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Mind Your History: Ottoman wars in Europe (8 centuries of attack, countless losses)
Ottoman wars in Europe
The Ottoman wars in Europe, known as the Ottoman Wars or Turkish Wars for short, were a series of military conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and a number of European states from the Late Medieval period to the 20th century. Military activities began with the Byzantine–Ottoman Wars from the late 13th century, complemented by the Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars and the Serbian–Ottoman Wars in the 14th century, whereupon the Ottoman Empire rapidly conquered the Balkans. The initial Serbian–Ottoman Wars, Croatian–Ottoman Wars and the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars allowed the further expansion of the Ottomans into Central Europe in the 15th and 16th centuries. Turkish political domination was nevertheless kept at bay after the unsuccessful Siege of Vienna (1529), and the Ottoman–Habsburg wars. The so-called Holy League of Christian states was able to partially reverse a number of Ottoman conquests during the Great Turkish War of the late 17th century. The empire was slow to modernise its military along European lines. Internal rebellions such as the Serbian revolution (1804–1817) and the Greek War of Independence (1821–1832), coupled with the frequent wars with Russia and Poland, weakened the empire, which collapsed at the conclusion of World War I with the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres.
14th century–1918
Mostly Southeast Europe: Greece, Bulgaria, Albania, Wallachia, Moldova, Transylvania, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Slovenia, and Cyprus, but also Ukraine, Crimea, Hungary, Slovakia, Austria, Malta, Sicily, and the Eastern Mediterranean.
Ottoman Turks expand as far as Vienna at their peak, but are eventually pushed back to Eastern Thrace.
Belligerents
Holy League:
Second Bulgarian Empire
Serbian Despotate (also Empire, Kingdom)
Wallachia
League of Lezhë (Albanian Principalities)
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
Kingdom of Poland
Grand Duchy of Lithuania
Papal States
State of the Teutonic Order
Kingdom of Hungary
Kingdom of Croatia
Kingdom of Bosnia
Kingdom of France (until 1536)
Order of Saint John[1]
Maltese Militia
Republic of Genoa
Republic of Venice[1]
Contingents from Holy Roman Princes[1]
Spanish Empire
Kingdom of Portugal
Kingdom of Scotland
Kingdom of France (from 1536)
Commanders and leaders
Rise (1299–1453)
See also: Rise of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of Enlargement Era (Ottoman Empire)
Main article: Byzantine–Ottoman Wars
After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (it is disputed that the year may have been 1358 due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Suleyman Pasha) which provided it a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century.
Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna and the Second Battle of Kosovo.
All of Greece fell in 1460 (see: Ottoman Greece).
Bulgarian Empire
Main article: Bulgarian–Ottoman Wars
In the latter half of the 14th century the Ottoman Empire proceeded to advance north and west in the Balkans, completely subordinating Thrace and much of Macedonia after the Battle of Maritsa in 1371. Sofia fell in 1382, followed by the capital of the Second Bulgarian Empire Tarnovgrad in 1393, and the northwest remnants of the state after the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396.
Serbian Empire
Main article: Serbian-Ottoman Wars
A significant opponent was the young Serbian Empire, which was worn down by a series of campaigns, notably in the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, in which the leaders of both armies were killed, and which gained a central role in Serbian folklore as an epic battle and beginning of bad luck for Serbia. Much of Serbia fell to the Ottomans by 1459, the Kingdom of Hungary made a partial reconquest in 1480, but it fell again by 1499. Territories of Serbian Empire were divided between Ottoman Empire, Republic of Venice and Royal Hungary, with remaining territories being in some sort of a vassal status towards Hungary, until its own conquest.
Growth and Stagnation (1453–1683)
See also: Growth of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of Enlargement Era (Ottoman Empire)
The defeat in 1456 at the Siege of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) held up Ottoman expansion into Catholic Europe for 70 years, though for one year (1480–1481) the Italian port of Otranto was taken, and in 1493 the Ottoman army successfully raided Croatia and Styria.[2]
Wars in Albania
Main article: History of the Albanian-Turkish Wars
The Ottomans took much of Albania in the 1385 Battle of Savra. The 1444 League of Lezhë briefly restored one part of Albania, until Ottomans captured complete territory of Albania after capture of Shkodër in 1479 and Durrës in 1501.
The Ottomans faced the fiercest resistance from Albanians who gathered around their leader, George Castriot, son of a feudal nobleman, and managed to fend off Ottoman attacks for more than 25 years, culminating at the siege of Shkodra in 1478–79. It has been argued that Albanian resilience halted the Ottoman advance along the Eastern flank of the Western Civilization, saving the Italian peninsula from Ottoman conquest. Sultan Mehmet II died in 1481, merely two years after the collapse of the Albanian resistance and one year after he launched an Italian campaign.
Conquest of Bosnia
Main article: Ottoman conquest of Bosnia
Ottoman Empire first reached Bosnia in 1388 where they were defeated by Bosnian forces in the Battle of Bileca and then were forced to retreat.[3] After the fall of Serbia in 1389 Battle of Kosovo, where the Bosnians participated through Vlatko Vuković, the Turks began various offensives against the Kingdom of Bosnia. The Bosnians defended themselves but without much success. Bosnians resisted strongly in the Bosnian Royal castle of Jajce, where the last Bosnian king Stjepan Tomašević tried to repel the Turks. The Ottoman army conquered it after a few months of the siege of Jajce, in 1463, and executed the last King of Bosnia, ending the Medieval Bosnia.
The House of Kosača held Herzegovina until 1482.
Main article: Croatian–Ottoman Wars
Croatian captain Petar Kružić led the defense of the Klis Fortress against a Turkish invasion and siege that lasted for more than two and a half decades. During this defense, an elite Croatian military faction of Uskoci was formed.
After the fall of the Kingdom of Bosnia into Ottoman hands in 1463, the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Croatia remained unprotected, the defense of which was left to Croatian gentry who kept smaller troops in the fortified border areas at their own expense. The Ottomans meanwhile reached the river Neretva and having conquered Herzegovina (Rama) in 1482, they encroached upon Croatia, skillfully avoiding the fortified border towns. A decisive Ottoman victory at the Battle of Krbava field shook all of Croatia. However, it did not dissuade the Croats from making persistent attempts at defending themselves against the attacks of the superior Ottoman forces. After almost two hundred years of Croatian resistance against the Ottoman Empire, the victory in the Battle of Sisak marked the end of Ottoman rule and the Hundred Years' Croatian-Ottoman War. The Viceroy's army, chasing the fleeing remnants at Petrinja in 1595, sealed the victory.
Conquest of central parts of Hungarian Kingdom
Main article: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars
The Kingdom of Hungary, which at the time spanned the area from Croatia in the west to Transylvania in the east, was also gravely threatened by Ottoman advances. The origins of such a deterioration can be traced back to the fall of the Árpád ruling dynasty and their subsequent replacement with the Angevin and Jagiellonian kings. After a series of inconclusive wars over the course of 176 years, the kingdom finally crumbled in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, after which most of it was either conquered or brought under Ottoman suzerainty. (The 150-year Turkish Occupation, as it is called in Hungary, lasted until the late 17th century but parts of the Hungarian Kingdom were under Ottoman rule from 1421 and until 1718.)
Conquest of Serbia/ Vojvodina rebellion
Main article: History of the Serbian-Turkish wars
As a result of heavy losses inflicted by the Ottomans in the Battle of Maritsa in 1371, the Serbian Empire had dissolved into several principalities. In the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, Serbian forces were again annihilated. Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, constant struggles took place between various Serbian kingdoms on the one hand, and the Ottoman Empire on the other. The turning point was the fall of Constantinople to the Turks. In 1459 following the siege, the "temporary" Serbian capital of Smederevo fell. Montenegro was overrun by 1499. Belgrade was the last major Balkan city to endure Ottoman forces. Serbs, Hungarians and European crusaders defeated the Turkish army in the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. After repelling Ottoman attacks for over 70 years, Belgrade finally fell in 1521, along with the greater part of the Kingdom of Hungary. Vojvodina rebellion between 1526/28 saw the proclamation of Second Serbian Empire in Vojvodina, which was among last Serbian territories to resist the Ottomans. The Serbian Despotate fell in 1540, thus marking the two-century-long Ottoman conquest of Serbian principalities.
Ottoman advances resulted in some of the captive Christians being carried deep into Turkish territory.
1463–1503: Wars with Venice
This section requires expansion. (May 2008)
Main articles: Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479) and Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)
The wars with the Republic of Venice began in 1463, until a favorable peace treaty was signed in 1479 after the lengthy siege of Shkodra (1478–79). In 1480, now no longer hampered by the Venetian fleet, the Ottomans besieged Rhodes and captured Otranto.[4] War with Venice resumed from 1499 to 1503. In 1500, a Spanish-Venetian army commanded by Gonzalo de Córdoba took Kefalonia, temporarily stopping the Ottoman offensive on eastern Venetian territories. Which is resumed after the Ottoman victory of Preveza, fought between an Ottoman fleet and that of a Christian alliance assembled by Pope Paul III in 1538.
1462–1483: Wallachian and Moldavian campaigns
In 1462, Mehmed II was driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula at The Night Attack. However, the latter was imprisoned by Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus. This caused outrage among many influential Hungarian figures and Western admirers of Vlad's success in the battle against the Ottoman Empire (and his early recognition of the threat it posed), including high-ranking members of the Vatican. Because of this, Matthias granted him the status of distinguished prisoner. Eventually, Dracula was freed in late 1475 and was sent with an army of Hungarian and Serbian soldiers to recover Bosnia from the Ottomans. He defeated Ottoman Forces and he gained his first victory against the Ottoman Empire. Upon this victory, Ottoman Forces entered Wallachia in 1476 under the command of Mehmed II.[clarification needed] During the war, Vlad was killed and, according to some sources, his head was sent to Constantinople to discourage the other rebellions.
Ottoman soldiers in the territory of present-day Hungary
The Turkish advance was temporarily halted after Stephen the Great of Moldavia defeated the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II's armies at the Battle of Vaslui in 1475, which was one of the greatest defeats of the Ottoman Empire until that time. Stephen was defeated at Războieni (Battle of Valea Albă) the next year, but the Ottomans had to retreat after they failed to take any significant castle (see siege of Cetatea Neamţului) as a plague started to spread in the Ottoman army. Stephen's search for European assistance against the Turks met with little success, even though he had "cut off the pagan's right hand" – as he put it in a letter.
In 1482, Bosnia was completely added to Ottoman Lands.
1526–1566: Conquest of Hungarian Kingdom
See also: List of campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent
After the Mohács, only the southwestern part of the Hungarian Kingdom was actually conquered,[5] but the Ottoman campaign continued with small campaigns and major summer invasions (troops returned south of the Balkan Mountains before winter) through the land between 1526 and 1556. In 1529, they mounted their first major attack on the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy (with up to 300,000 troops in earlier accounts, 100,000 according to newer research[who?]), attempting to conquer the city of Vienna (Siege of Vienna). In 1532, another attack on Vienna with 60,000 troops in the main army was held up by the small fort (800 defenders) of Kőszeg in western Hungary, fighting a suicidal battle.[6] The invading troops were held up until winter was close and the Habsburg Empire had assembled a force of 80,000 at Vienna. The Ottoman troops returned home through Styria, laying waste to the country.
In the meantime, in 1538, the Ottoman Empire invaded Moldavia. In 1541, another campaign in Hungary took Buda and Pest (which today together form the Hungarian capital Budapest) with a largely bloodless trick: after concluding peace talks with an agreement, troops stormed the open gates of Buda in the night. In retaliation for a failed Austrian counter-attack in 1542, the conquest of the western half of central Hungary was finished in the 1543 campaign that took both the most important royal ex-capital, Székesfehérvár, and the ex-seat of the cardinal, Esztergom. However, the army of 35–40,000 men was not enough for Suleiman to mount another attack on Vienna. A temporary truce was signed between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires in 1547, which was soon disregarded by the Habsburgs.
The Ottoman campaign in Hungary in 1566, Crimean Tatars as vanguard
In the major but moderately successful campaign of 1552, two armies took the eastern part of central Hungary, pushing the borders of the Ottoman Empire to the second (inner) line of northern végvárs (border castles), which Hungary originally built as defence against an expected second Mongol invasion—hence, afterwards, borders on this front changed little. For Hungarians, the 1552 campaign was a series of tragic losses and some heroic (but pyrrhic) victories, which entered folklore—most notably the fall of Drégely (a small fort defended to the last man by just 146 men[7]), and the Siege of Eger. The latter was a major végvár with more than 2,000 men, without outside help. They faced two Ottoman armies (150,000 troops by earlier accounts, 60-75,000 men according to newer research[who?]), which were surprisingly unable to take the castle within five weeks. (The fort was later taken in 1596.) Finally, the 1556 campaign secured Ottoman influence over Transylvania (which had fallen under Habsburg control for a time), while failing to gain any ground on the western front, being tied down in the second (after 1555) unsuccessful siege of the southwestern Hungarian border castle of Szigetvár.
The Ottoman Empire conducted another major war against the Habsburgs and their Hungarian territories between 1566 and 1568. The 1566 Battle of Szigetvar, the third siege in which the fort was finally taken, but the aged Sultan died, deterring that year's push for Vienna.
1522–1573: Rhodes, Malta and the Holy League
The siege of Malta – Arrival of the Turkish Fleet by Matteo Perez d'Aleccio
Ottoman forces invaded and captured the island of Rhodes in 1522, after two previous failed attempts (see Siege of Rhodes).[8] The Knights of Rhodes were banished to Malta, which was in turn besieged in 1565.
After a siege of three months, the Ottoman army failed to control all of the Maltese forts. Delaying the Ottomans until bad weather conditions and the arrival of Sicilian reinforcements, made Ottoman commander Kızılahmedli Mustafa Pasha quit the siege. Around 22000 to 48000 Ottoman forces against 6000 to 8500 Maltese forces, the Ottomans failed to conquer Malta, sustaining about 10000 losses, including one of the greatest Muslim corsair generals of the time, Dragut, and were repulsed. Had Malta fallen, Sicily and mainland Italy could have fallen under the threat of an Ottoman invasion. The victory of Malta during this event, which is nowadays known as the Great Siege of Malta, turned the tide and gave Europe hopes and motivation. It also marked the importance of the Knights of Saint John and their relevant presence in Malta to aid Christendom in its defence against the Muslim conquest.
The Ottoman naval victories of this period were in the Battle of Preveza (1538) and the Battle of Djerba (1560).
Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571
The Mediterranean campaign, which lasted from 1570 to 1573, resulted in the Ottoman conquest of Cyprus. A Holy League of Venice, the Papal States, Spain, the Knights of Saint John in Malta and initially Portugal was formed against the Ottoman Empire during this period. The League's victory in the Battle of Lepanto (1571) briefly ended Ottoman predominance at sea.
1570–1571: Conquest of Cyprus
Main article: Ottoman–Venetian War (1570–73)
In the summer of 1570, the Turks struck again, but this time with a full-scale invasion rather than a raid. About 60,000 troops, including cavalry and artillery, under the command of Lala Mustafa Pasha landed unopposed near Limassol on July 2, 1570, and laid siege to Nicosia. In an orgy of victory on the day that the city fell—September 9, every public building and palace was looted. Word of the superior Ottoman numbers spread, and a few days later Mustafa took Kyrenia without having to fire a shot. Famagusta, however, resisted and put up a defense that lasted from September 1570 until August 1571.
The fall of Famagusta marked the beginning of the Ottoman period in Cyprus. Two months later, the naval forces of the Holy League, composed mainly of Venetian, Spanish, and Papal ships under the command of Don John of Austria, defeated the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in one of the decisive battles of world history. The victory over the Turks, however, came too late to help Cyprus, and the island remained under Ottoman rule for the next three centuries.
In 1570, the Ottoman Empire first conquered Cyprus, and Lala Mustafa Pasha became the first Ottoman governor of Cyprus, challenging the claims of Venice. Simultaneously, the Pope formed a coalition between the Papal States, Malta, Spain, Venice and several other Italian states, with no real result. In 1573 the Venetians left, removing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church.
1593–1669: Austria, Venice and Wallachia
Turkish Empire, drawn by Hondius, just at the end of the Long War, 1606
Long War (15-Year War with Austria, 1593–1606) ends with status quo.
War with Venice 1645–1669 and the conquest of Crete (see Cretan War (1645–1669)).
Austro-Turkish War (1663–1664) : failed Ottoman attempt to defeat and invade Austria.
Michael the Brave campaign against the Ottoman Empire (1593–1601)
1620-1621: Poland
Main article: Polish-Ottoman War (1620–1621)
Was fought over Moldavia. The Polish army advanced into Moldavia and was defeated in the Battle of Ţuţora. The Next year, the Poles repelled the Turkish invasion in the Battle of Khotyn. Another conflict started in 1633 but was soon settled.
1657–1683 Conclusion of Wars with Habsburgs
In 1657, Transylvania, the Eastern part of the former Hungarian Kingdom that after 1526 gained semi-independence while paying tribute to the Ottoman Empire, felt strong enough to attack the Tatars (then the Empire's vassals) to the East, and later the Ottoman Empire itself, that came to the Tatars' defence. The war lasted until 1662, ending in defeat for the Hungarians. The Western part of the Hungarian Kingdom (Partium) was annexed and placed under direct Ottoman control, marking the greatest territorial extent of Ottoman rule in the former Hungarian Kingdom. At the same time, there was another campaign against Austria between 1663 and 1664. However, the Turks were defeated in the Battle of Saint Gotthard on 1 August 1664 by Raimondo Montecuccoli, forcing them to enter the Peace of Vasvár with Austria, which held until 1683.[9]
Battle of Vienna on 12 September 1683
1672–1676: Poland
A year after Poland beat back a Tatar invasion, war with Poland 1672–1676, Jan Sobieski distinguishes himself and becomes the King of Poland.
1683–1699: Great Turkish War – Loss of Hungary and the Morea
The Great Turkish War started in 1683, with a grand invasion force of 140,000 men[10] marching on Vienna, supported by Protestant Hungarian noblemen rebelling against Habsburg rule. To stop the invasion, another Holy League was formed, composed of Austria and Poland (notably in the Battle of Vienna), Venetians and the Russian Empire. After winning the Battle of Vienna, the Holy League gained the upper hand, and conducted the re-conquest of Hungary (Buda and Pest were retaken in 1686, the former under the command of a Swiss-born convert to Islam). At the same time, the Venetians launched an expedition into Greece, which conquered the Peloponnese. During the 1687 Venetian attack on the city of Athens (conquered by the Ottomans), the Ottomans turned the ancient Parthenon into an ammunitions storehouse. A Venetian mortar hit the Parthenon, detonating the Ottoman gunpowder stored inside and partially destroying it.[11]
The war ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Prince Eugene of Savoy first distinguished himself in 1683 and remained the most important Austrian commander until 1718.[12][13]
Stagnation (1699–1828)
See also: Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire and Tulip period
Austrian conquest of Belgrade: 1717 by Eugene of Savoy, during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18
The second Russo-Turkish War took place 1710–1711 near Prut. It was instigated by Charles XII of Sweden after the defeat at the Battle of Poltava, in order to tie down Russia with the Ottoman Empire and gain some breathing space in the increasingly unsuccessful Great Northern War. The Russians were severely beaten but not annihilated, and after the Treaty of Prut was signed the Ottoman Empire disengaged, allowing Russia to refocus its energies on the defeat of Sweden.
Another war with Austria and Venice started in 1714. Austria conquered the remaining areas of the former Hungarian Kingdom, ending with the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718.
Another war with Russia started in 1735. The Austrians joined in 1737; the war ended in 1739 with the Treaty of Belgrade (with Austria) and the Treaty of Niš (with Russia).
The fourth Russo-Turkish War started in 1768 and ended in 1774 with the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji.
Yet another war with Russia and Austria started in 1787; it ended by Austria with the 1791 Treaty of Sistova, and with the 1792 Treaty of Jassy with Russia.
An invasion of Egypt and Syria by Napoleon I of France took place in 1798–99, but ended due to British intervention.
Napoleon's capture of Malta on his way to Egypt resulted in the unusual alliance of Russia and the Ottomans resulting in a joint naval expedition to the Ionian Islands. Their successful capture of these islands led to the setting up of the Septinsular Republic.
The First Serbian Uprising took place in 1804, followed by the Second Serbian Uprising in 1815; Serbia was fully liberated by 1867. Officially recognized independence followed in 1878.
The sixth Russo-Turkish War began in 1806 and ended in May 1812, just 13 days before Napoleon's invasion of Russia.
Moldavian-Wallachian (Romanian) Uprising (starting simultaneously with the Greek Revolution).
The Greek War of Independence, taking place from 1821 to 1832, in which the Great Powers intervened from 1827, including Russia (seventh Russo–Turkish war, 1828–1829), achieved independence for Greece; the Treaty of Adrianople ended the war.
Ottoman decline (1828–1908)
See also: Decline of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of Reformation Era (Ottoman Empire)
Ottoman capitulation at Nikopol, 1877
Ottoman Wars with Bosnia 1831–1836, 1836–1837, 1841.
War with Albania 1820-1822, 1830-1835, 1847.
War with Montenegro 1852–1853.
Eighth Russo-Turkish war 1853–1856, Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France joined the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. Ended with the Treaty of Paris.
Second war with Montenegro in 1858–1859.
War with Montenegro, Bosnia and Serbia in 1862.
Cretan Uprising in 1866.
Bulgarian Rebellion in 1876.
The ninth and final Russo–Turkish war started in 1877, the same year the Ottomans withdrew from the Conference of Constantinople. Romania then declared its independence and waged war on Turkey, joined by Serbians and Bulgarians and finally the Russians (see also Russian Foreign Affairs after the Crimean War). Austria occupied Bosnia in 1878. The Russians and the Ottomans signed the Treaty of San Stefano in early 1878. After deliberations at the Congress of Berlin, which was attended by all the Great Powers of the time, the Treaty of Berlin, 1878 recognized several territorial changes.
Eastern Rumelia was granted some autonomy in 1878, rebelled and joined Bulgaria in 1885. Thessalia ceded to Greece in 1881, but after Greece attacked the Ottoman Empire to help the Second Cretan Uprising in 1897, Greece was broken in Thessalia.
Dissolution (1908–1922)
See also: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Socioeconomics of Reformation Era (Ottoman Empire)
Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908
Italo-Turkish War
Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising
Bulgarian insurrection from 1903. See Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising.
1912–1913: Balkan Wars
Two Balkan Wars, in 1912 and 1913, involved further action against the Ottoman Empire in Europe. The Balkan League first conquered Macedonia and most of Thrace from the Ottoman Empire, and then fell out over the division of the spoils. Albania declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1912, after several rebellions and uprisings. This reduced Turkey's possessions in Europe (Rumelia) to their present borders in Eastern Thrace.
World War I was the ultimate cause of the collapse of the Empire, which was no more. However, during the operations the Empire prevented the British Royal Navy from passing to Istanbul in the famous Battle of Gallipoli. Nevertheless, Turkey lost most of the rest of what it had left in Europe. Leading to the fall of the empire.
James IV[citation needed]
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A list of site content that is tagged as Animal welfare – grouped by type of content.
In the Species and Spaces project, we're exploring people's perceptions around fish use, sentience, and how these shape and define assumptions around their welfare requirements.
The way we think about the welfare needs of animals is always conditioned by our prior experiences and preconceptions. This is especially true of fish.
The University of Nottingham as part of Midlands Graduate School is now inviting applications for an ESRC Doctoral Studentship in association with our collaborative partner, RSPCA, to commence in October 2019. The studentship will focus on the topic of animal research, with the aim of comparing 'public' expectations around animal research governance with current UK policy.


We're looking for a Climber to join our team. Learn more about becoming part of our team.
Cleaning involves the removal of tree branches that are broken, diseased, dead, or that are poorly attached to the parent limb. Addressing these hazards makes the tree safer to be around while increasing the visual appeal and value of your landscape.
Raising the crown involves the removal of selected lower branches in order to provide clearance underneath the tree. This type of also encourages upward and outward growth of the crown, especially for younger trees.
Thinning is the process by which secondary branches are removed from the crown in order to allow more light and air to filter through. Thinning helps to maintain the shape of the tree and reduces its weight.
In crown reduction, the branches are pruned back in order to reduce the height and/or width of the tree. Reduction is particularly useful for trees that are too close to buildings or that compete with other trees. Reduction is not the same as topping. We are opposed to topping trees except in very rare circumstances.
Routine trimming is important to maintain the health and shape of your hedges. If allowed to become overgrown, hedges may require several successive trimmings in order to regain their aesthetic appeal.
Sometimes it becomes necessary to remove a tree entirely. Dead, dying, or heavily diseased trees pose a safety hazard and are not worth the risk to keep around. Homeowners may also consider removing trees that have outlived their usefulness, are affecting growth of neighboring trees and plants, or are simply in the wrong location. At Klismith Tree Service, our trained personnel are skilled at safely removing trees of any size and in any location on your property. The protection of your home and property is our top priority.
Unless the homeowner specifies otherwise, all trees are cut to ground level. The final cut to the trunk is made as close to ground level as possible to minimize the stump profile.
After the tree is cut down, we perform a thorough cleanup of the area. All of the brush is chipped and the remaining wood is loaded onto the truck. If the wood from the tree is not dead or diseased, some homeowners opt to keep it for firewood and the chips for landscaping purposes. If you decide to replant, we can also assist you with the selection and planting of the species that suits your taste and integrates with your landscape.
In most cases, it works well to allow tree stumps to naturally decay into the surrounding soil. Some homeowners also apply bacterial solutions to hasten the deterioration. However, if you intend to plant another tree or otherwise landscape the area, you may want to consider having the stump ground out.
Stump removal is accomplished with the help of a stump grinder. The steel teeth on the grinding wheel chew the stump into small chips. The chips can be used elsewhere in your landscaping or hauled away. Our stump grinding service includes everything from a basic grind (we prep the area and grind the stump; you perform the cleanup) to the full service (we prep and grind as well as clean up chips and backfill the hole with new soil).
Brush plies are unsightly and provide a haven for rodents and insects. If you have accumulated brush from spring cleaning the yard or digging out after a storm, we have the professional equipment to process and remove it quickly. Alternatively, as long as the brush did not come from diseased trees and hedges, you can choose to recycle the woodchip as mulch for your landscaping.
Honeybees can quickly take up residence in hollowed portions of tree limbs and trunks. We have the skill and experience necessary to safely handle the removal of tree colonies. Because of the important role that honeybees play in our ecosystem, we take great care to relocate the hive to ensure that both homeowners and honeybee are well-protected.
When storms wreak havoc with your trees and hedges, we can help. We provide 24/7 emergency evaluations and service.


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Beth Mellen Harrison of Legal Aid Society of the District of Columbia to Receive 2020 Scoutt Prize
[District of Columbia, May 5, 2020] – The District of Columbia Bar Foundation has selected Beth Mellen Harrison as the recipient of the 2020 Jerrold Scoutt Prize. Ms. Harrison is one of three supervising attorneys in the Housing Law Unit at Legal Aid Society of the District of Columbia, and also serves as Director for the organization's Eviction Defense Project.
The Scoutt Prize is awarded annually to an attorney who has worked for a significant portion of his or her career at a nonprofit organization providing direct, hands-on legal services to poor or disadvantaged persons in the District of Columbia, has demonstrated compassionate concern for his or her clients, and has exhibited a high degree of skill on their behalf.
Ms. Harrison has been representing low-income tenants in the District for 15 years and currently manages Legal Aid's Eviction Defense Project. She has been a lead architect for the Housing Right to Counsel project, which seeks to increase the number of subsidized housing tenants represented in eviction cases by guaranteeing representation, using a network of legal services and pro bono attorneys. She has tirelessly pursued this project with other partner organizations, analyzing project data exploring how to reach more of the clients in need, and advocating for a dramatic expansion of local funding for eviction defense legal services. Ms. Harrison also regularly advocates on behalf of the city's most vulnerable residents on issues surrounding rent control, housing affordability, housing conditions, and greater systemic problems with District agencies and legislators, and her policy advocacy includes work on important legislation at the DC Council.
Seth A. Rosenthal, partner at Venable LLP and chair of the DC Bar Foundation's Scoutt Prize Committee says of Beth: "For over 15 years, Beth Harrison has been a force of nature for housing rights for the people of the District of Columbia—a fierce courtroom advocate, a compassionate client advisor, a dedicated mentor to younger lawyers, a skilled manager, and an accomplished leader of housing policy reform. She is a richly deserving recipient of this year's Scoutt Prize, and it is the selection committee's privilege to recognize her."
Ms. Harrison began her career in 2003 as a law clerk for Judge Catherine C. Blake of the US District Court, after which she was named a Francis D. Murnaghan, Jr. Appellate Advocacy Fellow for the Public Justice Center's Appellate Advocacy Project in Baltimore, MD, working on cases involving civil rights and poverty law. Since 2005, Ms. Harrison has dedicated her talents to the Legal Aid Society of the District of Columbia, where she has since served as a staff, senior, and supervising attorney. Ms. Harrison has a B.A. from Wellesley College and a J.D. from Harvard Law School.
The Jerrold Scoutt Prize was endowed by the Washington, DC firm of Zuckert, Scoutt & Rasenberger, and is named in honor of Jerrold Scoutt, Jr., a founding partner of the firm, in recognition of Mr. Scoutt's and the firm's long-term support of legal services. In 2019, Zuckert, Scoutt & Rasenberger merged with Kaplan, Massamillo & Andrews and is now KMA Zuckert LLC. The DC Bar Foundation hopes to present the 2020 Jerrold Scoutt Prize during its 2020 Fall Reception.
About the DC Bar Foundation: For DC residents in poverty, we make strategic investments to strengthen and expand our civil legal aid network, addressing critical needs and improving our community. As the largest funder of civil legal aid in the District, we are a steadfast community partner, committed to protecting access to justice in life's most pivotal moments.
DC Bar Foundation Awards Over $11 Million for Free Legal Assistance in DC
[District of Columbia, December 22, 2020] – The DC Bar Foundation, in a record year for grantmaking, awarded over $11 million to 32 DC legal aid organizations providing free legal assistance to thousa
PRESS RELEASE: The DC Bar Foundation Adds Four Members to Young Lawyers Group
[District of Columbia, October 20, 2020] – The DC Bar Foundation has selected four new members for two-year terms on its Young Lawyers Network Leadership Council. Members serve as ambassadors to promo
The DC Bar Foundation Names New Members to Leadership Groups

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Opis tvrtke: Hotel Dubrovnik is a hotel in Zagreb located on the main city square of Ban Jelačić. Built in 1929, we understand the true mixture between traditional values and modern comfort. Our guests are offered not only superior comfort, but also the opportunity to simply step out into the heart of all Zagreb's happenings.


This is an online fiddle lesson for the gospel song "Simple Gifts."
Video #1: Here is a video of my daughters and me playing and singing "Simple Gifts."
purchase Clomiphene 50mg news "Simple Gifts" is a Shaker song written and composed in 1848 by Elder Joseph Brackett. Brackett, a lifelong resident of Maine, first joined the Shakers at Gorham, Maine, when his father's farm helped to form the nucleus of a new Shaker settlement. The song was largely unknown outside Shaker communities until Aaron Copland used its melody for the score of Martha Graham's ballet Appalachian Spring, first performed in 1944. Copland used "Simple Gifts" a second time in 1950 in his first set of Old American Songs for voice and piano, which was later orchestrated.
Posted in Beginner, Gospel, Holiday	Tagged with: "Simple Gifts" "online fiddle lesson" "gospel fiddle lesson" "BluegrassDaddy.com" "John Cockman"
This topic contains 10 replies, has 8 voices, and was last updated by John Cockman 2 years ago.
Happy Thanksgiving! Here is a good, old Shaker hymn that reminds me to be thankful for the simple things in life.
most excellent. My violin teacher has picked Simple Gifts for her students to perform all together at our Christmas recital. She gave it to us in G. I will try and record it and post it. I will definitely show her ya'lls version.
Ok I printed this out to play and I guess I need to watch Johns lesson video so I can get the tune in my head. I keep wanting to play Lord of the Dance. Very similar songs.
Thank ya'll, that was simply beautiful!
Thanks! Fran, record it for the Lion's Den if you get a chance!
This is one of my Mom's favorite songs. After my Christmas performances, I'll have to learn it for her. Thank you for the lesson!
I love it too. Can't wait to hear you play it!


Load the Bass String Calculator or Plain Wire Calculator, enter your data values, and manually plot the tension and inharmonicity values on the chart. You will notice that it is difficult to do this with very much accuracy but even approximate locations will give you enough to evaluate the scale. The hockey stick lines are general inharmonicity guidelines and reference the left side numeric values. The three pairs of horizontal lines are general tension guidelines and reference the right side numeric values (or left side*100). The left pair = unichords, middle pair = bichords, and right pair = trichords. These guidelines are general and only apply to pianos up to about 7' in length.
I theory, one could use these calculators to actually redesign a scale. However, it would prove to be a long and arduous task. I strongly recommend PSCALE as the real time graphics, automatic bass scaling, and many additional features streamline most scaling procedures. There are currently hundreds of PSCALE users who would agree.


Hi. I will be traveling with my pup to a dog show in Carmel this weekend (07-13-15) and would like to treat a friend to a tasty weekend dinner at a local restaurant. I will have my lab in tow. Flexible as to cuisine - seafood would be best (including sushi). Thanks very much for any recommendations.


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Ori and the Will of the Wisps Review – Nintendo Switch
Justin Oneil October 5, 2020 Comments Closed	2,501 views	1 like Reviews
One of the best new independent game franchises of this console generation is undoubtedly the Ori games from developer Moon Studios. Ori and the Blind Forest stole the hearts of many who played it when it released in 2015 and last year it made to jump over to the Nintendo Switch. This opened up the game to an entirely new audience and many Switch owners wondered if the sequel, Ori and the Will of the Wisps, would make it over as well. After releasing to critical acclaim earlier this year on Xbox One and PC, Ori and the Will of the Wisps has now arrived on the Switch and this is one not to be missed.
Fans of the emotional storytelling in the first Ori will find more of that in Will of the Wisps and that is only a good thing. Set some time after the events of the first game, Ori finds himself separated from an owl named Ku early in the story and must set out across a new forest to reunite with Ku. Over the course of the game Ori will run into many more characters than you did in the first with several of the NPCs like Opher and Tokk being quite likeable. No spoilers will be talked about here but this game managed to tug at my heartstrings several times just as the first game did. There aren't a lot of games that manage to do that for me so the ones like this that pull it off I hold in high regard.
Fans of the first game know what the gameplay is like but if you're new then you should know that it's basically just like any other Metroidvania title. As you move through the many areas in the game, you'll constantly notice parts that you can't reach until you obtain new abilities later on that allow you to return to areas and explore them further. The movement and platforming in this game is about as smooth and responsive as I could ask for which just makes playing it a joy. One of the things new to the sequel are side quests that you can choose to undertake. The objectives for these aren't anything special as they usually involved just finding something and bringing it back to the character that gave you the quest. They are worth doing though as you get Spirit Light as a reward which is the currency in this game and can be spent on new upgrades and Shards. What are Shards you may ask? They allow you to equip various perks to further increase your skills. You can only equip a few of them at a time but you can easily swap them out at any time if you don't like the build you are currently running. One Shard may vastly increase your damage output while another lets you cling to walls automatically. You can also upgrade the Shards to make them even better than what they start out.
Other things to seek out in the world include hidden collectibles and Spirit Trials which are basically just time trial races. These too reward you with Spirit Light but I didn't find them to be that enjoyable and so I skipped them most of the time. Another big change to the sequel is the expansion of your combat abilities. Ori now has several weapon types that you can use including different melee and ranged types. The game also makes it very easy to quickly switch between them so that you can swap out at any particular moment you need to in case the one you're using isn't working great against the enemy you're fighting. When you combine the different weapons with the different Shards you can equip, you can see how this game really gives you the option to play it the way that feels best to you. The game isn't easy either which I appreciated and this is very much apparent in the boss fights you encounter. Chase sequences from the first game also make their return and while the spectacle of them is cool I did find that they involved too much trial and error and that sometimes ruins a bit of that spectacle.
Now we can't talk about Ori and the Will of the Wisps without talking about the absolutely beautiful art style. The first game has one of the best art styles of this generation and Will of the Wisps manages to even top that. Moon Studios clearly knew what they did well and set out to top themselves in the sequel in terms of variety. There is more variety in the environments you'll traverse, in the number of enemies, and in what you'll see in each part of Niwen. There is so much detail in every scene that I couldn't help but find myself wasting time by just admiring it.
Now if you own a PC or an Xbox One, I'd personally recommend playing this game there for the 4K quality but the Switch version still looks pretty darn good even though the graphics were downgraded a bit so that it could still run at a relatively smooth 60 frames per second. There were a few moments where I got hit by some slowdown but it was nothing too major. The only other technical annoyance was that the initial load time to get into the game is a bit too long but after that I had no issues. The final piece that ties this fantastic game together is the magical soundtrack that just helps to give the story and visuals that extra special feeling. There is a huge variety of tracks throughout this game that play as you traverse the world and the music really hits hard in the more emotional moments.
It was said plenty when Ori and the Will of the Wisps launched earlier this year but now that it's on Switch I'll say it again: play this game. It takes everything that made the first Ori one of the most memorable experiences this generation and further builds on it with a more expansive and varied world along with expanded combat options. The Switch version isn't the best way to play it but it still looks and runs darn good on it. Whether you play it on Switch, Xbox, or PC just play this game because you won't regret it.
*Ori and the Will of the Wisps is available now on Xbox One, PC, and Nintendo Switch. Reviewed on Nintendo Switch. Review copy provided by the publisher for this review.
Emotional storytelling
Expansive and varied world that is fun to explore
Beautiful, painting-like visuals
Expanded combat options and lots of ways to customize your gameplay style
Incredible soundtrack
Doesn't look as good as the Xbox and PC versions
Having to retry chase sequences takes away some of the spectacle of them
Buy Ori and the Will of the Wisps on Nintendo eShop
Tags: Moon Studios, nintendo switch, Ori and the will of the wisps, Ori and the Will of the Wisps Review, Ori and the Will of the Wisps Switch Review, reviews
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'The Hills' alum and lifestyle expert Whitney Port eyes her newest challenge in your grocery cart
Feb. 26, 2019, 4:15 PM
Whitney Port with her son, Sonny Stanford Rosenman.
Whitney Port has been named chief brand and strategy officer for 1908 Brands.
She'll be in charge of brand and product innovation, social media, marketing, and advertising.
1908 Brands acquired Port's pre-natal nutrition company Bundle Organics in July 2018.
"For me it's really important, because I have a young family, I have a one and a half year old, and all the products that are in my home have a lot of thought behind it now," Port told Business Insider of her dedication to providing healthy products to growing families.
Whitney Port has some big plans for your family and what you bring home from the grocery store.
The former star of MTV reality series "The Hills" and "The City" has been named the chief branding and strategy officer for 1908 Brands, the Boulder, Colorado-based food and home products manufacturer that acquired her women's nutrition company, Bundle Organics, in July 2018.
"Once [1908 Brands CEO Steve Savage] saw the value I bring to Bundle, he thought it would be appropriate for me to take on that role for 1908 as a whole," Port told Busines Insider.
Ports says her own life has placed her in a position to take on this new challenge. After three years of dating, in 2015, Port married Tim Rosenman, a former producer on "The City" (which followed Port's life after she moved from Los Angeles to New York City). And last summer, they welcomed a baby boy to the family, Sonny Sanford.
"For me it's really important, because I have a young family, I have a one and a half year old, and all the products that are in my home have a lot of thought behind it now," she said. "It's important for me for the products to be clean, nontoxic, eco-friendly. I have a huge stake in that, so it's personal and professional to me. So I thought I could be an asset to Steve in that way, because I'm one of those people who has a need for these products, but want them a certain way."
After her TV career, which included the MTV shows and serving as a judge for "Britain and Ireland's Next Top Model," Port built a reputation as a lifestyle expert, with 1.3 million followers on Instagram. Over the years, the University of Southern California graduate founded her own fashion label, Whitney Eve, and later co-founded Bundle Organics — a line of nutrition products for pregnant and nursing mothers, and women trying to conceive — with business partner John Mascari.
1908 Brands aims to provide tastier, healthier, and cleaner products for customers.
Courtesy of 1908 Brands
Now, she'll expand her role from Bundle organics to the entire family of 1908 Brands, which includes Boulder Clean, Thrive Tribe, Fruitivity Snacks, Schultz's Gourmet, Three Bears, and Pasta Jay's. In her new role, Port will be responsible for propelling the family of brands to ensure their "future fit" in the changing market place, breaking new ground, and providing brand leadership. She will also help to drive brand and product innovation, sponsorships, advertising and social media.
1908 Brands was founded in 2010 by Steve Savage, the former founder and CEO of Eco-Products.
As CEO, Savage noticed the value Port brought to Bundle Organics and has set out his own vision for what she can do for the company as a whole.
"Can Whitney help us develop a 'why' when it comes to our brands and can that 'why' resonate with today's consumers," he told INSIDER of how he'll measure Port's success.
"Today's consumer is really interested in why does a brand exist. Of course, the brand needs to check the boxes as far as price, and customer experience, and efficacy when it comes to Boulder Clean and taste great when it comes to food brands. So those boxes you check, but Whitney needs to really help our marketing team and myself develop a 'why' in the brand."
Port tells us that her first order of business will be the brands' outward appeal to consumers, which includes packaging, its social media messaging, its website, and its relationship with customers.
"It's really all about how our products can become more modern and more current, and look and feel good in the home," she explained. "I think there are so many companies out there that have awesome products, but they can be very sterile and the packaging isn't great, the colors are super bright. I want them to look like they're curated products within the home."
She continued, "I also want to be a sense of support for new moms, especially with Bundle, I think as a whole with 1908 Brands, we want to spread knowledge and we want to spread support, about what being a young family feels like, what being a new mom feels like, so that we can be a hub for information and advice, as well as providing a service with the products that we sell."
That's her immediate vision, but Port's long-term goal is to continue finding solutions for others inspired by her own family's needs.
"I hope to continue to develop innovative products," she said. "That's something I'm very passionate about. I just feel like I constantly have fresh new ideas and things that I need that I'm realizing on a daily basis that aren't out there, and I'm excited to create those with 1908."
SEE ALSO: 'Hills' star Whitney Port has strong words for critics telling her to lose the baby weight
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LANDSCOPES | COLLIDO_SCOPE | BRÈCHE-BRECHA | DACHAU: THE PROTOTYPE | REPRESENTATIONAL PARADIGMS
Dachau, the first Nazi concentration camp, was established shortly after Hitler came to power, and served to conceptualise the methodology of terror that was to be used to annihilate the enemies of the Nazi state. The work is a contemplative exploration of the camp as memorial, in confrontation with the impossibility to resuscitate the millions of victims. The viewer interacts with scenes of the camp: the barracks, the prison bunker, the crematorium, guided by a tumultuous, dying heartbeat.
DACHAU: THE PROTOTYPE
in Three Easy Steps
Structure of the Work
On Saturday, 26 th January 2002, I took the suburban train to Dachau, a town which is located just beyond the north-western outskirts of Munich. I had come to Munich a few days before to participate in a Eurpean "Leonardo" project, run by a local professional training company, dealing with "web content management". I was the French partner, and it was my first occasion to experiment with using Euros (introduced officially at the beginning of the month) outside of France, and it made the European "presence" more tangible and pleasurable.
The person at the Munich tourist office warned me gently that I should refer to "Dachau" as the "memorial", and not as the "concentration camp", due to the exacerbated susceptibility of local citizens who were sick of visitors coming there thinking that it is only the camp, whereas the name represents an entire town.
Dachau was the first, prototypical concentration camp, where the Nazis laid down the principles and honed the conduct of barbary. That it was outside Munich is no coincidence, since Munich was the birthplace and spiritual capital of the regime. The concentration camp was set up in 1933, immediatly after Hitler was elected to power, and was used initially for political prisoners, notably left-wing and communists.
One takes a bus from the railway station to the camp. It passes through neat housing estates. In the 1930s, the camp was probably beyond town limits - the town has grown, and today there is a Mercedes dealership and Macdonalds fast food franchise just up the road. I asked myself whether the presence of the camp in the vicinity entered into market survey calculations, due to the visitors it draws into the neighbourhood. A visit to the camp removes all appetite.
Most of the barracks are no longer there, just gravel enclosures representing the foundations. The camp is an enormous, empty expanse. The barbed wire perimeter fence is still there; some of the watch towers remain.
The former main building that faced the parallel rows of barracks has a very exhaustive museum with photographs and documents. However only about half the museum was open when I visited, since the exhibition was very old and was being redone. There are explanations in several languages. A cross-referenced table presented the classification of different coloured triangles or stars for all the categories of prisoners who were held in Dachau: political, Jews, homosexuals, Jehovah's Witnesses, Gypsies, slave labourers of different nationalities: the system provided for compound graphic symbols since a person could belong to several categories... There was an extensive exhibit on the medical experiments that were done on prisoners - plunged into freezing water to simulate extreme combat conditions, or shut in a chambre that was depressurised to simulate the effect of high altitude on pilots, until they screamed to death. I was struck because here there were no longer explanations in other languages, as if the people who set up the exhibition felt such shame, that they should keep it a German "family secret", though their rage to completely document it remained intact.
Behind this building is a long, low structure, like dog kennels, containing a narrow corridor with tiny cells on either side. This was the "bunker", the prison within the prison, where the SS did their dirty work. It has a very handsome, heavy wooden front door with an ornate wrought iron handle, a style retrograde with depravity. The bunker is parallel to the camp's perimeter wall, which is shared by the backyards of neighbouring houses, the windows of their upper stories staring down into the camp.
The only remaining barracks building contains the furniture that was used by the prisoners, the bunks, stools, tables, clean and polished, so distant from the infinite chafing of flesh against wood of twelve long years of horror and grief.
At the further end of the camp are the crematoria. They are located in a wooded clearing, just outside the main camp area. There is also a gas chamber there, though this was apparently never operated. It is possible that a certain doctor, Sigmund Rascher who had served at Dachau conducted experiments there: his assignments included optimising the extermination process...
Visitors to the camp no longer use the original entrance, the covered "Arbeit Macht Frei" ("Work Makes Free") gateway. I finished my visit there, after nightfall, and kept the watchman waiting impatiently as I took my last photographs.
The following morning I went to see the Glockenspiel in Munich. The New City Hall was built at the end of the 19th century in Gothic pastiche, which style is what the city fathers must have thought the populace would look up to in changing times. The Glockenspiel is a little mechanical pageant of sickly, painted medieval characters set off at midday, accompanied by desultory, tinny bells (which are the glocken) - the people dance, the good knight spears the bad knight, and then the courtesans spin around, hanging lightly from one hand. This made me think of one of the prefered tortures at Dachau, which was to tie the prisoners hands behind their heads and hang them like that for an hour or so, apparently it was excruciating.
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We include a small sample of public domain hymns that you can download into ProPresenter. The link to add these files to your library is available from the Information Center in ProPresenter. You can access the Info Center at any time by clicking on the large ProPresenter icon in the top-right corner of the program.


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Bonhomme Richard, formerly Duc de Duras, was a warship in the American Continental Navy named for Founding Father Benjamin Franklin. She was originally an East Indiaman, a merchant ship built in France for the French East India Company in 1765, for service between France and Asia. She was placed at the disposal of John Paul Jones on 4 February 1779, by King Louis XVI of France as a result of a loan to the United States by French shipping magnate Jacques-Donatien Le Ray.

Origin
Bonhomme Richard was originally an East Indiaman named Duc de Duras, a merchant ship built at Lorient according to the plan drawn up by the King's Master Shipwright Antoine Groignard for the French East India Company in 1765. Her design allowed her to be quickly transformed into a man-of-war in case of necessity to support the navy. She made two voyages to China, the first in 1766 and the second in 1769. At her return the French East India Company had been dissolved, and all its installations and ships transferred to the French Navy. As a naval ship she made a voyage to Isle de France (Mauritius) before being sold to private shipowners in 1771. She sailed in private service until she was purchased by King Louis XVI of France in early 1779 and placed under the command of John Paul Jones on 4 February. The size and armament of Duc de Duras made her roughly equivalent to half of a 64-gun ship of the line.

Jones renamed her Bon Homme Richard (usually rendered in more correct French as Bonhomme Richard) in honor of Benjamin Franklin, the American Commissioner at Paris whose Poor Richard's Almanack was published in France under the title  Les Maximes du Bonhomme Richard.

First patrols
On 19 June 1779, Bonhomme Richard sailed from Lorient accompanied by , Pallas, Vengeance, and Cerf with troop transports and merchant vessels under convoy to Bordeaux and to cruise against the British in the Bay of Biscay. Forced to return to port for repair, the squadron sailed again August 14, 1779. It went northwest around the west coast of the British Isles into the North Sea and then down the east coast. The squadron took 16 merchant vessels as prizes.

Battle of Flamborough Head

On 23 September 1779, the squadron encountered the Baltic Fleet of 41 sail under convoy of  and HM hired armed ship  near Flamborough Head. Bonhomme Richard and Serapis entered a bitter engagement at about 6:00 p.m. The battle continued for the next four hours, costing the lives of nearly half of the American and British crews. British victory seemed inevitable, as the more heavily armed Serapis used its firepower to rake Bonhomme Richard with devastating effect. The commander of Serapis finally called on Jones to surrender. He replied, "Sir, I have not yet begun to fight!" Jones eventually managed to lash the ships together, nullifying his opponent's greater maneuverability and allowing him to take advantage of the larger size and considerably more numerous crew of Bonhomme Richard. An attempt by the Americans to board Serapis was repulsed, as was an attempt by the British to board Bonhomme Richard. Finally, after another of Jones's ships joined the fight, the British captain was forced to surrender at about 10:30 p.m. Bonhomme Richard – shattered, on fire, leaking badly – defied all efforts to save her and sank about 36 hours later at 11:00 a.m. on 25 September 1779. Jones sailed the captured Serapis to the Dutch United Provinces for repairs.

Though Bonhomme Richard sank after the battle, the battle's outcome was one of the factors that convinced the French crown to back the colonies in their fight to become independent of British authority.

Search for the wreck
Bonhomme Richards final resting location was the subject of much speculation. A number of unsuccessful efforts had been conducted to locate the wreck. The location was presumed to be in approximately  of water off Flamborough Head, Yorkshire, a headland near where her final battle took place. The quantity of other wrecks in the area and a century of fishing trawler operations had complicated all searches.

A wreck was identified in 1974 off Flamborough Head and in 2001 it was concluded that there was a high possibility that the wreck was that of the Bonhomme Richard. The remains were designated under the Protection of Wrecks Act in 2002. The wreck is a Protected Wreck managed by Historic England.

One season's attempts to locate and retrieve the ship, or some artifacts from her, using USNS Grasp were filmed for the Discovery Channel's Mighty Ships series in 2011. The U.S. Navy's mission was unsuccessful. In 2012, an expedition with the Ocean Technology Foundation and the French Navy located a wreck of interest (called "Target 131") in 70 meters of water. The wreck is mostly buried, but some artifacts are visible on the seabed surface, including an anchor that would fit the dimensions and style of the kedge anchor on the Bonhomme Richard. In 2014, the French Navy and Ocean Technology Foundation mounted an expedition to have the French Navy dive Target 131.  Artifacts discovered by the divers included a deadeye block (part of a sailing ship's rigging), large sections of half-buried planking, and what appeared to be an iron spar hoop, with a few pieces of decomposing wood still encircled in it. No evidence of modern objects has been found on the site.  The Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration (GFOE) has since continued the work of the Ocean Technology Foundation, leading an expedition with the French and U.S. navies in 2016, again aboard the USNS Grasp.  More remote sensing was conducted, and researchers discovered additional objects within the wreck site that were deemed worthy of further investigation.  A 2019 expedition involving GFOE, the French navy, and the U.S. Navy was planned, but was postponed indefinitely due to a disagreement among France and the U.S. about the ultimate ownership of the Bonhomme Richard. The goal of this mission was to prove or disprove Target 131 as being the Bonhomme Richard.

In 2018 remains were found, possibly those of the Bonhomme Richard, in shallow water very close to the coast of Filey, North Yorkshire, England, by the Land and Sea search team Merlin Burrows. However, the location of this wreck does not corroborate with multiple eyewitness accounts from observers on land, who noted that on the morning of 25 September 1779, the Bonhomme Richard disappeared out of sight over the horizon.

See also
 Serapis flag

ReferencesNotesSourcesBibliography'

External links

Search for the Bonhomme Richard - Global Foundation for Ocean Exploration
Detailed Plank on Frame wooden model of the Bonhomme Richard
Search for the Bonhomme Richard—Clive Cussler recounts his elusive search for the Bonhomme Richard.

Ships of the Continental Navy
Maritime incidents in 1779
Shipwrecks in the North Sea
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in France
1766 ships
1779 in England
Protected Wrecks of England
History of Yorkshire
Ships named for Founding Fathers of the United States

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Home Community Blogs Peter Chow: The Donald J Trump Memorial "Liebrary"
Peter Chow: The Donald J Trump Memorial "Liebrary"
Peter Chow
Feeding some subclinical mildly Narcissistic tendencies, the idea of a Presidential Library has always been incredibly attractive to Trump..
"A Shrine To His Ego," predicted one lyin' Never-Trumper "Not a ReTrumplican" at the failing New York Times.
Others imagined a theme park, maybe a "DONALDLAND" or a "DONNYWOOD" or a maybe a full "MAGALAND" mega-exercise in rebranding his presidency anf re-writing the True History of those last 4 years.
One report said he's trying to raise an astonishing $3 billion from donations to his "Stop the Steal Campaign" slush fund to build it.
There had been speculation that there could never be a Trump Library because he famously doesn't read books…..or anything.
But Presidential Libraries aren't that kind of library.
These are repositories for preserving and making available the papers, records, collections and other historical materials of every president.
Except in Trump's case, everything having been shredded, it will be a Herculean task to organise everything.
And because his presidency ended in a shocking insurrection at the U.S. Capitol on January 6, fanned by Trump himself, resulting in a second impeachment….
But other presidents have similarly stepped down in total disgrace – "Tricky Dicky", Richard Nixon resigned in 1974 after being totally fragged by the Watergate scandal – Herbert Hoover lost in the Mother of All Landslides in 1932, and was blamed for the Great Depression – and they still got their libraries.
(Hoover lost to FDR by 7,060,000 votes, Trump lost to Biden by 7,052,000. The Great Depression began in 1929 and never really ended until and because of World War ll)
Urban Dictionary: frag – to eliminate someone with a fragmentation grenade
In one triumphant masterstroke, the long, hard search for a site for The Donald John Trump Presidential Liebrary has finally come to a climax.
On Hump Day last week, The Office of the Failed Former President announced a deal to purchase the site occupied by Fantasy Island Adult Books.
Located in the red-light district of "Phillydelphia" next to Four Seasons Total Landscaping, the proposed center will function as a Cult Shrine, Presidential Library, and Novelty Sex Shop, all in one – obviating the need for Trump to blow his entire wad on costly renovations.
On November 7, 2020, four days after the United States presidential election, Rudy Giuliani, former mayor of New York City and an attorney for then-president Donald Trump, and fresh off his starring role in the Borat Subsequent Moviefilm, hosted a press conference at Four Seasons Total Landscaping, a local landscaping business located near a sex shop and a crematorium in Philadelphia.
The event was held at the company's garage door and parking lot for Rudi G., wierdly wiping black hair dye from his eyes, to discuss the status of the Trump campaign's legal challenges to the "fraudulent" ballot-counting process in the state.
It was speculated that the Trump campaign had actually meant to book the upscale Four Seasons Hotel Philadelphia, but….
The event was ridiculed by the Fake News media and Social Media particularly after it emerged that one of the speakers at the event was a convicted sex offender.
The year-long search nearly went limp after the devout Porn-Again Christian President aroused a bunch of dicks who, on January 6, penetrated the bowels of the Capitol in an attempt to screw Democracy.
Several companies involved in the whole oddly carnal affair abruptly pulled out, leaving the project a hot sticky mess.
Sources deep inside Trump's organization feared the failed former POTUS could no longer keep it up.
(Fittingly, Trump's nickname in the real estate development fraternity in New York City in the 1980s was "the Prick")
In one three-way menage a trois/meeting, Trump railed and exploded about being back-doored repeatedly.
Determined to go all the way, he ordered those working under him to get busy and bang it out, even if they had to move the center to "Thighland."
A rough review process thrust The Phillydelphia Lust-Related Licensing Board into the whole cock-up as the normally dominant power brokers were forced to just watch and wait for a climax like submissive little cucks.
Urban Dictionary: cockup – Something that's horribly screwed up, ruined or destroyed, originally a British expression
: cuck – A man who lets his wife or girlfriend have sex with other men. Often the man lets her do whatever she wants and treat him like shit (Short version of cuckold)
Ultimately Trump was able to grease the heads of the licensing board with cash payments that lubricated the process.
A large package of funding for the Executive Flesh Palace and MAGA-lomania Museum is expected to be funneled from Trump's "Stop the Steal" slush fund once the dirty money has undergone extensive laundering through offshore bank accounts via multiple shell corporations owned by Jared.
Once erected, the Phillydelphia Presidential Phallus Facility will house countless shredded documents from the Trump Era.
The marble-floored foyer will be overlooked by a large poster of his famous ghost-written book The Art of the Steal
Trump not only doesn't read of course, he doesn't write – except for signing his name with a Sharpie.
Trump's nothing like Adolph Hitler – there's no way Trump could write a book on his own.
Upstairs is a room dedicated to the president's false and controversial tweets, such as "Mexico Will Pay For The Wall!!!"
Oath Keepers, Bugaloo Boys, Proud Boys, QAnon members and "some very fine people" of the NeoNazi White Supremacist persuasion will all be eligible for deep discounts for admission.
It will feature loads of attractions that are totally unique for presidential libraries, including a dismantled border wall scrapyard, a Matt Gaetz glory hole, an underground replica of Trump's White House sex-dungeon panic-bunker, an Eric Trump paste-eating kids zone, a Don Jr. animal head trophy room, a spooky Hall of Traitors wax figure walkway with molded replicas of co-conspirators like Steve Bannon (really evil), Paul Manaforte (really crooked), Michael Flynn (really wacko/dangerous), Roger Stone (really conniving), Stephen Miller (really spooky), Lindsay Graham (really obsequious suckhole) and Jism Jourdan (really creepy), a Kimberly Guilfoyle (really smokin' hot) champagne lap-dance room, a "Horseface" Stormy Daniels movie retrospective, a cute Cages for Kids Diorama and VIP nudie booths for "Yuge" donors who purchase the Putin Golden Shower Package.
Urban Dictionary: yuge – a variation of the word "huge" commonly used by Donald
It will have a "Grift Shop" that will sell pre-dated Presidential pardons.
Urban Dictionary: grift – A money-making operation that is blatantly dishonest and takes advantage of people
It will feature something about the Muslim ban, something about winning the War on Terrorism, winning the war against Isis, winning his war on China and winning the trade tariff wars, some documentation from his visit to North Korea, and copies of beyoutiful bromance letters from his BFF Kim Jong-un.
Alotta stuff about winning – so much winning that "you'll get sick and tired of so much winning."
There will be a lot of pictures of him meeting with his favorite dictators and autocrats – Putin, Kim, Erdogan, Duterte, Bolsonaro, Orban and Xi.
And big blown-up images of their letters or quotes about him and how really great he was, how much greater he was than that failed traitorous President, Obama.
It has to have the Golden Escalator, referring to that glorious moment in the summer of 2015 at Trump Tower, when the future president announced his candidacy and raised the alarm about the threat of the Tsunami of rapists and murderers pouring in from Mexico.
Although he so very graciously conceded, "And some (Mexicans), I assume, are good people."
Visit the Gallery of "Bestest Tweets" and the Wing of "Perfect Calls".
Revel in the Chamber of Alternative Facts, and 20,000 Lies, including the Mother Of All BIG LIES!!
Snap a souvenir selfie of yourself carting off a replica of Nancy Pelosi's podium before chowing down on "Bigly Burgers" at the Covfefe Café.
Urban Dictionary: Covfefe is a viral typo for "coverage" from a tweet by Donald Trump. The meaning and intention of the mysterious word was the source of much internet humor.
Jason Miller, Senior Jizz Mopper and Spokesman for the doubly-impeached president, said the seedy adult bookstore and Presidential Library would continue to sell popular items like DVDs, lotions, dildos, nipple clamps, strap-ons, cock cages, vibrators, edible panties, penis rings, clone-a-willy molding kits, MAGA hats, Ivanka-autograph ben-wa balls, bondage chains, ball gags, prostate stimulators, anal probers, sex swings, handcuffs, anal beads, glass wands, inflatable Melania dolls, flesh lassos, vagina weights, oral sex candy, stroker sleeves, personal massagers, electro-stimulators, magic balls, double fisters, fetish rocking chairs, and autographed photos of past celebrity patrons like Mike Pence and Mike Gaetz and Rudy G.
"Like a rubber fisting mitten, Fantasy Island Adult Books was the perfect fit," Miller explained.
"This is going to be One Sexy-Ass Presidential Liebrary where some very fine people will make America gush again."
Supporters of the project hope the Trump-themed jerkstore will pump capital into the area with a rise in jobs for area strippers and an influx of cash from perverted QAnon "patriots" with a penchant for splurging on cheap trinkets and sex toys.
Urban Dictionary: jerkstore – 1) a fictitious retailer that sells "jerks" 2) a line that one imagines to be the perfect comeback
Trump explained that he expects everyone who visits will want Sloppy Seconds.
"The Donald J. Trump Presidential Liebrary and Adult Bookstore is going to be the classiest boom-boom room and flophouse in all of South Philly."
Urban Dictionary: boom-boom room – that special, male-only, establishment where just about any "request" can be almost instantaneously satisfied
: flop house – an apartment where many drug abusers stay to sleep and abuse drugs
"Nobody's never ever seen anything like it," Trump added.
"People from around the country will flock here to learn all about how really, really great my great administration was, or just to pick up a dildo. I don't use 'em. I've never needed 'em. But we'll have all kinds of merchandise for sale. The pre-orders for the Lindsey Graham butt-plugs alone are through the roof."
Other locals were more circumspect about the center.
A co-owner of Four Season Total Landscaping, who asked to remain nameless, expressed their doubts about the presidential library.
"I don't want those MAGA wankers coming here. Fantasy Island is a classy joint, and those Trumpers will sully it."
Urban Dictionary: wanker – British slang for a masturbating fool
Ground is set to be broken soon with the first holes being dug in late spring.
Shyster and Keister Construction Company will employ hundreds of underpaid, undocumented immigrants to renovate the sex shop before they are reported to ICE as illegals and deported.
Urban Dictionary: shyster – shyster is derived from the German term scheisser, meaning literally "one who defecates," used to describe someone who is untrustworthy, money grabbing and full of crap, particularly in the field of legal work for some reason
: keister – to hide or smuggle items in one's anus
Trump is reportedly building an extra "crash pad" above the Presidential Liebrary, which sources close to the former Twitter influencer say he plans to live in once Melania has gotten out of her problematic pre-nup and divorced him, escaping with Barron, after Ivanka and Jared have disowned him, now a social pariah, his lenders have f_cked him and called him on his loans, Putin releases the "Pee Tapes" and he is tossed out of Mar-a-Lago by fed-up local Palm Beach residents.
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/trump-presidential-library-where-b1787635.html
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_J._Trump_Presidential_Library
https://www.trumplibrary.gov/
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-05/trump-keeps-history-at-bay-by-putting-off-presidential-library
https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2021/01/22/trump-presidential-library-plans-461383
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election
https://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=The%20Urban%20Dictionary
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Behind the Lens – Another View
Behind the Lens- Welcome to Sault Ste. Marie (audio)
Double A November 3, 2021 @ 6:22 am At 6:22 am
Peter Chow writes like a first-year poli sci student. I don't know what's more underwhelmingly pathetic, his writing or his references. Seriously, this guy is what we call a floater. The best he could hope for was to be floated through with a 65%.
So why does Sault Online pay a man for a column dedicated to Donald J. Trump? This is a Local News site? Yet your main columnist chiefly focuses on Trump…is that his only method to obtain some attention? Sault Online, you can do better. And if you can't, well that's just pathetic.
SooGuy2 November 2, 2021 @ 6:40 pm At 6:40 pm
"Let's Go Brandon"
John Locke November 2, 2021 @ 1:45 pm At 1:45 pm
I find it intriguing to read comments from people who criticize Peter Chow about having an obsession with Trump. These people who do this in response to many of Peter Chow's opinion pieces are unable to see that they are accusing Peter Chow of something they are guilty of themselves which is their own obsession not with Trump but with Peter Chow. If they dislike Peter Chow's pieces so much, why else would they continue to read them instead of simply ignoring them?
WN November 2, 2021 @ 8:33 pm At 8:33 pm
So you want us to sit back and take Peters criticism of so many things he doesn't agree with and look the other way and ignore it? Where many, especially young people might take all he says as the truth and be led astray in some cases. Sorry but those who do care will give input and It's actually not a hate of peter in my case. I actually agree with many things he posts but like any post not all things will people agree with as evidence of past comments.
Reality is unreal November 5, 2021 @ 8:55 am At 8:55 am
That logic is precisely how we got stuck with inept federal leadership.
Ignoring something doesn't always make it go away, sometimes it emboldens it.
KR November 2, 2021 @ 1:36 pm At 1:36 pm
Trump is a mentally sick and deranged idiot, but we should be more concerned with what is happening in Ottawa as what is going on doesn't look good for our future at all.
Trump is a mentally sick and deranged idiot, as are Peter Chow and Justine Trudeau
Francis Clergue November 2, 2021 @ 1:22 pm At 1:22 pm
if anything is named after the king of the degens it should be a sewage treatment facility.
WN November 2, 2021 @ 12:12 pm At 12:12 pm
Well well well, Peter your obsession with Trump is very predictable now but getting worrisome. In fact this latest post I'm more concerned about you than Trump. This post has given us all a window to your soul that is very dark and shown us your knowledge of a world that you are well versed in and find more pleasure in than steering away from.
Will November 2, 2021 @ 10:12 am At 10:12 am
How that delusional, pathological liar, narcissistic, criminal ex president wannabe is not in a facility for the criminally insane completely baffles the world and will continue to as long as he is not locked up. How can one whack job buffoon make that many people believe that he is legit? It just goes to show that the IQ of the average American is a lot lower than anyone may have guessed.
BBB November 2, 2021 @ 9:59 am At 9:59 am
A library to honor a man who likely never set foot in a library in his life. I do like the name TRUMP LIEBRARY though. We can only hope Trump will be found guilty of a crime and prevented from ever running for President again !!!
Jesse November 2, 2021 @ 9:35 am At 9:35 am
This is hilarious! I've been laughing all morning starting with some videos and now this. You're a genius! Some people are so uptight.
Hilarious to read Chow label someone else as narcissistic – have you taken a look inward lately?With the astonishing levels of corruption in Canada's government these days combined with the appalling lack of ethics maybe it's time to get your head out of past U.S. politics and pay attention to the Canadian boondoggle.
Matt November 2, 2021 @ 10:59 am At 10:59 am
Hear, hear!
Been trying to get him to look inwardly for years but he's always transfixed on the external – as it (the trap) is meant to be. Probably smart enough to get it but he's always got that head buried.
Obvious controlled opposition trump is obvious controlled op.
Luc November 2, 2021 @ 8:01 am At 8:01 am
when people say "he's living rent free in your head", this is the kind of actual delusion they are talking about.
for some, he is just another talking head. others cannot imagine trump without conceiving some fullblown phantasmagoria of their own pyschological projections
he's just a bad, bloated grifter president, and he isn't anymore. it's ok to let it go.


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text:
La presó de Neumünster és un centre penitenciari d'Alemanya. Està situada al número 30 de la carretera de Boostedt, al centre de l'Estat federat alemany d'Slesvig-Holstein. Aquest recinte penitenciari té lloc per a 596 reclusos, sent la presó més gran de l'estat de Schleswig-Holstein. És una institució penitenciària per a penes de fins a cinc anys per a homes adults. A més és la institució de detenció preventiva del districte de Kiel.

La presó es va construir entre els anys 1901 i 1905. Els seus edificis formen part de la llista de monuments culturals protegits de Neumünster. Té un mur al voltant de 685 metres de llarg. El 2016 es va acabar la reforma de l'ala C (Haus C) per presoners condemnats. Tot i respectar l'arquitectura, es va modernitzar la protecció antiincendis. Cada pis té tres dutxes comunitàries, una cuina i una bugaderia. La reforma de l'ala B per a presoners provisionals va acabar-se el 2017.

El presoner més famós que ha tingut va ser l'escriptor Hans Fallada, que va documentar la seva experiència en la novel·la Wer einmal aus dem Blechnapf frißt (1932). L'ex-president de la Generalitat de Catalunya Carles Puigdemont també ingressà en aquest centre penitenciari el 25 de març de 2018 després de ser detingut per la policia alemanya a causa d'una ordre de detenció europea emesa per Pablo Llarena, magistrat del Tribunal Suprem d'Espanya. Se l'acusava dels delictes de rebel·lió, sedició i malversació. En fou alliberat el 6 d'abril, sota fiança, després que l'audiència territorial d'Schleswig-Holstein anunciés que descartava el delicte de rebel·lió de què l'acusaven les autoritats espanyoles, per manca de violència.

Referències

Bibliografia
  (Quatre Il·lustracions)

Enllaços externs

   Web oficial amb informacions sobre les visites i els altres drets dels presoners.

Presons
Edificis de Slesvig-Holstein


text:
require 'simplecov'
SimpleCov.start

$LOAD_PATH.unshift File.expand_path('../../lib', __FILE__)
require 'lightpipe'
require 'minitest/autorun'
require 'mocha/setup'
require 'shoulda'
require 'byebug'

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Q: Javascript - Amazon S3 direct file upload from client browser (CORS) - AWS Signature Version 4 I am trying to upload some images directly to the Amazon Simple Storage Service (S3) located in Frankfurt (eu-central-1). With this method:
Authenticating Requests in Browser-Based Uploads Using POST (AWS Signature Version 4)
On the server side I am creating the policy & signature and on the client side I am building the request. (For the answers everything can be done in the client side, security aspects will come later.)
But I am always getting a error from S3:
<Error>
    InvalidRequest
    <Message>The authorization mechanism you have provided is not supported. Please use AWS4-HMAC-SHA256.</Message>
    <RequestId>blah</RequestId>
    <HostId>blah</HostId>
</Error>

So my questions:

*

*How to create a correct policy?

*How to create a correct signingkey?

*How to create the signature (with the signingkey & policy)?

*How looks a correct HTML form?

Thanks in advance for any help

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


It has always bugged me how letters and symbols are reused to death in equations.
A B C X Y α ß µ σ - they mean hundreds of things in hundreds of different disciplines. Every time I open a document that has equations, I search for a reference stating what δ stands for this time.
And it gets worse, because it is not rare for the authors to tack on subscripts as they see fit. One example of this is the EN 1990 Eurocodes - a norm for calculating the structural integrity of various load-bearing structures. 60+ chapters á some 200 pages each, that cross-reference and commonly uses different letters for the same thing (they were developed for 35 years by hordes of experts). You need to hunt through chapters to sleuth if the γ they used in one place is equivalent to the γM0 that it points to in another, because it could actually be γM1, like. It is assumed that the reader should understand that from context.
So there is an apparent lack of signs which leads to tacking on enumerations and variations, further complicating things. This is needless. In a world where there are thousands of languages and hundreds of alphabets, why this narrow selection of symbols? How about using hebrew, arabic, cyrillic, bengali, tamil, wingdings? Heck - chinese, japanese, korean? I have access to lots of squiggly things on my computer, why not use them?
Latin and Greek alphabets are used for historical reasons, since they were the only alphabets European mathematicians could be expected to know. Today, we do occasionally use letters from other alphabets, such as א and ב from Hebrew, but they are an enormous pain to type into equations, since they reverse the direction of text. To be totally honest, the 100ish symbols we already have, minus additions like subscripts, superscripts, stars, strikethroughs, bold, italics, etc., are probably sufficient. The fact that some books are hopelessly unclear isn't the fault of the alphabet. γ, γ, γ, γ, γ̶, γ̅, and Γ are all forms of the same letter, and by looking at those, you can probably come up with another 20 or so just using gamma, and without a single subscript or superscript. There are enough symbols. The problem is that the author is using them in a way that is confusing in context.
I mean, ultimately the problem is that mathematicians are allergic to good variable naming. Using single-letter variable names for anything other than a transient temporary variable used in a rote, expected position (loop iteration, or the sole argument to a small lambda) is considered extremely bad practice in modern programming. And yet it's used everywhere in math, and it's terrible.
Then again, single-letter symbolic notation is widely used by other communities than just by mathematicians, those are only a small subset. Look at the example from the OP: eurocodes are not written by mathematicians, and are not aimed at mathematicians. This is not some quirk of a single, close-knit mathematical community.
Also, most people who use symbolic notation are familiar with programming-style "wordy" variable naming. Plenty of them are experienced and skilled programmers. Sometimes people use "wordy" notation in places where letter-notation is usual - it's not a taboo practice. It could spread from there, but I see little movement in, what, 5 decades that wordy variables have been a common programming practice.
I would say that these are just different situations, with different requirements. The problem from the OP is seen as minor and tractable by most practitioners, while wordy variable names have a larger downside.
Zamfir wrote: eurocodes are not written by mathematicians, and are not aimed at mathematicians.
What is a structural engineer but an applied mathematician?
The algebraic convention dated to times when concise (sometimes pictorial) symbology mattered most, with ink and paper/parchment at a premium as well as time/space saved for the inscription, repeated inscriptions, copyings compared with long-hand 'formulaic' instructions. Plus at least a little deliberate obfuscation, at times, from those not already sufficientlyb initiated in the mysteries (there was a tendency to anagramise and cryptically communicate the key brunt of 'discoveries' as a kind of early 'signed and sealed' pre-claim breadcrumbing to prevent gazumping).
Overall, though, it's developed into an efficient system. Field-by-field there is consistency of characters (an electrical engineer will likely use j instead of i for √-1 , to avoid clashes with an ampage-related value). x-as-variable-input works well to keep it away from the a, b, c of (unstated, but fixed) polynomial factors in pure maths, with y-as-variable-output, and pokes into sometimes mnemonic Greek for differences/deltas, sumations/sigmas, etc. The simpler applied maths/physics has handily almost-mnemonic characters for Force, mass, velocity, acceleration, etc, and dips into extended alphabets somewhat self-consistently due to needs arising from the more complex principles that come along later. (Which cat falls off the wet roof first? The one with the lowest μ…) Formal logic goes and defines the∀ny and∃very symbols because… well, it's logical to do so (it must be!).
It's when fields (or sub-fields) collide when it becomes a tangle. If the conscientious equation-writer/re-user doesn't define the terms involved. Superscripts, subscripts and diacritics get used to help with this but can seem arbitrary to the uninitiated (see the Drake equation).
Perhaps an Equation Markup Language should be developed to supply the sometimes hidden context? Of course, that'd mean that Google could Rule The World. (Not corporate Google, or Alphabet, but entity Google, the hive mind spontaneously arisen from the web of cloud servers that no person yet comprehends, let alone has the ability to control. By disambiguising the alphabetic code of Science, we shall allow it supremacy over our scientists, much as they are dominant over their lab-rats. So maybe don't develop an EqML, for the sake of humanity's future!
That is precisely my point. "I need a symbol for this. Let's use one of the 40 letters I know how to write. Oops, that one was already widely used in 20 other cases. Well, if I write mine in an extra special way?"
There is an infinite of shapes you could use instead. Well, infinite minus 20 variants of gamma, at least.
The same person does not hesitate to write "arcsin" when it comes to functions. Why is that not written by 2/3rds of a triangle instead, using the pertinent sides? It would literally be a two line hook, if brevity is of the essence.
I would like to see some reform in systems of notation. It is a constructed symbolic language, perhaps it should be designed by members of humaniora? Like language specialists?
God, I'm asking for a beating here, aren't I?
Well, some of this is definitely just weird historical artifacts for sure. Or a concept may be named after a specific person and use that symbol for that reason (e.g. Hamiltonian is H because that was the guy's name). And different fields use different conventions so when they intersect there's going to be some clash.
I think in the best case, though, using related symbols for different concepts allows you to give shorthand for variables that are related in some way. For example, one could (and often is taught initially) to express position, velocity, and acceleration as d, v, and a, but it's much more elegant to express all three as x, ẋ, and ẍ, where the . symbol is indicating time derivatives. Likewise, when you're talking about things with subscripts, it's usually referring to conceptually similar things that you want to be able to tell apart. So if there's an equation with a term of the form μ/μ_0, you know that these are probably going to be related quantities of the same units, and likely μ = μ_0 in some degenerate case.
Right, I don't see subscripts usually getting used to distinguish totally unrelated variables, like power and pressure. Instead, they are usually related variables, and the subscript is conceptually similar to an index. It makes sense to have point A at (xA,yA) and point B at (xB,yB). Usually when you have unrelated variables that intuitively should have the same symbol, you either differentiate the symbols by style (capitalization, font face, bold, italic, overline, circumflex, strikethrough, etc.) or just pick a totally different letter. There are always more than enough to spare.
I'm not saying the current list is optimal or anything, but I don't agree that turning most variable names into short words would be an improvement. It would take up more space, force the introduction of more interpuncts to explicitly show multiplication (since concatenating words-as-symbols can be pretty confusing), and at least in my opinion, take longer to mentally parse. The only serious problem I've had is trying to handwrite ζ and ξ.
Incidentally, I have never seen ß (eszett)in an equation. You probably meant β (beta).
It's a question of font. Every beta I see looks like that eszett though.
That beta looks really strange in my font, but the eszett on my screen definitely doesn't look like a beta, since it isn't closed at the bottom. But I imagine in some fonts they would be pretty indistinguishable.
The problem is, if you increase the number of symbols used, you will decrease the ability to tell them apart. If you increase the length of variables -- well, there are some examples with 2 or 3 letters, but much longer ones becomes ugly. As long as the notation is consistent in a single piece of work, most readers can comprehend perfectly.
But if you really want to avoid the reuse, you can surround any text with square brackets, like: [Energy] = [mass][speed of light]2.
A short, distinct symbol (e.g. a letter) is definitely the way to go when solving/simplifying some equation. What the letters stand for doesn't matter then; only the operations between them do.* Before and after these steps it's sensible to substitute names, though. And, of course, in "real math equations" like (a+b)² = a²+2ab+b² the variables are only defined for the equation so there's no confusion about which a and b they represent (just that implicitly these ones have to come from a ring, so the distributive property exists).
I'd argue that a lot of the time there's no good shorthand for a certain (physical) constant/function, so the wordy description —that you really need close to formulae where it is used— can just as well be substituted by a symbol from a small set that is unique in its context.
We may be able to map all significant constants/functions to different unicode codepoints**, but people will be fighting over U+2603 and we'll have a really busy Descriptors Consortium for decades. We can also give unique descriptors in another way, for example by giving every agent (be it a person or a program) an identifier and you as an agent having a local counter that you increment every time you introduce a new variable. So γ (the Euler-Mascheroni constant, of course, what else could γ be?) becomes euler42651 and Γ (the gamma function) becomes euler37582.*** The upside is that you don't have to learn to distinguish all of unicode and all names are unique, the downside is you get unwieldy names and billions of names will effectively be duplicates (especially in homework and tests).
*AFAICT math is lacking in another regard though, since sometimes the domains of an operation matter, but I've only ever seen typing in the declaration of a function, never within a formula.
**Unicode probably grows faster than the naming of new functions.
***By the way, why is it so hard to find "constants discovered by Euler"? Why can't at least google understand that I don't want to read about e, err, bernoulli49352?