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Life and times of Venustiano Carranza: Revolutionary and President
Venustiano Carranza was the leader of the Revolution that ended Victoriano Huerta's military dictatorship and brought together the Congress that gave Mexicans the Constitution that governs to this day. Learn how he achieved these triumphs and succeeded as president during the most difficult period in the history of Mexico in the 20th century.
Venustiano Carranza was born in the north of the country, in the state of Coahuila; he began his studies in the Ateneo Fuente de Saltillo. He came to the capital to study at the National Preparatory School, but due to an illness in his eyes, he could not continue. As he was a responsible person, he was elected municipal president of Cuatro Ciénegas, the town where he was born. Venustiano Carranza did his job so well that he was re-elected several times and then became a deputy and senator. He wanted to be governor of his state, but was prevented from doing so by the group of dictator Porfirio Diaz.
He joined the Revolution led by his fellow countryman Francisco I. Madero to end the Porfirian dictatorship. Although they triumphed, the counter-revolution ended the government and Madero's life. It was then that Carranza led the second stage of the Revolution to reestablish the constitutional order, which was broken by the Huerta garrison.
Carranza managed to make the constitutionalist revolution triumph. Then he defeated the villagers and Zapatistas who were united in the government of the Convention that wanted to take power away from him. He passed a series of laws to resolve social demands. These were later incorporated into the new Constitution.
After a prolonged revolutionary process and civil war, amidst pressure from the United States and Germany to enter World War I, President Carranza stood firm, not giving in to pressure. He took on the task of pacifying and rebuilding the country, bringing it forward. He gave Mexico the first Constitution that guaranteed the rights of rural and urban workers in the world.
Childhood and education
Venustiano Carranza Garza was born on December 29, 1859, in Cuatro Cienegas, Coahuila. He was the eleventh child in a family of 15: 10 girls and five boys. At that time, the municipality of Cuatro Ciénegas was still a very isolated region in the arid north of Mexico. About 2000 people lived in the municipal capital with very few means of communication and life was difficult. Attacks by nomadic indigenous people were the main threat.
A hotel business, two billiards, and two tortilla mills served all the inhabitants. After daily work in the countryside, the only thing people could do was walk around the central square, go to the billiards tables, meet as a family or take trips to the nearest crystal-clear water pools. There were only three doctors, and no other professionals lived there. For a person in Cienfuegos in those years, only politics, agriculture and stockbreeding were respectable occupations.
Jesús Carranza Neira and María de Jesús Garza, his parents, were never rich. Don Jesús was the true head of the family until his death in 1899. His sons Sebastián, Emilio, Venustiano, and Jesús followed his path and entered politics. Jesús Carranza Neira was a friend of the most important people in the region, had a good relationship with President Benito Juárez, and was a friend of General Mariano Escobedo.
Don Jesús and Doña María did everything possible to send their children to school, because they were convinced that education was something very important. Venustiano began his training at the school in Cuatro Ciénegas. He was quiet, austere, sober, and thoughtful. In 1872, the family moved to the state capital, Saltillo, so that he could continue his studies at the prestigious Ateneo Fuente, where he received a liberal education, which he learned to appreciate and later became very important during his government. Venustiano was only able to successfully complete the first year there; after the second year, which he had to repeat, he moved with his brother Emilio, in 1874, to Mexico City to conclude his studies at the National Preparatory School. He was less than 15 years old at the time.
Gabino Barreda, the great educator of Mexico in the 19th century, was then the head of the National High School. Mexico City and the school environment must have had a big impact on a boy from a town as small as Cuatro Ciénegas. National politics, the urban life of the capital, as well as social relations with boys with a different education than he was surely very important to the young Carranza. Venustiano had a strong personality and an outstanding memory, but he was not an outstanding student. Furthermore, he had to abandon his studies to treat a severe eye disease, and was unable to return to Mexico City to finish his education.
Five years after his return to Coahuila, in 1882, Venustiano married Virginia Salinas, also from Cuatro Cienegas. With her, he had three children: Virginia, Julia, and Leopoldo, who died when still a child. Very little is known about Venustiano Carranza's private sphere, as he always kept his family away from public life. There are some photographs from the day of his daughter Virginia's wedding ( the few photographs in which Venustiano appears smiling). And some accounts from people close to the family say that Carranza liked to eat surrounded by his family and take a short nap immediately afterward. He did not drink alcohol and did not smoke.
In Cuatro Ciénegas, Venustiano was completely dedicated to agriculture. The most famous and extensive ranch that belonged to him was called Las Ánimas and was located three days away from his village on horseback. The lands of that ranch were not worth much and were never really prosperous, as they were arid and were divided into sections of the Caballo and San Antonio mountain ranges; there were no permanent bodies of water and they were very far from the centers of population. But Venustiano built a small dam to collect the little rainwater that came down, as well as that from a stream that formed from time to time.
After 1900 the demand for guayule fiber to make rubber increased considerably. It was then that Carranza was able to make a profit for the first time. However, when he left the property to pursue politics, Las Ánimas ranch was almost abandoned. By this time, the Carranza family had made great economic progress and had become important to local politics. However, they were never part of the economic groups that pulled the strings at the regional level.
First years in politics
Venustiano Carranza began his political career in 1882, when he was only 22 years old. He was on the verge of holding an electoral office, but became ill. Afterward, he was a local judge for a short time, as he resigned before a year to attend to his private business. It was not until 1887, when Porfirio Díaz decided to support the candidacy of José María Garza Galán for the government of Coahuila, that Carranza began to participate seriously in politics. At the age of 27, he won his first political post by being elected municipal president of Cuatro Cienegas.
By most accounts, Venustiano was a good city president and an excellent administrator. According to Jesús Carranza Castro, his uncle Venustiano was interested in the education of young people of both sexes and in the development of moral values, both government officials and of the people in general. He frequently met with local teachers and tried to convince them of the advantages of teaching history. Unfortunately, he had to leave the municipal presidency in May 1887, after a problem with Governor Garza Galán. To avoid a fight that he knew he would not win, he resigned from his position and returned to private life, working on his ranch.
In 1893, Garza Galan was up for re-election for the second time. Bernardo Reyes, governor of Nuevo León, and Emilio Carranza decided to back Miguel Cárdenas, Garza Galán's rival. The Carranzas had several businesses with Cárdenas, who was a friend of the family since childhood and had been Venustiano's partner in the Ateneo Fuente. Everyone knew Governor Garza Galán used his political power to do business. When it became clear that the elections were not going to be democratic, Emilio Carranza, along with his father and his brothers Jesus and Sebastian, decided to take up arms. That was the only armed revolt that was successful during the Porfiriato.
After several weeks of fighting, Porfirio Díaz ordered Garza Galán to resign. Once this happened, Bernardo Reyes ordered the release of the political prisoners, Miguel Cárdenas and Emilio Carranza became local deputies, and Venustiano, with Reyes' support, was elected as the new municipal president of Cuatro Ciénegas. From this episode, Venustiano was very close to Bernardo Reyes.
Brothers Venustiano and Emilio Carranza had very successful political careers. Emilio was the municipal president of Ocampo and local deputy, but died in 1898. Venustiano was president of his municipality for three consecutive periods, from 1894 to 1898. After his brother's death, he was elected local deputy. This position made it easier for him to enter national politics.
Municipal president
Venustiano requested resources for the schools. When he was not given them, he made changes in the budget and dismissed unnecessary civil servants so that he could spend less and pay more teachers. He proposed to Miguel Cardenas, already governor, to update the list of properties in Coahuila in order to distribute the taxes more fairly; he also asked him to approve and send to the local Congress a reform proposal that included charging a one percent tax on anyone earning more than 40 pesos (except teachers and public employees), as well as abolishing the milk tax.
He also suggested that the state Congress reform the law to prevent doctors from abusing the poor. When Porfirio Díaz ordered Bernardo Reyes to watch over Emilio Carranza after the 1893 rebellion, Reyes replied that he should rather worry about Venustiano, as he was more intelligent and demanding than any of his brothers.
Deputy and Senator
Just before Venustiano finished his third term as municipal president he was elected local deputy for the district of Monclova, a position he had held since 1898. Then, almost immediately, he entered the Senate of the Republic for the state of Coahuila. In 1903, Venustiano wrote to the governor of his entity and told him:
Local governments should not spend so much on municipal governments. Also, there is a great need to hire more rural teachers to teach children to write. For me, public officials should be the first to enforce the law and respect the authorities, otherwise they should be seriously punished.
Although Carranza was in Congress in Mexico City, he continued to express his opinion on local politics. In the city, he had the opportunity to learn about the legislative process and the way politics are done in the center of the country.
Temporary Governor of Coahuila
In September 1908, Miguel Cárdenas decided to travel to the capital to talk to Porfirio Díaz, probably because the conflict in Coahuila between the group of Scientists and the followers of Bernardo Reyes, the most popular general in the army and one of the favorites to be the next president, had hardened. The Scientists were followers of Finance Minister Jose Yves Limantour, who was also a candidate to replace President Diaz. While Governor Cardenas was out of state, the local Congress appointed Carranza as a temporary governor. During his time in office, he pushed for some reforms and organized a political movement to support them.
The temporary government lasted only a couple of months. Carranza held office from September 25 to November 21, 1908. By that time, he was already an experienced politician, had been a local judge, municipal president, local deputy, and senator. During that time, he continued with the policies that Miguel Cárdenas had put in place, that is, everything related to education, the autonomy of municipal presidents, and income distribution. Francisco Madero considered Carranza to be an honest man, and even though he did not totally agree with him, he told a friend:
At least he made the judges and other public employees fulfill their obligations. He also improved the food for prisoners and the food for children in schools.
As a temporary governor, Carranza used the support of Miguel Cardenas, his contacts, and his family in Coahuila and all his experience to build his own way of doing politics and showed that, without being a revolutionary, some political and social reforms could be made. In fact, after Cárdenas announced that he was not going to be reelected, the newspapers in Saltillo reported that the important people of Coahuila supported Carranza, who had finished his two months of provisional government a few weeks earlier. Even Francisco Madero said:
In the short time that Carranza was governor of the state, he proved to be an upright man and a true Coahuilan, a true guardian of the independence and dignity of his state.
Madero and Carranza were never good friends or partners, but they worked together to face the local elections, in which Venustiano would run for governor. Unfortunately, though no one would have thought so, that alliance weakened them. Porfirio Díaz had no problem imposing his candidate, Jesús de Valle, as he had done in so many other elections in the country. When Carranza lost, the Anti-Reelectionist political party, founded by Francisco I. Madero, inherited the organization and strength of the political party. They had lost their leader, General Bernardo Reyes, because Porfirio Díaz had sent him to France to do military studies.
After losing the election, Carranza returned to the Senate in Mexico City. There he waited for the 1910 presidential election. Porfirio Díaz was seeking his sixth reelection and was facing Madero, who was a skilled politician, very charismatic and popular. Diaz decided to put him in jail, so Madero wrote to Carranza to tell him that he was going to revolt, and that when he did so he would demand that Carranza be recognized as the provisional governor of Coahuila.
Carranza and the Madero Revolution
The revolution Madero had called for on November 20, 1910, was a failure. Madero had escaped to the United States and had to wait until February 1911 to cross the border. When he established his provisional government in the customs building outside Ciudad Juarez, he appointed Carranza as Secretary of War. And on May 29 of that same year, when Jesús de Valle resigned, Congress appointed Carranza governor, which had been one of Madero's demands on Porfirio Díaz's envoys.
After the fall of Diaz, Mexico experienced very profound changes. No one imagined a country "in the absence of Don Porfirio". The Revolution raised hopes that everyone in Mexico would be equal before the law, something that had never happened before, which generated specific demands and attitudes. In Coahuila, the peons refused to work and demanded to become owners of the land and water, as well as to be forgiven their debts.
Ranchers demanded the reopening of roads to transport their cattle and sell them across the border. The small landowners wanted their property back. The indigenous people demanded that their communal lands and water rights be returned to them. Sometimes these demands led to attitudes of hate or discrimination. The latter occurred throughout the country, even in places that had not experienced revolutionary violence.
Since there were several middle-class groups that were organized and active, political competition in Coahuila increased greatly, which generated a fierce fight between Maderistas and Reyistas, especially after Bernardo Reyes returned from Europe and accepted a presidential candidacy to compete against Madero. Furthermore, during 1911 and 1912 there were many labor conflicts in Coahuila, especially around the mines. Expressions against foreigners and demands for better living conditions also became very frequent.
For all these reasons, Carranza decided to concentrate on the restoration of peace. He also did his best to ensure that the Constitution was respected and justice worked in his state. However, he recognized that to restore peace, some of the demands of the revolutionaries would have to be put off. For him, the most important thing was to carry out educational and tax reforms.
Carranza authorized an increase in the budget for basic and intermediate education; he opened nine evening schools for adults and supported education inside prisons. He also eliminated personal taxes and other obligations he considered unfair or inefficient. To serve workers, he created special commissions to mediate between employees and industries. Furthermore, he began a campaign to improve health conditions in the state, which yielded its first results by the fall of 1911.
Constitutional Governor of Coahuila
Carranza resigned from the governorship again in order to compete in the gubernatorial elections. He campaigned all over the state, promising a strong government, capable of collecting taxes, but always respectful of the law; a government that could help solve the problems between workers and capitalists; that was capable of educating and moralizing society, and that respected individual liberties, but with order and progress.
Carranza won the election and became governor of the state on November 22, 1911, just over two weeks after Madero became president. During his 15 months at the helm of Coahuila's government, he implemented educational, tax, labor and political reforms; took steps to improve the state's health and justice systems, military recruitment and the efficiency of the economy; and tackled some of the problems in the countryside and water use in Coahuila.
Important changes during his government
Carranza's priority was education. He was willing to sacrifice other programs to cover the costs of rebuilding the educational system: he increased the number of schools, renovated and equipped the existing ones, and opened evening schools for working adults. He also signed a law to ensure that municipalities could appoint their academic and administrative staff, provided financial support to help rural schools, and ensured that teachers were always well paid. Moreover, he ensured support and offered that municipalities with programs to improve the conditions of the education system would not have to pay a part of their taxes. Finally, he reformed the curricula at Ateneo Fuente and at the state's Escuela Normal, which he also expanded to train more teachers.
To finance all this, Carranza forgave taxes to those who invested from 20,000 pesos in the state, but revised all the privileges that had been granted in other governments, and canceled those of urban property owners. At the same time, he created new taxes for professionals and financial investors, as well as a detailed revision of the state's tax code to establish that people with more income would pay more. He allowed judges to confiscate the land or property of those who did not pay what they owed. He also gave more power to municipal presidents to collect taxes, and supported efforts by local authorities to force mining companies to pay the property tax, so that municipalities would have more resources.
Following the example of Bernardo Reyes in Nuevo Leon, Carranza approved a comprehensive workers' compensation law for Coahuila and supported the government in helping to resolve conflicts between workers and capitalists. He allowed workers to form unions, but tried to keep strikes to a minimum. He supported the formation of non-profit insurance companies and proposed to Congress that these companies should not pay taxes.
He also forbade the hiring of children under 16 to work in the mines or on Sundays, as well as strip stores and the payment of wages in coupons or on credit. The strip mall was a credit establishment for the basic supply, located next to the factories or farms and where the workers or peasants were forced to make their purchases. Carranza had long had a good relationship with the workers, especially the miners. This relationship would be important during the constitutionalist revolution that overthrew Victoriano Huerta.
His reforms to the local constitution
Another relevant change was the reform of the local constitution. This fact is very important to understand his later project to reform the federal Constitution. Both reforms are based on the same basic principles: to protect the rights of the people by transforming them into guarantees and to strengthen the individual in the face of the power of the State; to establish clearly the way in which the people could exercise their freedom; to strengthen the Executive Branch in the face of the other branches of the State; to simplify and order the Constitution so that it would be easier to apply it. This reform was based on the principles of liberalism that Carranza had learned since he was young, both with his family and in the classroom, which placed the individual as the foundation of society, so he had to be protected by limiting the powers of the state.
Carranza also implemented other policies to improve the economy and the standard of living of the general population. To moralize society and improve health conditions in the state, he cleaned up and regulated the food industry, established alcohol taxes, banned gambling and opium use, regulated prostitution, and began a vaccination campaign. Finally, he started up electrical service in Saltillo and in Matamoros, in La Laguna.
A coup d'état by Victoriano Huerta
The relationship between Madero and Carranza did not improve much after the triumph of the 1910 Revolution. They had learned to collaborate to achieve certain common goals because they were both against Diaz, but their relationship was never very good. Moreover, Madero's government was never stable: in the 15 months he was president, from November 6, 1911, to February 1913, he had to face the rebellions of Bernardo Reyes and Emiliano Zapata, Pascual Orozco, Félix Díaz (Don Porfirio's nephew) and the one that would finally cost him his life, led by Félix Díaz and Bernardo Reyes, which began on February 9, 1913. The latter allowed Victoriano Huerta to take power.
Unlike Madero, who trusted the federal army completely and was suspicious of his own revolutionary army, Carranza thought that in order to strengthen the Revolution, the revolutionary army had to be maintained. So Venustiano decided to keep some of the state forces and maintain communication with the state commanders who had always been loyal to him. But Madero's regime collapsed overnight when Huerta betrayed him and cowardly murdered him.
When the usurper had the power, he sent a telegram to all the governors informing them that he had taken over the government. Before learning of Madero's death, Carranza was unaware of Huerta's government. The deputies of Coahuila gave the order to Venustiano to create an army to confront the military coup leader and thus re-establish constitutional order.
The constitutionalist army
Carranza had to evade the federal forces, since all the state governments, except for his and Sonora's, immediately recognized Huerta. For Venustiano, the challenge was not only to find the necessary men and money to pay for a revolution, but to convince the country and the United States that he had not taken up arms: it was Huerta who had rebelled. For Carranza it was fundamental to defeat the federal army and initiate a profound reform of the political system, respecting the Constitution of 1857.
Carranza had to flee north. On the night of March 25, he and his men arrived at the Hacienda de Guadalupe, where they decided to stop and rest. The next day, Venustiano decided to draw up the Guadalupe Plan, to explain to the country's inhabitants what was being sought: restore the Constitution and punish the assassins of President Madero and Vice President Pino Suárez. The plan was mainly political, and it did not mention the social problems that persisted in many parts of the country despite the Madero revolution. Carranza did not intend to initiate a social revolution, although his family had links with workers' organizations and other popular groups.
After drafting the Plan de Guadalupe, Carranza continued north and settled in Piedras Negras, on the border with the United States. There he had space and time to strengthen his movement, and he met with the few revolutionaries who supported him. Although the Sonora government had also ignored Huerta, he was going through a political crisis because his governor, José María Maytorena, upon learning of Madero's death, asked the local Congress for permission to leave the country. Carranza had to seek an alliance with all the revolutionaries in the northwest, because both Sonora and Chihuahua, with its powerful Pancho Villa Northern Division, had what he lacked: an army capable of successfully confronting the federal army.
After a while, Carranza had no choice but to leave Coahuila and seek to establish his government in Sonora. The Sonoran revolutionaries and those in Chihuahua accepted his leadership. That union of revolutionaries from different social classes, as well as Carranza's experience as governor, explains why, after the victory, the Constituent Congress had to combine Carranza's project with the social reforms for which many had fought.
Once Carranza arrived in Sonora and secured acceptance of the Plan de Guadalupe, in just nine months, from September 1913 to July 1914, the Huerta government collapsed. The constitutionalists cornered him to the south, where Zapatista troops also fought him. The powerful Northern Division, which Pancho Villa commanded almost alone, was very important for the triumph and greatly influenced the direction the Revolution took after the fall of Huerta. But it was the military organization of Carranza, the First Chief, that really allowed the victory.
The Aguascalientes Convention
On August 20, 1914, when Venustiano arrived in the capital and became head of the Executive Branch, he called a revolutionary convention that was to begin on October 1 in Mexico City. However, the convention moved to Aguascalientes, declared itself sovereign, ignored Carranza's authority and appointed Eulalio Gutiérrez as provisional president, in order to begin the process of restoring the Constitution. Venustiano, in turn, disowned the autonomy of the convention and moved to Veracruz, where he established his headquarters to continue the struggle, now against the armies of Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa.
By the spring of 1915, the lack of coordination between villagers and Zapatistas made it easier for General Álvaro Obregón to win his military victory over Villa. Meanwhile, in Aguascalientes, the Villa and Zapatista representatives were unable to define a government program, so Carranza defeated them politically by decreeing the first revolutionary reforms. However, if the objective was to make the reforms definitive, it was indispensable to modify the Constitution. That is why he called for a Constituent Congress.
The Constituent Congress
When most of the country was under the control of the constitutionalist army, the elections were verified to determine who the constituent deputies would be. All those who opposed the Plan de Guadalupe, including villagers and Zapatistas, were not taken into account. Those who collaborated with the Huerta government were also excluded. Thus, on December 10, 1916, as planned, Congress began.
Carranza presented a project consistent with the ideals of Mexican liberalism to which he had been attached all his life, just as he had done in Coahuila in 1912. He proposed making the necessary reforms to protect the rights of the individual, changing the concept of "individual rights", which raised general principles that could not be put into practice in real life, to that of "guarantees", which allowed any individual to resort to the courts to prevent the government from violating their rights. He also sought to strengthen the executive branch, as the president's powers to distribute power evenly among the various branches of government needed to be more clearly established. Carranza argued for federalism and a free municipality. Specifically, this meant giving the municipal president political freedom and economic means to make decisions.
As for social reforms, Carranza left out of his project the labor and agrarian legislation, although he did propose as a guiding principle the separation of the Church and the State. Carranza was in favor of freedom of worship, although the 1916 Constituent Assembly rejected that part of the proposal. In labor matters, Don Venustiano considered that it was the task of each state to create laws to protect the rights of workers. In agrarian matters, he considered that the government had sufficient powers to acquire land and distribute it without the need to modify the Constitution. Furthermore, for that purpose he had already decreed the Agrarian Law of January 6, 1915, which protected small property, allowed restitutions and endowments of land to people who needed it for their subsistence, and gave landowners the right to go to court to request compensation.
On 31 January 1917, the Constituent Congress approved the new Constitution with all the modifications it had considered necessary, both to ensure peace and to establish the basis for a new social pact. This is why Articles 3, 27, 123, and 130 were included.
The Carta Magna was not Carranza's imposition, but his initiative. The main demands for which different revolutionary groups had joined the struggle against the dictatorship were engraved in the Constitution, which Carranza swore to uphold and defend. It was promulgated on February 5, 1917. A few months later, Carranza won the election that finally brought him to the presidency of the Republic, from which he took office on May 1.
President of Mexico
As president, Venustiano Carranza concentrated his greatest energy on restoring constitutional order. This would allow the judiciary to function normally again, elections for local governors and congresses to be held, diplomatic relations with Mexico's main allies to be re-established and the economy to recover. However, he did not achieve much during his three years in office, until he lost his life defending his principles.
On the military side, Carranza reorganized the armed forces so that the constitutionalist troops became the Mexican National Army, which to this day defends the country. The Legion of Honor, the General Staff Academy, the Artillery School, the Troop School, and the Naval School were integrated into it. However, he faced rebellions in several states of the Republic, and it cannot be said that he achieved peace in all the territory. When the time came for the presidential succession, Venustiano lost the loyalty of the army, which practically cost him his life.
His economic policy was not very successful either, partly because of the terrible conditions left by the Revolution, and partly because of the lack of international loans that would have made it possible to relieve the shortage of resources a little. The application of some taxes, including on oil production, did not help to obtain international support either.
The Revolution left damage all over the country. The year 1917 was marked by famine, a shortage of money, and uncontrolled rise in prices. Carranza proposed to create a bank to issue currency, but the project could not be carried out due to a lack of resources. It was not until 1925 that the Bank of Mexico was born. His relationship with the workers was never good. On the one hand, the workers had not forgotten the repression of strikes in Mexico City during the constitutionalist revolution; on the other hand, inflation and currency shortages constantly affected wages.
The agrarian distribution advanced very slowly, and the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation protected on countless occasions the landowners who requested protection when their properties were expropriated. In the Valley of Mexico, for example, reparations were made, but in many areas of the country where peasants had taken up arms to demand the return of their land, reparations never arrived during the Carranza government. This was one of the reasons the Zapatistas supported General Alvaro Obregon when he took up arms against Carranza.
Venustiano, like all his life, continued to support education, and although he established the general directorates of Public Education, Fine Arts, Technical Education, and the National University, he is best remembered for having eliminated the Secretariat of Public Education, which would later be re-established by Álvaro Obregón with José Vasconcelos as its head. Carranza always thought that education should be in charge of the municipalities, since they were the government bodies closest to the people, and who, supposedly, knew more about the needs in each locality and region.
For this reason, he did not consider it necessary to have a federal secretariat in charge of public education. However, he supported the National University and integrated as faculties the National School of Chemistry and the Superior School of Commerce, for example. It also supported the exploration of archaeological ruins and the work of anthropologist Manuel Gamio, as well as the establishment of the Museum of Colonial Art.
Perhaps his greatest achievement was the defense of national sovereignty. From before he was sworn in as president of the Republic, he defended the integrity of the country and demanded that the U.S. Army, which occupied Veracruz in 1914 and invaded Chihuahua between March 1916 and February 1917, leave the territory without preconditions.
He kept Mexico neutral towards the countries involved in the First World War despite the pressure of the United States, and formulated the Carranza Doctrine, which demanded respect for the sovereignty of all countries equally, large and small, strong and weak militarily, non-interference in internal affairs, respect for the laws of each country by nationals and foreigners, and the use of diplomacy before the war to resolve conflicts.
It is said that Carranza always carried with him the bullets that took the life of Francisco Madero, because he wanted to keep in mind the mistakes that a good politician had to avoid. He probably thought about that while riding to Tlaxcalantongo on the rainy night of May 20, 1920. After governing for three years, it had been impossible for him to achieve pacification; he had lost the support of the United States; he had not been able to control the political process or change a single comma to the constitutional text.
The political party that had brought him to the presidency, the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, now would not allow his initiatives to be approved in Congress. In trying to stop the campaign of his most successful general, Álvaro Obregón, he had to confront the government of Sonora, which provoked a rebellion by most of the army. In early May he had to flee the capital, seeking to reach Veracruz, where he planned to start the fight again.
But in the mountains of Puebla, he had to abandon the railway track and continue, on horseback, through the mountains. While camping in Tlaxcalantongo, in the middle of heavy rain, an ambush surprised him, and he died riddled with bullets by his enemies when he was President of the Republic.
Final reckoning
Isidro Fabela, one of Mexico's most distinguished politicians and diplomats of the 20th century, described him as follows:
Carranza was a stout and energetic man, with a broad back, strong chest, noble head, and a white, bearded face. Venustiano was honest, intelligent, cunning, and well-meaning.
On the other hand, Zapata said:
Carranza was capricious and selfish. He was always a Porfirian senator, a stout, authoritarian old man with a red face, dark glasses, and goatee, who sat in his saddle as if he were sitting in an armchair.
Even one of Madero's brothers once said:
Carranza is a lazy old man who asks permission from one foot to move the other.
Don Venustiano has probably been the most nationalistic president Mexico has ever had. He did not allow the great powers to intervene even a little in internal affairs. But his ties to the Porfiriato, his idea that change happens little by little, as well as his agreement with the conservative project of Bernardo Reyes, have left him out of the history of revolutionary change in Mexico.
Carranza was a bridge between the old regime and the Revolution. He was always sure that it was essential to control the armed forces in order to maintain the reins of the country; for the same reason, he never accepted to be a general, because he believed that the army always had to remain under civilian control. He was convinced that it was necessary to mobilize the popular sectors and the middle classes of society (workers, peasants, students, women, and young professionals, for example) who during the Porfiriato had remained on the sidelines of political participation, but without giving them the power to initiate social and political change.
Venustiano Carranza wanted to be a strong president to lead change, but he never tolerated riots, strikes, peasant organizations, or independent labor, and he limited freedom of the press. In a way, he wanted a completely new state, one that was capable of preserving the social order that the Revolution had sought to destroy; he did not want a social revolution, nor did he consider himself a revolutionary. He was, rather, a nationalist reformer whose project consisted in the preservation of the social order as he understood it: a country of great capitalists and educated men who could lead it to progress, leaving the responsibility to the State to protect Mexico's sovereignty, to moralize society and to educate the lower classes.
He organized an army that defeated Huerta, defeated Villa and Zapata, but he did not have the economic resources, the support of the United States, or the commitment to the Revolution to stop the fall of his government and his regime. When the army rebelled, when bureaucrats and Congress decided to back Alvaro Obregon, Carranza finally fell. But he left a great legacy by laying the foundations of the modern Mexican state.
By Patricia Galeana and Luis Barrón Córdova, Source: National Institute of Historical Studies of the Mexican Revolutions, Secretariat of Culture


text:
Resveratrol Foods: The 17 Highest Sources To Supplement With
Superfoodly March 21, 2020
17 foods high in resveratrol
1. Red wine
2. Red grape juice
3. Peanuts
4. Fresh grapes
5. Pistachios
7. Cocoa powder
9. Milk chocolate
10. Strawberries
11. Jackfruit skin
12. Blueberries
13. Bilberries
14. Red currants
15. Cranberries
16. Lingonberries
17. Mulberries
Top resveratrol supplements
It's not just an antioxidant. In fact, that aspect of it is the least intriguing.
The reason why resveratrol might be good for you is because scientists believe it activates your sirtuins. These are genes which produce enzymes of the same name.
In mammals, there are seven types of sirtuins; SIRT 1-7.
In particular, the SIRT1 may play an important role in the regulation of cellular aging.
When SIRT1 genes are activated and produce more sirtuin-1, several parameters of the cells' aging process are positively altered. (1)
Essentially, SIRT1 activation is believed to "slow the clock" when it comes to the aging of cells.
SIRT1 activation also takes place during extreme calorie-restriction.
That's a diet where your body is not deprived of any essential nutrients, though the total calories (energy) consumed per day is at the bare minimum.
That triggers your body to go into conservation mode. One result of that is higher SIRT gene expression.
Long term human studies to prove that have not been done and frankly, would be quite difficult to do since you can't babysit people 24/7 for decades to monitor everything they eat and drink.
But you can with monkeys in captivity…
Believe it or not, these two monkeys are the very same age. Both are 28 years old and should be at the end of their life span.
The monkey on the left is obviously knocking at death's door, while the one on the right looks youthful. He's been on a calorie restricted diet since youth and as a result, higher SIRT gene expression throughout his life.
Those monkeys are part of an on-going University of Wisconsin study that begun in 1989. Similar studies have been conducted with everything from fruit flies to mice. (2)
To be clear, these monkeys were not on resveratrol supplements. The reason there is excitement about resveratrol and nicotinamide riboside is because they are activators of sirtuins, too. (3)
Granted, there is controversy. Since the anti-aging benefits haven't been studied in humans, no one can claim with certainty that SIRT1 activation is (a) taking place, and (b) extending lifespans or promoting longevity. Likewise for all of the other health claims being made related to skin wrinkles, weight loss, Alzheimer's disease, diabetes, and so forth. (4)
Furthermore, even if boosting SIRT1 does help with the aging process, the research on resveratrol is limited to laboratory studies. No one can say how well (or not) it works in humans and if so, at what dosages would be required to produce noteworthy effects. However the research suggests it would probably take a lot.
In short, the benefits of resveratrol are currently unproven and for that reason, it should not be used to treat, cure, or prevent any disease.
Though given the fact that even pure resveratrol doesn't seem to elicit adverse reactions, you have little to lose by consuming it. Especially since many of the plant sources of resveratrol (it's not found in meat or dairy) are healthy in numerous other ways, so you're getting at least something out of them no matter what.
When the media references this molecule, they're talking about the trans-resveratrol form (3,5,4′-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene). If you want it daily, supplement with the following sources…
Starting with most well-known, this natural source may be potent but it's not ideal because of the alcohol.
Most people are unaware that alcohol, in any form and regardless of the amount, causes permanent DNA mutations in your body. Furthermore, it's an official carcinogen. Risks for cancers of the head and neck, esophagus, breasts, colon, and liver all go up with alcohol consumption. (5)
Not exactly a trait of anti-aging!
The reason wine is a potent source of resveratrol has more to do with the fact that it's not pasteurized or boiled, as is the case with jarred grape preserves and juices. Since heat, light, and air degrade this fragile compound, most processed foods will contain less, even when they're made with this same fruit.
How much resveratrol in wine?
Red wines have higher content and those made with thicker-skinned grapes will have most. Your average bottle of California Pinot Noir measures as 5.01 mg of resveratrol, followed by French Beaujolais at 3.55 mg, California Zinfandel at 1.38 mg, and Californian Cabernet Sauvignon at 0.99 mg. White wine have almost none, averaging 0.20 mg per bottle. Champagne has even less.
How much resveratrol in a glass of wine?
Assuming the average serving size of 150 mL (5 ounces), one glass of wine equals 20% of a standard 750 mL bottle. That means a glass contains around 1 mg of resveratrol at best, if you're drinking a red like Pinot Noir or Merlot. White wines like Chardonnay and Sauvignon Blanc are often less than 0.1 mg.
Since it's the most famous food source, many papers have been published on the content in wine. (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)
Even though wine is one of the best resveratrol sources, it pales in comparison to the amounts used in medical research.
The famous studies done by Sirtris Pharmaceuticals with obese mice used a daily dosage that would equate to the amount found in 750 to 1,500 bottles of red wine, if you adjusted it for the body weight of a 150 lb man or woman. (12)
That's why isolated forms, rather than foods, are what's used in most studies. For the same reason, it's why people who want more of this molecule in their diet often turn to supplements, like this one on Amazon from Garden of Life.
Even though amount is less than vine, it's still a relatively rich source.
How much resveratrol in grape juice?
Juices made from red grapes will have the most, averaging 0.5 mg per liter. That equals around 0.1 mg of resveratrol per 8 oz serving. White grape juice tests as having 90% lower content at 0.05 mg per liter or 0.01 mg per glass. Processing, pasteurization, and fruit concentration are why juice has less than wine.
The benefit of this source is that it's alcohol free but the drawback is that it has lots of sugar. (13)
Technically a legume that grows underground, these "nuts" are rarely thought of as a superfood, yet they have a moderate ORAC value that's higher than cashews, macadamia, and some other nuts and seeds. Part of that antioxidant value is coming from the resveratrol.
How much there is in peanuts is comparable to most red wines, when you compare equal weights of each. Raw runner peanuts with their skin intact have tested out at 1.12 mg of resveratrol per 100 g (3.5 oz) serving. Raw Virginia peanuts have tested much lower, as little as 0.01 mg for the same weight. (17) (18)
In grapes it's only in the skin but with peanuts, it's found in all parts. Likewise for most of the foods on this list.
Roasted peanuts still have resveratrol but their content is lower. Something like Planters will have 0.006 mg per 100 g. Boiled peanuts may not be popular but they are one of the best cooked sources, coming in a surprisingly high value of 0.412 mg for the same weight. That's over 60x the concentration of roasted! (19)
Although data isn't available on them, their rich red skins and the fact that they're sold raw would suggest that jungle peanuts might be the top contender.
Rather than drinking wine, eating grapes may be your best bet. You're getting an alcohol-free form and since fresh fruit is unpasteurized, most of it is intact, as well as the vitamin C, which is another heat-sensitive nutrient.
How much resveratrol there is in fresh grapes ranges from 0.24 to 1.25 mg per cup (160 g) for the red varieties. Dark black grapes, such as Concord and muscadines, can sometimes have more but generally fall within this range. The green have just 0.03 mg for the same serving size. (14) (15) (16)
Don't think this is a trend. Almonds, walnuts, and other nuts don't have it. Aside from peanuts, this the other one and you almost never see it on lists of resveratrol foods. That's too bad, because pistachios actually have more than peanuts.
Unlike peanuts which have dozens of published tests, only a couple exist for pistachios. The most detailed analysis of resveratrol and quercetin found they had 0.11 mg and 0.20 mg, respectively, per 100 g serving.
Now to be clear quercetin foods are not SIRT1 activators. The fact that they contain it is just one more thing to add to the list of pistachio health benefits. Several relate to anti-aging. (20)
Pistachio butter is another way to eat them.
Even though it's made from roasted nuts, it turns out that peanut butter is an excellent food source.
The cheap, low-end brands like Jif are Skippy are often blended with oils and therefore, have a lower amount; 0.04 mg per 100 g. Natural pure peanut butters without added oil have the most resveratrol, with amounts of 0.07 mg for the same weight. (19)
You've already heard it's high in antioxidants. Now you have another good reason to eat it!
The resveratrol in cocoa beans (which are technically seeds) is quite high and the most potent food source made from them is raw cocoa powder. Also known as cacao, there's 0.185 mg of trans-resveratrol per 100g (3.5 oz). On an equal weight basis that's about half as much as your average California red wine and significantly more than roasted peanuts. (21)
Since cocoa powder actually contains very little cocoa butter (fat) this 100 g amount is not that bad for you. Sure, it's 400 calories, though consider what comes with that…
26.7 g of protein
33.3 g of fiber, which is 120% of your daily value
13.3 mg of iron, which is 67% of DV
680 mg of magnesium, which is 167% of DV
0 g of sugar
Fat and carbs that are only 13% and 20% of DV, respectively
With nutrients like that, you canmix it with some juice and make it into a natural meal replacement shake.
Those nutrition facts are why more than one of us here at Superfoodly gets recurring shipments of cocoa powder through the Subscribe and Save for Navitas Organics on Amazon.
It has a lot less than raw cocoa powder. It's also a lot more calories since the butter is left intact.
On average, dark chocolate contains 0.035 mg per 100g serving. (21)
Coincidentally, that is the same weight as your average chocolate bar (3.5 ounces) from brands like Ghirardelli, Lindt, Green & Black's Organic, and Endangered Species. Each of those will be 550 to 600 calories per bar.
You can guess the direction this trend is going… it's very low at 0.01 mg per 100g. Sugar, milk, and now another reason to not eat the milky version! (21)
Every article out there seems to tout grapes which doesn't make sense, because strawberries actually have more than many types of grapes!
A 100 g serving of raw strawberries has 0.35 mg of resveratrol. That compares to 0.15 mg for fresh black grapes and 0.02 mg for green/white grapes. Red grapes however typically have more than strawberries. (22) (23) (24)
Jackfruit is in the same tree family as figs and mulberries (Moraceae). In recent years the pulp has become a popular vegan meat substitute for tacos and dishes that use shredded carne asade.
The bad news? The pulp and seed contains very little.
However if you can get your hands on jackfruit skin and find the texture edible enough to eat without cooking, then eating it raw will give you 0.356 mg per 100 g. That's about same as strawberry which undoubtedly, are much tastier and easier to acquire! (25)
With 0.383 mg per 100 g, the amount of resveratrol in fresh raw blueberries is slightly higher than that of strawberries. (26)
More impressive is the 0.059 mg of pterostilbene. (27)
That's another type of stilbene which is similar to resveratrol and even rarer in foods. Despite the small amount present, the pterostilbene benefits may even be better.
Also known as the European blueberry, the bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) is in the same plant genus as the American blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum). They're so closely related that it's debatable as to which berry hast the most resveratrol.
One test found 0.67 mg of resveratrol per 100 g of raw bilberries, which would suggest it has more. However another test using highbush blueberries from Michigan came back with nearly double the amount of bilberries from Poland. (28) (29)
The takeaway? Eat whichever is local to you. If you're in the UK, France or Germany and have easier access to bilberries, go with them. For Americans, blueberries are in plentiful supply.
This fruit handedly beats blueberries and bilberries. At 1.57 mg of resveratrol per 100 g, red currants even beats many of the best wine sources, which will have around 30% less per glass. (30)
Coming from the same plant genus as blueberries but with a distinctly different color and taste, cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccus L) clock in even higher at 1.92 mg of resveratrol per 100 g. (31)
If you eat that amount, you're getting around 200% of how much there is in a glass of red wine.
Here in the United States and Canada, the only place you will regularly encounter this berry is at an Ikea store in the form of lingonberry jam. That's been heated and doused with sugar so it's a terrible source.
If you can get your hands on the fresh berries, they will provide a big dosage of resveratrol; 3 mg per 100 g. (32)
Since it grows best in the boreal forests and Arctic tundra, about the only commercial cultivation that takes place in the U.S. is in the Pacific Northwest. Only a couple suppliers that we are aware of.
Your best bet is to turn to Amazon and buy NordicNordic lingonberry powder. It's an antioxidant powerhouse with no added sugars, colors, flavors, or preservatives.
Almost daily, this is our breakfast here at Superfoodly. An easy recipe of instant oatmeal + cacao powder + dried fruit and nuts (including goji and mulberries) is packed with protein and antioxidants.
Last and certainly not least we come to this deliciously sweet berry, which is much more popular in the United Kingdom and Europe than it is in the US.
What foods have the highest resveratrol?
The amount in fresh mulberries is more than red wine, grape juice, peanuts, cocoa, blueberries and lingonberries. At 5 mg of resveratrol per 100 g, mulberries are the richest natural food source. You would have to drink an entire bottle of Pinot Noir to get that same amount. (25)
Even though you're unlikely to find them for sale fresh, that's not a problem because the dried are readily available.
Since the resveratrol holds up well in sun dried fruit, the amount in dried mulberries is probably even higher, since 100 g dried equals a lot more berries, as most of the water weight has evaporated. Though precise testing to measure the amount in the dried has not yet been published.
Here at Superfoodly all of us eat mulberries daily. Literally every single day. They go great on oatmeal, cereal, or mixed with raw nuts for a healthy DIY trail mix. We find that the best deal on them is Terrasoul Superfoods organic 4 pack (4 lbs total) which you can get on Amazon.
Manufacturers will either synthesize it in the lab or extract it from the root of Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum). Its scientific synonym is Fallopia japonica and in Traditional Chinese Medicine it's known as Hu Zhang. (33)
Whatever you want to call it, the Japanese knotweed plant is not a food on its own because it contains emodin, which is a natural laxative. That's why the highest quality supplements have to extract the compound using an alcoholic solution, so very little emodin ends up in the finished product.
If you need some recommendations, here are some good resveratrol supplements that are reasonably priced:
NOW Foods – 200 mg per 1 veggie capsule.
Purest Vantage – Per 2 veggie capsule dosage, you get 600 mg of resveratrol which is part of a 1,400 mg polyphenol complex.
Reserveage – 500 mg per 1 veggie capsule, in a 4-hour sustained released formulation.
Each of the above is a gluten free and vegan friendly supplement.
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February 12, 2018 Jessica C Mason Reply
These do not grow in North America, but there is a fruit that is very similar to lingonberries that grows on the prairies. In Canada, it is called saskatoonberry; in the U.S. it is serviceberry. I have never seen it in a supermarket, but I wonder if it is available in the west, and if it is also a good source.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
News and Introductions
Cadillac and GM Industry News
News: Exclusive: GM's Barra faces roadblocks in rebuilding Cadillac brand
Thread starter Rob
Not yet!
Exclusive: GM's Barra faces roadblocks in rebuilding Cadillac brand
By Paul Lienert and Ben Klayman
DETROIT (Reuters) - General Motors Co Chief Executive Mary Barra's strategy of rebuilding the Cadillac brand has run into twin roadblocks: the carmaker can't persuade enough American sedan buyers to switch from foreign competitors such as BMW or Mercedes, and it can't make enough of its Escalade SUVs to satisfy domestic demand.
Even though chrome-bedecked Escalades retailing for more than $100,000 each are rolling every day out of an Arlington, Texas, factory that's been working weekend overtime for months, Cadillac still can't keep more than a few weeks' worth of the big SUVs in stock. By contrast, its dealers are offering discounts of thousands of dollars on the ATS sedan, intended to compete with the BMW 3 series, and on the CTS sedan, meant to rival the Mercedes E-class.
At Brotherton Cadillac Buick GMC in the Seattle suburb of Renton, Washington, owner Brad Brotherton is offering 2014 ATS sedans at up to $12,000 off a sticker price that starts at about $33,215. In St. Peters, Missouri, near St. Louis, Bommarito Cadillac was cutting as much as $17,500 off the price of a 2014 CTS sedan, which starts at about $45,345.
"Cadillac made a commitment to relieve dealer inventories by incentivizing" the leftover 2014 sedans, Brad Brotherton told Reuters. "Dealers had been asking for that for a long time."
The fire sale marks a setback for Cadillac's strategy to challenge BMW and Daimler AG's Mercedes-Benz brand head-on in the luxury sedan market. But while an American Cadillac ownerwill happily consider a BMW or a Mercedes, drivers of those famous German cars just won't put a Cadillac on their shopping list.
"The problem is, Cadillac is not BMW," said Larry Dominique, president of ALG in Santa Monica, California, which sets and tracks auto leasing values. "The ATS is the product that Cadillac could have used to build brand equity, but it was overpriced and overproduced."
Cadillac has wrestled for more than a year to shrink inventories of unsold ATS and CTS models. In mid-December it shuttered the Lansing, Michigan, plant that builds the ATS and CTS for six weeks. The factory reopened January 26 on a single shift with a greatly reduced production schedule.
Even with the production cuts, Cadillac and its dealers had about four months' worth of unsold CTS sedans and six months' worth of unsold ATS sedans on hand at the end of January, a Reuters analysis showed.
In January, GM sales rose 18 percent, largely on the strength of full-size trucks and utility vehicles. Cadillac sales increased just 2 percent, with ATS sales dropping 8 percent from a year ago and CTS sales down 24 percent.
"We understand we have a lot of work ahead of us with Cadillac," Barra said last week.
RESIDUAL VALUE
Dominique said Cadillac's residual values -- the projected end-of-lease values, expressed as a percentage of the new car's retail price -- are among the lowest in the luxury segment, ranking near the bottom with Ford Motor Co's Lincoln and Jaguar [TAMOJL.UL] .
So far, Cadillac has resisted price cuts on either model, although it recently tweaked option prices. Keeping base sticker prices unchanged could undercut the resale values used to set lease prices, Dominique said.
The failure of the ATS and CTS to hit their targets is costing GM. To kindle demand, Cadillac has offered subsidized leases, discounted financing and rebates. Consumers are being given $1,000 on the 2015 ATS and 2015 CTS, $4,000 on the 2014 ATS and $6,000 on the 2014 CTS. But some dealers are getting additional subsidies from Cadillac -- up to $5,000 more on the 2014 ATS and up to $7,000 more on the 2014 CTS -- to help clear out unsold cars.
Cadillac has cleared 90 percent of the leftover 2014 sedans, a spokesman said on Monday.
Meanwhile, the Escalade is hauling in the cash, as year-on-year sales in January rose 149 percent, according to Cadillac spokesman David Caldwell. GM's truck factory outside Dallas, which builds the Escalade and long-wheelbase Escalade ESV and their Chevrolet and GMC siblings, has been running steadily on three shifts and working weekend overtime for months to try to keep up with unrelenting demand.
"If we could run that plant eight or nine days a week, we probably would," said a GM insider familiar with the production schedule.
Cadillac marketing boss Uwe Ellinghaus, a former BMW executive, calls the Escalade "almost a brand in itself," but adds that the big SUV "does not set the direction" for Cadillac's long-range strategy.
As it is, Cadillac is likely to get only "a few more" Escalades this year, according to Caldwell, who said, "A little bit of scarcity isn't a bad thing."
(Reporting by Paul Lienert and Ben Klayman in Detroit. Editing by Joe White and John Pickering)
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Home Minister Rajnath Singh today said, the government will not allow any dilution in any of the provisions of SC-ST Prevention of Atrocities Act.
Replying to supplementaries during the Question Hour in the Rajya Sabha, Mr Singh said, the NDA Government in 2015 has not only made amendments to make it more effective but also changed the rules to strengthen it.
He said, for speedy disposal of cases, the government is in process of setting up of special courts in states. The Minister said, 194 such courts are operational in the country.
Replying to another supplementary, Minister of State for Home Hansraj Ahir said, there has been no increase in the cases of crime against SCs and STs.
He quoting the National Crime Records Bureau. Mr Ahir said, the government is serious to stop atrocities against SCs and STs.


text:
\section{Introduction}

The discovery of the late-time cosmic acceleration poses one of the greatest challenges theoretical physics has ever faced. In principle, this phenomenon may be the result of unknown physical processes involving either modifications of gravitation theory or the existence of new fields in high energy physics.  In the context of Einstein's general theory of relativity this means that some sort of dark energy, constant or that varies slowly with time and space, dominates the current composition of the cosmos (see, e.g., ~\cite{rev} for recent reviews).

Among the many possibilities to describe this exotic component, the simplest way is possibly by means of a cosmological constant $\Lambda$, which acts on the Einstein field equations as an isotropic and homogeneous source with $p_{\Lambda}= -\rho_{\Lambda}$. Historically, $\Lambda$ has been identified with the energy density of the quantum vacuum, but any attempt to obtain such contribution in quantum field theories in curved space-time leads to results many orders of magnitude above the observed value ($|\rho_{\Lambda}^{obs}| \simeq 10^{-10}$ $\rm{erg/cm^3}$), and even when an appropriate renormalization procedure is used, the resulting value usually disagrees with the actual one~\cite{weinberg}. This is the case, for example, of the vacuum density of free conformal fields in de Sitter space-time, which is shown to be of the order of $H^4$, where $H$ is the Hubble parameter \cite{H4}. Although such a result can be used to construct non-singular scenarios in the high-energy limit \cite{award}, at late-times it leads to a very tiny $\Lambda$.

A possible way out of this problem is to consider the contribution of interacting fields in the low-energy limit, which is a more realistic situation. In this sense, some authors have argued that the QCD chiral phase transition originates a vacuum energy density scaling as $\Lambda \approx m^3 H$, where $m \approx 150$ MeV is the energy scale of the QCD vacuum transition \cite{QCD}. By taking $\Lambda \sim H^2$ in the present Universe, we obtain $\Lambda \sim m^6$, which coincides with the current order of magnitude of the cosmological term. Clearly, no theoretical result in this field is free of some assumptions, and a number of other proposals for a possible time dependence of $\Lambda$ can be found in the literature (see, e.g.,~\cite{Lambda(t)}). In particular, in the case of a vacuum density decaying linearly with $H$, one can show that the corresponding cosmological model is indistinguishable from the $\Lambda$CDM model during the phase dominated by radiation, but it departs from the standard scenario during the matter epoch, in part owing to the production of dark matter associated to the vacuum decay \cite{Borges}.

In a previous communication~\cite{anterior}, we have tested the observational viability of this class of $\Lambda(t)$CDM scenarios discussed above from a joint analysis involving type Ia supernovae data  (Supernova Legacy Survey Collaboration~\cite{snls}) along with the position of the first acoustic peak in the CMB spectrum of anisotropies ($l_1$) from WMAP~\cite{WMAP}, and the SDSS observed distance to the baryonic acoustic oscillation (BAO) peak at $z = 0.35$~\cite{Eisenstein}. The goal of the present contribution is to update the results of Ref.~\cite{anterior} by using three of the most recent SNe Ia data sets, namely, the updated compilation of Union sample (Union2)~\cite{union}, the  nearby + SDSS + ESSENCE + SNLS + Hubble Space Telescope (HST) set of 288 SNe Ia discussed in Ref.~\cite{sdss} (throughout this paper we refer to this set as SDSS compilation) and the Constitution set of 397 SNe
Ia \cite{cs}. We consider two sub-samples of these two latter compilations that use SALT2~\cite{salt2} and MLCS2k2~\cite{mlcs2k2} SNe Ia light-curve fitting methods. Along with the SNe Ia data, and to improve the bounds on the free parameter of the model we use, besides the current value of $l_1$ and the BAO peak at $z = 0.35$, the distance to the BAO peak at $z = 0.2$, as recently discussed in Ref.~\cite{percival}. For the sake of comparison we also perform the same analyses for the standard $\Lambda$CDM model.

In order to verify the consistence between background and perturbative tests, we also perform a joint analysis including the observed matter power spectrum from the 2dFGRS.  In the case of SDSS (MLCS2k2) and Constitution (MLCS2k2 17) data, we obtain a very good concordance with $\Lambda(t)$ model. Since MLCS2k2 depends weakly on standard cosmology as compared to SALT2, it is actually the most appropriate to test non-standard models, which suggests that the obtained concordance is robust.

This paper is organized as follows. In Sec. II we discuss the basic equations and some features of the vacuum decay model with $\Lambda \propto H$. Observational tests involving SNe Ia, BAO, CMB and LSS data are performed in Sec. III. In Sec. IV we present our main results. We also discuss quantitatively the influence of two SNe Ia light-curve fitting methods on parameter estimates using the current SDSS and Constitution compilation sets. We end by summarizing our main conclusion in Sec. V.

\section{Basics of the $\Lambda(t)$ model}

In units where $(8\pi G)^{1/2} = c = 1$, the Friedmann equations for a spatially flat universe can be written as
\begin{equation} \label{friedmann}
\rho_T = 3H^2\;,
\end{equation}
\begin{equation}
\dot{\rho}_T + 3H(\rho_T + p_T) = 0\;,
\end{equation}
where $\rho_T$ and $p_T$ are the total energy density and pressure, respectively, and the second equation expresses the conservation of the total energy. By taking the cosmic fluid as composed by dust matter of density $\rho_m$ and a time-dependent cosmological term with $p_{\Lambda} = - \Lambda$, we have
\begin{equation} \label{continuidade}
\dot{\rho}_m + 3H\rho_m = -\dot{\Lambda}\;,
\end{equation}
which means that the decay of the vacuum energy density is concomitant with matter production. In order to avoid problems with primordial nucleosynthesis and the spectrum of CMB, we must postulate that no baryonic matter or radiation is produced in this process. Therefore, the present model may be considered as a particular case of models with interaction only in the dark sector (see, e.g., \cite{ernandes} and Refs. therein for other examples of scenarios with interaction in the dark sector).

With the ansatz $\Lambda = \sigma H$, where $\sigma$ is a constant of the order of $m^3$, the solution of the above equations is given by \cite{Borges}
\begin{equation} \label{a}
a(t) = C \left[\exp\left(\sigma t/2\right) - 1\right]^{\frac{2}{3}}\;,
\end{equation}
which coincides with the Einstein-de Sitter solution in the limit of early times and at late times tends asymptotically to the de Sitter space-time.

The corresponding Hubble parameter as a function of the redshift is given by \cite{primeiro,anterior}
\begin{equation} \label{Hz}
H(z) = H_0 \left[1 - \Omega_{m} +\Omega_{m} (1 + z)^{3/2}\right],
\end{equation}
where $\Omega_m$ and $H_0 = 100h$ $\rm{km/s/Mpc}$ are, respectively, the current values of the matter density and Hubble parameters. Note that, similarly to the flat $\Lambda$CDM scenario, these are the only two parameters of the model to be adjusted by the data. Note also that this class of $\Lambda$(t)CDM cosmologies does not contain the $\Lambda$CDM scenario as a particular case, which means that in principle they may be observationally distinguishable.

\section{Observational tests}

In this Section we investigate some observational constraints on both models from five different SNe Ia data sets along with the current value of $l_1$ from WMAP, the distance to the BAO peak at $z = 0.2$ and $z = 0.35$ and data of Large Scale Structure (LSS) distribution from 2dFGRS.

\subsection{SNe Ia data}

We use in our analyses five of the most recent SNe Ia compilations available, namely, the Union2 sample of Ref.~\cite{union}, the two compilations of the SDSS collaborations discussed in Ref.~\cite{sdss} and two of the Constitution compilations considered in \cite{cs}\footnote{In \cite{cs} the name Constitution refers to data calibrated with SALT. Here we will use it to refer to any compilation presented there.}.

The Union2 sample\footnote{http://www.supernova.lbl.gov/} is an update of the original Union compilation. It comprises 557 data points including recent large samples from other surveys and uses SALT2 for SN Ia light-curve fitting. The SDSS compilation\footnote{http://www.sdss.org/} of 288 SNe Ia uses both SALT2 and MLCS2k2 light-curve fitters\footnote{It is worth emphasizing that SALT2 fitter does not provide a cosmology-independent distance estimate for each SNe, since some parameters in the calibration process are determined in a simultaneous fit with cosmological parameters to the Hubble diagram (see~\cite{friemanON} for a discussion). See also \cite{36} for a discussion on possible systematic biases from the multicolor light curve shape method.} and is distributed in redshift interval $0.02 \leq z \leq 1.55$. This sample, along with the so-called CMB/BAO ratio, has been used in Ref.~\cite{sollerman} to perform a comparative analysis involving a number of nonstandard cosmological scenarios (we refer the reader to this latter reference for more on the SDSS compilation). The Constitution compilations comprises 397 SNe Ia (CfA3 + Union) calibrated with SALT2 and two versions of the MLCS2k2 fitter: MLCS31 and MLCS17. As discussed in \cite{cs}, the former overestimates host-galaxy extinction, and here we will consider only the later version.

\subsection{BAO}

The second observable we consider is the distance to a given observed baryonic acoustic oscillation, which is defined as
\begin{equation} \label{DV}
D_V(z) = \left[D_M(z)^2 \frac{z}{H(z)}\right]^{1/3}\;,
\end{equation}
where $D_M$ is the comoving angular-diameter distance. We will consider two different measurements of BAO, at redshifts $z_{\rm{BAO}} = 0.20$ and $z_{\rm{BAO}} = 0.35$, i.e.,
$
D_V(z = 0.2) = 748 \pm 57\; {\rm{Mpc}},
$
$
D_V(z = {0.35}) = 1300 \pm 88\; {\rm{Mpc}},
$
where the value of $D_V$ at $z = 0.2$ is obtained by combining the results of Ref.~\cite{percival} with the value of $D_V(z = 0.35)$ obtained in Ref.~\cite{tegmark}.

An important aspect worth emphasizing at this point is that we cannot use in our analysis the parameter ${\cal{A}}$, defined as ${\cal{A}} = D_V(z)\sqrt{\Omega_mH_0^2}/z_{\rm{BAO}}$ \cite{Eisenstein}, since in the present model the production of matter leads to a different dependence of the horizon at the time of matter-radiation equality on the present matter density \cite{anterior}.
In all the cases, the observable quantity is the ratio $r_s(z_d)/D_V$, where $r_s(z_d)$ is the sound horizon at the time of drag epoch. Since $r_s(z_d)$ is very weakly model-dependent (provided the radiation epoch is the same as in the $\Lambda$CDM model), the distance $D_V$ can in fact be used in our analysis. As well known, it is also obtained from direct observations by using the $\Lambda$CDM as a fiducial model~\cite{Eisenstein}, but such a dependence is weak, and actually this particular observable does not impose strong limits on the model parameter~\cite{anterior}.

\subsection{CMB}

The most restrictive of the background tests we will perform in our analysis is the position of the first peak of the CMB spectrum of anisotropies. The simplest way to use it is certainly by considering the shift parameter, defined as ${\cal{R}} = \sqrt{\Omega_m}D_M(z*)$, where $z_*$ is the redshift of the last-scattering surface. But again, this is not allowed in our analysis~\cite{anterior}, since the angular scale $l_A$ is not the same as in the $\Lambda$CDM case\footnote{For the same reason, we cannot use in the joint analysis the ratio $l_A/D_V$, used in other analyses.}. We, therefore, use directly the observed position of the peak, $l_1 = 220.8 \pm 0.7$~\cite{WMAP}, which is related to the angular scale by~\cite{tegmark1}
\begin{equation}\label{l1}
l_1 = l_A (1 - \delta_1), \quad  \mbox{where} \quad \delta_1 = 0.267 \left( \frac{r}{0.3} \right)^{0.1}
\end{equation}
with $r \equiv \rho_{r}(z_{ls})/\rho_m(z_{ls})$. Here, $\rho_{r}(z_{ls})$ is the radiation density at the time of last scattering\footnote{As shown in \cite{anterior}, in the present model the redshift of last scattering is the same as in the $\Lambda$CDM case.}.
Properly speaking, these relations were obtained for the $\Lambda$CDM case, but they depend only on pre-recombination physics and can be applied to the present model as a good approximation. Nevertheless, owing to the process of matter production, the matter density at the time of last scattering is $\rho_m = 3H_0^2\Omega_m^2 z_{ls}^3$, i.e., smaller than the $\Lambda$CDM value by a factor $\Omega_m$, what can be seen directly from the high-$z$ limit of the Hubble function (\ref{Hz}). Therefore, in the present case we have~\cite{anterior}
\begin{equation}
r = \frac{\Omega_{r}}{\Omega_m^2} z_{ls},
\end{equation}
leading to a relation between $l_A$ and $l_1$ different from the $\Lambda$CDM case.

The theoretical expression for the acoustic scale is defined as the ratio
\begin{equation}\label{lA}
l_A = {\pi \int_0^{z_{ls}}
\frac{dz}{H(z)}}/{\int_{z_{ls}}^{\infty}\frac{c_s}{c}\frac{dz}{H(z)}},
\end{equation}
with the sound velocity given by
$c_s = c \left( 3 + \frac{9}{4}\frac{\Omega_b}{\Omega_{\gamma}z}
\right)^{-1/2}$,
where $\Omega_b$ and $\Omega_{\gamma}$ stand for the present density parameters of baryons and photons, respectively. The Hubble function used in (\ref{lA}) must take into account the radiation contribution $\Omega_r$ and is rewritten as~\cite{anterior}
\begin{equation}\label{Hgeral}
\frac{H(z)}{H_0} \approx \left\{ \left[1 - \Omega_{m} +\Omega_{m} (1
+ z)^{3/2}\right]^2 + \Omega_r (1+z)^4 \right\}^{1/2}\;.
\end{equation}

\subsection{The matter power spectrum}

Except for scales near the horizon,  vacuum perturbations are negligible (see \cite{Julio,Zimdahl}). Therefore, we simplify our analysis by considering an unperturbed time-dependent cosmological term. The model prediction (blue line) together with the 2dFGRS data points~\cite{2dF} are shown in  the left panel of Figure 6. For comparison, the concordance $\Lambda$CDM fitting as provided by the BBKS transfer function~\cite{BBKS} is also shown (red line), as well as the result for the $\Lambda$CDM case of the same simplified analysis we have performed with $\Lambda$(t)CDM (black line). In such analyses baryons are not included, which leads to an error of about $10\%$ as compared to a more exact study \cite{Julio}. In the case of $\Lambda$CDM, the best fit is given by $\Omega_m \approx 0.2$, in agreement with \cite{2dF}.

\begin{figure*}
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig01.eps,width=7.1truein,height=3.1truein}
\hskip 0.1in}
\caption{{\bf{a)}} Superposition of the confidence regions in the $h \times \Omega_m$ plane from Union2 SNe Ia, CMB, BAO and LSS data sets discussed in the text, for the $\Lambda$(t)CDM model. The blue elipse shows the joint $2\sigma$ confidence region.  {\bf{b)}} The same as in Panel {\bf{(a)}} for the $\Lambda$CDM model. {\bf{c)}} The likelihood  ${\cal{L}}$ for $\Omega_m$ arising from Union2 SNe Ia sample for $\Lambda$(t)CDM (dot-dashed blue curve) and $\Lambda$CDM (dot-dashed  black curve) scenarios. The solid lines correspond to the joint analysis including CMB, BAO and LSS data sets.}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig03.eps,width=7.1truein,height=3.1truein}
\hskip 0.1in}
\caption{The same as in Figure 1 for SDSS SNe Ia data with SALT2 light-curve fitter.}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig02.eps,width=7.1truein,height=3.1truein}
\hskip 0.1in}
\caption{The same as in Figure 1 for SDSS SNe Ia data with MLCS2k2 light-curve fitter. By comparing Figs. 2 and 3 we clearly see the influence of SNe Ia light-curve fitting on parameter estimation.}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig05a.eps,width=7.1truein,height=3.1truein}
\hskip 0.1in}
\caption{The same as in Figure 1 for Constitution SNe Ia data with SALT2 light-curve fitter.}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig04.eps,width=7.1truein,height=3.1truein}
\hskip 0.1in}
\caption{The same as in Figure 1 for Constitution SNe Ia data with MLCS17 light-curve fitter.}
\end{figure*}

\begin{table}[t]
\begin{center}
\caption{Limits to $\Omega_m$ ($\Lambda$(t)CDM).}
\begin{tabular}{rrll}
\hline  \hline \\
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Test}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\Omega_m$\footnote{Error bars stand for $2\sigma$}}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\chi^2_{min}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\chi^2_{min}/\nu$}\\   \hline \\
Union2(SALT2)........& $0.339^{+0.045}_{-0.043}$ & 554.9 & 0.998\\
Union2(SALT2)\footnote{+ CMB + BAO+LSS}......&$0.420^{+0.009}_{-0.010}$ &634.5& 1.063\\
SDSS (SALT2).......&$0.352^{+0.071}_{-0.065}$& 256.9 &0.895\\
SDSS (SALT2)$^b$.......&$0.430^{+0.008}_{-0.014}$& 320.8 &0.978\\
SDSS (MLCS2k2).......& $0.484^{+0.082}_{-0.075}$ & 249.7 &0.870\\
SDSS (MLCS2k2)$^b$........&$0.450^{+0.014}_{-0.010}$& 276.3 &0.842\\
Constitution (SALT2).......& $0.355^{+0.056}_{-0.054} $& 343.3 &0.984\\
Constitution (SALT2)$^b$.......& $0.450^{+0.011}_{-0.011}$& 390.2 &0.998\\
Constitution (MLCS2k2).......& $0.402^{+0.052}_{-0.049} $& 397.2 &1.074\\
Constitution (MLCS2k2)$^b$.......& $0.450^{+0.008}_{-0.014}$& 435.3 &1.057\\
\hline  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

\begin{table}[t]
\begin{center}
\caption{Limits to $\Omega_m$ ($\Lambda$CDM)}
\begin{tabular}{rrll}
\hline  \hline \\
\multicolumn{1}{c}{Test}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\Omega_m$\footnote{Error bars stand for $2\sigma$}}&
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\chi^2_{min}$} &
\multicolumn{1}{c}{$\chi^2_{min}/\nu$}\\   \hline \\
Union2(SALT2)........& $0.270^{+0.043}_{-0.038}$& 552.7 &0.994\\
Union2(SALT2)\footnote{+ CMB + BAO+LSS}......&$0.235\pm0.011$& 613.1 &1.027\\
SDSS (SALT2).......&$0.273^{+0.067}_{-0.057}$ & 256.0 &0.892\\
SDSS (SALT2)$^b$.......&$0.226\pm0.012$ & 305.8 &0.932\\
SDSS (MLCS2k2).......&$0.399^{+0.087}_{-0.072}$& 249.1 &0.868\\
SDSS (MLCS2k2)$^b$........&$0.260^{+0.013}_{-0.016}$ & 403.8 &1.231\\
Constitution (SALT2).......& $0.282^{+0.054}_{-0.049} $ & 341.7 &0.979\\
Constitution (SALT2)$^b$.......& $0.265^{+0.013}_{-0.014}$ & 515.8 &1.319\\
Constitution (MLCS2k2).......& $0.327^{+0.052}_{-0.047} $ & 397.4 &1.074\\
Constitution (MLCS2k2)$^b$.......& $0.270\pm0.013$ & 570.2 &1.384\\
\hline  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{center}
\end{table}

\section{Analysis and results}

In order to derive the constraints on our model we maximaze the likelihood function ${\cal{L}} \propto \exp{(-\chi^2/2)}$, where $\chi^2 = \chi^2_{\rm{SNe}} + \chi^2_{\rm{BAO}} + \chi^2_{\rm{CMB}} + \chi^2_{\rm{LSS}}$ takes into account all the data sets discussed above. In our analyses, the Hubble parameter $H_0$ is considered as a nuisanse parameter so that we marginalize over it. The results are shown in Figs. 1-5, and Tables I and II summarize the main results of this paper for all SNe data sets and joint analyses. In order to compare the two classes of models discussed in this paper we also show the values of $\chi^2_{min}$ and $\chi^2_{min}/\nu$ ($\nu$ stands for degrees of freedom) for each analysis performed.

In the figures, the left and central panels show the superposition of the $1\sigma$ and $2\sigma$ confidence regions in the $h - \Omega_m$ plane for the four tests we are considering, as well as the concordance ellipses of our joint analyses. In the case of SDSS (MLCS2k2), the interval for the matter density in $\Lambda$(t)CDM is about $10\%$ higher than the flat $\Lambda$CDM value. Both values, on the other hand, are higher than the usually accepted concordance value $\Omega_m \approx 0.27$ ~\cite{WMAP}. We also note that in both cases the value of $H_0$ is relatively small ($h \simeq 0.64$) compared to current estimates~\cite{h}. Nevertheless, when we marginalize over $h$ the matter density remains unchanged in both models. The right panels of the figures show the likelihood for $\Omega_m$ after marginalization.  In all the analyses the estimate of the matter density parameter for the $\Lambda$(t)CDM scenario is considerably larger than the corresponding value for the $\Lambda$CDM model. In particular, the estimates of $\Omega_m$ for the vacuum decay model is up to $\sim 2\sigma$ off from the central value inferred by applying the virial theorem to cluster dynamics~\cite{carlberg} (see also \cite{dekel}), but only $\sim 0.5\sigma$ off from  the central value obtained by using other independent methods, such as the mean relative peculiar velocity measurements for pairs of galaxies~\cite{feldman}.

In terms of parameter estimation we note that very similar results are found for both Union2 and SDSS compilation with SALT2.  An interesting aspect worth emphasizing is realized when a comparison between the analyses of Figs. 2 and 3 is made. Note that, although the only difference between these two analyses is the light-curve fitter used in the SNe calibration, the estimated values of the cosmological parameter $\Omega_m$ are considerably modified from analysis to analysis. For instance, by comparing only the SNe Ia bounds on $\Omega_m$ for the standard $\Lambda$CDM model, we observe that the estimated values of the matter density parameter increases $\sim 47\%$, from 0.27 to 0.40 (see Table II). The same can be said about the Constitution sample calibrated with SALT2 and MLCS17.  Similar conclusions are also drawn for the class of vacuum decay models studied here. In this case, estimates of the matter density parameter increase $\sim 38\%$ for the SDSS SNe Ia data with MLCS2k2 light-curve fitter, in better accordance with the independent estimate based on large scale structure distribution \cite{Julio}. It is worth observing that these estimated values of $\Omega_m$ obtained from SDSS (MLCS2k2) analyses for both models are relatively large, being $\sim 2\sigma$ off from the central value obtained using the cluster dynamics methods discussed earlier.

In all the cases above we have considered spatially flat scenarios, usually predicted by inflation.
For completness, we can relax this prior and include spatial curvature in both models. In the right panel of Figure 6 we show the results for the SDSS (MLCS2k2) data set \cite{Cassio}. We can see that the spatially flat universe is in accordance with data within $1\sigma$ confidence level in both models.

\begin{figure*}[]
\vspace{.2in}
\centerline{\psfig{figure=fig06.eps,width=3.0truein,height=3.0truein}
\hspace{1.3cm}
\psfig{figure=fig07b.eps,width=3.0truein,height=3.0truein}}
\caption{{\bf Left.} The theoretical power spectrum for the $\Lambda$(t)CDM model (blue line), for the simplified (without barions)  $\Lambda$CDM model (black line) and for the BBKS transfer function (red line). The data points are taken from \cite{2dF} (2dFGRS). {\bf Right.} The confidence regions in the $\Omega_{\Lambda} \times \Omega_m$ plane for the $\Lambda$CDM and $\Lambda$(t)CDM models with spatial curvature, when we use the SDSS (MLCS2k2) SNe Ia compilation. The lines labled $k=0$ and $q_0=0$ correspond, respectively, to spatially flat and uniformely expanding universes.}
\end{figure*}

\section{Final remarks}

Although in good agreement with current observations, a residual $\Lambda$ term exacerbates the well known cosmological constant problem, requiring a natural explanation for its small, but nonzero, value. In this paper, we have discussed the observational viability of a class of alternative $\Lambda(t)$CDM scenarios in which the vacuum energy density decays linearly with the Hubble parameter $H$. By considering the most recent SNe Ia compilations sets along with the current measurements of distance to the BAO peaks at $z = 0.2$ and $z = 0.35$ and the position of the first acoustic peak of the CMB power spectrum, we show that in terms of $\chi^2$ statistics both models provide good fits to the data with the very same number of free parameters (see Tables I and II). A recurrent aspect in all the analyses performed is the larger estimates of $\Omega_m$ for $\Lambda(t)$CDM relative to the values obtained in the $\Lambda$CDM context. When compared with some $\Omega_m$ estimates from independent observational methods~\cite{carlberg,dekel,feldman}, these values may be off from $\sim 0.5\sigma$ up to $\sim 2\sigma$. The same conclusion also arises in the $\Lambda$CDM context for the tests including SDSS (MLCS2k2).

We have also discussed quantitatively differences in parameter estimates between SALT2 and MLCS2k2 light-curve fitters using the current SDSS and Constitution SNe Ia compilations. We have shown that for both models these differences may reach up to $\sim 47\%$ for the matter density parameter. These results reinforce the need and importance for a better understanding of unresolved systematic effects on SNe Ia  calibration, as has been discussed by other authors (see, e.g., \cite{sollerman}).

Finally, from a joint analysis which includes the observed matter power spectrum, it is clear that a good concordance is achived for the $\Lambda$(t)CDM model when we use the SDSS (MLCS2k2) and Constitution (MLCS17) compilations of SNe Ia. Since the MLCS2k2 fitter depends weakly on standard cosmology, it is generally considered the most appropriate to test alternative models, which means that the concordance obtained here can be considered robust. Actually, an inspection of panels (c) of Figures 1-5 shows that, in the case of MLCS2k2 fitter, the $\Lambda(t)$ model presents better concordance than the standard model.

\section*{Acknowledgements}

The authors acknowledge CNPq - Brazil for the grants under which this work was carried out. JSA  is grateful for the support of CNPq grants 304569/2007-0 and  481784/2008-0. SC is thankful for the CNPq grant 305133/2008-0.

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text:
Q: Como extrair e compactar arquivos com System.IO.Compression.ZipArchive em c#? Eu estou iniciando no C#. Vi que tem a classe System.IO.Compression.ZipArchive para trabalhar com arquivos zip.
Tenho algumas dúvidas:

*

*Como faço para descompactar um zip existente através do ZipArchive?

*Como faço pra compactar para um arquivo zip existente? Ou seja, adicionar arquivos num ZIP existente.

*Como criar um novo arquivo ZIP (do zero)? Por exemplo, quero criar um arquivo ZIP novo através do C# e adicionar arquivos existentes neste ZIP.

A: Nos dois primeiros casos você precisa atentar que é necessário "abrir" o arquivo zip e sempre é necessário liberar os recursos usando o Dispose() (o using chama o método automaticamente).
Descompactar um zip existente
Use o método ExtractToDirectory(). Passe como parâmetro o caminho que você onde você pretende descompactar os arquivos. Todos as entradas do arquivo zip serão descompactadas neste diretório.
string caminhoZip = @"C:\Users\LINQ\arquivo.zip";
string pastaExtrair = @"C:\Users\LINQ\extrair-aqui";

using (ZipArchive zip = ZipFile.Open(caminhoZip))
{
    zip.ExtractToDirectory(pastaExtrair);
}

Adicionar arquivos num zip existente.
Use o método CreateEntryFromFile(). O primeiro parâmetro deve ser o caminho do arquivo que pretende adicionar e o segundo parâmetro é o nome deste arquivo dentro do zip. Note que é necessário passar ZipArchiveMode.Update como segundo parâmetro de ZipFile.Open().
string caminhoZip = @"C:\Users\LINQ\arquivo.zip";
string novo = @"C:\Users\LINQ\novo.txt";

using (ZipArchive zip = ZipFile.Open(caminhoZip, ZipArchiveMode.Update))
{
    zip.CreateEntryFromFile(novo, "novo.txt");
}

Criar um novo arquivo ZIP

*

*Se quiser zipar uma pasta
Use ZipFile.CreateFromDirectory(). O primeiro parâmetro é a pasta que você pretende zipar e o segundo é o caminho do novo arquivo a ser criado. Se quiseres criar um arquivo zip vazio é só criá-lo a partir de uma pasta vazia.
string pastaParaZipar = @"C:\Users\LINQ\pasta-zip";
string caminhoZip = @"C:\Users\LINQ\arquivo-novo.zip";

ZipFile.CreateFromDirectory(pastaParaZipar, caminhoZip);

*Se preferir criar um arquivo e ir adicionando itens a ele
Use ZipFile.Open(), passando ZipArchiveMode.Create como segundo parâmetro.
string nomeArquivo = @"C:\Users\LINQ\arquivo.zip";

using (ZipArchive zip = ZipFile.Open(nomeArquivo, ZipArchiveMode.Create))
{
    // Adicione arquivos...
}

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text:
Geekologie has brought even more joy to my Christmas: knowledge that a certain Doctor Octoroc has released a full album of Christmas songs such as "The Little Drummer Boy," "We Wish You a Merry Christmas," "Carol of the Bells," and "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen" in the style of NES games such as Contra, Metroid, Final Fantasy, Castlevania, and even Little Nemo: The Dream Master.
Grab your free soundtrack here. Right now. It's not sacrilegious; it's amazing.
Topics: Exfanding Your Horizons, Holidays, Music, Video Games


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text:
Sarah McTernan (nascida em 11 de março de 1994) é uma cantora e compositora irlandesa de Scarriff , County Clare.  Ela é conhecida por conquistar o terceiro lugar na quarta temporada de The Voice of Ireland em abril de 2015.  Ela representará a Irlanda no Festival Eurovisão da Canção 2019 com a música " 22 ".

Vida precoce e pessoal
Sarah é filha única.  Depois de se formar em 2011, ela fez um curso de pré-graduação em Ennis, County Clare.  Ela então passou a estudar tecnologia musical no Limerick Institute of Technology por vários meses.  Ela sempre dizia: "Minha carreira será ajudar pessoas ou música".  Sarah deu um tempo na educação e continuou a trabalhar como funcionária de retalho na «Primark.  Em setembro de 2014, Sarah se matriculou na Universidade de Limerick para estudar Voz e Dança, mas teve que adiar até setembro de 2015.  Ela toca violão, piano e apito de lata.

Carreira musical

The JEDS
Em novembro de 2014, depois de passar pelas audições cegas no The Voice of Ireland sem nunca fazer nenhum show, Sarah montou uma banda para ganhar experiência com a performance.  A banda de quatro partes foi composta pelo guitarrista Dwayne Mann, o baterista John Moroney, o baixista Declan Larkin e Sarah nos vocais.

The Voice of Ireland
McTernan entrou na The Voice of Ireland em 2015.  Em sua audição cega, ela cantou "Who You Are", para a qual todos os quatro juízes viraram suas cadeiras.  Ela então escolheu ir para a estrela do S Club 7, a equipe de Rachel Stevens.  O vídeo de audição de Sarah continua sendo o vídeo mais visto da série, com mais de 90.100 acessos.  Para o show "The Battle", ela competiu contra Tara Gannon Carr.  Eles realizaram "Changing" pela Sigma, com Paloma Faith.  Stevens decidiu mandar Sarah para os Live Knockouts.  Sarah cantou "Ghost", de Ella Henderson, e enfrentou Paul Taylor e Cian O Meila.  Stevens decidiu enviar Sarah para os shows ao vivo enquanto Paul e Cian foram mandados para casa.

No primeiro show ao vivo, Sarah cantou "What I Did For Love", de David Guetta, com Emeli Sande .

Sarah ficou em terceiro, perdendo para Emma Humber em segundo lugar e Patrick James em primeiro.

Festival Eurovisão da Canção 2019
Em 8 de março de 2019, McTernan foi anunciado pela RTÉ como o representante irlandês para o Eurovision Song Contest 2019 em Tel Aviv , Israel .  Ela fará a música "22" na segunda semifinal.

Referências

Ligações externas

Participantes de The Voice
Pessoas vivas
Nascidos em 1994
Naturais da Irlanda
Cantoras
Mulheres na música
Cantores da Irlanda
The Voice
Festival Eurovisão da Canção 2019

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