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Worldwide Patterns of Ancestry, Divergence, and Admixture in Domesticated Cattle
Jared E. Decker ,
* E-mail: DeckerJE@missouri.edu (JED); taylorjerr@missouri.edu (JFT)
Affiliation Division of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, United States of America
Stephanie D. McKay,
Affiliation Department of Animal Science, The University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States of America
Megan M. Rolf,
Affiliation Department of Animal Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, United States of America
JaeWoo Kim,
Antonio Molina Alcalá,
Affiliation Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
Tad S. Sonstegard,
Affiliation USDA-ARS Bovine Functional Genomics Lab, Beltsville, Maryland, United States of America
Olivier Hanotte,
Affiliation Medicine & Health Sciences, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
Anders Götherström,
Affiliation Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala, Sweden
Christopher M. Seabury,
Affiliation Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, United States of America
Lisa Praharani,
Affiliation Indonesian Research Institute for Animal Production, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia
Masroor Ellahi Babar,
Affiliation Institute of Biochemistry & Biotechnology, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Pakistan
Luciana Correia de Almeida Regitano,
Affiliation Animal Molecular Genetics, Embrapa Pecuaria Sudeste, Sao Carlos, Sao Paulo, Brasil
Mehmet Ali Yildiz,
Affiliation Animal Science, Biometry and Genetics, Ankara University, Diskapi, Ankara, Turkey
Michael P. Heaton,
Affiliation USDA, ARS, U.S. Meat Animal Research Center, Clay Center, Nebraska, United States of America
Wan-Sheng Liu,
Affiliation Department of Animal Science, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, United States of America
Chu-Zhao Lei,
Affiliation College of Animal Science and Technology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
James M. Reecy,
Affiliation Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
Muhammad Saif-Ur-Rehman,
Affiliation Department of Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Robert D. Schnabel,
Jeremy F. Taylor
Jared E. Decker,
Lisa Praharani
Jared E. Decker Stephanie D. McKay ... Jeremy F. Taylor
The domestication and development of cattle has considerably impacted human societies, but the histories of cattle breeds and populations have been poorly understood especially for African, Asian, and American breeds. Using genotypes from 43,043 autosomal single nucleotide polymorphism markers scored in 1,543 animals, we evaluate the population structure of 134 domesticated bovid breeds. Regardless of the analytical method or sample subset, the three major groups of Asian indicine, Eurasian taurine, and African taurine were consistently observed. Patterns of geographic dispersal resulting from co-migration with humans and exportation are recognizable in phylogenetic networks. All analytical methods reveal patterns of hybridization which occurred after divergence. Using 19 breeds, we map the cline of indicine introgression into Africa. We infer that African taurine possess a large portion of wild African auroch ancestry, causing their divergence from Eurasian taurine. We detect exportation patterns in Asia and identify a cline of Eurasian taurine/indicine hybridization in Asia. We also identify the influence of species other than Bos taurus taurus and B. t. indicus in the formation of Asian breeds. We detect the pronounced influence of Shorthorn cattle in the formation of European breeds. Iberian and Italian cattle possess introgression from African taurine. American Criollo cattle originate from Iberia, and not directly from Africa with African ancestry inherited via Iberian ancestors. Indicine introgression into American cattle occurred in the Americas, and not Europe. We argue that cattle migration, movement and trading followed by admixture have been important forces in shaping modern bovine genomic variation.
The DNA of domesticated plants and animals contains information about how species were domesticated, exported, and bred by early farmers. Modern breeds were developed by lengthy and complex processes; however, our use of 134 breeds and new analytical models enabled us to reveal some of the processes that created modern cattle diversity. In Asia, Africa, North and South America, humpless (Bos t. taurus or taurine) and humped (Bos t. indicus or indicine) cattle were crossbred to produce hybrids adapted to the environment and local production systems. The history of Asian cattle involves the domestication and admixture of several species whereas African taurines arose through the introduction of domesticated Fertile Crescent taurines and their hybridization with wild African aurochs. African taurine genetic background is commonly observed among European Mediterranean breeds. The absence of indicine introgression within most European taurine breeds, but presence within three Italian breeds is consistent with at least two separate migration waves of cattle to Europe, one from the Middle East which captured taurines in which indicine introgression had already occurred and the second from western Africa into Spain with no indicine introgression. This second group seems to have radiated from Spain into the Mediterranean resulting in a cline of African taurine introgression into European taurines.
Citation: Decker JE, McKay SD, Rolf MM, Kim J, Molina Alcalá A, Sonstegard TS, et al. (2014) Worldwide Patterns of Ancestry, Divergence, and Admixture in Domesticated Cattle. PLoS Genet 10(3): e1004254. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004254
Editor: Gil McVean, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
Received: September 19, 2013; Accepted: February 4, 2014; Published: March 27, 2014
This is an open-access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.
Funding: This project was supported by National Research Initiative grants number 2008-35205-04687 and 2008-35205-18864 from the USDA Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service and National Research Initiative grants number 2009-65205-05635, 2011-68004-30214, 2011-68004-30367 and 2013-68004-20364 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
High-throughput genotyping assays have allowed population geneticists to use genome-wide marker sets to analyze the histories of many species, including human [1], cattle [2]–[4], sheep [5], dog [6], horse [7], yeast [8], mouse [9], [10], rice [11], [12], maize [13]–[16], grape [17], and wheat [18]. We previously described the phylogeny of domesticated bovine populations using their genetic variation inferred from a sample of 40,843 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) [3]. Although we had sampled 48 cattle breeds, we did not have samples from key geographic regions including China and Southeast Asia, Anatolia, the Baltic States, southern and eastern Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula. As a consequence of those gaps in geographic sampling, we were unable to address the origins of cattle in these regions and the extent to which these cattle influenced the population structure of regions such as the New World.
We have now assembled a genomic data set which represents the largest population sampling of any mammalian species. This allows for an extremely detailed description of the population structure of domesticated cattle worldwide. Using this data set, we accurately establish the patterns of exportation, divergence, and admixture for domesticated cattle.
Worldwide patterns
We used principal component analysis (PCA) [19], ancestry graphs implemented in TreeMix [20], and ancestry models implemented in ADMIXTURE [21] to analyze the relationships between 134 breeds of domesticated bovids (Table S1). These breeds arose from three domesticated (sub)species: Bos javanicus, Bos taurus indicus and Bos taurus taurus (we use the terms breed and population interchangeably, due to the different definitions of breed worldwide). The principal source of SNP genotype variation was between B. t. taurus and B. t. indicus breeds (Figure 1). This split corresponds to the cattle which originated from the two separate major centers of domestication in the Fertile Crescent and Indus Valley [22]. Although Bos javanicus has a more distant common ancestor compared with Bos t. indicus and Bos t. taurus [3], the uneven sample sizes and ascertainment of SNPs common in Bos t. taurus in the design of the BovineSNP50 assay [23] caused the Bos t. indicus/Bos t. taurus split to be the main source of variation in these data. The second principal component split African taurine cattle from Eurasian taurine, indicine, and Bali cattle.
Figure 1. Principal component analysis of 1,543 animals genotyped with 43,043 SNPs.
Points were colored according to geographic origin of breed; black: Africa, green: Asia, red: North and South America, orange: Australia, and blue: Europe.
Early farmers were able to expand their habitat range because of the availability of a reliable supply of food and likely displaced indigenous hunter-gatherer populations by introducing new diseases [24]. The genomes of modern cattle reflect the history of animal movements by migratory farmers out of the ancient centers of cattle domestication. We first ran TreeMix with all 134 populations to identify patterns of divergence (Figure 2). We next ran TreeMix with 74 representative populations (Figure 3, residuals presented in Figure S1) and began to add migration edges to the phylogenetic model (Figure 4, residuals presented in Figure S2, see Methods for an explanation of TreeMix). The proportion of the variance in relatedness between populations explained by the model began to asymptote at 0.998 (a value also obtained by simulations [20]) when 17 migration edges were fit (Figure S3). The consistency of these migration edges was evaluated using 5 independent runs of TreeMix with 17 migration edges (Figure S4). In addition to the migratory routes previously described from the Fertile Crescent to Europe [3], we now find strong evidence of exportations from the Indian subcontinent to China and southeast Asia, India to Africa, Africa to the Iberian Peninsula and Mediterranean Europe, India to the Americas, and Europe to the Americas (Figures 4 and 5, discussed in detail in the following subsections). Subsequent to these initial exportations, there have been countless exportations and importations of cattle worldwide. When domesticated cattle were present and new germplasm was imported, the introduced cattle were frequently crossed with the local cattle resulting in an admixed population. Admixed populations were most readily identified when Bos t. indicus and Bos t. taurus animals were hybridized, which occurred in China, Africa, and the Americas (crosses in Figure 1).
Figure 2. Phylogram of the inferred relationships between 134 cattle breeds.
Breeds were colored according to their geographic origin; black: Africa, green: Asia, red: North and South America, orange: Australia, and blue: Europe. Scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix (See [20]).
Figure 3. Phylogram of the inferred relationships between 74 cattle breeds.
Breeds were colored according to their geographic origin; black: Africa, green: Asia, red: North and South America, orange: Australia, and blue: Europe. Scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix.
Figure 4. Phylogenetic network of the inferred relationships between 74 cattle breeds.
Breeds were colored according to their geographic origin; black: Africa, green: Asia, red: North and South America, orange: Australia, and blue: Europe. Scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix. Common ancestor of domesticated taurines is indicated by an asterisk. Migration edges were colored according to percent ancestry received from the donor population. Migration edge a is hypothesized to be from wild African auroch into domesticates from the Fertile Crescent. Migration edge b is hypothesized to be introgression from hybrid African cattle. Migration edge c is hypothesized to be introgression from Bali/indicine hybrids into other Indonesian cattle. Migration edge d signals introgression of African taurine into Iberia. Migration edges e and f represent introgression from Brahman into American Criollo.
Figure 5. Worldwide map with country averages of ancestry proportions with 3 ancestral populations (K = 3).
Blue represents Eurasian Bos t. taurus ancestry, green represents Bos javanicus and Bos t. indicus ancestry, and dark grey represents African Bos. t. taurus ancestry. Please note, averages do not represent the entire populations of each country, as we do not have a geographically random sample.
In the late 18th and 19th centuries, European cattlemen began forming closed herds which they developed into breeds [25]. Because breeds are typically reproductively isolated with little or no interbreeding, we found that the cross-validation error estimates continued to decrease as we increased the number of ancestral populations K modeled in the admixture analysis (Table S2). This reflects the large differences in allele frequencies that exist between breeds resulting from separate domestication events, geographic dispersal and isolation, breed formation, and the use of artificial insemination. The method of Evanno et al. [26], which evaluates the second order rate of change of the likelihood function with respect to K (ΔK), identified K = 2 as the optimum level of K (Figure S5). This method was overwhelmed by the early divergence between indicine and taurine cattle, and was not sensitive to the hierarchical relationships of populations and breeds [27]. As we increased the value of K, we recapitulated the increasingly fine structure represented in the branches of the phylogeny (Figures 6, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10).
Figure 6. Ancestry models with 3 ancestral populations (K = 3).
Blue represents Eurasian Bos t. taurus ancestry, green represents Bos javanicus and Bos t. indicus ancestry, and dark grey represents African Bos. t. taurus ancestry. See Supplementary Figures S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10 for other values of K.
Modern Anatolian cattle are not representatives of early domesticated cattle
Anatolian breeds (AB, EAR, TG, ASY, and SAR) are admixed between blue Fertile Crescent, grey African-like, and green indicine-like cattle (Figures 5 and 6), and we infer that they do not represent the taurine populations originally domesticated in this region due to a history of admixture. Zavot (ZVT), a crossbred breed [25], has a different history with a large portion of ancestry similar to Holsteins (Figures 2 and S8, S9, S10). The placement of Anatolian breeds along principal components 1 and 2 in Figure 1 [23], the ancestry estimates in Figure 6, their extremely short branch lengths in Figures 2–4, and significant f3 statistics confirm that modern Anatolian breeds are admixed (see Methods for explanation of f-statistics). For example, the Anatolian Southern Yellow (ASY) has 3,003 significant f3 tests, the most extreme of which has Vosgienne (VOS, a taurine breed) and Achai (ACH, an indicine breed) as sister groups with a Z-score of −43.69. Our results support previous work using microsatellite loci [28] which inferred Anatolian cattle to possess indicine introgression. We further demonstrate that Anatolian breeds have introgression from African taurine. We calculated f4 statistics with East Anatolian Red, Anatolian Southern Yellow, and Anatolian Black as sister, and N'Dama, Somba, Lagune, Baole, Simmental, Holstein, Hereford, and Shorthorn as the opposing sister group. From Figure 2, we would expect these relationships to be tree-like. But 45 of the possible 84 f4 tests indicated significant levels of admixture. The most significant was f4(East Anatolian Red, Anatolian Southern Yellow; Somba, Shorthorn) = −0.0026±0.0003 (Z-score = −8.10, alternative trees have Z-scores of 9.88 and 5.20).
Divergence within the taurine lineage
If African and Asian taurines were both exported from the Fertile Crescent in similar numbers at about the same time, we would expect them to be approximately equally diverged from European taurines. However, African taurines were consistently revealed to be more diverged from European and Asian taurines (Figures 1, 2, 3, and 5, Anatolian breeds are not considered in this comparison because of their admixed history). Two factors appear to influence this divergence. First, European cattle were exported into Asia and admixed with Asian taurines. In the admixture models in which K = 15 or 20 (Figures S9 and S10), there was evidence of European taurine admixture in the Mongolian (MG), Hanwoo (HANW), and Wagyu (WAGY) breeds. We ran TreeMix with 14 representative populations and estimated Wagyu to have 0.188±0.069 (p-value = 0.003) of their genome originating from northwestern European ancestry (Figure 7). We also see some runs of TreeMix placing a migration edge from Chianina cattle to Asian taurines (Figure S4). We ran f4 tests with Mongolian, Hanwoo, Wagyu, Tharparkar (THA), or Kankraj (KAN) as sister populations, and Piedmontese (PIED), Simmental (SIM), Brown Swiss (BSW), Braunvieh (BRVH), Devon (DEV), Angus (AN), Shorthorn (SH), or Holstein (HO) as the opposing pair of sister groups. From previous research [3] and Figures 2 and 3, these relationships should be tree-like if there were no admixture. For 53 of the possible 280 tests, the Z-score was more extreme than ±2.575829. The most extreme test statistics were f4(Wagyu, Mongolian; Simmental, Shorthorn) = −0.003 (Z-score = −5.21, other rearrangements of these groups had Z-scores of 7.32 and 16.55) and f4(Hanwoo, Wagyu; Piedmontese, Shorthorn) = 0.002 (Z-score = 4.90, other rearrangements of these groups had Z-scores of 21.79 and 27.77). When K = 20, Hanwoo appear to have a Mediterranean influence, whereas Wagyu have a northwestern European, including British, influence (Figure S10). We conclude that there were two waves of European introgression into Far East Asian cattle, first with Mediterranean cattle (which carried African taurine and indicine alleles) brought along the Silk Road [29] and later from 1868 to 1918 when Japanese cattle were crossed with British and Northwest European cattle [25].
Breeds were colored according to their geographic origin; green: Asia, and blue: Europe. Scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix. Migration edges were colored according to percent ancestry received from the donor population. Migration edges show indicine introgression into Mongolian cattle, African taurine and indicine ancestry in Marchigiana, and a northern European influence on Wagyu.
The second factor that we believe underlies the divergence of African taurine is a high level of wild African auroch [30], [31] introgression. Principal component (Figure 1), phylogenetic trees (Figures 2 and 3), and admixture (Figure 6) analyses all reveal the African taurines as being the most diverged of the taurine populations. Because of this divergence, it has been hypothesized that there was a third domestication of cattle in Africa [32]–[36]. If there was a third domestication, African taurine would be sister to the European and Asian clade. When no migration events were fit in the TreeMix analyses, African cattle were the most diverged of the taurine populations (Figures 2 and 3), but when admixture was modeled to include 17 migrations, all African cattle, except for East African Shorthorn Zebu and Zebu from Madagascar which have high indicine ancestry, were sister to European cattle and were less diverged than Asian or Anatolian cattle (Figure 4), thus ruling out a separate domestication. Our phylogenetic network (Figure 4) shows that there was not a third domestication process, rather there was a single origin of domesticated taurine (Asian, African, and European all share a recent common ancestor denoted by an asterisk in Figure 4, with Asian cattle sister to the rest of the taurine lineage), followed by admixture with an ancestral population in Africa (migration edge a in Figure 4, which is consistent across 6 separate TreeMix runs, Figure S4). This ancestral population (origin of migration edge a in Figure 4) was approximately halfway between the common ancestor of indicine and the common ancestor of taurine. We conclude that African taurines received as much as 26% (estimated as 0.263 in the network, p-value<2.2e-308) of their ancestry from admixture with wild African auroch, with the rest being Fertile Crescent domesticate in origin. Although three other migration edges originate from the branch between indicine and taurine (such as edge b), all of the receiving populations show indicine ancestry in the ADMIXTURE models. But African auroch are extinct and samples were not available for the ADMIXTURE model, thus the admixed auroch ancestry of African taurines cannot specifically be discovered by this model [27], [37] and African taurine, especially Lagune, are depicted as having a single ancestry without indicine influence (Figures 5 and 6, see f3 and f4 statistics reported later). Unlike ADMIXTURE, TreeMix can model admixture from an unsampled population by placing a migration edge more basal along a branch of the phylogeny, in this case African auroch.
Others have observed distinct patterns of linkage disequilibrium in African taurines, resulting in larger estimates of ancestral effective population size than for either Bos t. taurus or Bos t. indicus breeds [2] consistent with greater levels of admixture from wild aurochs. Just as Near Eastern domesticated pig mitochondrial lineages were replaced by mitochondria from indigenous wild populations [38], we infer that the divergent T1d African mitochondrial subgroup [39] previously observed originated either from Fertile Crescent domesticates or admixture with wild African auroch. Similar patterns of admixture from wild forebears have been observed in other species [38], such as pig [40]–[42], chicken [43], and corn [14], and this conclusion represents the most parsimonious explanation of our results. We hypothesize that the auroch introgression in Africa may have been driven by trypanosomiasis resistance in African auroch which may be the source of resistance in modern African taurine populations [44]. Admixture with distant relatives has had an important impact on the immune system of other species, such as human [45] and possibly chicken [46]. More sophisticated demographic models and unbiased whole-genome sequence data will be needed to further test these hypotheses.
Indicine admixture in Africa
African cattle also demonstrate a geographical gradient of indicine ancestry [47]. Taurine cattle in western Africa possess from 0% to 19.9% indicine ancestry (Figures 5 and 6, LAG, ND1, ND2, NDAM, BAO, OUL, SOM), with an average of 3.3%. Moving from west to east and from south to central Africa, the percent of indicine ancestry increases from 22.7% to 74.1% (Figures 5 and 6, ZFU, ZBO, ZMA, BORG, TULI, BOR, SHK, ZEB, ANKW, LAMB, an AFR), with an average of 56.9%. As we increased values of K to 10, 15, and 20 (Figures S8, S9, S10), we revealed two clusters of indicine ancestry possibly resulting from the previously suggested two waves of indicine importation into Africa, the first occurring in the second millennium BC and the second during and after the Islamic conquests [25], [34], [48]. The presence of two separate clades of African cattle in Figure 4 also supports the idea of two waves of indicine introgression.
Admixture in Asia
Asian cattle breeds were derived from cattle domesticated in the Indian subcontinent or imported from the Fertile Crescent and Europe. Cattle in the north and northeast are primarily of Bos t. taurus ancestry (Figures 5 and 6; HANW, WAGY, and MG), but Hanwoo and Mongolian also have Bos t. indicus ancestry (Figures 5, 6, S9, and S10). Cattle in Pakistan, India, southern China and Indonesia are predominantly Bos t. indicus (Figures 5 and 6; ONG, MAD, BRE, HN, ACE, PES, ACH, HAR, BAG, GUZ, SAHW, GBI, CHO, GIR, KAN, THA, RSIN, HIS, LOH, ROJ, DHA, and DAJ). Cattle located between these two geographical regions are Bos t. taurus×Bos t. indicus hybrids (Figures 1, 4, 5, and 6; QC and LX). Our results suggest an additional source for increased indicine diversity—admixture with domesticated cattle from other species. In addition to cattle domesticated from aurochs (Bos primigenius), bovids were also domesticated from water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), yak (Bos grunniens), gaur (Bos gaurus), and banteng (Bos javanicus), represented in our sample by the Bali breed [25], [49]. We find that the Indonesian Brebes (BRE) and Madura (MAD) breeds have significant Bos javanicus (BALI) ancestry demonstrated by the short branch lengths in Figures 2–4, shared ancestry with Bali in ADMIXTURE analyses (light green in Figures S8, S9, S10), and significant f3 statistics (Table S3). The Indonesian Pesisir and Aceh and the Chinese Hainan and Luxi breeds also have Bali ancestry (migration edge c in Figure 4, migration edges in Figure S4, and light green in Figures S8 and S9).
Admixture in Europe
Cattle were imported into Europe from the southeast to the northwest. The descendants of Durham Shorthorns (the ancestral Shorthorn breed [25]) were the most distinct group of European cattle as they clustered at the extremes of principal component 2 (lower left hand corner of Figure 1), and they formed a distinct cluster in the ADMIXTURE analyses whenever K was greater than 4 (Figures S6, S7, S8, S9, S10). As shown in Figures S6 through S10, f3 statistics in Table S4, and from their breed histories [25], many breeds share ancestry with Shorthorn cattle, including Milking Shorthorn, Beef Shorthorn, Lincoln Red, Maine-Anjou, Belgian Blue, Santa Gertrudis, and Beefmaster.
From the previous placement of the American Criollo breeds including Romosinuano, Texas Longhorn, and Corriente, it has been posited that Iberian cattle became admixed as a result of an introgression of cattle from Africa into the local European cattle [3], [50], [51]. Our genotyping of individuals from 11 Spanish breeds supported, but clarified, this hypothesis. On average, Spanish cattle had 19.3% of African ancestry when K = 3, with a minimum of 8.8% and a maximum of 23.4%, which supports previous analyses of mitochondrial DNA [52], [53]. Migration edge d in the phylogenetic network (Figure 4, and consistently seen in Figure S4) estimates that Iberian cattle, Texas Longhorn, and Romosinuano derive 7.5% of their ancestry from African taurine introgression, similar to the ancestry estimates from the models with larger K values (Figures S8, S9, S10). The Oulmès Zaer (OUL) breed from Morocco also shows that cattle were transported from Iberia and France to Africa (tan and red in Figure S10, and short branch length in Figure 4). However, the 11 Spanish breeds had no more indicine ancestry than all other European taurine breeds (essentially none for the majority of breeds, see Figures 5 and 6). Maraichine (MAR), Gascon (GAS), Limousin (LIM), and other breeds from France, and Piedmontese cattle (PIED) from northwest Italy have a similar ancestry. These data indicate that the reason that the American Criollo breeds were found to be sister to European cattle in our previous work [3] was because of their higher proportion of indicine ancestry. The 5 sampled American Criollo breeds had, on average, 14.7% African ancestry (minimum of 6.2% and maximum of 20.4%) and 8.0% indicine ancestry (minimum of 0.6% and maximum of 20.3%).
Other Italian breeds (MCHI, CHIA, and RMG) share ancestry with both African taurine and indicine cattle (Figures 6, S6, S7, S8). This introgression may have come from Anatolian or East African cattle that carried both African taurine and indicine ancestry, which is modeled as migration edge b in Figure 4. The placement of Italian breeds is not consistent across independent TreeMix runs (Figure S4), likely due to their complicated history of admixture.
We also used f-statistics to explore the evidence for African taurine introgression into Spain and Italy. We did not see any significant f3 statistics, but this test may be underpowered because of the low-level of introgression. With Italian and Spanish breeds as a sister group and African breeds, including Oulmès Zaer, as the other sister group, we see 321 significant tests out of 1,911 possible tests. Of these 321 significant tests, 218 contained Oulmès Zaer. We also calculated f4 statistics with the Spanish breeds as sister and the African taurine breeds as sister (excluding Oulmès Zaer). With this setup, out of the possible 675 tests we saw only 1 significant test, f4(Berrenda en Negro, Pirenaica;Lagune, N'Dama (ND2)) = 0.0007, Z-score = 3.064. With Italian cattle as sister and African taurine as sister (excluding Oulmès Zaer), we saw 17 significant tests out of the 90 possible. Patterson et al. [54] defined the f4-ratio as f4(A, O; X, C)/f4(A, O; B, C), where A and B are a sister group, C is sister to (A,B), X is a mixture of B and C, and O is the outgroup. This ratio estimates the ancestry from B, denoted as , and the ancestry from C, as . We calculated this ratio using Shorthorn as A, Montbeliard as B, Lagune as C, Morucha as X, and Hariana as O. We choose Shorthorn, Montbeliard, Lagune, and Hariana as they appeared the least admixed in the ADMIXTURE analyses. We choose Morucha because it appears as solid red with African ancestry in Figure S10. This statistic estimated that Morucha is 91.23% European ( = 0.0180993/0.0198386) and 8.77% African, which is similar to the proportion estimated by TreeMix. The multiple f4 statistics with Italian breeds as sister and African breeds as the opposing sister support African admixture into Italy. The f4-ratio test with Morucha also supports our conclusion of African admixture into Spain.
Preservation of pure taurine in Africa and lack of widespread indicine ancestry in Europe
It has recently been concluded that indicine ancestry is a common feature of European cattle genomes [55]. However, our data refute this conclusion. McTavish et al. relied on the Evanno test to arrive at an optimal number of ancestral populations of K = 2, which masks the fact that there are cattle breeds in Africa with 100% African taurine ancestry (Figure 6). Although our K = 2 ADMIXTURE results suggested that most African breeds had at least 20% indicine ancestry (Figure S5), when we increased K to 3, Lagune (LAG) revealed no indicine ancestry, and Baoule (BAO) and N'Dama (NDAM) possess very little indicine ancestry. If the K = 2 model was correct, we would expect to see numerous significant f3 and f4 tests with Eurasian taurine and indicine as sister groups. Whereas, if the K = 3 model more accurately reflected the heritage of European and African taurines, we would not observe any significant f3 or f4 tests showing admixture of taurine and indicine in the ancestry of African taurine. For the Lagune, Baoule and N'Dama (NDAM and ND2) breeds we found no significant f3 statistics. Among the 225 f4 statistics calculated with NDAM, LAG, BAO, ND2, SH, and MONT as sisters and BALI, GIR, HAR, SAHW, PES, and ACE as the opposing sister group, only 36 were significantly different from 0 (Table 1). When ND2 was excluded from the results, only 4 tests were significant (Table 1), and we have no evidence that the Lagune breed harbors indicine alleles. Thus, we conclude that contrary to the assumptions and conclusions of [55] cattle with pure taurine ancestry do exist in Africa. Further, we conclude that indicine ancestry in European taurine cattle is extremely rare, and that some breeds, especially those prevalent near the Mediterranean, possess African taurine introgression—but with the exception of the Charolais, Marchigiana, Chianina and Romagnola breeds—not African hybrid or African indicine introgression. We concur that Texas Longhorn and other American Criollo breeds possess indicine ancestry, but infer that this introgression occurred after the arrival of Spanish cattle in the New World and likely originated from Brahman cattle (migration edges e and f in Figure 4). In TreeMix replicates, Texas Longhorn and Romosinuano are either sister to admixed Anatolian breeds or they receive a migration edge that originates near Brahman (Figure S4). To reiterate, Iberian cattle do not have indicine ancestry, American Criollo breeds originated from exportations from Iberia, Brahman cattle were developed in the United States in the 1880's [25], American Criollo breeds carry indicine ancestry, and the introgression likely occurred from Brahman cattle.
Table 1. Significant f4 statistics for African taurine breeds and populations.1
Domestication, exportation, admixture, and breed formation have had tremendous impacts on the variation present within and between cattle breeds. In Asia, Africa, North and South America, cattle breeders have crossbred Bos t. taurus and Bos t. indicus cattle to produce hybrids which were well suited to the environment and endemic production systems. In this study, we clarify the relationships between breeds of cattle worldwide, and present the most accurate cattle "Tree of Life" to date in Figure 4. We elucidate the complicated history of Asian cattle involving the domestication and subsequent admixture of several bovid species. We provide evidence for admixture between domesticated Fertile Crescent taurine and wild African auroch in Africa to form the extant African taurine breeds. We also observe African taurine content within the genomes of European Mediterranean taurine breeds. The absence of indicine content within the majority of European taurine breeds, but the presence of indicine within three Italian breeds is consistent with two separate introductions, one from the Middle East potentially by the Romans which captured African taurines in which indicine introgression had already occurred and the second from western Africa into Spain which included African taurines with no indicine introgression. It was this second group of cattle which likely radiated from Spain into Southern France and the Alps. The prevalence of admixture further convolutes the cryptic history of cattle domestication.
Sample selection
We used 1,543 samples in total, including 234 samples from [3] and 425 samples from [4], see Table S1. We selected samples that had fewer than 10% missing genotypes, and for breeds with fewer than 20 genotyped samples, we used all available samples which passed the missing genotype data threshold. When pedigree data were absent for a breed, the 20 samples with the highest genotype call rates were selected. For breeds which had pedigree information, we filtered any animals whose sire or dam was also genotyped. For identified half-siblings, we sampled only the sibling with the highest genotype call rate. After removing genotyped animals known to be closely related, we selected the 20 animals with the highest genotype call rate to represent the breed. All DNA samples were collected in an ethical manner under University of Missouri ACUC approved protocol 7505.
Samples were genotyped with the Illumina BovineSNP50 BeadChip [56]. Autosomal SNPs and a single pseudo-autosomal SNP were analyzed, because the data set from Gautier et al. [4] excluded SNPs located exclusively on the X chromosome. We also filtered all SNPs which mapped to "chromosome unknown" of the UMD3.1 assembly [57]. In PLINK [58], [59], we removed SNPs with greater than 10% missing genotypes and with minor allele frequencies less than 0.0005 (1/[2*Number of Samples] = 0.000324, thus the minor allele had to be observed at least once in our data set). The average total genotype call rate in the remaining individuals was 0.993. Genotype data were deposited at DRYAD (doi:10.5061/dryad.th092) [60].
Principal component analysis
The sample genotype covariance matrix was decomposed using SMARTPCA, part of EIGENSOFT 4.2 [19]. To limit the effects of linkage disequilibrium on the estimation of principal components, for each SNP the residual of a regression on the previous two SNPs was input to the principal component analysis (see EIGENSOFT POPGEN README).
TreeMix analysis
TreeMix [20] models the genetic drift at genome-wide polymorphisms to infer relationships between populations. It first estimates a dendrogram of the relationships between sampled populations. Next it compares the covariance structure modeled by this dendrogram to the observed covariance between populations. When populations are more closely related than modeled by a bifurcating tree it suggests that there has been admixture in the history of those populations. TreeMix then adds an edge to the phylogeny, now making it a phylogenetic network. The position and direction of these edges are informative; if an edge originates more basally in the phylogenetic network it indicates that this admixture occurred earlier in time or from a more diverged population.
TreeMix was used to create a maximum likelihood phylogeny of the 134 breeds. Because TreeMix was slow to add migration events (modeled as "edges") to the complete data set of 134 breeds, we also analyzed subsets of the data containing considerably fewer breeds. For these subsets, breeds with fewer than 4 samples were removed. To speed up the analysis, we iteratively used the previous graph with m-1 migrations as the starting graph and added one migration edge for a total of m migrations. We rooted the graphs with Bali cattle, used blocks of 1000 SNPs, and used the -se option to calculate standard errors of migration proportions. Migration edges were added until 99.8% of the variance in ancestry between populations was explained by the model. We also ensured that the incorporated migration edges were statistically significant. To further evaluate the consistency of migration edges, we ran TreeMix five separate times with -m set to 17.
Admixture analysis
ADMIXTURE 1.21 was used to evaluate ancestry proportions for K ancestral populations [21]. We ran ADMIXTURE with cross-validation for values of K from 1 through 20 to examine patterns of ancestry and admixture in our data set. Map figure was generated in R using rworldmap (http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/rworldmap/index.html).
f3 and f4 statistics
The f3 and f4 statistics are used to detect correlations in allele frequencies that are not compatible with population evolution following a bifurcating tree; these statistics provide support for admixture in the history of the tested populations [54], [61]. The THREEPOP program from TreeMix was used to calculate f3 statistics [54] for all possible triplets from the 134 breeds. The FOURPOP program of TreeMix was used to calculate f4 statistics for subsets of the breeds.
Plot of residuals from the phylogeny model depicted in Figure 3 when no migration edges were fit.
Plot of residuals from the phylogenetic network model depicted in Figure 4 when 17 migration edges were fit.
The fraction of variance in relatedness between populations accounted for by phylogenetic models with 0 through 19 migrations. The fraction of variance in the sample covariance matrix ( ) accounted for by the model covariance matrix ( ). Pickrell and Pritchard [20] showed that the fraction began to asymptote at 0.998 when the models accurately depicted relationships between simulated populations. We also observed this asymptote near 0.998 in our empirical analysis, leading us to conclude that the relationships between the 74 cattle breeds were accurately described by a phylogenetic network with 17 migration edges.
Phylogenetic network with 17 edges (Figure 4) plus 5 independent replicates. Replicates were run with different random seeds to visually evaluate consistency of migration edges. Network a is the same as Figure 4; networks b through f are replicates. Breeds were colored according to their geographic origin; black: Africa, green: Asia, red: North and South America, orange: Australia, and blue: Europe. Scale bar shows 10 times the average standard error of the estimated entries in the sample covariance matrix. Migration edges were colored according to percent ancestry received from the donor population.
Ancestry models with 2 ancestral populations (K = 2). Blue represents Bos t. taurus ancestry, and green represents Bos javanicus and Bos t. indicus ancestry.
Ancestry models with 4 ancestral populations (K = 4). Blue represents Eurasian Bos t. taurus ancestry, green represents Bos javanicus and Bos t. indicus ancestry, dark grey represents African Bos. t. taurus ancestry, and cyan represents ancestry similar to Durham Shorthorns.
Ancestry models with 5 ancestral populations (K = 5). Blue represents Eurasian Bos t. taurus ancestry, green represents Bos javanicus and Bos t. indicus ancestry, dark grey represents African Bos. t. taurus ancestry, cyan represents ancestry similar to Durham Shorthorns, and deep sky blue represents British and Northern European ancestry.
Ancestry models with 10 ancestral populations (K = 10).
Figure S10.
Provenance for all samples included in the analyses. Species and subspecies assignments are according to [25].
Cross-validation and ΔK values for ADMIXTURE ancestry models with K ranging from 1 to 20.
Five most negative and significant f3 statistics for Brebes and Madura showing Bali (Bos javanicus) introgression.
Five most negative and significant f3 statistics for Maine-Anjou, Santa Gertrudis, and Beefmaster showing Shorthorn admixture.
We gratefully acknowledge the provision of samples and genotypes from breed associations, cattle breeders, semen distributors and the Bovine HapMap Project. We thank Daniel G. Bradley and Joseph Pickrell for insightful comments on the analysis and manuscript and an anonymous reviewer for constructive peer-review.
Conceived and designed the experiments: JED JFT. Performed the experiments: SDM MMR JK RDS. Analyzed the data: JED. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: AMA TSS OH AG CMS LP MEB LCdAR MAY MPH WSL CZL JMR MSUR JFT. Wrote the paper: JED JFT.
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Is the Subject Area "Cattle" applicable to this article?
Is the Subject Area "Domestic animals" applicable to this article?
Introgression
Is the Subject Area "Introgression" applicable to this article?
Phylogenetic analysis
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Is the Subject Area "Africa" applicable to this article?
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Thin Clients include PCI and PCMCIA expansion slots.
Network Border Switch SBC features high-density, scalable design.


Adopting a child can place very significant stress on the relationship between the parental couple.
Adoptive couples are very likely to experience additional strains on their relationship. For example, prior to the adoption they may have had difficulties in conceiving or issues around infertility and how these are negotiated and managed can be stressful for the couple. Added to this are the challenges of the adoption application process and the attendant frustrations involved in what can be a lengthy and emotionally draining experience. In addition, the adopted children themselves often have traumatic or troubled histories – which can present considerable emotional challenges to the adoptive parental relationship, which then affect the couple's capacity to provide effective, containing parenting to the child.


THE NEON DEMON—–an audacious, scintillating, icky, audience-divisive 2016 fever dream from the gifted/twisted mind of director Nicholas Winding Refn takes 'If Looks Could Kill' and eyeball-mainlines it with 'Would They'? When does vanity become insanity?
Sixteen-year-old natural beauty 'Jesse' (Elle Fanning)—orphan, aspiring model— has just touched pavement in L.A. When her fresh look whets the industry appetites of the right people at the right time, it also poses a direct threat to her terminally narcissistic competition, whose lips are not licked in normally-recognized anticipation.
Not another simple exposé of catty catwalks crawled by fashionistas or a tired takedown of Los Angeles (though it looks plenty sinister here), Refn's story, that he co-scripted with Mary Laws and Polly Stenham, is a modern Red Riding Hood horror fable on the obsession with beauty and the seductive elixir of adulation; social forces strong enough to warp reality into nightmare. Stunning cinematography by Natasha Braier is like an 80s retro bath of neon blues and pinks, with blinding whites for bracing. Refn & Braier draw emotion out of this electro-fetish color scheme. Even when ugly events occur (and boy, do they, be warned), the compositions are striking, more like a painting than film (and Refn is colorblind). Aiding the creeping unease immensely is a superior, pulsing soundtrack from Cliff Martinez, a ghostly summons to the '70s/ '80s throbbing of Giorgio Moroder, Tangerine Dream and Vangelis.
'Ruby', a seemingly sincere 'friend' (Jenna Malone, excellent), tells Jesse (19-year-old natural beauty Fanning is a perfect choice) "that whole deer in the headlights thing is exactly what they want." Intimidating as razor wire, Bella Heathcote and Abbey Lee score chills as the essentially vampiric models who must seize what Jesse doesn't even have to try for. Keanu Reeves has a cameo and makes the disturbing most of it.
With Karl Glusman, Alessandro Nivola (nailing 'pitiless') Desmond Harrington, Christina Hendricks, Georgia Fowler and Dani Seitz (gulp).


text:
Q: Generate random float numbers in range PHP I have a code that initializes a dice object by the following code:
public function initializeDiceSides($totalSides, $fair, $maxProbability = 100) {
   $maxTemp = $maxProbability;
   $sides = array();

   for ($side = 0; $side < $totalSides; $side++) {
     //if we want fair dice just generate same probabilities for each side
     if ($fair === true) {
       $probability = number_format($maxProbability/$totalSides, 5);
     } else {
       //set probability to random number between 1 and half of $maxTemp
       $probability = number_format(mt_rand(1, $maxTemp/2), 5);

       //subtract probability of current side from maxtemp
       $maxTemp= $maxTemp- $probability;

       $sides[$side] = $probability;
     }
   }

   echo $total . '<br />';
   print_r($sides);
}

above code prints:
89
Array ( [0] => 48.00000 [1] => 13.00000 [2] => 14.00000
        [3] => 9.00000 [4] => 2.00000 [5] => 2.00000 )

I want to be able to generate float numbers instead of integers, I want to have something like
Array ( [0] => 48.051212 [1] => 13.661212 [2] => 14.00031
        [3] => 9.156212 [4] => 2.061512 [5] => 2.00000 )

A: I'd just generate random numbers from 0 to 999999 and then divide them by 100000

A: A simple approach would be to use lcg_value and multiply with the range and add the min value
function random_float ($min,$max) {
    return ($min + lcg_value()*(abs($max - $min)));
}

A: You could multiply the variables that you feed into mt_random by a factor of, say, 100000, and then divide the output by the same factor to get a float value.

A: function random_float($min = 0, $max = 1, $includeMax = false) {
    return $min + \mt_rand(0, (\mt_getrandmax() - ($includeMax ? 0 : 1))) / \mt_getrandmax() * ($max - $min);
}

A: Make sure the value of $maxProbability and $totalSides are floats.
If they are integers, the result will be typed as an integer.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Honest Directors animated this short called "Satellite Car Chase," a mash-up of Google Maps's aerial street views and a Grand Theft Auto style car chase.
It was originally made for the collaborative film series Psst! Pass It On 3, and it does a fine job of taking the fantasy chaos of the game into a less sensational (more real?) setting.


text:
Cast, Extras, TV Series
Charles William Cook
Revision as of 06:22, 15 August 2019 by JackDelMars (Message Wall | contribs)
Terminus Resident
Korean-American
Charles William Cook is an American actor who portrayed a Terminus Resident in AMC's The Walking Dead.
2 Other Works
2.1 Movies
2.2 TV
2.2.1 Shorts
Charles William Cook was born on May 26, 1984 in Seoul, Korea. He is an actor known for Furious 7 as a L.A Street Guy, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay - Part 2 as a Capitol Citizen, and Taken 3 as a Forensic Technician. He also has a twin brother, who's also been in some films. He was born on May 26, 1984 in Seoul, Korea. To date he is currently 5' 11" (1.8 m).
Sick People
Hugs Are Better Than...
Retrieved from "https://walkingdead.fandom.com/wiki/Charles_William_Cook?oldid=1310155"
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1 Rick Grimes (TV Series)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Rapid City home listings for people who need a lot of living space
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Welcome to the York County Sheriff's Office's Licensing Division.
Our mission is to accept, conduct background checks and determine eligibility of License to Carry Firearms and License to Sell Firearms applications for the residents of York County.
In order to accomplish our mission in an efficient and effective manner, we have provided links to the various forms required to assist you in submitting your application.
If you are either a resident of York County or an out-of-state resident, please utilize the "LICENSE TO CARRY FIREARMS" at left (or click here) in order to be directed to the applicable applications.
Out-of-State residents must accompany their applications with a colored photo of both their Driver's License and License to Carry Firearms from the state in which they currently reside.
If you are a resident of York County, own a firearms dealership and possess a valid Federal Firearms License (FFL), please utilize the "LICENSE TO SELL FIREARMS" drop-down box at the left (or click here) in order to be directed to the applicable application.
Out-of-State residents are not eligible for a License to Sell Firearms..


text:
Podduby (, , sowie Jodupchen, 1938 bis 1945 Mittenfelde) ist ein Ort in der russischen Oblast Kaliningrad. Er gehört zur kommunalen Selbstverwaltungseinheit Stadtkreis Gussew im Rajon Gussew.

Geographische Lage
Podduby liegt acht Kilometer westlich der Stadt Gussew (Gumbinnen) an der russischen Fernstraße A 229 (frühere deutsche Reichsstraße 1, heute auch Europastraße 28). Die nächste Bahnstation ist Wessjolowka (Judtschen/Kanthausen) an der Bahnstrecke Kaliningrad–Tschernyschewskoje der einstigen Preußischen Ostbahn zur Weiterfahrt nach Moskau.

Geschichte

Kubbeln
Das kleine nach 1564 Kubilen genannte Dorf wurde 1874 in den neu errichteten Amtsbezirk Kampischkehmen eingegliedert. Dieser bestand – 1939 umbenannt in "Amtsbezirk Angereck" – bis 1945 und gehörte zum Kreis Gumbinnen im Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen der preußischen Provinz Ostpreußen.

Im Jahre 1910 waren in Kubbeln 193 Einwohner gemeldet. Nachdem am 30. September 1928 der Gutsbezirk Purpesseln eingemeindet worden war, stieg die Einwohnerzahl bis 1933 auf 287 und belief sich 1939 auf 252.

In Kriegsfolge kam Kubbeln 1945 mit dem gesamten nördlichen Ostpreußen zur Sowjetunion.

Purpesseln (Auenhof) / Parkowoje
Das einst Wingerupchen genannte kleine Dorf bestand aus einem Gut mit Vorwerk. Der Ort Purpesseln war von 1874 bis 1928 ein eigenständiger Gutsbezirk innerhalb des Amtsbezirks Kampischkehmen im Kreis Gumbinnen im Regierungsbezirk Gumbinnen der preußischen Provinz Ostpreußen. Im Jahre 1910 mit 129 Einwohnern wurde Purpesseln am 30. September 1928 in die Landgemeinde Kubbeln eingemeindet und verlor damit seine Selbständigkeit. Am 3. Juni 1938 wurde das Dorf in "Auenhof" umbenannt und kam 1945 zur Sowjetunion.

Im Jahr 1950 erhielt der Ort den russischen Namen Parkowoje und wurde gleichzeitig dem Dorfsowjet Furmanowski selski Sowet im Rajon Gussew zugeordnet.

Jodupchen (Mittelfelde) / Apotschka
Jodupchen war ein Bauerndorf, das auch als "Kirschendorf" bekannt war, da die Bewohner in ihre Gärten Kirschbäume pflanzten. Der Dorfmittelpunkt war eine alte Linde an der Straßenkreuzung. 1874 wurde der Ort als Landgemeinde dem neu eingerichteten Amtsbezirk Ischdaggen im Kreis Gumbinnen zugeordnet. Im Jahre 1910 waren in Jodupchen 136 Einwohner gemeldet. Die Einwohnerzahl sank bis 1933 auf 126 und betrug 1939 noch 118. Am 3. Juni 1938 wurde das Dorf in "Mittenfelde" umbenannt und kam 1945 zur Sowjetunion.

Im Jahre 1947 erhielt der Ort den russischen Namen "Apotschka" und wurde gleichzeitig dem Dorfsowjet Furmanowski selski Sowet im Rajon Gussew zugeordnet.

Podduby
Im Jahre 1947 erhielt Kubbeln den russischen Namen Podduby und wurde gleichzeitig dem Dorfsowjet Furmanowski selski Sowet im Rajon Gussew zugeordnet. Vor 1975 wurde Parkowoje (wieder) an Podduby angeschlossen. 1997 wurde Apotschka an Podduby angeschlossen. Von 2008 bis 2013 gehörte Podduby zur Landgemeinde Michailowskoje selskoje posselenije und seither zum Stadtkreis Gussew.

Kirche
Sowohl in Kubbeln als auch in Purpesseln resp. Auenhof lebte vor 1945 eine überwiegend evangelische Bevölkerung. Beide Orte waren in das Kirchspiel der Kirche Ischdaggen (der Ort hieß zwischen 1938 und 1946: Branden, heute russisch: Lermontowo) eingepfarrt, die ihrerseits zum Kirchenkreis Gumbinnen in der Kirchenprovinz Ostpreußen der Kirche der Altpreußischen Union gehörte. Heute liegt Podduby im Einzugsgebiet der neu entstandenen evangelisch-lutherischen Gemeinde  der Salzburger Kirche in Gussew (Gumbinnen). Sie ist Teil der Propstei Kaliningrad der Evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche Europäisches Russland.

Schule
Kubbeln war vor 1945 Schulort auch für die Kinder aus Purpesseln resp. Auenhof. Es bestand eine einklassige Volksschule, deren Schulgebäude vor 1914 errichtet worden war.

Weblinks
 Podduby bei bankgorodov.ru
 Podduby bei prussia39.ru
 Mittenfelde (Jodupchen) auf http://www.kreis-gumbinnen.de/

Einzelnachweise

Ort im Rajon Gussew

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Stephen Hawking died on a day that cosmically ties him to Albert Einstein
Stephen Hawking, the legendary theoretical physicist, died early Wednesday in his home in Cambridge, England, at the age of 76.
Coincidentally, Hawking died on Albert Einstein's birthday. Einstein, another venerated theoretical physicist, also died at age 76, in 1955.
March 14 is also Pi Day in the US, in honour of the mathematical constant whose first digits are 3.14.
(Skye Gould/Business Insider)
Hawking was known around the world for making discoveries that transformed the way scientists think about black holes and stellar systems. He was also beloved for his wit and humour in expressing profound concepts to the public.
He's survived by his three children, Lucy, Robert, and Tim. They released a statement calling their father an "an extraordinary man whose work and legacy will live on for many years."
"He once said, 'It would not be much of a universe if it wasn't home to the people you love.' We will miss him forever," their statement said.
Well-known physicists including Neil deGrasse Tyson and Lawrence Krauss have also made statements on Wednesday expressing admiration for Hawking.
"His passing has left an intellectual vacuum in his wake," Tyson said on Twitter.
"But it's not empty. Think of it as a kind of vacuum energy permeating the fabric of spacetime that defies measure."
This Species of Carnivorous Plant Evolved Into a Toilet And Is Now Winning at Life : ScienceAlert


Just a quick post to say that I took the past month off to get back into school and being busy, but I am back so expect lots more reviews, contests, and other fun things. Thanks everyone for your patience!
I would love to review your books. Please e-mail me and I can provide you with my address.
Same as publishers, and if you would like to have an interview on my blog we can set that up!
I love to here your feedback! You can either post comments on my page or e-mail me!
Hey Guys here is my list!
Keep a look out for updates!


German Speaking babysitting for 14h a week in Boulogne-billancour. 1 child Monday : 18:00/20:00 Tuesday : 16:30/19:00 Wednesday : 13:30/19:00 Thursday : 18:00/20:00 Friday : 17:15/19:15.
If you can speak a foreign language (English at least) and you have experience in childcare, this job is for you!
Multilingual babysitters for part-time jobs in France. Work with kids and pass on your knowledge and passion for languages!


text:
import type {
  StandardEngine,
  KeyframesObject,
  FontFaceObject,
  StyleObject,
} from "styletron-standard";

import createRender from "./create-render";

const engine = {
  renderStyle: createRender("style"),
  renderKeyframes: createRender("keyFrames"),
  renderFontFace: createRender("fontFace"),
};

export class StyletronSnapshotEngine implements StandardEngine {
  renderStyle(styles: StyleObject) {
    return engine.renderStyle(styles);
  }

  renderKeyframes(keyframes: KeyframesObject) {
    return engine.renderKeyframes(keyframes);
  }

  renderFontFace(fontFace: FontFaceObject) {
    return engine.renderFontFace(fontFace);
  }
}

export const Client = StyletronSnapshotEngine;
export const Server = StyletronSnapshotEngine;

export default StyletronSnapshotEngine;

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
← Monday's Seven Casual Contemplations
Importance of Stars in NBA →
Can't Build Around Bynum
Andrew Bynum isn't even 25 years old yet.
The Los Angeles Lakers have been waiting for Andrew Bynum to mature for the past 5 seasons. He finally broke out this year as the 2nd best center in the NBA, putting up 18.7 points and 11.8 rebounds per game during the regular season. Dominating numbers from a dominating physical presence. But don't let his physical stature and the numbers fool you, Bynum still possesses the mind of a child.
That mind is not going to change.
Andrew Bynum has been somewhat of an enigma all season for the Lakers. The infamous 3-point shot that sent him straight to the pine encapsulates most everything that Bynum is and has been for Los Angeles. After the benching, Bynum sulked for much of the game, refusing to join the huddle in team timeouts and subsequently played some uninspired 4th quarter basketball. He reacted to the situation like a petulant child.
Immaturity is a good excuse for only so long.
The young ancient Roman emperor Nero passed off his failings and cruelty to the public as youthful mistakes but it was said that this was more a fault of his character and not his age. The same could be said of Andrew Bynum, you know, minus the cruelty.
Last night, after another uninspired 10 point, 4 rebound performance from Bynum, he was questioned by the media about his expectations of a possible contract extension with the Lakers. Bynum would give an answer once again suggesting his inexperience got the better of him. He said that "I'm not sure," and "It really doesn't matter to me. I'll play anywhere. I think for the most part I had a pretty decent season and then an OK postseason. Obviously this last game was the worst game I've probably played. It sucks, obviously, we're going fishing. My focus is next year and coming back stronger, adding things to my game"
Inexperienced words from an inexperienced man.
This whole immaturity thing, ironically, is getting a little old for Andrew Bynum though. There has been no maturation for Bynum and it doesn't appear as though there ever will be. His comments exhibit the signs of a kid who doesn't learn. All he had to do was fake his undying devotion to the Lakers but he couldn't do that.
As much as Orlando fans, or any fans for that matter really, would love to see Andrew Bynum in their teams' jersey, he is not a player anyone should be building a franchise around.
Bynum is not a centrepiece. His game would indicate otherwise but his mind won't ever catch up to his skills on the court. He insisted that he would continue to shoot 3's after getting benched for the very act. He said that it doesn't really matter where he'll play. Most importantly, he continues to expose his lack of passion and concern for winning.
Despite playing with Kobe Bryant, Andrew Bynum doesn't show up to work every day. It is more than a little distressing that with their playoff lives at stake, Bynum came up with 10 points, 4 rebounds and 0 blocks. The 10 points are not the issue because sometimes you don't score, especially with Kobe taking 33 shots. The 4 rebounds and 0 blocks are what pop off the page.
When everything was on the line, the Lakers center came up with a Terrell Owens when he is mad at his quarterback type performance. Apathetic.
Don't chalk up his poor play to immaturity that will mature sooner or later. Bynum has a body of work as evidence to the contrary. Immature is what Andrew Bynum is.
Until recently, Dwight Howard was applauded for his boyish charm and his juvenile attitude was seen as something that he would grow out of. I think it's safe to say that ship has sailed. D-12's infantile behaviour has already cost his franchise one of the best coaches in the NBA and in due time he will force the Magic to rebuild completely from scratch.
When you talk about championship material, Andrew Bynum is one of the last guys you would think of. Sometimes the light turns on for certain players like a flip has just been switched. For the past few years, it seemed as though the light just needed to be switched on for Andrew Bynum. Now it's clear that the light in Bynum's head is forever broken, never to be turned on.
Barring injuries, Andrew Bynum will carry on being one of the most productive centers in the NBA for years to come. He has been given too many gifts from the big man upstairs. A championship is by no means out of the question for whichever team Bynum ends up playing for as long as he is not the one leading the charge.
Some team will expect Andrew Bynum to eventually be the future of their franchise. But how can anyone expect Bynum to lead a group of players when he can't even lead himself in the right direction?
Andrew Bynum's true colours were revealed again last night and those colours aren't piloting any team to an NBA championship.
You can follow me on Twitter @paintstheblack and subscribe to Painting the Black to get the latest posts.
Agree? Disagree? You can also E-mail Chris at cross_can15@hotmail.com or reply in the comments section below.
Filed under NBA Tagged with Andrew Bynum, Kobe Bryant, Los Angeles Lakers, Mike Brown, NBA
About Chris Ross
Questions, comments, suggestions? Send yours to cross_can15@hotmail.com. Follow me on twitter @paintstheblack
28 Responses to Can't Build Around Bynum
jwoodny says:
Great comparison to Nero. I agree 100%. Bynum needs an adult chaperone LOL
But seriously though, you can't change a person's natural mindset. Case in point, T.O is still jersey-less while Randy Moss will be playing for 1 of the top teams in the league. Owens can say he's changed, he'll do better, he's ready to be a veteran leader all he wants. But he can't shake that precedent that attached to his name. If Bynum doesn't turn it around this season, he'll be the same way. The other thing is the Lakers need a coach that can wrangle him. No way would he have made those kinda remarks w/ Phil Jackson as coach. Nope!
adrianabl says:
I think they should get rid of Bynum because he is to inmature and he does not have the experience that Pau Gasol has although he is 30 years old. I think if the Lakers have a chance to get Dwight Howard I would rid of both of them. And another reason why they lost is their bench was unexistent during the entire season, they should get rid of the bench, I woud keep Steve Blake, Ron Artist and Hill. Another reason trading Lamar Odom why because they lost scorring without him. Kobe is to old and selfish it his fault they lost. He tried to be the heroe.
please comment on my blog keepingupwiththissportsfan.wordpress.com and let me know your opinion. on taking out Gasol or Bynum. i still not sure which one to trade. But know thinking about it well it should be Bynum. At first i thought Gasol. But now that have analyzed it well Bynum is the one. Because is to inmature and childish. I don't like the lakers at all. they have a lot of thinking to do. I want the Celtics to win, but i know it is impossible.
Shahin Ourian says:
Bynum has been the most maddeningly frustrating player on the Lakers of the past decade. Though Shaq acted like a dick he had the drive and skill to win championships nearly on his own. On the flipside, plays like Luke Walton and Slava Medvedenko were just terrible so you couldn't really expect much from them.
Drew is more of the type with too much skill, too much fame, and too much ego to harness it all for a more focused will to win (like Kobe has… mostly). At this point in his career it's better to seek out a straight Bynum-for-Dwight trade (he's worn his welcome out in Orlando) and give them both a chance to start fresh with franchises willing to commit to each of them. Who knows, maybe they'll face off in another Lakers-Magic Finals…
please comment on my blog keepingupwiththissportsfan.wordpress.com
I agree he is too immature and he has proven that he checks out when he doesn't get his way.
GlossAngeles411 says:
I agree. How long can we pay someone just for being tall? He plays with no heart and no enthusiasm. If he doesn't care who he plays for and his agent says it's not their call, why are we literally investing SO much in him? We're wasting the talent and passion of guys like Kobe and (say what you want) MWP by surrounding them with guys like this.
Ray Boyd says:
Great article, definitely agree about the immaturity. Bynum is great but you're right, he has to mature.
I think he reached his ceiling I dont see him getting much better.Like I say about Dwight Howard, he is benefitting from a lackluster pool of big men in the NBA.
The_Esposito_Himself says:
Im not a big fan of Bynum, but I don't think he has reached his ceiling. If he goes to a team with a premier point guard, or somehow the Lakers trade Pau for one, I guarantee you will see an improvement and consistency in his game.
Alan aka tophatal says:
There's a reason why you can't build around Bynum ……….. the idiots within the Lakers' front office committed $16.3 million to him for next season and they now have to make a choice between he and Pau Gasol. Given the choice , I would execute both … their contributions this postseason have been a complete joke . Excuses and nothing but excuses from both players continuously . Mike Brown has just reiterated what many might now be thinking, be it one or two possibly two superstars on his roster , he's still a lousy coach who doesn't know how to adjust .
MWP is past his sell-by-date but he's simply too dumb to realize that very fact . If he returns next year he's still be slow and possess about as much athleticism as Clay Aiken undertaking USMC (Marine Corps) assault and obstacle course .
I agree if they have a chance to get rid of both of them and try to get Howard. Trade steve blake for a quality point guard. Mike Brown is not a good cpuach, i don`t like Phil Jackson at all. Mike Brown tried to change the system from the triangle offense to another system. they lost bench contribution from Lamar Odom and Shannon Brown. but i am not big laker fan i like the celtics better
please on my blog keepingupwiththissportsfan.wordpress.com
Swapping one infantile head-ache for another mightn't improve the Lakers at all , as their issues go far deeper . Their bench sucks and they really get that much contribution beyond what Bryant is said to do on any given night .
any chance of ever convincing jim buss that bynum should go? he seems untouchable the way jim talks about him and the future of the organization…
Chris Ross says:
It's hard to say whether he's just standing behind him in public, hoping that he can turn it around, all the while considering all the options he has. He does seem untouchable the way he talks about him. I can see his thinking behind that because Bynum can be so dominant on both ends of the floor. However, with Kobe on the inevitable (i think?) decline some day in the near future, it's tough to wrap my head around anybody really believing that he can be the future face of the franchise.
youngkerux says:
True. I have to say:
1. He is not 25 yet as you said. Maybe he'll change and grow in a few years… but that's a big maybe. After all, Allen Iverson ended his career, even won an MVP, but never grew to be a mature player.
2. Bynum is not the man you want to build around with, I agree. You need someone who is: (1) dedicated to the franchise (not a Lebron-Dwight Howard-Melo-D'Will again who will just break your heart). You need to build around guys like Kobe, Nash (who did not demand a trade), Tim Duncan, Nowitzki, Durant. Those kind of players had loyalty. That's what you need.
3. Besides someone who is loyal, you need someone who thinks about his team. That is what differentiates franchise players from the typical all-stars. Iverson did not care about practice. Jordan cared about his teammates. Kobe fought for Pau Gasol with the trade rumors, he wanted Odom back, received Sessions, continued to praise his teammates and called them out if they are not playing the way they should. The fact that Bynum just stayed in the bus instead of cheering his teammates in a non-bearing game says a lot about Bynum's selfishness. The guys who make care about their teammates and make them better is what differentiates a championship team leader from a regular all-star.
If Bynum is not the player LAL should build a team around at, what should they do?
If a good deal is available, trade Bynum while he has some value. If there is no good deals, keep him. He is still valuable being the second best center in the league.What does the Lakers need anyway? I think with the type of basketball played in the league at this era, you don't really need offensive centers that much–unless they really dominate. Bynum does not dominate. He can be stopped. Lakers should invest in a defensive-minded center. If Bynum will be committed to defense, keep him. If not, trade him.
Knowing Lakers and Mitch Kupchak, they will always find a way to replace Kobe when the time comes. Bynum doesn't have to be the answer.
NC says:
I agree with everything you said. Also remember that Bynum lost to a team of 22 and 23 year olds (Durant, Westbrook, Harden) so to defend his poor play using his youth makes no sense. In regards to D12, good luck. That is trading one headache for another.
labatman24 says:
Dwight Howard is way better than Bynum defensively. And the guy is a physical specimen who doesn't get tired like Bynum does. If you paired dwight with Kobe and gasol The lakers would be much much improved on the defensive end and possibly a contender.
I think that Bynum has some maturity issues. The laker offense is limited by their supporting players though. They go to bynum once and when he's guarded they just give up and give it back to kobe. Gasol and bynum don't play together well as gasol needs the ball in the low post, where Bynum is. The lakers lack outside shooting so their spacing is poor also. They are not a championship team but i think that bynum can contribute to a championship team if he played at his ceiling. i still feel that Phil Jackson had a point when he told Bynum to focus on defense and rebounding and not worry about his scoring. When bynum is locked in defensively The lakers were very good. At times drew looked gassed out there probably due to mike brown riding Kobe, Gasol, and Bynum so much in the regular season.
http://4hoopsheads.com/2012/05/22/pau-and-bynum-bootleg-twin-towers/
I have my own thoughts here on pau and bynum and
http://4hoopsheads.com/2012/05/21/lakersthunder-game-5-lakers-gone-fishin/
here on the lakers' loss to the thunder
Andrew Bartlett says:
Completely disagree. Bynum is the piece to build around. Get him the ball more, give him more touches and make him the focal point of the offence and we have seen the results throughout the year. He is the piece the Lakers can and probably will build around. If there is some concerns about his maturity, and some old heads around him. Heres where dropping Derek Fisher was a bad move. He was the selfless one, who kept them all in line. But Bynum is the man for the Lakers.
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chicitysportsblog says:
Nice post. I liked the historical reference to Nero lol. I'll definitely be checking your blog out. Do the same for me!
I Want More Rants! says:
Good stuff! Pretty much nailed it on who Bynum is, both at a personal level and as a professional player. How Kobe would love for those "Bosh for Bynum" trade rumour whispers to re-surface from 2 years ago when his contract with Toronto was about to expire. Bynum can totally become one of the most productive centers and is a legit big men and make any team a contender.
Unfortunately, I don't know if its because he's a Jersey kid and the whole West coast experience just has him too relaxed at such a young age, but the Lakers should heavily consider using him as bait when you've got another disgrunted big men in Orlando. Bynum wouldn't be as much in the spot light and in an Eastern Conference where the road might be a lot easier to make it deep into the playoffs (this Heat team isn't one for the ages – see rant) Howard has publically stated he wants out – rumours are now surfacing that despite senior mangement giving Van Gundy and GM their pink slips, he still wants out – I'm sure Howard would welcome the oppourtunity to win a championship and show he can do what Bynum has lacked thus far.
As I rant, he's been injured for the past 3 out of 4 season – played well in a shorten season, but when he's constantly getting injured, it might be time to re-consider who you want to make your star man of the future and potential leaders. As long as Kobe is there, he'll always be the leader but if they wish to give the reigns to Bynum – either be straight up with him and show him you won't put up with any of his non-sense or let him realize what he had once he's not a Laker. Too many other players would die for the raw talent he has and to perform it in the spotlight in a Laker uniform is only a dream for many. Learn to shut up, play your role, give it your best and accept that your still developing and perhaps you'll have a shot at not only being the best big men over the next decade, but adding titles to that as well.
He may say its the "Brown" first year thing, but the Lakers' failure is not squarely his fault – any other team would lose to OKC except the Spurs. But learn to accept that responsibilty and be accountable for what you do out on the floor. His Game 5 performance – when Kobe was putting on his best show yet in an elimination game, Bynum's mind was already set on his summer plans. That in Laker land, is totally unacceptable and wouldn't put it past management if they get rid of him!
oddballsportsblog says:
Great post here. Bynum should have another decade of high production in the NBA, but you can only go so far with the attitude he holds and the maturity he lacks. I think he'll be the best player on a team he's playing for in the future, but he's not the sure-fire go-to post guy teams need. Maybe he'll be the superstar he can be in the future, but as you said, he can be stopped at times and isn't the guy to build a franchise around. I won't give up on him yet.
Jay Wallis says:
I enjoy your implementation of history midway through this article.
What's interesting to realize is the fact that the two best centers in the NBA (D12 and Bynum) both came from high school, and that inexperience in the real world is showing for all to see. Think about when you were a senior and high school… that's the last thing those two remember before taking on millions to play a sport with a ball. They might be great players, but their actions when the going gets tough will make owners question if it is truly worth making a move for these players during a time when there is a dearth of centers.
By the way, great article! You had solid writing along with good flow. Keep up the posts!
andrewjohnwang says:
I like your article on Andrew Bynum, Chris. I have to say that whenever I see Andrew Bynum on television in that gigantic Laker uniform, I always have to see that youthful face and that giant body of his. That youthful face of Andrew Bynum doesn't seem to age, doesn't seem to grow up with wisdom, doesn't seem wiser one day at a time, doesn't grow up a second more, I think you get what I mean. He is an imposing figure, but he may not grow up mentally. In his own mind, he is a tormented little child and this is what being an adult is. He's an adult and no one has to tell him how to behave. He has to learn how to mask that inner child-like mind. There are lots of child-like adults like Andrew Bynum in the world. One has to show Bynum the ways of his child-like habits, possibly by showing his own reflection in his mirror. Sadly, the thing is, Andrew Bynum may not like to see what he wants to see in himself, because he is immature and may just remain a tormented kid inside an grown-up for the rest of his life.
andyquiroz says:
'Drew…how we love you when you dominate, and how we dislike you when your all busted up an not playing. My opinion about Andrew goes with the blame that i equally split among him an the other starters. Yes, Andrew is not our center piece but he can be an important part of us growing to a dominate team. When Andrew, Pau, and Kobe all do 20 and 15 or better, we win easily. No team in the league can stop that. So why don't we do that every night? Well that is easy. Our team chemistry and inability to adjust our offense as games go on is what always is our undoing. When Andrew doesn't bring it an just pouts, then the try-pod falls and fails. I hope he gets it together for next season, and that he trains hard in the preseason an shows up to training camp ready to repeat his all star caliber year he posted this season. If not, well, he may be playing his last year in a Laker uniform this coming season.
Well done on your article thou, lets keep it going. Since the Lakers are now home for the summer we can start some kind of USA basketball olympic blog postings.
http://andyquiroz.wordpress.com
Steven Jeffries says:
Reblogged this on stevenjeffries and commented:
I agree, maybe it's time for Andrew to go…
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