermore, in figure 8 of \citet{Lin07}, the ratio of the Comptonized blackbody luminosity (corresponding with $L_{\rm BB}+L_{\rm comp}$) to the thermal component luminosity (corresponding with $L_{\rm disk}$), decreased from 0.8 to 0.5, again in good agreement with table \ref{table:luminosities}. Thus, the rapid but continuous spectral changes seen over P4--P7 of the present data are considered to represent essentially the same phenomenon as the transition caught by \citet{Lin07}.

\subsection{Line emission}\label{sec:fit2}
In figure \ref{fig:residuals1}, residuals in most of the fits reveal a broad positive structure at 6.6--6.9~keV. This is considered to be an iron line, produced on the disk when illuminated by the corona, and broadened due to the relativistic effects near $R_{\rm in}$. Thus, we employed an XSPEC model {\tt diskline} \citep{Fabian89} which incorporates the special and general relativistic effects around a black hole. The spectra were fitted again with a model {\tt wabs $\times$ (diskbb+nthcomp+diskline)}, by fixing $R_{\rm in}$ of {\tt diskbb} and {\tt diskline} to the value obtained in section \ref{sec:fit1} and keeping the inclination angle at $45^\circ$. The emissivity parameter $\beta$ was between -10 and 10, and the central object mass as $1.4$~$M_{\odot}$. By introducing these 3 degrees of freedom, the fit chi--squared decreased by 11-26 in P0--P8 and by 3 in P9. The energy center was found at $\sim 6.6$~keV and did not change significantly during the observation. The equivalent width (EW) against the total continuum was $\sim100$--$200$~eV in most of the periods.

\begin{figure*}[htbp]
	\FigureFile(180mm,140mm){P04679_fit1_4.eps}
\caption{The XIS 0 plus XIS 3 ($<10$~keV), HXD-PIN ($15-60$~keV), and HXD-GSO ($>50$~keV) spectra of P0, P4, P6, P7 and P9, fitted with {\tt diskbb+nthcomp}. The data and the best-fit model are presented in $\nu F \nu$ forms. The fit residuals are shown for all the 10 periods.}\label{fig:residuals1}
\end{figure*}

\begin{table*}[htbp]
\caption{The parameters and the 90\% statistical errors obtained by the fit with {\tt diskbb+nthcomp+diskline}.\label{table:parameters1}}
\begin{tabular}{lcccccccccc}
\hline
\hline
   & \multicolumn{2}{l}{{\tt diskbb}} & \multicolumn{4}{l}{{\tt nthcomp}} & \multicolumn{3}{l}{{\tt diskline}\footnotemark[$*$]} &  \\ \hline
	&$T_{\rm in}$~(keV)			&$R_{\rm in}$~(km)\footnotemark[$\dagger$]		&$T_{\rm BB}$~(keV)	&$R_{\rm BB}$~(km)\footnotemark[$\ddagger$]		&$T_{\rm e}$~(keV)		&$\tau$\footnotemark[$\S$]			&$E_{\rm c}$~(keV)			&$\beta	$			&EW~(eV)	&$\chi^{2}_\nu(\nu)$     \\
P0	&0.499$\pm0.003$			&$31.4\pm^{3.8}_{3.3}$		&0.90$\pm0.04$		&$11.3\pm^{0.3}_{0.4}$	&10.4$\pm^{0.8}_{0.7}$	&5.1$\pm^{0.2}_{0.2}$		&$6.6\pm^{0.4}_{0.1}$	&$-5.1\pm^{1.8}_{-}$		&170			&1.08 (333)   \\
P1	&0.485$\pm0.003$			&34.0$\pm^{3.7}_{3.2}$		&0.90$\pm0.04$		&$11.5\pm^{0.5}_{0.3}$	&9.9$\pm^{0.8}_{0.7}$	&5.2$\pm^{0.2}_{0.3}$		&$6.9\pm^{0.2}_{0.3}$	&$-2.5\pm^{0.9}_{1.3}$	&150			&1.02 (331)    \\
P2	&0.494$\pm0.003$			&34.2$\pm^{3.3}_{3.8}$		&0.89$\pm0.04$		&$11.8\pm^{0.4}_{1.8}$	&9.9$\pm^{0.8}_{0.7}$	&5.1$\pm^{0.2}_{0.3}$		&$6.6\pm0.2$			&$-3.0\pm^{0.7}_{3.8}$	&180			&0.98 (332)    \\
P3	&0.529$\pm0.003$			&32.6$\pm^{2.8}_{2.4}$		&0.98$\pm0.04$		&$9.9\pm0.3$			&9.4$\pm^{1.0}_{0.8}$	&4.9$\pm^{0.3}_{0.3}$		&$6.4\pm^{0.09}_{0.08}$	&$-6.4\pm^{2.9}_{-}$		&210			&1.03 (333)    \\
P4	&0.587$\pm^{0.002}_{0.003}$	&29.4$\pm^{1.9}_{1.7}$		&1.12$\pm0.05$		&$7.8\pm^{0.3}_{0.2}$	&10.4$\pm^{1.8}_{1.3}$	&4.1$\pm^{0.3}_{0.5}$		&$6.5\pm^{0.2}_{0.3}$	&$-2.8\pm^{1.1}_{2.2}$	&130			&1.07 (327)    \\
P5	&0.610$\pm0.003$			&29.7$\pm^{2.3}_{2.0}$		&1.08$\pm0.06$		&$8.5\pm0.4$			&7.2$\pm^{1.2}_{0.8}$	&4.9$\pm^{0.3}_{0.5}$		&$6.5\pm^{0.2}_{0.1}$	&$-4.8\pm^{1.7}_{-}$		&170			&1.04 (328)    \\
P6	&0.762$\pm0.002$			&22.1$\pm^{1.0}_{0.9}$		&1.37$\pm^{0.05}_{0.06}$	&$5.6\pm^{0.3}_{0.1}$	&6.6$\pm^{2.0}_{1.0}$	&3.8$\pm^{0.4}_{0.7}$		&$6.5\pm0.2$			&$-2.3\pm^{0.8}_{1.5}$	&98			&1.07 (326)    \\
P7	&0.839$\pm^{0.002}_{0.003}$	&20.1$\pm^{0.8}_{1.4}$		&1.34$\pm0.05$		&$6.2\pm^{0.3}_{0.2}$	&4.8$\pm^{1.3}_{0.8}$	&4.0$\pm^{0.6}_{0.7}$		&$6.6\pm^{0.2}_{0.4}$	&$-3.5\pm^{1.2}_{-}$		&110			&1.09 (326)    \\
P8	&0.921$\pm^{0.004}_{0.005}$	&17.4$\pm^{0.4}_{0.6}$		&1.23$\pm^{0.10}_{0.11}$	&$6.9\pm^{0.7}_{0.2}$	&2.9$\pm^{0.3}_{0.2}$	&8.4$\pm^{1.3}_{1.6}$		&$6.6\pm^{0.2}_{0.6}$	&$-3.5\pm^{1.2}_{-}$		&99			&1.13 (318)    \\
P9	&0.913$\pm0.004$			&17.9$\pm0.6$				&1.27$\pm^{0.07}_{0.09}$	&$7.2\pm^{0.4}_{0.3}$	&3.1$\pm^{0.5}_{0.3}$	&6.7$\pm^{1.1}_{0.7}$		&$6.4\pm^{0.34}_{-}$	&$-6.4\pm^{0.3}_{0.2}$	&46			&1.18 (298)    \\ \hline
\multicolumn{4}{@{}l@{}}{\hbox to 0pt{\parbox{170mm}{\footnotesize
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$*$] Lower limit is not shown when is not obtained.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\dagger$] Inclination is taken into account multiplying the obtained value in \S \ref{sec:fit1} by $1/\cos45^\circ$. Errors are calculated from the model {\tt diskbb+nthcomp}.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\ddagger$] Calculated by the photon number conservation before and after Comptonization.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\S$] Errors are calculated from the error of either $\Gamma$ or $kT_{\rm e}$. Larger one is shown here between these two.
}\hss}}
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}

\begin{figure*}[htbp]
 \begin{center}
	\FigureFile(178mm,178mm){parameters_plots8.eps}
 \end{center}
\caption{The evolution of the spectral model parameters, against the time (panels a--d) and the total luminosity (panels e--g). (a) The values of $R_{\rm in}$ (filled circles) and  $R_{\rm BB}$ (filled squares). (b) The three temperatures, (c) The optical depth of Comptonization. (d) The luminosity of each process, derived as described in text. Panels (e)--(g) the same as (a)--(c) respectively, but abscissa is taken to be the total luminosity.\label{fig:parameters_plots}}
\end{figure*}

\begin{table}[htbp]
\caption{Luminosities of the model components and its sum. \label{table:luminosities}}
\begin{tabular}{lcccc}
\hline
\hline
	&\multicolumn{4}{l}{Luminosities\footnotemark[$*$] ($\times10^{37}$erg s$^{-1}$)} \\ \hline
P	&$L_{\rm t}$	&$L_{\rm disk}$\footnotemark[$\dagger$]	&$L_{\rm BB}$\footnotemark[$\ddagger$]		&$L_{\rm comp}$\footnotemark[$\S$]\\
0	&3.54			&0.76					&1.10			&1.64 \\
1	&3.57			&0.80					&1.12			&1.65 \\
2	&3.62			&0.87					&1.14			&1.61 \\
3	&3.64			&1.05					&1.17			&1.42 \\
4	&3.70			&1.29					&1.24			&1.17 \\
5	&3.78			&1.55					&1.28			&0.95 \\
6	&4.15			&2.09					&1.40			&0.66 \\
7	&4.65			&2.54					&1.61			&0.50 \\
8	&5.04			&2.78					&1.55			&0.54 \\
9	&5.08			&2.83					&1.71			&0.54 \\ \hline
\multicolumn{5}{@{}l@{}}{\hbox to 0pt{\parbox{85mm}{\footnotesize
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$*$]Values are rounded off to the second decimal place. $L_{\rm t}$ is not necessarily the same as the sum of the rest three components, $L_{\rm disk}$, $L_{\rm BB}$ and $L_{\rm comp}$.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\dagger$] Luminosity (0.1--10~keV) of the disk. Inclination is not considered.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\ddagger$] Luminosity (0.1--100~keV) of the BB.
\par\noindent
\footnotemark[$\S$] Luminosity (0.1--100~keV) transferred from the corona to the BB photons.
}\hss}}
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

\section{Discussion}\label{sec:Discussion}
During an 80 ks of pointing with Suzaku onto Aql X-1 while the source was in the rising phase of an outburst, a complete hard-to-soft state transition was captured. Although the transition involved a drastic spectral hardening, the broad-band (typically 0.8--60 keV) spectrum was reproduced, throughout the event, with the same {\tt diskbb+nthcomp+diskline} model. The obtained parameters evolved continuously as in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots}. As indicated by table \ref{table:luminosities}, the total luminosity increased monotonically from $3.5\times10^{37}$ erg s$^{-1}$ to $5.1\times10^{37}$ erg s$^{-1}$, which fall on the typical boundary of the hard-to-soft state transition as discussed in the last paragraph of section \ref{sec:fit1}. To be more specific, these values are even higher by a factor of 2-3 than those measured in the soft state ($1.5\times10^{37}$ erg s$^{-1}$) before a soft--to--hard state transition \citep{Sakurai14}. This inversion is considered to be a hysteresis effect of spectral transition \citep{Maccarone03,Asai12}.

\subsection{Evolution of the spectral parameters} \label{sec:transition}

\begin{figure}[htbp]
	\FigureFile(80mm,80mm){TinL_Rin3_2.eps}
\caption{A scatter plot between $T_{\rm in}L^{-0.25}_{\rm t}$ and $R_{\rm in}$, covering the complete transition. Dashed line proportional to $R_{\rm in}^{-3/4}$ is  shown as a reference. \label{fig:standard_disk}}
\end{figure}

As shown in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots}, this precious observation containing the transition has allowed us to directly trace the spectral evolution from the hard to the soft state. As summarized in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots}, the model parameters changed continuously from typical hard-state values (e.g., \cite{Sakurai14}) to those typical of the soft state of this and similar sources (e.g., \cite{Lin10,Sugizaki13,Sakurai14}). This confirms that the model components in the hard state are identical to their counterparts in the soft state, and provides a support to our interpretation of the less-understood hard state \citep{Sakurai12,Sakurai14,Zhang14,Ono16} in reference to the better-established picture of the soft state (e.g., \cite{Mitsuda84,Takahashi11}).

\par
The transition can be characterized in a straightforward way by the changes of the three luminosities, $L_{\rm BB}$, $L_{\rm comp}$ and $L_{\rm disk}$ (figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} d). As already pointed out in section \ref{sec:fit1}, these changes can be understood as a process wherein an increased cooling rate causes the outermost part of the coronal flow to progressively change into the innermost region of the optically-thick accretion disk. In fact, $R_{\rm in}$, which is considered to represent the disk--to--corona boundary, decreased from $\sim30$~km to $\sim17$~km, accompanied by a decrease of $T_{\rm e}$ from 10~keV to 3~keV. These changes are also reflected in the decrease of $R_{\rm BB}$ from $\sim12$~km to $\sim6$~km; the accretion in the hard state was occurring rather spherically onto the NS from an inflated corona, whereas that in the soft state became limited to the NS equator as the corona gradually shrank.
\par
We further investigate whether or not the post-transition disk actually continues down to the NS surface.
In figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots}, $R_{\rm in}$ approached $\sim17$~km (for $i=45^{\circ}$), or $\sim15$~km (for $i=0^{\circ}$). Since these are larger than both $R_{\rm NS}$ and the innermost stable circular orbit (which is also $\sim12$~km for a NS with 1.4 M$_{\odot}$), the disk is likely to be truncated. Because any magnetosphere effect would appear at much lower luminosities ($\sim 10^{36}$~erg s$^{-1}$; \cite{Sakurai14}), the truncation, if true, is likely to be caused by the spontaneous change in the accretion flow, just like in the hard state. However, we are still left with a possibility that the disk actually reaches $R_{\rm NS}$ (or the innermost stable circular orbit), and yet its innermost region (e.g., from $\sim12$~km to $\sim17$~km) is covered by the optically-thick corona to become directly invisible. Thus, it is rather difficult to conclude whether the disk reaches the NS surface or not.
\par

Let us examine our premise that the disk can be regarded as a standard accretion disk. If this assumption is correct, and if the gravitational energy all goes to the X-ray radiation, the P0--P9 parameters should satisfy a scaling as $T_{\rm in} \propto R^{-3/4}_{\rm in}\dot{M}^{1/4}\propto R^{-3/4}_{\rm in}L_{\rm t}^{1/4}$. To see this, in figure \ref{fig:standard_disk} we plot $T_{\rm in}L^{-1/4}_{\rm t}$ against $R_{\rm in}$. Since the expected relation is thus confirmed, we conclude that the disk can be considered standard.

\subsection{Coronal accretion flows}\label{sec:corona}
While the change of the BB and MCD parameters were understood, that of the coronal geometry is yet to be revealed. This can be addressed via the optical depth which represents the amount of the corona along the line of sight. If the coronal geometry were constant across the transition, we would expect $\tau \propto \dot{M} \propto L_{\rm t}$. However, as seen in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} (c) and \ref{fig:parameters_plots} (g), $\tau$ remained relatively constant from P0 to P7. This can be explained, at lest qualitatively, by the decrease in $R_{\rm in}$, which made the path length shorter and compensated for the $\dot{M}$ increase. Furthermore, in P8 and P9, $\tau$ increases much more sharply than would be expected by the increase of $\dot{M}$. This may be attributed to two alternative possibilities. One is the decrease in the coronal scale height, as already suggested by \citet{Zhang14}. The other is a decrease in the radial flow velocity $v_{\rm r}(R)$, where $R$ is the distance from the NS center. In either case, the coronal electron density $n_{\rm e}(R)$, averaged over the coronal cross section, will increase, thus making $\tau$ higher.
\par
After \citet{Sakurai14}, let us quantitatively examine, in several steps, the above two alternatives to explain the final increase in $\tau$. First, in terms of the free-fall velocity $v_{\rm ff}=\sqrt{2G M_{\rm NS}/R}$, we can write as $v_{\rm r}(R)=g v_{\rm ff}(R)$, where $M_{\rm NS}\equiv1.4$~$M_{\rm \odot}$ is the NS mass,  $g$ ($0<g<1$) is a numerical factor which is assumed to be a constant over the coronal volume (but can vary through the transition). Next, $\tau$ can be expressed as \par
\begin{equation}\label{eq:tau1}
\tau=\sigma_{\rm T} \int n_{\rm e} dl
\end{equation}
where $\sigma_{\rm T}$ is the Thomson scattering cross section, and the integration is made along our line of sight. Third, $v_{\rm r}(R)$ and $n_{\rm e}$ can be incorporated together into the mass accretion rate $\dot{M}$ as\par
\begin{equation}\label{eq:Mdot}
\dot{M}=S(R)v_{\rm r}(R)\mu m_{\rm p}n_{\rm e}(R)
\end{equation}
where $S(R)$ is the coronal cross section at $R$, $\mu \sim 1.2$ is the average molecular weight and $m_{\rm p}$ is the proton mass. In addition, we may assume, for simplicity, that $S(R)$ is approximated as $S(R)=4\pi R^2 \zeta$, where $\zeta$ ($0<\zeta \leq1$) is a form factor. Then, as long as $\zeta$ is rather close to unity, the integration in equation (\ref{eq:tau1}) can be approximated by radial integration from $R=R_{\rm NS}$ to $R_{\rm in}$. Finally, performing this integration, and eliminating $\dot{M}$ through the relation $L_{\rm t}=GM_{\rm NS} \dot{M}/R_{\rm NS}$, we obtain\par
\begin{equation}\label{eq:tau2}
\tau=0.16\times \frac{1}{g \zeta}\times \left(\frac{1.2}{\mu}\right) \times \left(\sqrt{\frac{R_{\rm in}}{R_{\rm NS}}}-1\right)\times \frac{L_{\rm t} ({\rm erg~s^{-1}})}{10^{37} ({\rm erg~s^{-1}})}
\end{equation}
Equating equation (\ref{eq:tau2}) with the observed $\tau$, and substituting the observed values of $R_{\rm in}$ and $L_{\rm t}$, we have deduced the behavior of $g\zeta$ as shown in figure \ref{fig:g_zeta}. Thus, the factor $g\zeta$ over P0--P7 has been obtained as $g=0.035-0.043$, in agreement with the value of $g=0.04$ (assuming $\zeta=1$) derived by \citet{Sakurai14} in the hard state. Furthermore, it steeply decreases to $g\zeta=0.014-0.018$ at P8 and P9.

\begin{figure}[htbp]
	\FigureFile(80mm,80mm){g_zeta.eps}
\caption{The evolution of $g_\zeta$ calculated with equation (\ref{eq:tau2}) and the obtained parameters, plotted as a function of time.\label{fig:g_zeta}}
\end{figure}

\par
In this way, the observed increase in $\tau$ towards the final stage of the transition can be explained by a decrease in either $\zeta$, or $g$, or both. The former means the flattening of the corona as already discussed, while the latter means a decrease of the radial flow velocity. In any case, an important consequence is the requirement for $g\ll1$ (assuming $\zeta$ is not too small), as pointed out by \citet{Sakurai14}; that is, the radial flow velocity of the corona is much lower than the free-fall velocity, and hence the corona is still in a nearly Keplerian motion (particularly at later phases of the transition) with the azimuthal velocity component dominating over $v_{\rm r}$.
\par
We implicitly assumed so far that the density of the corona, by definition, is low enough not to emit photons by itself. In order to confirm this, the bremsstrahlung emissivity of the corona was estimated from the electron density in equation (\ref{eq:Mdot}) and utilizing $g \zeta=0.013-0.043$. The bremsstrahlung emissivity, calculated as $\int n_{\rm e}^2 dV \sim n^2_{e}(g \zeta,R_{\rm in})\times(4\pi/3) \times R_{\rm in}^3$, then becomes $< 8.6\times 10^{56}$~cm$^{-3}$ over P0--P9. This corresponds to a luminosity of $1.3\times10^{34}$~erg s$^{-1}$ \citep{Chakrabarty14}, which is negligible compared with $L_{\rm comp}>5\times10^{36}$~erg s$^{-1}$. Thus, our scenario is self consistent.

\subsection{Energy budget}\label{sec:budget}
In figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} (d), we find $L_{\rm BB}\simeq0.3L_{\rm t}$ throughout. Although the consistency of the $L_{\rm BB}/L_{\rm t}$ ratio is consistent with the prediction by the virial theorem applied to the disk and the corona in a Keplerian motion, the absolute value of $\sim0.3$ is lower than the expected value of 0.5. An obvious cause of this discrepancy is in the system inclination; it may be lower than the assumed value of 45$^{\circ}$. Another interesting possibility is soft landing of the accreting gas onto the NS surface. The NS in this system is considered to be spinning with the frequency $f=550.27$~Hz \citep{Casella08}. Thus, assuming that the accreting gas is rotating with the Keplerian velocity $v_{\rm K}$ at $R=R_{\rm NS}$ (as evidenced by the low value of $g$), the BB luminosity would be reduced by a factor of $1-(2\pi f R_{\rm NS}/v_{\rm K})^2\simeq0.88$. Yet another possibility is azimuthal bulk Comptonization of the BB photons by the high circular velocity of the corona (section \ref{sec:corona}); this will take up a fraction of the Keplerian energy (up to $L_{\rm comp}/L_{\rm t}\sim11\%$) that should have been radiated as $L_{\rm BB}$. Considering these multiple effects, the result in figure \ref{fig:parameters_plots} (d) may be brought into a better agreement with the virial theorem.
\par
In addition to the above two possibilities, yet another obvious explanation to the 20\% deficit of $L_{\rm BB}$ is to assume that a fraction of matter is launched as outflows instead of accreting onto the NS surface (e.g., \cite{Fukue04}). According to \citet{Takahashi11}, 4U1608-52 indeed showed a sign of such outflows when its total luminosity was $1-4\times10^{37}$~erg s$^{-1}$. However, in contrast to the case of 4U 1608-52 wherein the $L_{\rm BB}/L_{\rm tot}$ ratio decreased meanwhile from $\sim 0.5$ to $\sim 0.25$, the ratio in Aql X-1 remained relatively constant at $\sim0.3$ as the luminosity increases during the transition. We hence consider that outflows would not provide a major source of the $L_{\rm BB}$ deficit in the present case.

\subsection{Transition Time Scales}\label{sec:timescale}
Based on continuous monitoring of LMXBs with MAXI and Swift, \citet{Asai15} showed that the state transitions in LMXBs occur in two types; one type of events, involved in ``normal outbursts'', take place on a typical time scale of a day or less, while those of the other type, seen in ``mini-outbursts'' with much smaller flux changes, proceed on a longer time scales of a few days. As seen in the MAXI light curve (figure 3 of \cite{Asai15}), the present transition is clearly associated with a normal outburst in their classification, and the transition time scale we observed, about 30 ks, or $\sim 8$~hours, is consistent with those seen in that type of transitions.
\par
Compared with these episodes in LMXB, the soft vs. hard state transitions in black-hole binaries have been observed to take place on considerably longer time scales, several days to 10 days (e.g., \cite{Maejima84,Remillard06,Nakahira12}). A simple explanation of this difference would be that the radial propagation of changes in the accretion-disk conditions (typically on viscous time scales) takes longer in stellar black holes due to the larger disk size reflecting the mass difference. Alternatively, the difference may be attributed to the stronger Compton cooling of a corona in an LMXB, by the BB photons which are absent in black holes. Further investigation into this issue is beyond the scope of the present paper.

\section{Conclusion}
We analyzed an archival data of Aql X-1 taken with Suzaku on 2011 October 21 for a gross duration of 80 ks. The source underwent a transition from the hard state to the soft state, on a time scale of $\sim 30$~ks. We have successfully explained the spectral evolution by combining the disk blackbody emission with thermal Comptonization of the blackbody photons from the NS surface. The model parameters changed continuously, which justifies the spectral decomposition, and unifies the interpretations of the soft and the hard state. Utilizing the obtained parameters, particularly $\tau$, the Comptonizing corona is suggested to shrink radially as the source approaches the soft state. In addition, the transition is likely to involve a vertical flattening of the corona, or a decrease in the radial flow velocity in the corona, or both.

\begin{comment}
\begin{table}
  \tbl{This is the first tabular.}{%
  \begin{tabular}{llll}
      \hline
      Name & Value1 & Value2 \\
      \hline
      aaa & bbb & ccc & ddd \\
      eee & fff & ggg & hhh \\
      ....\\
      \hline
    \end{tabular}}\label{tab:first}
\begin{tabnote}
This is table note.
\end{tabnote}
\end{table}

\begin{longtable}{cccc}
  \caption{Sample of ``longtable."}\label{tab:LTsample}
  \hline
  Name & Value1 & Value2 & Value3 \\
\endfirsthead
  \hline
  Name & Value1 & Value2 & Value3 \\
\endhead
  \hline
\endfoot
  \hline
\endlastfoot
  \hline
  aaaaa & bbbbb & ccccc & ddddd \\
  ...... & ..... & ..... & ..... \\
  ...... & ..... & ..... & ..... \\
  ...... & ..... & ..... & ..... \\
  wwwww & xxxxx & yyyyy & zzzzz \\
\end{longtable}
\end{comment}

\begin{ack}
This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Fellows No. 15J08913
\end{ack}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
Plants and Animals >
Agriculture and Horticulture >
Horticulture: Biographies >
Michaux, André
Michaux, André äNdrā´ mēshō´ [key], 1746–1802, French botanist. He collected botanical specimens in Europe and Asia. In 1785 he was sent by the French government to establish nurseries in the United States to cultivate plants for naturalization in France. Until 1796 he made botanical journeys through the United States and recorded his studies in a book on the oaks of North America (1801) and in a work on North American botany, Flora Boreali-Americana (1803). His son, François André Michaux, 1770–1855, is known chiefly for his work on the forest trees of North America (1810–13, tr. The North American Sylva, 1817).
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Horticulture: Biographies


An adventurous woman needs a watch that matches her step by step. This expedition watch does just that with a bevy of must-have features, including a durable acrylic window; chronograph; and day, date, and month calendars. From Timex.
Timex Ladies' Expedition Classic Digital Chronograph Watch is rated 2.0 out of 5 by 1.
Rated 2 out of 5 by mich54 from Wasn't for me I thought it would be easy for me to use but it wasn't. Not good for someone who has problems with there hands.


text:
Cocoa and Cocoa Products
Market Potential
The Swiss market potential for cocoa
Switzerland has a strong reputation as a producer of high-quality chocolates. Several Swiss chocolate brands are well known internationally, including Lindt and Toblerone. As such, Switzerland is among the largest chocolate exporters in the world. The domestic market is also strong: Swiss consumers record the world's second-highest per capita chocolate consumption.
What makes Switzerland an interesting market for cocoa?
Which trends offer opportunities on the Swiss market?
The focus of this document is cocoa beans (whole or broken, raw or roasted). These fall under HS code 1801. Harmonised System (HS) codes are used to classify products and to calculate international trade statistics, such as imports and exports.
The cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) grows in tropical areas, between 15 and 20 degrees latitude north and south of the equator, in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Cocoa pods grow directly from the trunk and thicker branches of the tree. After extraction from the pod, cocoa seeds (beans) are fermented and (sun) dried. A cocoa producing tree can deliver on average 7-9 kg of dry beans per year.
The three main varieties of the cocoa tree as distinguished by the international cocoa market are:
Forastero is the predominant cocoa variety. It is mainly cultivated in Africa, but also in Central and South America. It accounts for around 80% of global cocoa production. Forastero grows faster and has a higher yield than other cocoa varieties. The beans have a strong, earthy flavour. Generally, bulk cocoa beans come from Forastero trees. Well-known Forastero subspecies are Amelonado and Nacional. Nacional trees in Ecuador produce fine flavour cocoa.
Criollo (original cocoa tree) is mainly grown in Central America, northern South America, the Caribbean and Sri Lanka. Criollo makes up around 5% of global cocoa production. The beans have a delicate and sweet flavour. Criollo is often mixed with other varieties when making chocolate, given that it is scarce and expensive. Fine flavour cocoa beans are produced from Criollo cocoa trees. Well-known varieties are Chuao, Porcelana and Ocumare.
Trinitario is mainly cultivated in Central and South America, the Caribbean and Asia. The beans are a hybrid of the Criollo and Forastero trees. This variety represents around 10-15% of global cocoa production. The beans have a floral, fruity flavour. The cocoa beans from Trinitario trees are classified as fine flavour cocoa. There are exceptions, however, as Cameroonian cocoa beans produced from Trinitario trees are classified as bulk cocoa beans. Well-known varieties are Carenero, Rio Caribe and Sur del Lago.
Cocoa-bean derivatives (cocoa paste, cocoa butter and cocoa powder) are covered in our study on semi-finished cocoa products in Europe.
2. What makes Switzerland an interesting market for cocoa?
Switzerland has a strong reputation as a producer of high-quality chocolates. The country is among the largest chocolate exporters in the world. The Swiss domestic chocolate market is also strong: Swiss consumers mark the second-highest per capita consumption worldwide.
Switzerland has world's second-highest per capita chocolate consumption
Switzerland has the second-highest consumption per capita in the world, after only Germany. In 2021, this amounted to 11.3 kilograms – 2.2 kilograms more than German consumption. Average annual chocolate consumption in the country had been decreasing slightly in recent years; in 2020, it fell below the 10 kg per person mark for the first time since 1982.
This fall is mainly explained by the pandemic, due to the collapse in tourism, the closure of shops, a drop in catering services and the decrease in gift sales of chocolates. Domestic chocolate sales and market revenues were well below the pre-pandemic levels of 2019. There is also evidence of an increase in consumption of imported products at the expense of domestically made Swiss chocolate. But growth in consumption resumed in 2021, when domestic chocolate sales rose by 7.7% compared with the previous year.
Switzerland is a relatively large importer of cocoa beans
Switzerland is the ninth-largest European importer of cocoa beans, importing about 52,000 tonnes in 2021, at a value of €145 million. As a comparison, the Netherlands is the largest importer with an estimated 804,000 tonnes that same year, followed by Germany (445,000 tonnes) and Belgium (335,000 tonnes).
Over 99% of imports by Switzerland are sourced directly from producing countries. The largest cocoa suppliers are Ghana (50%), Ecuador (24%) and the Dominican Republic (7.8%). Swiss import volumes of cocoa beans increased at an annual average rate of 5.2% between 2017 and 2021.
Switzerland houses a strong chocolate-manufacturing industry
Almost all cocoa beans imported into Switzerland are used domestically for further processing. In 2020/21, the Swiss grinding industry processed an estimated 50,000 tonnes of cocoa (about 2.9% of total European grindings and 1% of total global grindings). Examples of large companies that engage in cocoa grinding in Switzerland are Barry Callebaut, Lindt & Sprüngli, Nestlé, Stella Bernrain and PRONATEC.
Processed cocoa beans are used for the manufacture of chocolate. Only ready-conched chocolate or chocolate mass entirely manufactured in Switzerland may be called 'Swiss chocolate'.
Switzerland is home to 16 chocolate manufacturers and many small and medium-sized chocolate makers. The largest manufacturers are Barry Callebaut and Lindt & Sprüngli. These multinationals were both founded in Switzerland. Chocolat Frey, part of the Migros Group, is also a major producer of chocolate for Migros' own popular private label brand Chocolat Frey.
Swiss chocolate exports keep on increasing
According to International Trade Centre data, Switzerland accounted for 1.8% of global exports of chocolate and other food preparations containing cocoa in 2021. Chocolate export volumes reached over 118,000 tonnes in 2021, with a value of €722 million. Exports increased slightly between 2017 and 2021, at an average annual rate of 0.9%. The main export markets for Swiss chocolate in 2021 were Germany (20%), France (11%), Canada (9.1%) and the United Kingdom (8.3%).
Swiss chocolate remains popular, and new Swiss chocolate export deals continue to be made. For instance, Lindt & Sprüngli has 11 production sites in Europe and the USA. Even Chocolat Frey (the brand of the Swiss retailer Migros) is now sold in several countries around the world.
Activate the "Translation" function of your browser to make the studies available in your native language.
Check the website of the Swiss Chocolate Industry Association (CHOCOSUISSE) to learn more about the chocolate industry in Switzerland.
Access the ITC Trade Map to analyse European and Swiss trade dynamics yourself and to build your export strategy. By selecting Switzerland as your target market, you will be able to follow developments such as the emergence of new suppliers and the decline of established ones.
See our study of trade statistics for cocoa for more detailed information about the European trade in cocoa beans.
3. Which trends offer opportunities on the Swiss market?
In 2018, the Swiss Platform for Sustainable Cocoa was founded. Its members, including the large industry players, have committed to sourcing at least 80% of their cocoa from sustainable production by 2025. Sustainability is also a key theme for consumers: the Swiss market for organic and fair-trade cocoa is relatively large compared to other countries.
Swiss consumers demand high-quality, premium products
Swiss chocolate consumers increasingly prefer high-quality dark chocolate. This is especially the case in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, where 66% of chocolate consumers prefer dark chocolate. In German-speaking Switzerland, milk chocolate is still the preferred product by 70% of consumers.
The premiumisation of chocolate products is visible across different segments. For instance, on the lower end, retailer Coop offers organic and Fairtrade-certified single origin chocolate under its own private label brand. The private label line of retailer Migros also includes a diverse offer of premium products, for affordable prices.
Lindt & Sprüngli also continues to innovate their offer of premium chocolates in Switzerland. In 2018, the brand launched products focusing on a high cocoa content (Dark Competence) and on new snacking formats (Fruit Sensation).
In the high-end market, there is a growing number of bean-to-bar chocolate makers in Switzerland. Examples of Swiss bean-to-bar makers are Choba, La Flor, Orfeve and Sadé Chocolat. These chocolate makers source their cocoa beans directly from origin.
There is also a large range of premium chocolate shops in Switzerland, including well-known ones such as Teuscher, Max Chocolatier, Läderach, and Sweetzerland.
Organic and fair-trade cocoa are very important on the Swiss market
Switzerland is an interesting market for fair-trade and organic cocoa, as there is a strong ethical push from Swiss consumers to buy these products. Swiss per capita consumption of organic products (including chocolate) was estimated at €418 in 2020, which made it the highest worldwide. Swiss organic retail sales amounted to €3.6 billion in 2020. Switzerland has the third-highest organic market share in the world, at 11% in 2020. According to the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, Swiss organic retail sales increased by an average of 12% between 2016 and 2020.
The Swiss also registered the world's highest per capita consumption of fair-trade products, with an estimated €103 per person spent in 2020. Chocolate, together with fruits, are the product groups with the highest Swiss fair-trade turnovers.
Sales of fair-trade cocoa in Switzerland have risen over the years, registering a growth rate of 3.8% between 2020 and 2021. In 2021, Switzerland sold 6,800 tonnes of fair trade-certified cocoa products, which is 14% of the country's total cocoa and chocolate products.
Examples of Swiss chocolate companies producing fair-trade and organic chocolates are Durig Chocolatier Lausanne, Stella Bernrain (which mainly produces under private label) and Pronatec. The latter is now emerging as a 100% organic production plant where 15,000 tonnes of organic cocoa beans will be processed a year, in response to organic and traceability trends.
Retailers are also increasingly demanding organic and/or fair-trade certified products. Coop is currently the largest Swiss retailer selling Fairtrade and organic-certified products. As part of Coop's sustainability policy, all chocolate products sold in their shop are Fairtrade-certified.
For a successful example of an exporter dealing with both organic and Fairtrade cocoa, check out CONACADO, a union of cocoa co-operatives in the Dominican Republic. CONOCADO has successfully developed markets around the world, including Switzerland. More than 90% of the farms supplying the union are organic certified, and a large proportion also fair trade-certified. Apart from its organic, fair trade and other certifications that follow market demand, CONACADO's competitive edge lies on its business model: a union of small and medium-sized cocoa producers.
Sustainability is key in the Swiss cocoa and chocolate sector
Sustainability factors are becoming increasingly important for Swiss consumers when shopping. Results from one survey indicate that the majority of Swiss consumers consider sustainability information as important or very important when it comes to purchasing products online.
The Swiss Platform for Sustainable Cocoa was founded early 2018, with the aim of promoting sustainability in the cocoa value chain. Over 60 actors from the cocoa and chocolate sector actively participate in this initiative. One of the main goals is to ensure that 80% of Swiss cocoa imports are produced sustainably by 2025. The large multinational Barry Callebaut was one of the founding members.
Besides this sector-wide initiative, most chocolate companies based in Switzerland have their own sustainability strategies. Examples include Barry Callebaut's Forever Chocolate programme, Nestlé's Cocoa Plan, Lindt & Sprüngli's sustainable sourcing programme and Felchlin's Fair Direct Cacao strategy.
Major companies also fully endorse certification schemes. For instance, all cocoa sourced by Maestrani is certified by either Fairtrade, Rainforest Alliance/UTZ or Hand in Hand.
Swiss consumers are increasingly choosing healthier chocolate products
There is an increasing interest in dark chocolate consumption in Switzerland. This trend is in part driven by consumer preferences for healthier products, which have been strengthened since the COVID-19 pandemic.
Chocolate makers are responding to this health trend by increasingly offering sugar-free, sugar-reduced and vegan chocolate products. For instance, the Swiss chocolate maker Löw Delights produces premium vegan chocolates. Lindt & Sprüngli released non-dairy chocolate bars (made with oat milk), which won the Most Innovative New Product Award (Chocolate) at the 2022 Sweets & Snacks Expo.
See our study on trends for cocoa to learn more about current trends and developments on the European market for cocoa and cocoa products.
See our study on doing business with European buyers of cocoa for more tips on marketing and promotional aspects of your cocoa.
Consider demonstrating the sustainable and ethical aspects of your cocoa production through certification. Before engaging in a certification programme, make sure to check (in consultation with your potential buyer) that this label has sufficient demand in your target market and whether it will be cost-beneficial for your product.
Besides your certification, also promote other sustainable and ethical aspects of your production process. Note that, in addition to certification, the transparency of the supply chain has become increasingly important in the cocoa sector. This means you should be able to prove and communicate a traceable chain for your products.
Find potential business partners in Switzerland by checking the lists of Fairtrade-certified organisations, Swiss Rainforest Alliance-certified brands, UTZ-certified cocoa supply chain actors and organic chocolate producers.
Focus on the premium, speciality and fine-flavour cocoa market in Switzerland. You can only access the premium market if you offer high-quality cocoa. Try to establish direct trade relationships with smaller traders and chocolate makers. See the section on quality requirements, market segments and trade channels in the Entering the Swiss market for cocoa study.
This study has been carried out on behalf of CBI by Gustavo Ferro and Lisanne Groothuis of ProFound – Advisers In Development.
Entering the Swiss market for cocoa
The demand for organic certified cocoa in combination with Fairtrade certification is growing, So, if you already have one of these certifications, consider getting the other one also.
Maurits de Koning
What requirements must cocoa beans comply with to be allowed on the European market?
Which trends offer opportunities or pose threats in the European cocoa market?
What is the demand for cocoa on the European market?


text:
Home Forums > India Travel Forum > South India > Karnataka >
Nearest Railway Station to Coorg
Discussion in 'Karnataka' started by Manni, Jun 30, 2016.
nearest railway station
Manni New Member
I am considering visiting Coorg and my mode of transport would be by train. To see the trains which operate from where I live, I need to know which is the nearest railway station to Coorg.
If there are more than one train stations in Coorg, please mention those as well, and also suggest which would be the best station to arrive at.
Manni, Jun 30, 2016
Debapriya Deb Active Member
Coorg does not have railway tracks and Mysore is the nearest railway station. Coorg is around 115 KM away from Mysore railway station. Mysore is a big junction which is well-connected to the rest of the country.
You can either hire a private taxi or take a bus from Mysore Sub-urban Bus Stand to arrive in Coorg. KSRTC buses are available from Mysore to Coorg at regular intervals. Opting for taxi would cost you around INR 1500, while the ordinary bus fare is around INR 150. There are KSRTC Volvo buses as well from Mysore to Coorg. The fare would be around INR 300. That's the best option if you are coming from the Northern or the Eastern parts of India.
For those who are coming from the Western end of the country, Kasaragod in Kerala can be an alternative railway station. Kasaragod Railway Station (KGQ) is situated on the Mumbai-Goa-Mangalore-Trivandrum main line. There are several trains from Mumbai and Goa that have scheduled stops at Kasaragod. From here, Coorg is 120 KM away. You can get direct buses, but the frequency will be on the lower side. A better option would be to hire a taxi. It would cost you around INR 1500-2000 for one way journey.
Debapriya Deb, Jun 30, 2016


Today I received an email notification from Paypal that I had an invoice pending my payment from "USA County Raffle" at the email address of usacountyraffle@gmail.com for $600. I assumed it was a phishing email, because it had a link, etc. So of course I deleted it and then logged into my Paypal account the normal way just to see if there really was an invoice. To my surprise, there was.
"Note: Cash is refundable if shipping delays, check end up"
Naturally I canceled the invoice with the message "Go to Hell."
I checked the moneyhubby website and it seems to be a big fake. Also, notice the invoice is for shipping, insurance and handling only and no merchandise! Now, most people aren't just going to pay a $600 invoice, but if it was for a smaller amount, someone might not notice.
I called Paypal and told them this person was sending out scam invoices. They said they would put them on their watch list, but also it was just a possibility they sent it to the wrong email address. Just a head's up.
scary! Thanks so much for the heads up! Glad you were smart enough to look into this further!


Thinking about starting an online business at home? Read these 7 Mistakes before you do.
You're getting really excited about finally starting your own business, one that you can do right at home. No more driving to work and putting up with low pay or that terrible recently hired young boss that got the promotion you've been working years to get but didn't.
Sorry but I'm going to have to give you a little pep talk right now, one that took me years to realize. And you're not going to like it.
Tough love coming at ya!
But if you're reading this then you are willing to do the work needed to make this dream real. Remember that snot nose kid that took your job and pay raise?
You've been chasing a dream that doesn't exist – the lie that being an online entrepreneur means no hard work is involved – just sit around in your PJs and watch the cash come in.
On your journey to successful Internet marketing, you'll see many online temptations promising you overnight success – if you'll just purchase their product or sign up for a year's worth of "help" to get you started.
You may have fallen for a few of them in the past. You're not alone. I did it too! After all, this self-professed "guru" actually shows screen shots of bank statements and other "proof" that he's actually made thousands of dollars overnight, while sleeping – and that much is true.
You, too, can become a millionaire within a month's (or a few) time by following a few, simple steps contained in his super-duper program or eBook. The problem – where the lie comes in – is that it's not turnkey or effortless, or whatever other hashtag they're using these days.
It's hard work! It also can be enjoyable hard work. Don't let these spammy hype-mongers fool you. It takes hard work, time and effort to become successful. And you won't become an overnight success by purchasing anything available online.
Success takes a bit of time. It might start overnight, but it'll be a seedling, not a full grown garden of profits. So, if you're not ready to work, go back to watching television reruns and then go back to your job and take orders from your new kid boss.
On the other hand – if you're determined to make a success of your online business, it's possible to realize more fortune than you ever thought possible. But, you have to do it the right way, by gathering knowledge and taking the time to learn all you can about your niche and what's going to make it a success.
Only Buy the things you need to learn Next, that way you won't have a computer full of things you will never look at again and waste a lot of money in the process. We all learn things differently and what works for one person may not work for another.
There are a few harsh realities about making a success of your online business venture. There's tough competition out there. It's likely that no matter what your idea is – someone has thought of it before.
But competition is a good thing and you can compete if you know how. Competition is a sign that people are making good money out there.
We have to get real here. In most cases you will need to have a blog and be able to maintain it, if you want to build up an online business in a niche. So you'll have to learn some technology, too. That doesn't mean you have to be a technological whiz, but there are certain programs and nuances you must know about – WordPress, hosting, FTP and dozens of other specifics which will make you a success – or not.
This is when you buy products that will help you learn how to do that and make the process much easier than watching millions of YouTube video's that really don't tell you what you want to know. This is the time to invest in a course from someone you trust.
This one should be at the top of my list here and it's the worse possible mistake to make if you want to be a success online. I see this mistake over and over again. It will make or break you. I promise! If you're going to start an online business you need to have a list of subscribers you can talk to everyday and promote something to then, that way you will have money coming in to YOU each day like a paycheck.
If you don't do this or have a blog. How will you make money?
Take my advice and read about how to get a good email provider and put that in your budget RIGHT NOW. I know it won't pay off for you right away. But if you keep at it, you will be making more money than you ever thought possible. I'm living proof of that.
I've made this mistake, you have to learn how to do keyword search. Free traffic to your site without any engagement or effort? Not an option. You'll see lots of lures out there to bring you in to the illusion, but you should know that getting traffic to your site is a strategy that you'll need to put some thought and work in to (such as building relationships, blogging and keyword search).
You have to make yourself known. People don't usually buy from a site they don't know about or which hasn't been recommended to them. To attract traffic to your site, you have to first let people get to know you. Give them a good incentive to come to your site and sign up.
The good news is that when you do make a success of your online business – when you're your own boss – and it WILL Happen! Just stick it out, don't give up. Make a copy of that kid boss at your desk at home, and think about how happy you will be when you don't have to go to work there anymore.
And the fact that You Will be making more money than he is making and so much more, all on your own!
You will feel so proud of yourself! You will have the money to do the things you want to do.
Here's a few tips to get you started on the path of a successful Online Business.
Make a plan, stick with the plan.
Find a great paid email provider.
Add free checklists and printables to get subscribers.
Give value and solutions to your readers problems.
Only buy what you need to learn Next.
Treat this little hobby as a full time job and call it a full time job.
Tell all your friends that you are now working two jobs.
Do this side job EVERY DAY, even if it's only one hour a day.
Do it, make it a habit, make it Real.
Don't over complicate things, keep it simple!
Give yourself a title, because your the boss now, act like one!
Most successful online entrepreneurs wouldn't have it any other way. The elbow grease they use to build their business pays off in more than just financial ways. You can do this, I did!
Best of luck to your Online Business Success!
Stop spinning your wheels! Learn how to start a profitable blog, even if you have no clue where to start! I'll help you along the way. No Magic Wand Needed This Time!
Determine Who Your Target Market Is -Free Worksheet!
As an Amazon Associate I earn from qualifying purchases. Affiliate links on this blog means that I make a little bit of money if you click on the links. Thank you for that, it helps pay for this blog.


text:
Girls Love Magic
A resource for girls and women interested in performing magic
Belle's Blog
Armstrong – Ellen E.
De Vere
Koringa
Magician or Not?
Posters of Little Known Magicians – Part 1
Rouclere
Sloggetts
Vonetta
Yu Li San
Zatanna
Zomah
There have been magician characters in comic books for a long time. In fact, the very first superhero in comics is considered to be Mandrake the Magician. He premiered in a syndicated strip in 1934, where he performed as a stage magician and used his hypnotic powers to fight criminals. He also appeared in Magic Comics for a decade beginning in 1939, and Dell, King Comics, and even Marvel have featured him.
Harry Blackstone senior had his own comic book series featuring a fictionalized version of himself in Blackstone Master Magician Comics beginning in 1946. The name was changed to Blackstone the Magician Detective, which was the title of his weekly radio show (also fictionalized with an actor doing his voice). He also appeared in Super Magic Comics.
Quiz for the day: Who were the only two female comic book heroes to wear fishnet stockings? Both are from DC Comics. One was the Black Canary, and the other was Zatanna, the stage magician with actual powers. They did appear in a graphic novel together- Black Canary and Zatanna: Bloodspell. Okay, I admit it. I am a bit of a comic book geek and I do have a nice collection of magic themed comics.
Zatanna Zatara first appeared in the comics in 1964, so she has been around awhile. She is a stage magician who inherited actual powers from her father, stage magician Giovanni "John" Zatara. He first appeared in the 1938 Action Comics #1, and if you have an extra copy lying around, I would love to add it to my collection, but maybe for less than the $3 million the last one sold for. I do like that the most valuable comic in history includes a magician, along with the introduction of some flying guy in blue tights and a cape. John actually had more to do with Batman, being a friend of Bruce Wayne's father and helping him meet his future wife, Martha.
Zatanna's dad turned out to have a lot of problems, including alcoholism, but Zatanna managed to grow up as a smart, heroic and powerful hero. In fact, while there have been many magician characters with real powers, including Doctor Strange, Zatanna is considered to be the most powerful of all of them.
A nice homage to the magician magic posters that depicted devils and imps
She has gone through a number of versions over the years. She worked closely with the Justice League. She dated Batman. Comic book god Neil Gaiman did The Books of Magic limited series featuring her. She has been animated in Batman: The Animated Series, Gotham Girls, Batman Beyond, Justice League Unlimited, DC Super Hero Girls, and many more. She appeared on Smallville. She even got her own comic book series beginning in 2010.
In 2018 there was a lot of talk from Warner Brothers about a Zatanna movie, but that seems to have fizzled. Still, it is nice to have a woman magician that can defeat almost any super villain. Yes, she is often depicted sexily, and some may find that sexist, and she really has needed to update her 1950s burlesque look, which is finally happening. In the New 52 series, she finally gets to wear pants. Times are changing.
Proudly powered by WordPress | Theme: Kelly by WordPress.com.


text:
Q: Read a attribute, locate part of it, change it and store somewhere I have this piece of code on my website that I can't edit:

I want to read all the src's, locate '105-158' change it to '1920-2880' and store it somewhere for future use. I don't want to change the DOM!
I got this far, but I got it to only work with console.log:
var imageList = document.querySelectorAll('.parent > li > a > img').forEach(i => console.log(i.src.replace('105-158', '1920-2880')))

Then, when I click the respective image set it as the currentImage.

A: You said you want to not change the source, but save the new source somewhere so you can reference it. Easiest thing is use data attribute to store it.
var imageList = document.querySelectorAll('.parent > li > a > img')
imageList.forEach(img => img.dataset.src = img.src.replace('105-158', '1920-2880'))
console.log(imageList[2].dataset.src)

If you really want it as an array use map()
var imageList = document.querySelectorAll('.parent > li > a > img')
var srcs = Array.from(imageList).map(img => img.src.replace('105-158', '1920-2880'))


PanARMENIAN.Net - Russia has no reason to not trust Armenia, Andrej Kelin, Director of the Department of European Cooperation at the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs said in an interview with the Komsomolskaya Pravda.
Kelin remarks came in response to a question about the involvement of the closest allies of Russia in the CSTO and the EAEU - Armenia and Belarus - in the Eastern Partnership program.
When asked whether the West is trying to sever the countries in question from Russia, Kelin said: "We regard the Eastern Partnership as a very ambiguous initiative, which we constantly point out to both its initiators and participating countries.
"Of course, despite all the "beautiful words", the real background of its (the program's Ed.) launch by Brussels leaves no room for illusions.
"And we can fully observe the consequences of such attempts to put countries close to us before the choice of "being with Russia or the West" on Ukraine."
According to him, Russia, at the same time is sympathetic to the interest of Armenia and Belarus in participating in the program, which they see as an opportunity to promote cooperation with the European Union and "ensure the sustainable development of their economies."
"They are our reliable allies, and we have no reason to not trust them, "added Kelin.


Check out the categories below to find your next vacation rental in Crested Butte Colorado! Located in the Rocky Mountains, our vacation rentals offer great opportunities for adventure, exploring, and relaxing. Enjoy great scenic views, hot tubs, fire pits, and beautifully crafted cozy cabins, condos, and single-family homes.
Visitors often take advantage of nearby hiking and biking trails or visit Crested Butte Mountain Resort for various winter and summer activities. Whether you are looking to get outdoors, explore the town, or spend the days curled up by the fireplace, we offer a wide variety of mountain vacation rentals with great amenities.
Choose from our premium Colorado vacation rentals located in Crested Butte and the surrounding areas.
Looking for pet friendly lodging in Crested Butte, Colorado? Then check out Alpine Getaways selection of homes that will let you bring your pet!
Alpine Getaways offers a wide range of lodging in Crested Butte, Colorado with our premium vacation rentals. Each rental property offers guests the best amenities that include fireplaces, private hot tubs, and more. We have lodging in Crested Butte for all types of groups with our variety of sizes and styles. No matter which of our rentals you choose, you will be met with all the comforts of home! Check out all of our rentals to choose the best lodging in Crested Butte for your next vacation! Browse and book online or call us at 970-349-0539 for any questions you might have about our available vacation homes in this beautiful mountain town.
Located near the famous Crested Butte Mountain Ski Resort, our on and near mountain lodging properties offer guests the best location for their ski vacations. Why not stay close to the mountain for ease of commuting and convenience to so many other things to do? Explore these convenient properties today! Note, each of our Crested Butte on a near mountain lodging options come equipped with premium amenities and features, as well as come in a variety of sizes and styles. So no matter what kind of rental you are seeking for your visit to Crested Butte, we guarantee to have the perfect rental for you!


text:
Q: Click Event Not Working After Class Change I have the following script:
// dashboard maximize
$('#dashboard-actions .btn-maximize').click(function() {

    // max / restore buttons
    $(this).removeClass('btn-maximize').addClass('btn-restore');
    $(this).find('span').removeClass('icon-maximize').addClass('icon-restore');

    // swap tables
    $('#table-dashboard-actions-mini').hide();
    $('#table-dashboard-actions').show();

    // show form
    $('#form-dashboard-actions-btm').show();

    // restyle panel
    $(this).parents('.panel-dashboard').addClass('panel-dashboard-max');

    // animate panel
    $(this).parents('.panel-dashboard').animate({
            width: "100%",
        }, 250, function() {
        // Animation complete.
    });
    $(this).parents('.panel-primary').animate({
            height: "725px"
        }, 250, function() {
        // Animation complete.
    });

});

As you can see, at one point the script changes the class of the clicked button to .btn-restore
However this means that I cannot seem to bind an event to .btn-restore
I originally had this:
// dashboard restore
$('#dashboard-actions .btn-restore').click(function() {

    alert('asdf');
});

And the alert statement didn't work, so I changed it to this:
$('#dashboard-actions .btn-restore').on('click', function() {

But still no joy. Can anyone see what I'm doing wrong?

A: You need to use event delegation as the class changes dynamically.
$('#dashboard-actions').on('click','.btn-restore', function() {

When you bind the event handler initially, there exists no element with class btn-restore, so the click event after class change does not fire.
Also, I see btn-maximize being altered, of this is later added/toggled I woould suggest using a single common class like 'btn-toggle' and then add/remove  btn-maximize/btn-restore. This would prevent adding two separate event handlers.

A: Try this:
$(document).on('click','#dashboard-actions .btn-restore', function() {

instead of:
$('#dashboard-actions .btn-restore').on('click', function() {

Delegated events must be bind to something that exist in the dom and in the second part will define the element ('#dashboard-actions .btn-restore') you want to trigger click on.

A: As a couple of people have mentioned, event delegation is the key to binding to selectors that don't match yet. The alternative suggestion of binding to the generic selector .button that will always exist and then maintaining the state (maximised or restored) in a variable is also valid.
Your issue  with the panel opening and then immediately closing seems to be that you add the .btn-restore class inside the event handler immediately. It shouldn't happen, but it seems like the click event is firing again on the new selector (perhaps something to do with mouseup and mousedown components of the click event?). I'd suggest wrapping your addClass calls within a setTimeout() like so to ensure the classes are changed after any events fire, essentially "pushing" the change to the end of the current execution:
var $btn = $(this);
setTimeout(function () {
    $btn.removeClass('btn-maximize').addClass('btn-restore');
    $btn.find('span').removeClass('icon-maximize').addClass('icon-restore');
});

You'll notice the new variable $btn. This is required because this inside your setTimeout function will no longer refer to the clicked element (a quick search for "javascript scope and this" or similar will explain this further if required). It also doesn't hurt to cache the $(this) result in any case.
Hope that works for you - let me know if I can be of further help.

A: check the Jquery Documentation
So maybe you need to put something like this.
using the childs element of #dashboard-actions
$('#dashboard-actions .button').on('click', function() {})

and inside of the function using hasClass documentation
$(this).hasClass('className')