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Cultivating 'High-Involvement' Organizations: A Conversation with Edward E. Lawler, III
Home / Winning Workplaces / Workplace Resources / Features / Interviews / Cultivating 'High-Involvement' Organizations: A Conversation with Edward E. Lawler, III
Edward E. Lawler, III is Distinguished Professor of Business at the University of Southern California's Marshall School of Business and Founder and Director of the USC's Center for Effective Organizations. In this interview he discusses the findings of his and James O'Toole's new book, The New American Workplace, and their ramifications for small businesses.
How did you get involved in the original report, Work in America, on which The New American Workplace is based?
Work in America was written by Jim [James O'Toole, co-author –Ed]. He was asked to prepare the report by Elliot Richardson, who at the time was Richard Nixon's secretary of health, education and welfare. Jim had recently completed his PhD at Oxford University, and wanted to focus on workplace research. Elliot tapped Jim for the project, as he was also concerned about workplaces – particularly employee stress and well-being in the workplace.
Jim got me involved; at the time I was in Michigan doing research on employee involvement and attitudes.
In working on the new book, what was the most striking change you found in how people view their work between the early 1970s and today?
The most striking thing we noticed was the change in security, or certainty, in people's work. One of the biggest changes is how unpredictable the careers in the IBMs of the world have become. The shift in focus to corporate profits, or valuing the shareholder above other stakeholders, has made people become more self-sufficient. You could say that everyone has become a small business of one.
It seems as though "High-Involvement" (HI) companies stand the greatest chance of filling new niches and being innovators of change. What's your take on these kinds of organizations versus "Low-Cost operators" and "Global Competitor corporations"? [See Sidebar]
The HI companies are my favorites because they're more effectively able to balance the needs of employees against the need to be successful. Jim and I are frustrated that the adoption rate for HI practices is slower than what we think it should be. But at the same time, a special set of skills is required for HI companies to work. There's no question that it's easier to implement HI practices in small and midsize organizations, which often have more personal leadership and more readily defined values that workers can relate to.
The new book suggests that small businesses will be especially vulnerable to international competition. What can smaller organizations do to compete in this arena?
They should identify their competitive advantages and adopt a strategy that can't be copied by a foreign competitor. They should also look at the HI model, which might provide them with an advantage. A focus toward innovation, supported by refining the means by which they engage their employees and solicit their feedback, can help small businesses compete globally.
Unfortunately, the reality is that some U.S.-based small businesses can't compete because their labor costs are too high. They may have to consider offshoring.
What do you make of the evidence suggested by the 2005 Harris Interactive survey which found that nearly twice as many workers at small firms feel passionate about their jobs compared with their counterparts at large firms?
I've studied organizational size since 1962, and in all the studies I've seen that relate size to worker attitudes, there's been a negative relationship between the firm size and employee satisfaction. Of course, this raises the question: Why do people like working in smaller firms more than in larger firms? We've found that employees in smaller firms can understand the business better – at least in terms of understanding their role in it. Also, at smaller companies employees are less of a number than they are in large organizations. In many small businesses, worker involvement is automatic unless management ruins it.
What negative trends for U.S. businesses that are outlined in the book do you hope will be proven wrong and turn positive?
Number one is the slow movement toward the HI model; I hope it will accelerate. Without HI in place, offshoring issues will become more problematic. Also, we've seen a slowdown in the growth in wages for the average worker. International competition is putting downward pressure on pay rates for educated individuals. In the book we also discuss the current state of health care's impact on work. Resolution of the health care issues we have in this country would positively affect our global competitiveness.


It turns out that the "Golden Years" aren't quite that golden—even when you have Medicare.
Elderly Americans are in worse health and have a tougher time dealing with medical costs than senior citizens in 10 other advanced industrialized nations, a new report Wednesday reveals.
In fact, nearly 1 in 5 seniors skipped a doctor's visit, test or a prescribed medication because of the out-of-pocket cost, far more than any other country looked at in the Commonwealth Fund survey.
Older Americans are also more likely than counterparts in most of those countries to have problems getting a same-day or next-day appointment with their doctor, and having to go to the ER instead when they get sick, according to the survey, which is detailed in an article being published by the journal Health Affairs on Wednesday.
On the bright side, senior citizens in the U.S. had better luck than those in other countries in how their chronic illnesses are managed, communications with doctors and transitioning from the hospital back to home. And, notably, 86 percent of older U.S. adults said they could get an appointment with a specialist within one month—significantly better than any other country in the survey besides Switzerland, which had an 82 percent success rate on that question.
But the worse outcomes for Americans age 65 or older come despite the fact that they are the one group in the U.S. that has near-universal health coverage, in the form of the Medicare insurance program administered by the federal government. The other countries surveyed by the Commonwealth Fund all have some form of universal health coverage.
"Previous surveys have shown that older people with Medicare coverage fare better than working-age adults in the U.S.," said Robin Osborn, vice president of the Commonwealth Fund's international health policy program.
"The new survey shows that there are areas, such as managing patients who have chronic illnesses and hospital discharge planning, where the U.S. does well compared to other countries," Osborn said. "However, older Americans struggle more to get and afford the health care they need, indicating the need to improve Medicare's financial protections."
In addition to U.S. residents, the Commonwealth Fund survey questioned seniors in 10 other countries: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom. More than 15,000 people were asked questions about their medical status, costs and issues accessing care.
Commonwealth Fund President David Blumenthal told reporters in advance of the report's release that he was unaware of any prior survey "that looked at this population" and compared their experiences to counterparts in different countries.
Despite the fact American seniors are younger, on average, than the senior populations of the other countries, "The U.S. has the highest rates of chronic conditions," Blumenthal said.
The Health Affairs article about the report noted that 68 percent of American seniors "reported two or more conditions."
"In contrast, only one-third of older adults in the United Kingdom reported having multiple chronic conditions," the article said.
The U.S. also was the clear leader in the number of older people who avoided seeing a doctor or skipping treatments and drugs because of the costs associated with those things.
Nineteen percent of older Americans said they skipped such services or prescriptions because of those costs. In New Zealand, which had the second-highest result in that category, just 10 percent of seniors skipped those services or drugs because of costs.
In France, which had the lowest result in that category, just 3 percent of seniors skipped those things due to what they would have to pay for them.
On a related question, 21 percent of U.S. seniors said that they had out-of-pocket medical expenses of $2,000 or more in the past year. Only Switzerland had a higher rate, with 22 percent of seniors there reporting such costs.
The next highest country in that category was Australia, with 13 percent of respondents giving that answer.
American seniors also ended up going to the emergency room for treatment more than residents of most other countries other than Canada. Thirty-nine percent of older residents of both those countries had gone to the ER in the past two years.
The U.S., Canada, Norway and Sweden were also on the low end of countries with seniors being able to get a same-day or next-day appointment with a medical provider when they got sick: less than 60 percent of elderly people in those countries said they could do so.
On the other hand, the American seniors, and those in the United Kingdom, have markedly more success than those in other countries with discussing treatment goals with doctors, and with getting clear directions on when they should get further care.


As an author Tobor Eichmann writes a mix of fiction and general interests. His latest book under is entitled "The Fine Art of Internet Troll Slaying". You can find more about this book under "Books by Tobor".
Shine: Why Don't Moon Fairy and Sun Prince Live Together?


Would you like to view 'AHC30616 - Certificate III in Production Horticulture' on the My Skills website?
This version released with AHC Agriculture, Horticulture, Conservation and Land Management Training Package Version 3.0.
This version released with AHC Agriculture, Horticulture, Conservation and Land Management Training Package Version 1.1.
This version released with AHC Agriculture, Horticulture, Conservation and Land Management Training Package Version 1.0.
3 units may be selected from Group B or from this or any other endorsed Training Package or Accredited Course.
Selected units must be relevant to job outcomes in production horticulture and must be chosen to ensure the integrity of the qualification outcome at AQF level 3.


Submissions are now open for the Athena IRIS Screenwriting Lab. The lab is designed for female writers who have not yet had a feature-length fictional script produced. Screenplays must include one or more strong female characters in leadership roles at the center of the story and must be feature-length narratives.
The Lab consists of two days of intensive script development with seasoned mentors. It is designed for female writers who have not yet had a feature-length fictional script produced. Screenplays must include one or more strong female characters in leadership roles at the center of the story and must be feature-length narratives.
The two-day lab will take place February 28 - March 1, 2019, in New York City.


Being described as a 'digital human' will make some of us reach for our fountain pens but for the majority of the working population, born after 1980, it's a fair description. The questions now are: how will the digital-to-human ratio play out in the age of AI? And how will digital connectivity continue to change the way we live and work?
In their new book Alive: Digital Humans and their Organizations, Paul Ashcroft and Garrick Jones, founders of the Ludic Group, consider these questions and focus on the impact of digital on the way organizations are structured and led and how they should evolve to meet the future.
For all of the benefits in ease of living, travelling, and economic growth brought by the industrial revolution it plunged the mid-nineteenth century into a miserable era of disrupted communities, poverty, and social unrest. Facing a comparable technological revolution, the ability of organizations to evolve and leaders to manage through radical change will be critical in ensuring the mid-twenty-first century doesn't experience similar turmoil.
Ashcroft and Jones take a positive view, they appreciate the fears many have ('robots will take all the jobs') and agree that the connected world is so complex and fast evolving that it can be considered 'alive', but they counter with a clear exposition of how organizations and their people can prosper in a world greatly enhanced by technology, based on their many years' experience leading digital transformation in global companies.
Digital humans are demanding "a sea change in how people are prepared to work." The upside to this, suggest the authors, is that organizations can stop relying on the same external consultants who have advised them for the past 30 years, and engage with their digital-savvy millennial employees to build capability internally, creating agile technology-powered teams to embrace transformational change.
The authors central message is that "digital transformation requires a significant shift in mindsets of leadership." Following a brief survey of the current and changing state of digital at both a personal and organizational level, the book focuses on what the "digitally activated" organization can achieve that pre-digital organizations couldn't and on the practical steps that leaders must take to fully realise this potential, offering twelve principles for change.
These twelve principles, elaborated in the core of the book, are split across three areas: decision making and executing; engaging and motivating; and learning and getting to the next level. Using concepts like "app-ability", "theatres of work", "the power of small things" and "targets and mirrors", this is a deeply considered check-list of advice that links how organizations operated and were led in the past with what they need to do to thrive in the digital future.
Although this is a practical book which highlights what actually needs to get done to "make the most of all digital has to offer," it is also an enjoyable read, rich in references to current new thinking and historical precedent, from Cathy O'Neil's warning about algorithms, 'Weapons of Math Destruction', to how Lorenzo Ghiberti's Florentine 'Gates of Paradise' kick-started the Italian renaissance.


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Michael Seth Maness ( ; born October 14, 1988) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He previously played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the St. Louis Cardinals and Kansas City Royals.

Early life and amateur career
Maness was born in Pinehurst, North Carolina. The son of Michael Maness and Jan Andrews Benton, he has two siblings—Bailey and Tanner. He attended Pinecrest High School in Southern Pines, North Carolina, where he played for the school's baseball team. As a sophomore, he earned first team All-State and conference Player of the Year honors. His father served as one of his coaches.

Following high school, Maness enrolled at East Carolina University, majoring in accounting. He played college baseball for the East Carolina Pirates where he became a four-time first team All-Conference USA performer (2008–11). In 2009, he played collegiate summer baseball with the Bourne Braves of the Cape Cod Baseball League. He finished his ECU career as the Pirates career leader in wins (38), strike outs (321), innings pitched (411.2), and games started (61). In 2010 Maness was named Conference USA Pitcher of the Year. The Florida Marlins drafted Maness in the 41st round of the 2010 MLB draft, but he did not sign.

Professional career

St. Louis Cardinals
The St. Louis Cardinals selected Maness in the 11th round of the 2011 MLB draft, and he signed with them.

Maness started his professional career with the Batavia Muckdogs of the Class A-Short Season New York–Penn League. After appearing in the All-Star Game, the Cardinals promoted him to the Palm Beach Cardinals of the Class A-Advanced Florida State League. He finished the season with the Quad Cities River Bandits of the Class A Midwest League.

Maness is noted for his control: in  innings pitched in 2012, he allowed only ten walks. Maness was named to the Texas League postseason All-Star team in 2012.  On November 30, 2012, Maness was named the Cardinals' Minor League Pitcher of the Year. His efforts on the mound helped Double A Springfield as they were named Minor League Team of the Year by Baseball America. On April 29, 2013, Maness was called up to the major leagues due to the Cardinals' struggling bullpen.

Maness made his MLB debut on May 3. He pitched one inning in his debut, against the Milwaukee Brewers at Miller Park in the eighth inning, giving up no hits, and getting three consecutive groundouts (the third out hit to him) for his debut, following the seventh inning debut of Carlos Martinez who was brought up earlier that day. On May 15, 2013, he became the first Cardinal rookie pitcher since 1900 with three relief wins in his first five major league appearances.  In 66 games with St. Louis, Maness went 5–2 with 15 holds, 1 save and a 2.32 ERA, striking out 35 in 62 innings. He led the team in ERA.

Maness pitched five effective innings in the Cardinals postseason run, posting an earned run average of 1.80. The one earned run he surrendered was a three-run home run to Jonny Gomes in Game 4 of the 2013 World Series. The Cardinals would not lead in a World Series game after this home run, falling in six games.

An arbitration-eligible player prior to the 2016 season, Maness and the Cardinals agreed to a one-year, $1.4 million contract on January 15, 2016.

After yielding a 6.39 ERA for the season, and his velocity on all four pitches down 2-3 mph, he landed on the DL for the first time in his career on May 14, after an exam revealed an inflammation on his right (pitching) elbow. He was having pitching difficulties, getting hit hard in his previous  inning work against the Anaheim Angels on May 12. For the season, he has a 6.39 ERA and 1.97 WHIP in  innings. He will eventually be able to join a Minor League affiliate on a rehab assignment, instead of as a member of that club's roster. That rehab assignment can last up to 30 days. On August 16, Maness was placed on the disabled list with an elbow strain. It was later revealed that Maness would need to undergo Tommy John surgery, effectively ending his 2016 season and likely for most of the 2017 season.

After a medical review of his injury, Maness had surgery on August 18, to fix his Ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint instead of Tommy John surgery ligament replacement, drastically reducing his recovery time from 12–15 months to 6–8 months, which would make him available for Spring Training in 2017.

The Cardinals non-tendered him on December 2, 2016, making him a free agent.

Kansas City Royals
On February 13, 2017, the Royals announced that Maness signed a minor league contract, with a $1.25 million incentive for reaching the major leagues. The Royals promoted Maness to the major leagues on May 10. He resigned a minor league deal on November 2, 2017. Maness was released from the organization on May 10, 2018.

High Point Rockers
On February 7, 2019, Maness signed with the High Point Rockers of the Atlantic League of Professional Baseball.

Texas Rangers
On May 1, 2019, Maness's contract was purchased by the Texas Rangers and he was assigned to the Triple-A Nashville Sounds. He produced a 8–4 record with a 5.38 ERA over 117 innings for Nashville and was named a 2019 Pacific Coast League All-Star. He became a free agent on November 4, 2019. On October 14, 2020, Maness announced his retirement from professional baseball.

Coaching career
In January 2022, Maness joined the UNC Wilmington men's baseball team as the Coordinator of Player Development and spent the entire Spring 2022 season with the Seahawks. On August 18, 2022, Maness was hired by Florida State University as a Graduate Assistant coaching under Link Jarrett, Maness' assistant coach during his collegiate playing career at East Carolina.

References

External links

1988 births
Living people
Major League Baseball pitchers
Baseball players from North Carolina
People from Pinehurst, North Carolina
St. Louis Cardinals players
Kansas City Royals players
East Carolina Pirates baseball players
Bourne Braves players
Batavia Muckdogs players
Palm Beach Cardinals players
Quad Cities River Bandits players
Springfield Cardinals players
Memphis Redbirds players
Omaha Storm Chasers players
High Point Rockers players
Nashville Sounds players

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Otok Splićak je nenaseljen otoček v Jadranskem morju. Pripada Hrvaški.

Otok se nahaja v bližini severne dalmatinske obale, severno od Murterja. Upravno pripada občini Tisno v Šibensko-kninski županiji.

Glej tudi

 Seznam hrvaških otokov

Sklici

Otoki Dalmacije


Discharge and aqueous ink on Gildan brand LS. Available in sizes S to XXL while supply lasts.
Aqueous ink printing on off white or charcoal gray Gildan brand long sleeve shirts. Available in sizes S to XXL while supply lasts. Click here to order.


text:
/** @file
 * @ingroup kinematics
 */

#ifndef WAVE_KINEMATICS_TWOWHEEL_HPP
#define WAVE_KINEMATICS_TWOWHEEL_HPP

#include "wave/utils/utils.hpp"

namespace wave {
/** @addtogroup kinematics
 *  @{ */

/** Generic two wheel robot motion model */
class TwoWheelRobot2DModel {
 public:
    /** Robot pose consisting of position in x and y (meters) and heading
     * (radians) */
    Vec3 pose;

    TwoWheelRobot2DModel() : pose{0.0, 0.0, 0.0} {}
    explicit TwoWheelRobot2DModel(const Vec3 &pose) : pose{pose} {}

    /** Update two wheel model
     *
     * @param inputs Model input vector where first input is wheel velocity in
     * m/s and the second input is heading angular velocity rad/s
     *
     * @param dt Update time step in seconds
     *
     * @returns Updated pose of two wheel robot
     */
    Vec3 update(const Vec2 &inputs, double dt);
};

/** @} group kinematics */
}  // namespace wave

#endif  // WAVE_KINEMATICS_TWOWHEEL_HPP

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
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OOH: A CRITICAL COMPLEMENT TO DIGITAL MARKETINGJanuary 17, 2020
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Mark Boidman on Netflix, Streaming and Alternative Media with Bloomberg TVJanuary 17, 2020
Jason Russell on Digital Transformation in the Industrial Sector – Buyouts MagazineJanuary 8, 2020
PJ SOLOMON Launches Telecom Group with the Hiring of Industry Veteran Joseph ValentiOctober 17, 2019
Growing Protectionist Policies are Challenging Global M&A Activity: PJ SOLOMONAugust 12, 2019
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PJ SOLOMON Appoints Carlo M. Caponi as General Counsel
PJ SOLOMON, a leading financial advisory firm, today announced the appointment of Carlo M. Caponi as General Counsel. In his role, Mr. Caponi will oversee all legal matters affecting the firm's operations and will be based in the firm's New York office.
Mr. Caponi joins PJ SOLOMON from Jefferies LLC, where he served as Senior Vice President and Assistant General Counsel, advising M&A deal teams in connection with buy-side and sell-side engagements, as well as capital markets deal teams on public and private financings.
"Carlo's extensive experience navigating the legal and regulatory framework of complex transactions makes him an invaluable resource for our firm," said Marc Cooper, Chief Executive Officer of PJ SOLOMON. "We are delighted to have him join our team as we continue to grow and provide clients with the unparalleled advisory services for which PJ SOLOMON is known."
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Prior to his tenure at Jefferies, Mr. Caponi spent more than five years in the M&A practice at Davis Polk & Wardwell LLP, where he advised on a range of public and private M&A transactions.
"I'm excited to join PJ SOLOMON, with its storied 30-year legacy, and assist in its continued growth. In building out the legal function of the firm, my primary objective is to provide efficient legal counsel to better serve the firm and its clients."
Mr. Caponi holds a J.D., cum laude, from New York University School of Law, and received a B.A. and B.S., magna cum laude, from Miami University. Mr. Caponi is admitted to practice in the State of New York.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Shiro Kurumata's most famous chair designs were truly ground breaking. There exists nothing like his wire mesh "How high the moon" chair… and his "Miss Blanche" Chair which sold for over 80,000 GBP on auction at Christies. They are in fact so unique that it's difficult to see a mainstream market for them.
However during the 70s and 80s, Kurumata did produce some very stylish pieces with definite mass market appeal. The Sofa with Arms came out in 1982 but appears to be from another era. It's simple minimalist and beautiful lines look more at home at the Bauhaus than amidst 80s post-modern styling. Fans of the modern classics, will be wondering how they missed such a beauty.
Italian company Cappellini still produce this sofa today in a variety of colours and seat configurations.


text:
Nubuck is een type leer dat wordt gebruikt om laarzen, kleding, banken en overige leren artikelen, zoals handtassen, te fabriceren.

Nubuck wordt aan de bovenkant van de huid licht geschuurd, waardoor er een fluweelachtige uitstraling ontstaat en het zacht aanvoelt. Het uiterlijk komt ongeveer overeen met suède, maar is wat steviger. Daarom wordt nubuck vaker gebruikt voor schoeisel.

Door de open structuur van nubuck trekt vuil en vet er gemakkelijker in dan in niet-geïmpregneerd leder.

Schoeisel


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-NEW- Luxury 2-bedroom condo offering dramatic skyline views in downtown Bham! Rise to the top in this 2-story home occupying the 4th & 5th floors of this new construction 5-story building. Park in your private 2 car garage & take your private elevator OR private stairs up to this amazing 4,120 sq ft home! The library greets you at the heart of the 4th floor. Large master bedroom on this level offers southern views, his & her closets, separate ensuite bathroom w/window. Large second bedroom on north end offers plentiful windows, large closet, ensuite bathroom w/window. Whether taking the elevator or main staircase, the 5th floor living area is an entertainers delight! Living rm w/fireplace opens to south terrace w/outdoor fireplace. Separate dining rm, wet bar, kitchen w/eat-in & north terrace, separate pantry, powder rm, and spiral staircase to fabulous rooftop terrace! On rooftop enjoy sun & stars or bask in glow of another outdoor fireplace! Architects: Christopher Longe & Assoc.


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text:
'What's Going On With Strategic Plan?' Parent Asks School Committe
by Elizabeth McNamara | Oct 21, 2014
A letter written by Kristen Lehoullier, a member of the School Committee's ad hoc Strategic Planning Committee, was read during public comment at the School Committee meeting Tuesday, Oct. 21. It is reprinted here:
At the candidate forum last week, the School Committee candidates were asked a question about the strategic plan. The question noted that one year ago the school committee set the goal that EG would be among the top 100 districts in the country and raised the fact that the strategic plan to achieve that goal is behind schedule. The moderator asked how candidates would ensure that it got done and how the community would be engaged. A good number of audience members expressed support for a comment by several school committee candidates that completing the
strategic planning process needs to be a priority and that the remaining process should, at a minimum, include engaging residents of East Greenwich to provide feedback. At the time, it was concerning to hear from from an incumbent School Committee member during the forum that the draft strategic plan is being implemented before the plan is complete with no clear plan for seeking community input or feedback. In fact, this candidate felt that the community had had sufficient opportunity to participate.
I want to note, however, that the original mechanism for engaging community residents through the ad hoc committee was not authentic. The ad hoc strategic planning committee has not met for almost a year and was not engaged to provide substantive input into the planning process. It's only role was to identify the district's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats over a period of three meetings in the fall of 2013. In addition, there have not been intentional efforts to publicize the process, engage residents in the process, or ask for their feedback. Nor has there been communication with the adhoc committee about the progress of the planning or the schedule of other strategic planning sessions with the school committee or administration team. In short, the district and school committee have missed many opportunities along the planning process to get input, utilize community-based expertise, and galvanize support for the plan. At this point in the game, the best that can be done is to complete the plan and make sure that members of the community are made aware of the plan and invited to provide feedback. What are the school committee's plans around this?
There was no response from the School Committee members, who have said in the past that state open meetings law prohibits them from discussing anything not listed as an agenda item.
A group of parents on October 22, 2014 at 8:01 am
Same question was submitted to the Superintendent via FAQ section of the Supt. Field Memo. Supt. has not answered this question as last Friday.
EG Parent on October 23, 2014 at 11:47 am
Something is amiss here. Why is there a delay in this process? Is the district using an outside facilitator to shepherd the process (as is typical)?
"There was no response from the School Committee members, who have said in the past that state open meetings law prohibits them from discussing anything not listed as an agenda item." This is also a problem. During the Public Comment section of any public meeting such as the EG School Committee, the committee can choose to respond to a direct question or statement such as Ms. Lehoullier's. They don't have to, but if they do choose to respond to public comment, it is NOT a violation of the state's Open Meetings Law.
Girls, Boys Track & Field Place 2nd, 4th at Divisionals
Above: Girls Indoor Track team at the 2023 Division meet. Submitted photo By Morgan Walsh ...
Girls Hoops: EG Pours It On Over Mt. Pleasant, 64-40
Above: Look at Olivia Prior eyes – they never leave the ball. Photos by Chuck Nadeau (Chuckn.com)....
Boys Hoops: 4th Qtr. Loss, 63-59, to Barrington
Above: Rees Maccarone puts up a long jumper. Photos by Chuck Nadeau (chuckn.com). Time Keeps On...


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Gemeiner Lein (Linum usitatissimum), auch Saat-Lein, Haarlinse und Flachs genannt, ist eine alte Kulturpflanze, die zur Faser- (Faserlein) und zur Ölgewinnung (Öllein, Leinsamen, Leinöl) angebaut wird. Er ist eine Art aus der Gattung Lein (Linum) in der Familie der Leingewächse (Linaceae) und die einzige Lein-Art, deren Anbau eine wirtschaftliche Bedeutung hat. Es gibt mehrere Convarietäten sowie etliche Sorten. In der Praxis wird nach der Hauptverwendung Faserlein und Öllein unterschieden.

Das lateinische Artepitheton usitatissimum bedeutet meist verwendet / am gebräuchlichsten und bezieht sich auf die vielfältige Verwendbarkeit. "Flachs" leitet sich von "flechten" ab und bezieht sich auf die Verarbeitung.

Merkmale

Vegetative Merkmale
Der Gemeine Lein ist eine einjährige Pflanze (Therophyt), die eine Wuchshöhe von 20 bis 100 Zentimetern erreicht. Sie besitzt eine kurze, spindelförmige Pfahlwurzel mit feinen Seitenwurzeln. Die Hauptwurzel wird etwa gleich lang wie der Spross. Die ganze Pflanze ist kahl. Die Stängel stehen meist einzeln und aufrecht, im Bereich des Blütenstandes sind sie verzweigt.

Die stiellosen Laubblätter stehen wechselständig. Sie sind zwei bis drei (selten vier) Zentimeter lang und 1,5 bis drei (sechs) Millimeter breit. Ihre Form ist lineal-lanzettlich, dabei ist ein Blatt fünf- bis 15 mal so lang wie breit. Die Blätter sind dreinervig, kahl und haben einen glatten Rand.

Stängel und Fasern

Das äußerste Gewebe im Stängel ist die von einer Wachsschicht überzogene Epidermis. Es folgt die chlorophyllführende Rindenschicht. In die Rindenschicht eingebettet sind 20 bis 50 Bastfaserbündel als Festigungsgewebe. Jedes Bündel besteht aus zehn bis 30 Sklerenchym-Zellen, den Elementarfasern. Diese besitzen einen sechseckigen bis polygonalen Querschnitt mit kleinem Hohlraum. Die Länge einer Elementarfaser beträgt im Durchschnitt 2,5 bis sechs Zentimeter, in den oberen Stängelteilen kann sie auch acht bis zehn Zentimeter erreichen. Das ganze Faserbündel wird als technische Faser bezeichnet. Der Fasergehalt des Stängels beträgt 19 bis 25 %. Die Faser selbst besteht zu 65 % aus Zellulose, die weiteren Bestandteile sind Hemizellulose mit 16 %, Pektin (3 %), Protein (3 %), Lignin (2,5 %), Fette und Wachse (1,5 %), Mineralstoffe (1 %) und 8 % Wasser.

Nach innen zu folgt das sehr dünne Kambium, sodann der größte Bereich, der Holzzylinder. Im Zentrum befindet sich ein schmaler Bereich aus Mark, im reifen Stängel noch ein Hohlraum (Lumen, 1).

Blütenstand und Blüten

Der Blütenstand ist ein rispenartiger Wickel.
Die Blüten sind groß und über zwei Zentimeter breit. Die Blütenstiele sind länger als das Tragblatt, kahl und aufrecht. Die Blüte ist fünfzählig. Die Kelchblätter sind fünf bis sieben (neun) Millimeter lang. Sie sind lang zugespitzt, haben einen weißen Hautrand und sind an der Spitze bewimpert. Die Kelchblätter sind drei- oder fünfnervig. Die Kronblätter sind 12 bis 15 Millimeter lang und von hellblauer Farbe mit dunklerer Aderung, selten weiß, violett oder rosa. Die fünf Staubblätter sind zwei bis fünf Millimeter lang, an ihrem Grund sitzen Nektarien. Der Fruchtknoten ist oberständig und besteht aus fünf verwachsenen Fruchtblättern mit freien Griffeln. Die Narben sind keulenförmig. Blütenbiologisch handelt es sich um eine homogame, nektarführende Scheibenblume. Vorherrschend ist Selbstbestäubung (Autogamie), die Fremdbefruchtung durch Insekten (Auskreuzungsrate) beträgt rund fünf Prozent.

Die Blütezeit ist Juni, Juli, August.

Früchte und Samen

Die Fruchtstiele stehen aufrecht und tragen eine sechs bis neun Millimeter lange Kapsel. Diese ist kugelig-eiförmig und rund einen Millimeter lang geschnäbelt. Die Kapsel ist fünffächrig, jedes Fach enthält zwei Samen. Dabei ist jedes Fach durch eine falsche Scheidewand in zwei Kompartimente mit je einem Samen unterteilt. Die Kapsel öffnet sich wand- oder fachspaltig oder bleibt geschlossen.

Die Samen sind 4 bis 4,9 (6,5) Millimeter lang und 2,5 bis drei Millimeter breit. Die Form ist abgeflacht eiförmig. Der Nabel (Hilum) liegt am schmalen, zugespitzten Ende. Die Farbe der Samen variiert je nach Sorte von hellgelb bis dunkelbraun bei glänzend glatter Oberfläche. Die Tausendkornmasse beträgt bei Faserlein vier bis sieben Gramm, bei Öllein bis zu 15 Gramm. Die Samenschale ist dünn, spröde und besteht aus fünf Schichten: Die Epidermis bildet Schleimstoffe. Es folgen nach innen je eine Zellschicht Ringzellen, Steinzellen und Querzellen. Die innerste Schicht, die Pigmentschicht ist einzellschichtig und besteht aus vier- bis sechseckigen, dickwandigen Zellen und ist für die Farbe des Samens verantwortlich. Das Endosperm ist schwach ausgeprägt und nur in Form eines dünnen Häutchens vorhanden. Die Zellen enthalten wie die der Keimblätter Öl und Eiweiß. Der Embryo besitzt zwei kräftige, fleischige Keimblätter, die als Speicherorgane dienen.

Der Ölgehalt der Samen liegt zwischen 30 % und 44 % und hängt ab von der Sorte, den Umweltbedingungen und dem Grad der Reife. Da Faserlein vor der Vollreife geerntet wird, enthalten seine Samen weniger Öl. Hauptfettsäure ist mit rund 50 % bis 70 % die ungesättigte α-Linolensäure. Der Gehalt der für die menschliche Ernährung bedeutenden Omega-3-Fettsäuren in Leinöl ist der höchste aller bekannten Pflanzenöle. Die weitere Zusammensetzung beträgt 10 % bis 20 % Linolsäure, 12 % bis 24 % Ölsäure, sowie je unter 10 % Stearin- und Palmitinsäure. Der Roheiweißgehalt liegt zwischen 19 % und 29 %. Der Anteil der für den Menschen essentiellen Aminosäuren Lysin, Methionin und Tryptophan ist hoch. An sekundären Inhaltsstoffen sind die cyanogenen Glykoside Linamarin und Lotaustralin von Bedeutung, die enzymatisch zu Blausäure umgewandelt werden können und daher bei Aufnahme großer Mengen möglicherweise Vergiftungen hervorrufen können.

Chromosomenzahl
Die Chromosomenzahl beträgt 2n = 30 oder 32.

Entwicklung

Die Keimung des Leins erfolgt epigäisch. Zum Beginn der Keimung quillt der Samen unter Wasseraufnahme auf, wobei sich die schleimhaltige Epidermis um ein Vielfaches vergrößert. Die Samenschale öffnet sich am spitzen Ende (Hilum) durch das Durchbrechen der Keimwurzel (Radicula). Danach streckt sich das Hypokotyl und die anfangs noch gefalteten Keimblätter entfalten sich und ergrünen. Die Keimblätter wachsen noch weiter und bleiben mehrere Wochen lang erhalten.

Die Triebspitze zwischen den Keimblättern wächst zum häufig einzigen Stängel heran. Beim Öllein, in lockeren Beständen auch beim Faserlein, erfolgt mit Erscheinen des dritten Blattpaares eine Basalverzweigung in den Achseln der Keimblätter.

Bis zur Höhe von rund acht Zentimeter erfolgt das Wachstum relativ langsam, danach beschleunigt es sich. Bei etlichen Sorten dauert das Längenwachstum des Stängels bis zum Ende der Blühphase an. Die Blattzahl ist am höchsten zum Beginn der Blüte, mit Beginn der Samenfüllung beginnt das Absterben der ältesten Blätter.

Die Blütenknospen werden relativ früh angelegt, etwa bei einem Sechstel der Maximalhöhe der Pflanze, bei Faserlein mit rund 15 Zentimeter. Dabei neigt sich die Triebspitze nach unten, die Knospen erscheinen, und wenige Tage später erscheinen die Blüten. Die Blütenanzahl ist nicht determiniert, je nach Sorte und Umweltbedingungen ist der Blütenstand unterschiedlich stark verzweigt. Lein ist eine Langtagpflanze, die kritische Tageslänge beträgt dabei 14 bis 16 Stunden. Kurztagbedingungen führen zu einer größeren Stängellänge und einem späteren Blühbeginn. Daher ist eine frühe Aussaat günstig, damit unter Kurztag möglichst viel Stängelmasse gebildet werden kann.

Die Blüte erfolgt im Zeitraum von Juni bis August. Die Blühdauer des Bestandes vom Öffnen der ersten bis zum Schließen der letzten Blüte dauert beim Faserlein etwa zwei Wochen. Die Blüte beginnt dabei mit der terminalen Blüte der Haupttriebspitze. Die Einzelblüte beginnt am frühen Morgen. In der noch geschlossenen Blüte öffnen sich die Staubbeutel und bringen den Pollen durch eine Drehbewegung auf die Narbe. Die Selbstbestäubung erfolgt also vor Öffnung der Blüte, die am Vormittag erfolgt. Durch kleine Honigdrüsen am Grunde der Staubblätter werden Insekten angelockt. Kurz nach dem Öffnen der Blüte werden die Blütenblätter abgeworfen, die Kelchblätter vergrößern sich und tragen zur Versorgung der jungen Samen bei. Die Kelchblätter bleiben bis zur Fruchtreife erhalten.

Anbau

Lein stellt keine besonderen Ansprüche an den Boden, lediglich staunasse, verschlämmungsgefährdete und anmoorige Standorte verträgt er nicht. Für die Blütenbildung und das Faserwachstum sind Langtagbedingungen nötig. Trockenperioden verringern die Faserbündelanzahl deutlich, der Wasserbedarf des Ölleins ist dabei geringer als der des Faserleins. Wichtig ist eine gute Wasserversorgung von rund 120 Millimeter Niederschlag in der Hauptwachstumsphase im Mai/Juni. Der Lein wurde früher in Tirol und Kärnten bis in Meereshöhen von 1600 Metern angebaut, im Engadin bis 1800 Meter.

In der Fruchtfolge ist ein Abstand von sechs Jahren zwischen zwei Leinanbauten nötig. Dies ist durch die Akkumulation von Schadpilzen, besonders Fusarium oxysporum, im Boden bedingt. Ansonsten stellt Lein keine besonderen Anforderungen an die Fruchtfolge. Wichtig ist eine Vorfrucht, die wenig Unkraut hinterlässt. Als beste Vorfrucht gilt Saat-Hafer, in Frankreich und Belgien wird Lein häufig nach Mais angebaut.

Als Langtagpflanze erfordert der Lein eine frühe Aussaat, in der Regel Ende März/Anfang April. Auftretende Spätfröste werden vertragen, verstärken aber die Basalverzweigung, was für Faserlein ertrags- und qualitätsmindernd ist, für Öllein tolerierbar ist. Das Haupternteprodukt – Faser oder Öl – kann neben der Sortenwahl auch durch die Bestandsdichte beeinflusst werden: geringe Dichten fördern die Samenbildung, hohe Bestandsdichten die Faserbildung.

Düngung beschränkt sich in der Regel auf die Gabe von Phosphor und Kalium, bei Öllein erfolgt eine einmalige Stickstoff-Gabe. Zu viel Stickstoff erhöht die Lagergefahr wesentlich und führt auch zu schlechterer Faserqualität: die Faserzellen werden weitlumiger und dünnwandiger, die Faserbündel sind locker und unregelmäßig und stärker verholzt. Bei Öllein führt zu viel Stickstoff zu niedrigerem Ölgehalt und einem geringeren Linolensäure-Anteil. Gute Kalium-Versorgung erhöht vor allem die Faserqualität: Größe, Festigkeit, Spinnfähigkeit der Faser werden besser, die Zahl der Faserzellen wird erhöht. Chloride führen zu einer Auflockerung und einer schwammigen Struktur der Fasern, weshalb chloridhaltige Dünger nicht geeignet sind. Der Magnesiumbedarf ist mit einem Entzug von 18 Kilogramm pro Hektar relativ hoch. An Mikronährstoffen sind besonders Bor und Zink wichtig. Bei der Tauröste, die auf den Feldern stattfindet, gelangt ein Großteil der aufgenommenen Nährstoffe wieder in den Boden zurück.

Die Ernte erfolgt beim Öllein nach 110 bis 120 Tagen Vegetationszeit durch Mähdrusch. Die Erträge liegen zwischen 1,8 und 3,0 Tonnen Leinsaat pro Hektar.

Faserlein erfordert zur Ernte spezielle Maschinen. Die Ernte erfolgt zur Gelbreife, das heißt sieben bis zehn Tage vor Vollreife. Dabei werden die Pflanzen in Bündeln mit einer Raufmaschine gerauft, also mit dem Wurzelansatz aus dem Boden geholt. Es folgen die weiteren Verarbeitungsschritte wie Rösten, Brechen, Schwingen und Hecheln. Im Durchschnitt werden 5 bis 6 Tonnen Röststroh pro Hektar geerntet. (siehe Flachsfaser#Ernte)

Anbauflächen und Erntemengen

Die größten Anbauländer für Faserlein (Flachs) außerhalb der EU sind (mit Anbaufläche in Hektar 2005) China mit 161.000, Russland mit 89.210, Belarus mit 71.000, die Ukraine mit 23.600 und Ägypten mit 8900 Hektar. In der EU wurden 2006 102.740 Hektar mit Verarbeitungshilfe angebaut, wobei die Flächen ohne Verarbeitungshilfe nicht ins Gewicht fallen. Davon entfallen auf Frankreich 76.278, auf Belgien 15.919, auf die Niederlande 4366 und die Tschechische Republik 2736 Hektar. In Deutschland mit 30 und Österreich mit 129 Hektar ist der Anbau bedeutungslos.

Die EU förderte noch bis zum Wirtschaftsjahr 2012 die Erzeugung von Kurzfasern mit 90 Euro pro Tonne. Für die traditionellen Anbauländer Niederlande, Belgien und Frankreich gab es bis 2007/08 zusätzlich Flächenbeihilfen von 50 bis 120 Euro pro Hektar. Auch die Verarbeitungsbeihilfe für Langfasern wurde zum Wirtschaftsjahr 2012 abgeschafft. Bis 2010 betrug sie 200 Euro pro Hektar, bis 2012 wurden 160 Euro bezahlt. Die Weltproduktion an Flachsfasern beträgt jährlich rund zwei Millionen Tonnen, was etwa zwei Prozent des Weltfaseraufkommens entspricht.

Der Öllein wird hauptsächlich in Nordamerika angebaut. Die jährlichen Erntemengen schwanken von Jahr zu Jahr beträchtlich und lagen im Hauptanbauland Kanada zwischen 1996 und 2005 zwischen 517.000 und 1.082.000 Tonnen Leinsamen. Die wichtigsten Anbauprovinzen sind dabei Saskatchewan und Manitoba, kleine Flächen gibt es auch in Alberta. Die Welternte betrug 2006 laut FAO 2.569.793 Tonnen.

Konkurrenz, Krankheiten und Fraßfeinde
Junge Bestände sind relativ konkurrenzschwach, sodass Unkräuter eine Rolle spielen: Acker-Stiefmütterchen (Viola arvensis), Gewöhnliches Hirtentäschel (Capsella bursa-pastoris), Kamille (Matricaria recutita), Schwarzer Nachtschatten (Solanum nigrum), Weißer Gänsefuß (Chenopodium album), Windenknöterich (Fallopia convolvulus), Vogel-Knöterich (Polygonum aviculare), Vergissmeinnicht (Myosotis spp.), Vogelmiere (Stellaria media), Gemeiner Windhalm (Apera spica-venti) und Hühnerhirse (Echinochloa crus-galli). Einige der früher für Flachsfelder typischen "linicolen" Unkräuter wie der parasitische Flachs-Teufelszwirn (Cuscuta epilinum), der Lein-Lolch (Lolium remotum), Gezähnter Leindotter (Camelina alyssum), eine Unterart der Kornrade (Agrostemma githago var. linicolum) und Flachs-Leimkraut (Silene linicola) sind in Mitteleuropa durch die lange Anbaupause so gut wie ausgestorben.

Die wichtigsten Krankheitserreger des Leins sind Pilze. In Westeuropa ist die wichtigste Krankheit die Flachswelke oder Fusariose, verursacht durch Fusarium oxysporum f. lini. Er zerstört die Leitungsbahnen und scheidet Welketoxine aus, woraufhin die Pflanzen verwelken und absterben. Weitere Krankheiten und ihre Erreger beim Lein sind der Lein-Rost (Melampsora lini), die Pasmokrankheit (Septoria linicola), die Braunfleckenkrankheit oder Anthraknose (Colletotrichum linicola), Stängelbräune und Stängelbruch (Polyspora lini), Pustelkrankheit und Stängeldürre (Phoma linicola und Ascochyta linicola) sowie der Flachs- oder Wurzelbrand (Pythium megalacanthum). Die Pilzkrankheiten Grauschimmelfäule (Botrytis cinerea), Schwärzepilze (Alternaria) und Mehltau (Oidium lini) sind weniger gefährlich, da gut behandelbar. In Nordamerika können auch durch Asternzikaden übertragene Viren von Bedeutung sein.
Der Rostpilz Melampsora liniperda befällt ebenfalls den Gemeinen Lein.

An tierischen Schädlingen sind Leinerdflöhe (Aphthona euphorbiae, Longitarsus parvulus) am bedeutendsten, die die Pflanzen durch Fraß schädigen. Daneben gibt es noch Leinblasenfüße (Thrips linarius und Thrips angusticeps).

An abiotischen Faktoren sind wichtig Spätfröste, die zum kompletten Absterben der Keimlinge führen können. Chlorosen können nach zu starker Kalkung auftreten, da diese indirekt einen Eisenmangel hervorruft.

Verarbeitung und Verwendung

Die Verarbeitung der Flachsfasern ist aufwändig. Die Flachsstängel werden zunächst geröstet, dabei werden durch Mikroorganismen im Wasser (Wasserröste) oder am Feld liegend (Tauröste) die Bastfasern gelöst. Nach der Röste wird der Lein gebrochen, dadurch wird der Holzkörper zerkleinert und es entstehen die Schäben. Anschließend wird der Lein geschwungen, dabei wird das Werg, das Kurzfasern enthält, von den hochwertigen Langfasern getrennt. Rund 15 % der Stängelmasse sind Langfasern. Diese werden durch Hecheln gereinigt und dann gesponnen. Die Produktion von Flachsfasern dient zu etwa 61 % der Gewinnung von Langfasern.

Leinenfasern, für die die Langfaser genutzt wird, haben einen Marktanteil bei den Textilien von unter einem Prozent. Rund 40 % des Leinens werden zu Bekleidung verarbeitet, 25 % zu Haushaltswäsche, 20 % zu Heimtextilien und 15 % für technische Zwecke.

Das als Nebenprodukt entstehende Werg (Kurzfasern) kann zu Papier verarbeitet werden. Er findet in Polstermöbelfüllungen, Verbundwerkstoffen und Dämmstoffen Verwendung. Die Schäben werden unter anderem in Pressspanplatten als Füllstoff verarbeitet, auch als Tiereinstreu verwendet. Das Leinwachs fällt im Staub an, kann leicht isoliert werden und findet in der Kosmetik und Pharma-Industrie Verwendung.

Die Samen werden sowohl vom Öllein wie vom Faserlein verwertet. Die Leinsamen werden nur zu einem geringen Teil direkt in Backwaren, als Reformkost und als Arzneimittel bei Verstopfung verwendet. Andere medizinische Anwendungen sind wissenschaftlich nicht ausreichend abgesichert.
Der überwiegende Teil wird zur Ölgewinnung eingesetzt. Leinöl kann als Speiseöl verwendet werden. Durch den Gehalt von 50 % bis 67 % Linolensäure ist es ein trocknendes Öl. In der Industrie wird es zu Farben, Lacken, Firnissen, Druckfarben, Wachstüchern, Schmierseife und Linoleum verarbeitet sowie für die Herstellung von Kosmetika und Pflegemitteln eingesetzt. In Farben und Lacken ist es weitgehend durch synthetische Produkte ersetzt worden, wird aber auch heute in Druckfarben sowie für Lacke und Firnisse im Holzschutz benutzt. Nebenprodukte der Ölgewinnung sind Leinkuchen und Leinschrot, wegen des Reichtums an Protein werden sie als Tierfutter, besonders für Rinder und Kälber verwendet.

Systematik

Der Gemeine Lein ist nur aus Kultur bekannt. Nur selten tritt er verwildert auf. Er stammt vom Zweijährigen Lein (Linum bienne) ab, der im Mittelmeergebiet heimisch ist. Diese Art wurde in Mesopotamien ab dem frühen Neolithikum (ab 7.500 v. Chr.) kultiviert. Die Entstehung des Gemeinen Leins dürfte in Mesopotamien oder Ägypten erfolgt sein. Die beiden Arten werden von einigen Autoren auch als Unterarten der Art Linum usitatissimum geführt, der Zweijährige Lein ist dann Linum usitatissimum subsp. angustifolium  und der Gemeine Lein Linum usitatissimum subsp. usitatissimum.

Die Systematik innerhalb der Art ist aufgrund der großen Variabilität des Leins lange umstritten gewesen. Zwischen 1866 und 1953 wurden mindestens acht Systeme für den kultivierten Lein vorgeschlagen. 1962 veröffentlichten Kulpa und Danert eine Gliederung, in der sie den kultivierten Lein als Unterart Linum usitatissimum subsp. usitatissimum in vier Convarietäten gliedern, und diese wiederum in insgesamt 28 Varietäten. Der Gliederung in die Convarietäten haben sich auch die Herausgeber von Mansfeld's Encyclopedia of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops angeschlossen, wie auch Diederichsen und Richards 2003.

 Convar. crepitans : Die Kapseln öffnen sich während der Reife und die Samen fallen aus der Kapsel. Nach der Reife werden die Kapseln abgeworfen. Das Geräusch beim Aufspringen führte zum Namen Klanglein, er wird auch Springlein genannt. Diese Convarietät wurde früher in Zentral- und Südosteuropa als Faserpflanze angebaut. Sie wird nicht mehr kommerziell angebaut und ist nur noch in Samenbanken erhalten.

Bei den übrigen Convarietäten bleiben die Kapseln bei der Reife geschlossen und werden auch nicht abgeworfen.
 Convar. elongatum  in : Die Pflanzen sind höher als 70 Zentimeter und höchstens das oberste Drittel des Stammes besitzt Seitenzweige. Sind die Pflanzen unter 70 Zentimeter hoch, ist höchstens das oberste Fünftel verzweigt. Diese Convarietät ist der typische Faserlein und war früher in den temperaten und nördlichen Bereichen Europas, besonders in Osteuropa von großer Bedeutung und wird heute noch in den westeuropäischen Faserlein-Ländern angebaut.
 Convar. mediterraneum : Die Pflanzen sind kleiner als 70 Zentimeter und in mehr als dem oberen Fünftel verzweigt. Das Tausendkorngewicht ist höher als neun Gramm, die Kapseln sind groß. In der Regel sind die Pflanzen nicht basal verzweigt. Die Sorten dieser Convarietät werden als Öllein bezeichnet und dienen einzig zur Samenerzeugung. Diese Convarietät stammt aus dem Mittelmeergebiet und hat eine relativ lange Vegetationsdauer. Der Öllein wird zur Gewinnung der Leinsamen angebaut, die Fasergewinnung ist untergeordnet.
 Convar. usitatissimum: Die Pflanzen sind kleiner als 70 Zentimeter und in mehr als dem oberen Fünftel verzweigt. Das Tausendkorngewicht ist kleiner als neun Gramm. Die Pflanzen sind häufig basal verzweigt. Diese Convarietät umfasst die Kombinationsleine, die zur Faser- wie zur Samengewinnung angebaut werden. Es ist die geographisch am weitesten verbreitete Convarietät und umfasst unter anderen den Frühlings-Samenlein, Winter-Samenlein, den Indischen und den Äthiopischen Lein.

Für den kommerziellen Anbau sind nur Faserlein und Öllein von Bedeutung. Von beiden gibt es eine große Zahl von Sorten. Versuche, einen Kombinationslein einzuführen, der sowohl Fasern als auch Leinsamen in hoher Qualität liefern sollte, waren wenig erfolgreich.

In der EU sind 120 Sorten von Öl- und Faserlein zum Anbau zugelassen, in Österreich mit Stand 2008 die Sorten: 'Barbara', 'Hungarian Gold', 'Omega' und 'Sandra' als Öllein; als Faserlein 'Laura'.

Geschichte

Die ältesten archäologischen Leinsamenfunde stammen aus Ali Kosch in Iran, ehemals in Elam, (7500–6700 v. Chr.) und aus Çayönü in der Südosttürkei (rund 7000 v. Chr.). Die Leinsamen sind jedoch so klein, dass sie dem Wild-Lein (Linum bienne) zugeordnet werden. In Tell Ramad in Syrien wurden in einer auf 6200 bis 6100 v. Chr. datierten Siedlungsschicht Leinsamen gefunden, die der Größe dem Gemeinen Lein näher sind. Andere frühe Fundstellen liegen am Oberlauf des Tigris, in den Ausläufern des Zāgros-Gebirges und in Syrien. Eine Fundstelle in Griechenland (Sesklo, Peloponnes) wird auf 5500 v. Chr. datiert, zwei Fundstellen in Bulgarien auf 4800 und 4600 v. Chr. Genetische Studien konnten zeigen, dass der Gemeine Lein durch ein einziges Domestizierungs-Ereignis vom Wild-Lein abstammt. Die erste Verwendung war diesen Untersuchungen zufolge die Nutzung der Samen.

Die ältesten Funde der Leinenverarbeitung sind Leinenstoffe aus Ägypten aus dem Beginn des 4. Jahrtausends v. Chr. Sie stammen aus El Badâri in Oberägypten. Auf 3500 bis 3000 v. Chr. wird das Leinentuch aus el-Gebelên in der Libyschen Wüste datiert. Ab der 4. Dynastie haben sich Mumienbinden aus Leinen erhalten. Ebenfalls aus dem Alten Reich stammen bildliche Darstellungen der Flachsernte. Aus dem Mittleren Reich wurden mehrfach Samen und Kapseln als Grabbeigaben gefunden.

Nach Mitteleuropa kam der Lein mit der Bandkeramikkultur (ca. 5700 bis 4100 v. Chr.), er wurde auf den Lößflächen nördlich der Donau bis nach Nordfrankreich angebaut. In den Ufer- und Pfahlbausiedlungen an Bodensee und den Schweizer Seen wurde der Lein etwas später eingeführt. Nach Irland und Schottland gelangte der Lein ungefähr um 1800 v. Chr. In Norddeutschland und Skandinavien ist er erst ab der Eisenzeit, ab etwa 500 v. Chr. nachweisbar, stand aber während der römischen Kaiserzeit (1. bis 3. Jahrhundert n. Chr.) in hoher Blüte.

Im Mittelalter wird der Lein in allen Verzeichnissen zu Landwirtschaft und Medizin aufgelistet.
Gemeiner Lein wurde in der Form einer Samendroge als Lini semen bezeichnet. Im Mittelalter bis ins 19. Jahrhundert war Leinen neben Hanf, Nessel und Wolle als Textilfaser in Gebrauch. Herstellung und Handel mit Leinen waren im Mittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit wichtige wirtschaftliche Säulen in Venedig, Mailand, Augsburg, Ulm, Kempten und in Gent, Brügge, Antwerpen. Auch für die Hanse waren Leinenprodukte ein wichtiger Handelszweig. Die wichtigen deutschen Anbaugebiete befanden sich um den Bodensee und in Schlesien und verbreiteten sich auf die Schwäbische Alb, das Wuppertal, die Gebiete um Ravensburg und Osnabrück, Sachsen, Thüringen, Böhmen und Ostpreußen. Im 12. und 13. Jahrhundert war Deutschland der weltweit führende Flachsproduzent. Die Leinenproduktion konzentrierte sich auf Schlesien, Schwaben und Westfalen.

Im 18. Jahrhundert hatte Leinen einen Anteil von etwa 18 %, verglichen mit 78 % für Wolle. Wichtige Anbaugebiete waren Westeuropa, Deutschland und Russland. 1875 waren die drei größten Anbaugebiete das Russische Reich mit 910.000 Hektar, das Deutsche Reich mit 215.000 und Österreich-Ungarn mit 94.000 Hektar. Durch das Aufkommen der billigeren und vor allem leichter zu verarbeitenden Baumwolle gingen die Anbauflächen noch im 19. Jahrhundert stark zurück. 1914 wurden in Deutschland nur noch 14.000 Hektar angebaut. Einen kurzen Anstieg erfuhr der Anbau während der beiden Weltkriege, als Baumwollimporte durch die politische Lage nicht möglich waren. In der Nachkriegszeit ging der Leinanbau stark zurück und war 1957 in Westdeutschland und 1979 in Ostdeutschland bis auf geringe Restflächen verschwunden. Der Anbau hielt sich in Westeuropa nur in Nordfrankreich, Belgien und den Niederlanden.

In den 1980er Jahren stieg mit der Ökologie-Bewegung die Nachfrage nach Leinen an.

In den 1990er Jahren gab es in einigen EU-Ländern Anstrengungen, Flachs-Anbau und -produktion wiederzubeleben. Dabei konzentrierte man sich auf die Kurzfaser-Produktion. Durch Förderungen stiegen die Anbauflächen auf bis zu 212.000 Hektar im Jahre 1999. Vermarktungsprobleme auf der einen Seite und strengere Kontrollen bezüglich der tatsächlichen Produktion und Vermarktung der Fasern auf der anderen Seite führten zu einem Rückgang der Anbauflächen in diesen "neuen" Flachsländern (Spanien, Portugal, Großbritannien, Deutschland). Spanien zahlte die kompletten Förderbeträge der Jahre 1996 bis 1999 in Höhe von knapp 130 Millionen Euro zurück. Der Flachsanbau ist heute wieder im Wesentlichen auf die traditionellen Länder Frankreich, Belgien, Niederlande, sowie die neuen EU-Mitgliedsländer Tschechien, Lettland und Litauen beschränkt.

2005 war der Lein in Deutschland die Heilpflanze des Jahres.

Im Jahr 2009 wurde bei Kontrollen kanadischer Leinsaat in Baden-Württemberg eine erhebliche Verunreinigung mit gentechnisch verändertem CDC Triffid-Leinsamen gefunden.

Trivia

Der Erfolg der bekannten tschechischen Zeichentrickserie Der kleine Maulwurf begann 1957 mit dem Film Wie der Maulwurf zu seiner Hose kam, in dem die Verarbeitung von Flachs ausführlich gezeigt wird.

Literatur

 Manfred Dambroth, Reinhard Seehuber:  Flachs. Züchtung, Anbau, Verarbeitung. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1988, ISBN 3-8001-3082-3 (Entwicklung, Anbau, Schädlinge, Verarbeitung und Verwendung).
 Wulf Diepenbrock, Gerhard Fischbeck, Klaus-Ulrich Heyland, Norbert Knauer: Spezieller Pflanzenbau (= UTB 111 Agrarwissenschaften). 3., neubearbeitete und ergänzte Auflage. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1999, ISBN 3-8252-0111-2, S. 289–296, (Merkmale, Anbau).
 Siegmund Seybold u. a. (Hrsg.): Schmeil-Fitschen interaktiv. (CD-Rom). Version 1.1 (2. Auflage). Quelle & Meyer, Wiebelsheim 2002, ISBN 3-494-01327-6 (Merkmale).
 Studie zur Markt- und Konkurrenzsituation bei Naturfasern und Naturfaser-Werkstoffen (Deutschland und EU) (= Gülzower Fachgespräche. Bd. 26, ). Herausgegeben von der Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e. V. Fachagentur Nachwachsende Rohstoffe, Gülzow 2008, Digitalisat (PDF; 3,7 MB).

Weblinks

 Thomas Meyer: Lein  Datenblatt mit Bestimmungsschlüssel und Fotos bei Flora-de: Flora von Deutschland (alter Name der Webseite: Blumen in Schwaben)
 Flax Council of Canada (Deutsche Unterseite)

Einzelnachweise

Leingewächse
Heilpflanze
Ölpflanze
Faserpflanze
Wikipedia:Artikel mit Video


text:
Politics & Foreign Affairs, Society, Tech, Uncategorized
From Russia with Love: A Misinformation Campaign
by Zack Howarth
Facebook has announced that 126 million of their American users may have encountered 80,000 published pieces of inauthentic, Kremlin-conceived content throughout the last two years (BBC, 2017).
In the photo: Hilary Clinton and Donald Trump. Photo credit: The Atlantic
Accounts that can be linked to internet trolls in Russia have been reported to have used Facebook advertisement services to influence the judgement of American voters during the presidential election. Whilst they may not have made any explicit affirmations towards any particular party, the posts carried distinct, disruptive and contentious social and political sentiments that would find resonance within the many topics at the core of the presidential debate.
Virginia-raised Democrat, Senator Mark Warner, having been informed of this Russian-based online campaign, has made a statement claiming that the trolls are trying to 'sow discontent in our country'. This may be true, however, Elliot Schrage, Vice President of global communications, marketing and public policy at Facebook, in a blog post titled 'Hard Questions: Russian Ads Delivered to Congress', seems to focus his attention not on the inflammatory nature of the content, but on its inauthenticity. The fact that the accounts creating the content did not identify themselves truthfully, and instead, purported to be American through and through, was the predominant violation of Facebook policy.
In the photo: Elliot Schrage, Left. Photo Credit: Thomas Williams/Crossroads Foundation
One example of this was a Facebook group called 'Heart of Texas'. Its group description simply read: 'Texas's the land protected by Lord', and it began by posting fairly mild, unobjectionable and arguably clumsy content centred around the second largest state. However, it soon began spouting the message that a vote for 'Killary Rotten Clinton' would be a vote for 'higher taxes to feed undocumented aliens…refugees, mosques, and terrorist attacks.'
This being said, many, including Mark Frankel, social media editor for BBC news, are stating that the claim that 126 million Americans may have seen the content up for discussion, is unrealistic. Mr Frankel points out, in 'Russia, Facebook, the US election and when 126 million isn't 126 million', that the shocking 126 million figure actually only refers to a post's 'reach' (the number of news feeds it exists on), and does not give any indication as to how many people have actually seen and processed it's contents. Whilst this is a very important point to make, the ease at which these trolls have created such a widespread misinformation campaign, and the impact this may have had on the 2016 US presidential election, should still be given serious consideration.
In the photo: Facebook's submission of findings on Russian ads to special counsel, Robert Mueller. Photo Credit: J. Scott Applewhite
EDITOR'S NOTE: THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED HERE BY IMPAKTER.COM COLUMNISTS ARE THEIR OWN, NOT THOSE OF IMPAKTER.COM COVER IMAGE CREDIT: REUTERS/PXL
2016 US Presidential Election, advertising, America, campaign, Clinton, debate, Facebook, Russia, Trump, views
Culture, Literature, Politics & Foreign Affairs, Society
Trump, the Republican Party and the Attack on the U.S. Capitol: An American Progressive's View
The Rise of Republican Fascism and the Ethics of Resistance: A Review of Barack Obama, A Promised Land
Executions in Trump's Final Days: A Response to Ableism and Racism in America?
Update Jan. 13, 2021: Lisa Montgomery, age 52, has been executed, the only woman on Federal death
Future of Europe Series, Politics & Foreign Affairs, Society
A Biden Victory: What it Means for the Rest of the World
Biden's victory, as welcome as it is, means very different things for America and for the world.


text:
Steve Bicknell - fabric Promo Mix (June 2015)
It's hard to emphasise just how integral Steve Bicknell's party (run alongside partner Sheree Rashit) LOST is to the story of techno here in the UK. They were the first to bring over pioneering talent from across the Atlantic with artists like Jeff Mills, Richie Hawtin, Basic Channel and Robert Hood all making their debut UK performances at LOST. Evidently, but not unsurprisingly, the party inspired the generation that came after them with LOST cited time and time again as a foundational experience and influence.
Creating bespoke spaces, which were often hand built by Bicknell, with the team's stripped back approach they delivered with the power of their soundsystem and housed ground breaking performances the like of which had never been seen before. The label Bicknell helms, Cosmic Records, is just as lovingly understated in its presentation and delivery. With a clear focus on quality of form rather than hype their output is as typically hypnotic and as engrossing as everything that was done under the LOST banner. It's also the main vessel for Bicknell's own productions.
Here he's recorded a brand new promo mix ahead of his return to Room Two in just over a week's time (20th June). It was intended to be a snapshot of where he's at musically right now, but – after listening to it - we'd prefer to call it a demonstration of the man's magnetic and compelling approach to DJing.
No tracklist given.
On:Thursday 11th June, 2015
berghain
Steve Bicknell
Pan-Pot, Matthias Tanzmann, Claude VonStroke and more announced for Forms
Ben Klock, Ellen Allien, Maya Jane Coles and many more come to EC1 this Summer
Helena Hauff, Bicep, Margaret Dygas and More Come to EC1 in 2018


text:
Home Post China's CATL aims to make EVs drive further with new tech
China's CATL aims to make EVs drive further with new tech
AK47 8:17:00 AM
(Reuters) China's CATL, a Tesla supplier, said on Wednesday it is working on a new technology that will allow battery cells to be integrated with an electric car's chassis, shedding traditional casings that make battery systems bulky.
Integrating cells directly into an electric vehicle's (EV) frame will allow more cells to be loaded into a car and extend its range – a key concern for customers.
With the new technology, EVs could have a driving range of over 800 kms (500 miles), CATL Chairman Zeng Yuqun said at an industry conference in Wuhan on Wednesday. The Ningde-based company aims to launch the technology before 2030.
Zeng did not say whether CATL was already working with any automaker to implement this new design.
China's Contemporary Amperex Technology Co Ltd (CATL) supplies lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries to Tesla Inc and recently signed a partnership with Japan's Honda Motor. It also supplies Volkswagen AG and Daimler AG.
A technology such as this will allow EV battery makers to participate in vehicle design from an earlier stage. Automakers currently tend to source battery modules from battery makers and equip them to fit a car's mechanical design.
Zeng, who expects Europe's EV market to surpass China's this year because China cut subsidies, said CATL is exploring new businesses including the recycling of batteries and energy storage.
On Tuesday, CATL said in a filing that it plans to invest around 19 billion yuan ($2.73 billion) to secure key resources and accelerate global expansion. It did not disclose details of the investments.
Source: Reuters; Reporting by Yilei Sun and Brenda Goh; Editing by Stephen Coates
By AK47 at 8:17:00 AM


text:
'The Voice' season 17 semi-finals results: Finalists revealed after shocking eliminations
"The Voice" season 17 crowns the winner next week.
By Jaskiran Kaur
December 11, 2019 05:24 GMT
"The Voice" season 17 semi-finals results episode ended with massive shockers. Four out of eight artists were eliminated and only four made it to the spot in next week's highly anticipated finale. Meanwhile, only one out of these four finalists will earn "The Voice" crown. Here is a brief recap of the events of the semi-final's results episode.
As per the rules, the three artists who garnered the most votes for their Monday night's Live Playoffs Week 5 performances automatically advanced to the finals. The two artists who received the least number of votes were automatically eliminated. And the three remaining artists were given a second chance to earn the fourth spot in the finale.
The results show opened with Blake Shelton and Trace Adkins' duet. The two country artists performed their latest single "Hell Right." Next up was Australian singer and songwriter Tones and I singing her song titled "Dance Monkey." Finally, Kaleb Lee, former "The Voice" contestant, reunited with her coach Kelly Clarkson for a performance of their latest number "I Dream in Southern."
Following the performances, it was time to make the first revelation. The first three artists advancing to the finals are:
Katie Kadan (Team Legend)
Jake Hoot (Team Kelly)
And Ricky Duran (Team Blake)
The two Artists who were eliminated automatically are:
Will Breman (Team Legend)
Marybeth Byrd (Team Legend)
Next up was the Instant Save round. The remaining three artists battled for the last spot in the finals with one more performance.
From Team Kelly, Hello Sunday performed "Chandelier." Team Blake's Kat Hammock sang "You've Got a Friend." And Team Gwen's Rose Short performed "A Natural Woman."
Viewers were given one last chance to vote for their favourite artists and save them from elimination through a brief voting window that also allowed them to voice their choice through tweets.
The Voice Season 17 coaches Kelly Clarkson, John Legend, Gwen Stefani, and Blake Shelton. Twitter/The Voice NBC
As a result, Hello Sunday and Kat Hammock were sent home and Rose Short made it to the finals.
"The Voice" Season 17 finalists are:
Ricky Duran (Team Blake)
Rose Short (Team Gwen)
"The Voice" season 17 finale airs Monday, December 16 and 17 on NBC.


In September 2017, Zaporozhstal produced 382.2 thousand tons of pig iron, 350.9 thousand tons of steel, 291.4 thousand tons of rolled metal.
In June 2017, Zaporozhstal produced 276.1 thousand tons of pig iron, 306.1 thousand tons of steel, 253.7 thousand tons of rolled metal.
In April 2017, Zaporozhstal recorded an increase in the production of cast iron by 4%, steel - by 5.4% compared to the same period in 2016.
In February 2017, Zaporozhstal produced 254.3 thousand tons of pig iron, 293.3 thousand tons of steel and 247.1 thousand tons of rolled steel.
In January 2017, Zaporozhstal (the Ukraine) produced 287.7 thousand tons of cast iron, 326.2 thousand tons of steel and 270 thousand tons of rolled metal.


Are you putting off an appointment?
Be kind to yourself and be proactive. It is, you will find, a much more enjoyable journey through life than the one you have been on.
What are other areas in our lives in which similar situations crop up? Like an ostrich who buries his head in the sand, we often ignore a problem, hoping it goes away. But it rarely does.
Can we look at these misfortunes as opportunities to be patient with ourselves? We could be kinder to ourselves and recognize that a story is playing out yet again. The small nudges we experience always precede the bigger bumps.
So I ask you to be a patient patient. Look at those instances where life is trying to get your attention, usually through some sort of misfortune (such as a toothache), and take affirmative action. If your tooth hurts, take the time to make an appointment before it gets worse.
You already know how the movie ends if nothing is taken care of, so nurture yourself. Be kind to yourself and be proactive. It is, you will find, a much more enjoyable journey through life than the one you have been on.


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text:
Adv.MS.70.2.10 (Gordon 13)
Coygach
Gordon, Robert (b.1580, d.1661)
Sibbald, Robert (b.1641, d.1722)
A manuscript map drawn by Robert Gordon of Straloch (1580-1661) at an unknown date, from the manuscripts of Timothy Pont compiled in the last two decades of the sixteenth century. It is an unfinished map with little more than the coastline and a few westward flowing rivers, stretching from the River Kirkaig in the north to Loch Hourn in the south. Thirteen sea lochs are named, not all of them as they are known today, including Lochs Broom, Ewe, Gairloch, Torridon, Kishorn, Carron, Alsh, Long and Duich. Eilean Donan Castle is one of the few references to human habitation.
Manuscript map/plan
19.7 x 31.5cm (7 3/4" x 1' 3/8")
Subject Place:
Coigach
work_subject_place
Subject Place
Inner Sound
Scotland - west coast
Taylor, Alexander B., 'Manuscript maps of Pont, the Gordons and Adair in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh',Scottish Geographical Magazine, Nov., 1907, p.585.
© 2002 The National Library of Scotland
Coygach [1 of 1]
Repro Display Measurement (pixels):
repro_display_measurement
Repro Display Measurement (pixels)
0042219c.tif


text:
6 Things We Loved (and 5 We Didn't) About Stranger Things Volume 4 Part 2
With season five on the horizon... someday... we've got plenty of time to let the Netflix series' most recent installment sink in.
Cheryl Eddy
PublishedJuly 7, 2022
We did it, my dudes. We got through Stranger Things season four, which took almost as long to arrive as it did to watch. io9 already had a lively roundtable discussing the ins and outs of season four's second installment, but we also wanted to break down our favorite (and least-favorite) parts of volume two.
Do you agree? Share your own highlights and lowlights in the comments! (And check out our similar slideshow for season four's first volume.) If you haven't watched yet, be warned: spoilers incoming.
Loved: Eddie
He spent most of volume one in hiding, but "Eddie the Banished" kicked serious ass in volume two. Whether he's donning a Michael Myers mask to hot-wire an RV, defending Iron Maiden as truly great music, being the coolest older brother figure Dustin will ever know (sorry, Steve), or shredding "Master of Puppets" to distract the Upside Down's prodigious bat population—Eddie was the best. RIP to the MVP.
Loved: The Killer Production Values
Volume one was gory and gorgeous—particularly episode seven, "The Massacre at Hawkins Lab"—and volume two kept that cinematic feel going, packing in enough eye candy (the cinematography! The sets and settings! The jaw-dropping special effects!) to make us understand why season five, which will presumably be bigger in every way, secured a $30 million-per-episode price tag.
Loved: Joyce and Hopper
We know they've been sweet on each other for some time, but in volume two they finally, finally locked lips at last. Hopefully Enzo's survived the apocalyptic events of episode nine so they can finally have their damn dinner date.
Loved: Will's Confession
Will's big speech about how he perceives Eleven's feelings for Mike (which were also rather obviously about Will's feelings for Mike) was as subtle, emotionally nuanced, and beautifully acted as Stranger Things has ever been. "Without heart we'd all fall apart," indeed.
Loved: Steve and Robin's Friendship
They didn't quite have a moment that topped season three's coming-out scene, but the Steve-Robin friendship continues to be a reliable source of Stranger Things joy. They both just want the best for each other, particularly when it comes to their frustrating love lives. (That said, Steve's renewed pursuit of Nancy felt a little heavy-handed and a bit ill-timed, perhaps?)
Loved: The Big Team Energy of the Big Plan
There were some obvious screenwriting mechanics at play in the way that everyone—the kids in Hawkins, Eleven and her crew, and the adults in Russia—all came up with plans that ended up working in concert in the fight against Vecna. But the "mind fight" was still a clever (and mostly satisfying) way to bring together characters who were so geographically spread out throughout the season.
Didn't Love: Jason
Clearly, we were supposed to hate this witch hunt-leading jock douchebag. But—unlike season two and three's Billy, a baddie who actually evolved a bit—Stranger Things never found the time to make Jason an interesting villain; he was introduced as an asshole in volume one and only served to monkey-wrench the anti-Vecna plan in volume two. And he was one-note until the end.
Didn't Love: Wasting Argyle
He supplied the getaway van in volume one; in volume two he tapped into his Surfer Boy connection to hook Eleven up with a makeshift sensory deprivation tank. That's pretty much it! Sure, there was little bit of stoner-adjacent comic relief sprinkled around the edges, but this (otherwise extremely likable) character appears to have been created almost entirely so that the plot could make use of his pizza perks.
Didn't Love: Vecna Didn't Have Any New Tricks
You'd think the big bad introduced in volume one would whip out some new horrors for the big battle, but he kind of just growled threats, guilt-tripped Eleven, and violently tentacled his way through volume two, too. Hopefully in season five (because you know he'll be back) he'll have some fresh moves.
Didn't Love: Russia
This was the least interesting, least propulsive subplot across season four by far, even including Joyce and Hopper's tender reunion (Hopper with a flamethrower was also very sweet, but in a different way). They break out of prison. They break back into prison. They argue with Yuri. They take forever tinkering with the helicopter. And by the time they get to their monster fight, the kids have already been fighting other monsters for like 45 minutes elsewhere in the story. Shrug.
Didn't Love: The Length
Considering that there's a fifth and final season on the way, it was difficult to get hyped for a two-and-a-half hour season finale, knowing that the stakes weren't quite as high as they will be next time we see these characters. (Stranger Things is not going to kill off Eleven, probably ever, but you know she's gonna make it through season four.) Of course there's no rule that you had to watch episodes eight and nine in one sitting. But we felt entirely obligated to power through... and also felt entirely exhausted, much like the battered Hawkins survivors, when it was all over. Didn't you?
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DESIGN BALLENDAT
CALA | DESIGN BALLENDAT
CALA, a seat that marks the beginning of the collaboration with designer Martin Ballendat
Stackable, functional, eco-sustainable, high-tech: it is CALA, chair with transparent seat and backrest, the brainchild of Martin Ballendat. The multi-award-winning German designer known internationally for his design versatility – he has designed products not only for the office environment, but also for living environments and accessories – in his first collaboration with DIEMMEBI, manufacturer in the community world since 1983, he employs all his eclecticism to give life to a true innovation. A project presented at the latest edition of Interzum in May, the biennial trade fair dedicated to the furniture and interior design sector.
Seat available in different colours in the macro-families CALA (with 4-leg frame) and CALA Cantilever: it stands out for its highly stackable reticular structure, which makes it the ideal product, a true must-have, of the office environment. But it will still be highly appreciated for its aesthetics and uniqueness in every contract and hospitality context. Minimalism, comfort, and functionality unite Ballendat and the Venetian brand: a winning partnership, which aims for the exclusivity of the product, with distribution in a tailor-made formula for the industry, that is, only some selected manufacturers will handle the sale of the product. CALA best interprets a minimalistic and captivating style, linear yet attractive, with an eye to the future and environmentally friendly, composed of entirely recyclable materials.
Technical desccription
The unique feature of the stacking chair CALA is the extraordinary transparent technical design of seat and back-rest, manufactured using injection moulded plastic with a cross-linked structure. The moulded part receives its interesting lattice design by the crossing of the two halves of the open-and-shut tool. This reinforcement of the structure is used in order to embed the tubing of the frame, so when stacking the chair there are no tubes that protrude out.
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Strictly Necessary Statistics Socials


1996 He graduates from the Oscar Fernández Morera Professional School of Plastic Arts. Trinidad, Sancti Spíritus, Cuba.
2012 11th Havana Biennial, San Carlos de la Cabaña, Havana, Cuba.
2010 Capital Humano (Human Capital), La Casona Gallery, Havana, Cuba.
2007 Reaching Beyond, PanAmerican Art Gallery, Miami, Florida, USA.
2006 Avistamiento, La Casona Gallery. Havana, Cuba.
2012 CUBA, Salt Fine Art Gallery, California, USA.
2011 Landscape Salon, La Acacia Gallery, Havana, Cuba.
Migración (Migration), Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Siniestro (Sinister), Habana Gallery, Havana, Cuba.
First Prize at the Digital Art Salon, Havana, Cuba.
50 en los 50 (50 in the 50s), La Acacia Gallery, Havana, Cuba.
ArteAmericas 2010, Miami Beach Convention Center, Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Paisaje en La Acacia (Landscape in La Acacia), La Acacia Gallery, Havana, Cuba.
Monomanías. Habana Gallery. Havana, Cuba.
2009 PINTA (FRESH PAINT), Metropolitan Pavilion, New York, Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Cuban Collective, Pan American Art Gallery, Dallas, USA.
2008 ARCO, Spain. La Casona Gallery. Havana, Cuba.
CIRCA, Puerto Rico, Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Art Toronto, Canada. Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Humanitarian Auction, UNEAC, Havana, Cuba.
Toronto International Art Fair, Canada, Pan American Art Gallery, USA.
Art America, Pan American Art Gallery, Miami, USA.
2007 Project. Espacio Gallery. Madrid, Spain.
Art Miami. Pan American Art Gallery. Miami, USA.
Arte América. Pan American Art Gallery Miami, USA.
Basel-Latina. Switzerland. PanAmerican Art Gallery. USA.
First Prize in Landscape Salons and Provincial Salons celebrated in the city of Sancti Spíritus, as well as in the Small Format Salon convoked by UNEAC.
Polychrome pencil Faber Castell on passepartout.