text:
Harrier GR.1, GR.3
AV-8A/C Harrier, AV-8S Matador
AV-8S Matador in flight
V/STOL ground-attack aircraft
Type of aircraft
1 April 1969[1]
Royal Air Force (historical)
United States Marine Corps (historical)
Spanish Navy (historical)
Royal Thai Navy (historical)
Number built
Developed from
Hawker Siddeley P.1127/Kestrel
Developed into
British Aerospace Sea Harrier
McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II
British Aerospace Harrier II
The Hawker Siddeley Harrier is a British military aircraft. It was the first of the Harrier series of aircraft and was developed in the 1960s as the first operational ground attack and reconnaissance aircraft with vertical/short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) capabilities and the only truly successful V/STOL design of that era. The Harrier was developed directly from the Hawker Siddeley Kestrel prototype aircraft, following the cancellation of a more advanced supersonic aircraft, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. In the late 1960s, the Harrier GR.1 and GR.3 variants were ordered by the British government for the Royal Air Force (RAF). It was exported to the United States as the AV-8A, for use by the US Marine Corps (USMC), in the 1970s.
During the Harrier's service the RAF positioned the bulk of the aircraft in West Germany to defend against a potential invasion of Western Europe by the Warsaw Pact forces; the unique abilities of the Harrier allowed the RAF to disperse their forces away from vulnerable airbases. The USMC used their Harriers primarily for close air support, operating from amphibious assault ships, and, if needed, forward operating bases. Harrier squadrons saw several deployments overseas. The Harrier's ability to operate with minimal ground facilities and very short runways allowed it to be used at locations unavailable to other fixed-wing aircraft. The Harrier received criticism for having a high accident rate and for a time-consuming maintenance process.
In the 1970s the British Aerospace Sea Harrier was developed from the Harrier for use by the Royal Navy (RN) on Invincible-class aircraft carriers. The Sea Harrier and the Harrier fought in the 1982 Falklands War, in which the aircraft proved to be crucial and versatile. The RN Sea Harriers provided fixed-wing air defence while the RAF Harriers focused on ground-attack missions in support of the advancing British land force. The Harrier was also extensively redesigned as the AV-8B Harrier II and British Aerospace Harrier II by the team of McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.
Main article: Hawker Siddeley P.1127
The Harrier's design was derived from the Hawker P.1127. Prior to developing the P.1127 Hawker Aircraft had been working on a replacement for the Hawker Hunter, the Hawker P.1121.[3] The P.1121 was cancelled after the release of the British Government's 1957 Defence White Paper, which advocated a policy shift away from manned aircraft and towards missiles. This policy resulted in the termination of the majority of aircraft development projects then underway for the British military.[4] Hawker sought to quickly move on to a new project and became interested in Vertical Take Off/Landing (VTOL) aircraft, which did not need runways.[N 1] According to Air Chief Marshal Sir Patrick Hine this interest may have been stimulated by the presence of Air Staff Requirement 345, which sought a V/STOL ground attack fighter for the Royal Air Force.[6]
Design work on the P.1127 was formally started in 1957 by Sir Sydney Camm, Ralph Hooper of Hawker Aircraft, and Stanley Hooker (later Sir Stanley Hooker) of the Bristol Engine Company.[7] The close cooperation between Hawker, the airframe company, and Bristol, the engine company, was viewed by project engineer Gordon Lewis as one of the key factors that allowed the development of the Harrier to continue in spite of technical obstacles and political setbacks.[8] Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust, the P.1127 had an innovative vectored thrust turbofan engine, the Pegasus. The Pegasus I was rated at 9,000 pounds (40 kN) of thrust and first ran in September 1959.[9] A contract for two development prototypes was signed in June 1960 and the first flight followed in October 1960.[9] Of the six prototypes built, three crashed, including one during an air display at the 1963 Paris Air Show.[10]
Tripartite evaluation
Hawker Siddeley XV-6A Kestrel in later USAF markings
In 1961 the United Kingdom, the United States and West Germany jointly agreed to purchase nine aircraft developed from the P.1127, for the evaluation of the performance and potential of V/STOL aircraft. These aircraft were built by Hawker Siddeley and were designated Kestrel FGA.1 by the UK.[11] The Kestrel was strictly an evaluation aircraft and to save money the Pegasus 5 engine was not fully developed as intended, only having 15,000 pounds (67 kN) of thrust instead of the projected 18,200 pounds (81 kN).[11] The Tripartite Evaluation Squadron numbered ten pilots; four each from the UK and US and two from West Germany.[11] The Kestrel's first flight took place on 7 March 1964.[12]
A total of 960 sorties had been made during the trials, including 1,366 takeoffs and landings, by the end of evaluations in November 1965.[13][14] One aircraft was destroyed in an accident and six others were transferred to the United States, assigned the US designation XV-6A Kestrel, and underwent further testing.[15][16][17] The two remaining British-based Kestrels were assigned to further trials and experimentation at RAE Bedford with one being modified to use the uprated Pegasus 6 engine.[18]
At the time of the development of the P.1127 Hawker and Bristol had also undertaken considerable development work on a supersonic version, the Hawker Siddeley P.1154, to meet a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) requirement issued for such an aircraft.[19] The design used a single Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine with four swivelling nozzles, in a fashion similar to the P.1127, and required the use of plenum chamber burning (PCB) to achieve supersonic speeds.[20] The P.1154 won the competition to meet the requirement against strong competition from other aircraft manufacturers such as Dassault Aviation's Mirage IIIV. The French government did not accept the decision and withdrew; the NATO requirement was cancelled shortly after in 1965.[21][N 2]
The Royal Air Force and the Royal Navy planned to develop and introduce the supersonic P.1154 independently of the cancelled NATO requirement. This ambition was complicated by the conflicting requirements between the two services—while the RAF wanted a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, the Navy sought a twin-engine air defence fighter.[23] Following the election of the Labour Government of 1964 the P.1154 was cancelled, as the Royal Navy had already begun procurement of the McDonnell Douglas Phantom II and the RAF placed a greater importance on the BAC TSR-2's ongoing development.[23] Work continued on elements of the project, such as a supersonic PCB-equipped Pegasus engine, with the intention of developing a future Harrier variant for the decades following cancellation.[24][N 3]
AV-8C Harrier taking off from an amphibious transport dock ship
Following the collapse of the P.1154's development the RAF began considering a simple upgrade of the existing subsonic Kestrel and issued Requirement ASR 384 for a V/STOL ground attack jet.[23] Hawker Siddeley received an order for six pre-production aircraft in 1965, designated P.1127 (RAF), of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966.[26] An order for 60 production aircraft, designated as Harrier GR.1, was received in early 1967.[27][28] The aircraft was named after the Harrier, a small bird of prey.
The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967. It officially entered service with the RAF on 1 April 1969[29][clarification needed] and the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft on 18 April.[30] The aircraft were built in two factories—one in Kingston upon Thames, southwest London, and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome, Surrey—and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold.[31] The ski-jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977. Following these tests ski-jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards, in preparation for the new variant for the navy, the Sea Harrier.[32][33]
In the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States. Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production,[34] but Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV-8A on the pre-existing production lines in the United Kingdom—hence all AV-8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley.[34] Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years.[35][36][37] The USMC received 102 AV-8A and 8 TAV-8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976.[38]
The Harrier was typically used as a ground attack aircraft, though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges.[39] The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage. The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated: two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust. Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted, in the nose, tail and wingtips, for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight.[40] It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units, one near each wing tip.[41] The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks.[42]
An RAF Harrier GR.1, on loan to the USMC, displaying its underside with a full load of bombs
The Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance, though approximately 90 per cent of the Kestrel's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier.[43] The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine; new air intakes with auxiliary blow-in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed. Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened. Several hardpoints were installed, two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage; two 30 mm (1.2 in) ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to the underside of the fuselage. The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel;[N 4] a navigational-attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system, originally for the P.1154, was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head-up display and a moving map display.[45][46]
The Harrier's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields.[N 5] It was believed that, in a high-intensity conflict, air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out.[N 6] The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small "alert pads" on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability.[49][N 7] Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation, saving fuel and allowing the aircraft to carry more ordnance.[51]
I still don't believe the Harrier. Think of the millions that have been spent on VTO in America and Russia, and quite a bit in Europe, and yet the only vertical take-off aircraft which you can call a success is the Harrier. When I saw the Harrier hovering and flying backwards under control, I reckoned I'd seen everything. And it's not difficult to fly.
—  Thomas Sopwith[52]
The Harrier, while serving for many decades in various forms, has been criticised on multiple issues; in particular a high accident rate, though Nordeen notes that several conventional single-engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A-4 Skyhawk and LTV A-7 Corsair II had worse accident rates.[53] The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier "...has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service. Forty-five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents".[54] Colonel Lee Buland of the USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a "challenge"; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine, including engine replacements, meant the Harrier required considerable man-hours in maintenance, more than most aircraft. Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V/STOL aircraft.[55]
Main article: Rolls-Royce Pegasus
Rolls-Royce Pegasus engine on display, sections have been cut out to provide an internal view
The Pegasus turbofan jet engine, developed in tandem with the P.1127 then the Harrier, was designed specifically for V/STOL manoeuvring. Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan. The engine's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles.[56] The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions; in normal V/STOL operations the system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load.[57] The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman, who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team.[58] Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust, if only for a limited time, and was typically used during landing, especially in high ambient temperatures.[55]
The aircraft was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process.[59] The primary focus throughout the engine's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible,[59] tempered by the amount of funding that was available.[11] Following the Harrier's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life;[57] a formal joint US–UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a £3-million annual budget to develop engine improvements.[59] Several variants have been released; the latest is the Pegasus 11–61 (Mk 107), which provides 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust, more than any previous engine.[60]
Controls and handling
Thrust vectoring nozzle on a Sea Harrier
Locations of the four nozzles on the aircraft
The Harrier has been described by pilots as "unforgiving".[61] The aircraft is capable of both forward flight (where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft above its stall speed), as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres (where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters. Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots, as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft. Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots.[N 8][12]
In addition to normal flight controls, the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles. It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success, that to enable and control the aircraft's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit.[62] For horizontal flight, the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings, the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards.[63][64]
The Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed-wing aircraft: the thrust vector and the reaction control system. The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0° (horizontal, pointing directly backwards) and 98° (pointing down and slightly forwards). The 90° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring. The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres.[65]
The wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres. The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind. The thrust vector is set to 90° and the throttle is brought up to maximum, at which point the aircraft leaves the ground. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude.[51] The short-takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector (less than 90°) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed; usually the point of application is around 65 knots (120 km/h). For lower takeoff speeds the thrust vector is greater.[62] The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft's fuselage and nose, also the wingtips. Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft's pitch and roll during vertical flight.[66]
Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward-facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight, or "VIFFing". This is a dog-fighting tactic, allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates. Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing, a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s.[67][68]
Differences between versions
The two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps (USMC). The exported model of the aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV-8A Harrier, which was broadly similar to the RAF's Harrier GR.1.[69] Changes included the removal of all magnesium components, which corroded quickly at sea, and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) systems; furthermore the outer pylons, unlike the RAF aircraft, were designed from delivery to be equipped with self-defence AIM-9 Sidewinder heat-seeking air-to-air missiles.[38] Most of the AV-8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1.[69] Two-seat Harriers were operated for training purposes; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added.[70] The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions, while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy's Sea Harrier, with appropriate fittings.[71] The US and Spain flew the TAV-8A and TAV-8S, respectively.[72][73]
All RAF GR.1s and the initial AV-8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation/attack suite, but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface/Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions. The Martin-Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU-3A in the American aircraft.[74][75] The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard, which featured improved sensors, a nose-mounted laser tracker, the integration of electronic countermeasure (ECM) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103.[35][36] The USMC upgraded their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft's avionics. Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices, to increase VTOL performance; at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft.[37] Spain's Harriers, designated AV-8S or VA.1 Matador for the single-seater and TAV-8S or VAE.1 for the two-seater, were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted.[76]
The Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier, the British Aerospace Sea Harrier. The Sea Harrier was intended for multiple naval roles and was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties as part of fleet air defence.[N 9] The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings, modifications to reduce corrosion by seawater and a raised bubble-canopy covered cockpit for better visibility.[77][78] The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM-120 AMRAAM beyond-visual-range anti-aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air-to-air combat, as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti-ship missions.[79]
The McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant, a second-generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF, USMC and FAA. In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers: joining McDonnell Douglas (MDC) in developing the BAE Harrier II, or the independent development of a "Big Wing" Harrier. This proposal would have increased the wing area from 200 to 250 square feet (19 to 23 m2), allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves.[80] The option of cooperation with MDC was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach.[81] The original Harrier served as the basis for the British Aerospace Sea Harrier as it was required to fill the fighter role.
Operational history
The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1, No. 1 Squadron, started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969.[23][82] An early demonstration of the Harrier's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in the Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969, flying between St Pancras railway station, London and central Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling. The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes.[83][84] Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany; another squadron was formed there two years later. In 1977, these three squadrons were moved forward to the air base at Gütersloh, closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war. One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two.[85]
A No. 1453 Flight Harrier GR.3 at Stanley Airport in 1984
In RAF service, the Harrier was used in close air support (CAS), reconnaissance, and other ground-attack roles. The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long-term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany.[86] Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize, a former British colony.[86] No. 1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war, operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe. The Harrier's capabilities were necessary in the Belize deployment, as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport's short runway;[87] British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory; the forces were withdrawn in 1993, two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize.[88]
In the Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) in 1982, 10 Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron operated from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes.[89] As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service, the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force. Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck-based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier.[90] Transponders to guide aircraft back to the carriers during night-time operations were also installed, along with flares and chaff dispensers.[91]
As there was little space on the carriers, two requisitioned merchant container ships, Atlantic Conveyor and Atlantic Causeway, were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic.[92] The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority.[93][94] Sea Harriers were also used in the war, primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters.[92] However, both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground-attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley.[95]
If most of the Sea Harriers had been lost, the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties, even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air-to-air Sidewinder missiles.[90] From 10 to 24 May 1982, prior to British forces landing in the Falklands, a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F-4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility.[96] During the Falklands War, the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface-to-air missiles (SAMs) and small arms fire from the ground.[97] In total, four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, accidents, or mechanical failure.[98] More than 2,000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict—equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft.[99]
An RAF Harrier GR.3 in Belize, 1990
Following the Falklands war, British Aerospace explored the Skyhook, a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships. Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re-arming. This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas.[100] The system was marketed to foreign customers,[N 10] and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as the Russian Typhoon class, but the system attracted no interest.[102]
The first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War, although they continued to serve for years afterwards. As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts, No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985.[103] However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia, Iraq, and Afghanistan. The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the improved Harrier II, which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace.[104]
"In my mind the AV-8A Harrier was like the helicopter in Korea. [It] had limited capability, but that's how the first-generation automobile, boat, or other major systems evolved... it brought us into the world of flexible basing and the Marine Corps into the concept of vertical development"
Major General Joe Anderson.[105]
The United States Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969, and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase.[106] Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role,[N 11] the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement.[108]
The Marine Corps accepted its first AV-8A on 6 January 1971, at the Dunsfold Aerodrome, England and began testing it at Naval Air Station Patuxent River on 26 January.[109] The AV-8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971, replacing other aircraft in the Marines' attack squadrons.[110] The service became interested in performing ship-borne operations with the Harrier. Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship, a 15,000-ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters, to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy. An amphibious assault ship, USS Guam, was converted into the Interim Sea Control Ship and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel.[111][112] Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re-examinations and studies, often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers.[113][114][N 12]
A pair of USMC AV-8A from VMA-513 in formation flight in 1974.
Other exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV-8A's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers, including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard USS Franklin D. Roosevelt for six months in 1976.[111] The tests showed, amongst other things, that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not.[111] In support of naval operations, the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate the Harrier. One result was Arapaho, a stand-by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers, to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon.[116][N 13]
When the reactivation of the Iowa-class battleships was under consideration, a radical design for a battleship-carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced the ship's rear turret with a flight deck, complete with a hangar and two ski jumps, for operating several Harriers. However, the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations, while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant, and the concept was dropped.[117][118]
The Marines Corps' concept for deploying the Harriers in a land-based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed. Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area. The forward bases, containing one to four aircraft, were to be located 20 miles (32 km) from the forward edge of battle (FEBA), while a more established permanent airbase would be located around 50 miles (80 km) from the FEBA.[119][N 14] The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption.[119]
A pair of USMC AV-8A Harriers refuelling from a Lockheed Martin KC-130 tanker
The AV-8A's abilities in air-to-air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom IIs; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring-in-forward-flight (VIFF) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air-to-air fighters at close range.[67] The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V/STOL aircraft, which had been judged to be expensive failures in the past.[120] Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft.[121]
Starting in 1979, the USMC began upgrading their AV-8As to the AV-8C configuration—the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance.[37] The AV-8C and the remaining AV-8A Harriers were retired by 1987.[122] These were replaced by the Harrier II, designated as the AV-8B, which was introduced into service in 1985.[123] The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC's own plans,[119] but these never resulted in Air Force orders. Since the late 1990s, the AV-8B has been slated to be replaced by the F-35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II, a more modern V/STOL jet aircraft.[124]
Like the next generation AV-8Bs, nevertheless, the AV-8A/C Harriers suffered many accidents, with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during the 1970s and 1980s.[125]
Other operators
A Spanish Navy AV-8S Matador aircraft
Due to the Harrier's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations, often as attempts to make their own V/STOL jets were unsuccessful, such as in the cases of the American XV-4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B.[N 15] Operations by the USMC aboard USS Nassau in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft was highly effective in combat. These operations also demonstrated that "Harrier Carriers" provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers.[126][N 16]
Following the display of Harrier operations from small carriers, the navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier-based fixed-wing aircraft.[N 17] Spain's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long-standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary.[130] During tests in November 1972, the British pilot John Farley showed that the wooden deck of Dédalo was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier.[citation needed] Since 1976, the Spanish Navy operated the AV-8S Matador from their aircraft carrier Dédalo (formerly the USS Cabot); the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet.[131] Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government mainly to replace losses.[132]
Hawker Siddeley aggressively marketed the Harrier for export. At one point the company was holding talks with Australia, Brazil, Switzerland, India and Japan. Of these only India became a customer, purchasing the Sea Harrier.[133] At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier. Following an overture by the UK in the early 1970s, when relations with the West were warming, China became interested in the aircraft as it sought to modernise its armed forces; British Prime Minister James Callaghan noted significant hostility from the USSR over the sales bid.[134][135] The deal was later cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash after China invaded Vietnam in 1979.[136]
The Spanish Navy, Thai Navy, Royal Air Force, and U.S. Marine Corps have all retired their first-generation Harriers. Spain sold seven single-seat and two twin-seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998.[132][137][N 18] The Royal Thai Navy's AV-8S Matadors were delivered as part of the air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier HTMS Chakri Naruebet.[139] The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment, leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time. In 1999, two years after being delivered, only one airframe was in airworthy condition.[140][141] Around 2003, Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers, which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence, to replace their AV-8S Harriers; this investigation did not progress to a purchase.[142] The last first-generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006.[143]
Potential operators
Some countries almost purchased Harriers. British Aerospace held talks with Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, Switzerland, India, and Japan.
When the Argentinian Navy looked for newer fighters in 1968 the US government only offered old A-4A planes instead of the A-4Fs Argentina wanted. Argentina contacted the British government in 1969 and expressed interest in buying from six to twelve Harrier GR.1s. In 1969 the Argentinian Navy received its second carrier, ARA 25 de Mayo, from the Netherlands. On her voyage home, Hawker Siddeley demonstrated a RAF Harrier GR.Mk.1 (XV757) but Argentina opted for the A-4Q Skyhawk instead. There were several problems to supply Argentina with Harrier jets and engines that prevented the deal from being closed, and when the US knew about the Harrier negotiations they quickly offered a better deal to Argentina. Some years later, before the 1982 war, British officials offered Argentina an aircraft carrier and Sea Harrier aircraft.[144][145]
Planning for a HMAS Melbourne aircraft carrier replacement began in 1981. After considering American, Italian, and Spanish designs, the Australian government accepted a British offer to sell HMS Invincible, which would be operated with Harriers and helicopters.[146][147][148] However, the Royal Navy withdrew the offer after the Falklands War, and the 1983 election of the Australian Labor Party led to the cancellation of plans to replace Melbourne.[146][147]
As early as 1972 the Chinese government started negotiating a purchase of up to 200 Harrier aircraft. Due to internal political issues, China put the negotiations on hold. In 1977 Li Chiang, the Chinese Minister of Foreign Trade, visited the UK and British Aerospace organised a Harrier flying demonstration. In November 1978, the Harrier-demonstration was repeated for the Chinese Vice-Premier Wang Chen during his UK visit. The Harrier deal would have meant British Government ignored United States laws that prohibited such sales to communist countries. The Soviet Union was also actively opposed to the UK selling weapons to the Chinese. In spite of that, British Aerospace convinced China that the Harrier was an effective close-support fighter and was good enough to act in a defensive role. In 1979, the Anglo-Sino deal was almost done before being cancelled by the Sino-Vietnamese War.[149][150]
The Swiss Air Force was interested in purchasing some Harriers as its doctrine was to operate in hidden and disperse locations during the Cold War. British Aerospace held talks with Switzerland offering AV-8s to replace De Havilland Venoms. A demonstration was made by test pilot John Farley and XV742/G-VSTO in 1971.[151]
Main article: List of Harrier variants
A Royal Air Force Harrier GR.3 aircraft parked on the flight line during Air Fete '84 at RAF Mildenhall.
Harrier GR.1, GR.1A, GR.3
Single-seat versions for the RAF.[35][36][152] The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1/GR.3 series,[153] with the last production aircraft delivery in December 1986.[154] 122 built.[2]
AV-8A, AV-8C Harrier
Single-seat versions for the US Marine Corps.[69] The USMC ordered 102 AV-8As (company designation: Harrier Mk. 50).[153] The AV-8C was an upgrade to the AV-8A.[37] 110 built.[2]
AV-8S Matador
Export version of the AV-8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy, who designated them as VA-1 Matador;[73] later sold to the Royal Thai Navy. 10 built.[2]
Harrier T.2, T.2A, T.4, T.4A
Two-seat training versions for the RAF, with a stretched body and taller tail fin.[70] 25 built.[2]
Harrier T.4N, T.8, T.60
Two-seat training versions for the Royal Navy and Indian Navy with avionics based on the Sea Harrier.[71]
TAV-8A Harrier
Two-seat training version for the USMC, powered by a Pegasus Mk 103.[72]
TAV-8S Matador
Two-seat training version for the Spanish Navy and later sold to the Royal Thai Navy.[73]
Main article: List of Harrier operators
Indian Navy (see Sea Harrier)
A USMC TAV-8A Harrier from VMAT-203 on the flight line
Spanish Navy[155]
Royal Thai Navy[156]
Royal Air Force[157]
Royal Navy[158]
United States Marine Corps[159]
Aircraft on display
Former Harrier GR.1 that crashed in 1971 and used as a static engine test bed by Rolls-Royce, seen on display at the Bristol Aero Collection, Kemble, England
GR.3
ZD669 – Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport, Ladyville, Belize[160]
No. 1417 Flight RAF
AV-8A
158966 – Canada Aviation and Space Museum, Ottawa, Ontario[161]
Harrier GR3 in Beijing Air and Space Museum
XZ965 – Beijing Air and Space Museum[162]
XV278 – Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Gatow[163]
XZ998 – Flugausstellung Hermeskeil at Hermeskeil[164]
XW919 – Polish Aviation Museum, Kraków, Poland[165]
XZ129 – Ashburton Aviation Museum, Ashburton, New Zealand[166]
AV-8S Royal Thai Navy in Royal Thai Air Force Museum
AV-8S
3109 – Royal Thai Air Force Museum
XV277 – National Museum of Flight, East Fortune[167]
XV281 (Under Restoration) – South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster, South Yorkshire
XV741 – Brooklands Museum, Surrey[168]
XV744 – Tangmere Military Aviation Museum, Chichester, West Sussex[169]
XV748 – Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington[170]
XV751 – Gatwick Aviation Museum, Surrey[171]
XV752 – South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum, Doncaster, South Yorkshire[172]
XV753 – Classic Air Force, St Mawgan, Newquay, Cornwall[173]
XV779 – RAF Wittering (Gate Guardian)[174]
XZ133 – Imperial War Museum, Duxford[175]
XZ964 – Royal Engineers Museum, Gillingham, Kent[176]
XZ968 – Muckleburgh Collection, Norfolk[177]
XZ997 – RAF Museum, Hendon[178]
XZ971 – MoD Donnington, Telford[citation needed]
ZD667 – Bentwaters Cold War Museum, Suffolk[179]
Mk.52 G-VTOL
ZA250 – Brooklands Museum, Surrey[180]
XW269 – Caernarfon Airworld Aviation Museum, Gwynedd
XW934 – Farnborough Air Sciences Trust, Farnborough, Hampshire[181]
XW268 – City of Norwich Aviation Museum, Norfolk[182]
159233 – Imperial War Museum North
158695 – Air Park, MCAS Yuma, Yuma, Arizona[183]
159239 – San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, California[184]
158963 – Craven County Regional Airport, Grantham, North Carolina[185]
158976 – City of Havelock, Havelock, North Carolina[186]
Cockpit on display at Moffett Historical Museum, Moffett Federal Airfield, California
TAV-8A
159381 – Oakland Aviation Museum, Oakland, California[187]
159382 – Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona[188]
AV-8C
158387 – Fort Worth Aviation Museum, Fort Worth, Texas[189]
158710 – Quonset Air Museum, North Kingstown, Rhode Island[190]
158959 – Pacific Coast Air Museum, Santa Rosa, California[191]
158975 – National Naval Aviation Museum, NAS Pensacola, Pensacola, Florida[192]
158977 – Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington[193]
159232 – Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum, New York City, New York[194]
159238 – Hangar 25 Museum, Webb AFB (formerly), Big Spring, Texas[195]
159247 – Naval Inventory Control Point (NAVICP) Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania[197]
159249 – United States Naval Museum of Armament and Technology, NCC China Lake (North), Ridgecrest, California[198]
Specifications (Harrier GR.3)
Data from Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89[199]
Crew: 1
Length: 46 ft 10 in (14.27 m)
Wingspan: 25 ft 5 in (7.75 m)
29 ft 8 in (9 m) with ferry tips fitted
Height: 11 ft 11 in (3.63 m)
Wing area: 201.1 sq ft (18.68 m2)
216 sq ft (20 m2) with ferry tips fitted
Aspect ratio: 3.175
4.08 with ferry tips fitted
Airfoil: root: Hawker 10%; tip: Hawker 3.3%[200]
Empty weight: 13,535 lb (6,139 kg)
Max takeoff weight: 25,200 lb (11,431 kg)
Fuel capacity: 5,060 lb (2,295 kg) internal
2× 100 imp gal (120 US gal; 450 l), 790 lb (358 kg) drop-tanks for combat
2× 330 imp gal (400 US gal; 1,500 l), 2,608 lb (1,183 kg) drop-tanks for ferry
Powerplant: 1 × Rolls-Royce Pegasus 103 vectored-thrust high-bypass turbofan engine, 21,500 lbf (96 kN) thrust with water injection
Maximum speed: 635 kn (731 mph, 1,176 km/h) at sea level
Maximum diving speed: Mach 1.3
Combat range: 360 nmi (410 mi, 670 km) ho-lo-hi with 4,400 lb (1,996 kg) payload
200 nmi (230 mi; 370 km) lo-lo with 4,400 lb (1,996 kg) payload
Ferry range: 1,850 nmi (2,130 mi, 3,430 km) with 330 imp gal (400 US gal; 1,500 l) drop-tanks
3,000 nmi (3,500 mi; 5,600 km) with one AAR
Endurance: 1 hour 30 minutes combat air patrol 100 nmi (120 mi; 190 km) from base.
7 hours plus with one AAR
Service ceiling: 51,200 ft (15,600 m)
g limits: +7.8 −4.2
Time to altitude: 40,000 ft (12,192 m) in 2 minutes 23 seconds from a vertical take-off
Take-off run CTOL: 1,000 ft (300 m) at max. TO weight
Guns: 2× 30 mm (1.18 in) ADEN cannon pods under the fuselage
Hardpoints: 4× under-wing & 1× under-fuselage pylon stations with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,268 kg), with provisions to carry combinations of:
Rockets: 4× Matra rocket pods with 18× SNEB 68 mm rockets each
Missiles: 2× AIM-9 Sidewinders Air-to-air missiles
Bombs: A variety of unguided iron bombs, BL755 cluster bombs or laser-guided bombs
1× Reconnaissance pod
2× drop tanks for extended range/loitering time
Ferranti LRMTS
Marconi ARI 18223 RWR
Plessey U/VHF comms
Ultra standby UHF
GEC Avionics AD2770 TACAN
Cossor IFF
Ferranti FE541 INAS
Sperry C2G compass
Smiths HUD
Main article: Hawker Siddeley Harrier in fiction
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Aircraft in Fiction – the Harrier
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
Rockwell XFV-12
^ The development of a V/STOL jet was not Hawker's primary objective as it had put in a joint bid with Avro to meet the GOR.339 Requirement (which resulted in the BAC TSR-2 development programme), but had been unsuccessful. The inability to obtain work on conventional aircraft in a hostile political climate was perhaps the greatest motivation for Hawker to proceed with the development of the Harrier.[5]
^ The Mirage IIIV had been rejected mainly because of its excessive complexity, using nine engines compared with the P.1154's single-engine approach.[22]
^ The supersonic Harrier is not to be confused with the Big Wing Harrier. Neither concept would result in a successor aircraft.[25]
^ Some avionics systems used in the Harrier had been carried over from the cancelled BAC TSR-2, such as the Weapon Aiming Computer.[44]
^ The area needed for a Harrier to comfortably take off was said to be less than a tennis court, while the majority of aircraft required a two-mile-long runway.[47]
^ Experience from the Second World War had made this vulnerability abundantly clear to many Air Force officers around the world; this perception of vulnerability contributed heavily to the interest in and development of VTOL aircraft like the Harrier.[48]
^ Some officers went so far as to deride conventional aircraft, unfavourably comparing to the Maginot Line, as static and highly vulnerable.[50]
^ In preparation for flying the Kestrel, pilots of the Tripartite Evaluation Squadron were provided with several hours of helicopter piloting tuition, all of whom agreed on the effort being highly worthwhile preparation.[12]
^ While the USMC Harriers had Sidewinder missiles, they still lacked radars.
^ In the early 1990s, following Japanese interest in acquiring Harriers, Skyhook was suggested as a means to operate onboard their helicopter destroyers.[101]
^ These other projects were the Lockheed AH-56 Cheyenne and the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II.[107]
^ Spain would adapt the American Sea Control Ship concept with the addition of a ski jump, launching the vessel as the Principe de Asturias, which carried AV-8S Matador Harriers.[115]
^ Arapaho would have been operationally similar to the British container ship Atlantic Conveyor, which not only transported Harriers but was modified to enable crude flight operations as well.
^ Dispersed forward bases were heavily reliant on effective transportation to refuel and rearm the Harriers; possessing a large fleet of air transports, helicopters or ground vehicles to support such operations was identified as crucial by USMC senior officers. It was planned that supplies would to be regularly ferried by Sikorsky CH-53E Super Stallions from main bases to all forward bases.[119]
^ Kevin Brown of Popular Mechanics described the development efforts of performance vertical aircraft as having "long eluded the best efforts of the aviation industry", and noted that several American efforts had been "spectacularly unsuccessful".[40]
^ Politically, the British government had decided not to use aircraft carriers after the 1960s, due to the costs involved. The Invincible-class aircraft carriers had been developed under the official guise of being an anti-submarine Through Deck Cruiser, but the approved development of the Sea Harrier and the addition of ski-jumps to the design enabled ships of the Invincible class to perform as light aircraft carriers.[127][128]
^ Italy also became an operator of a "Harrier Carrier", but they only operated the second-generation McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II.[129]
^ Spain sold its AV-8S Matadors following the introduction of new second generation Harrier II aircraft; as a result the Harrier I models were outdated and no longer required.[138]
^ "Hawker Siddeley Harrier". Aircraft of the Month. Tangmere Military Aviation Museum. April 2008. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
^ a b c d e Mason 1991, pp. 421–432.
^ Davies and Thornborough 1997, pp. 12–13.
^ Jefford 2006, p. 11.
^ Jefford 2005, pp. 11–12, 25.
^ Jefford 2006, pp. 11–12.
^ a b Jefford 2006, p. 24.
^ Mason 1991, pp. 413–416.
^ a b c d Jefford 2006, p. 39.
^ a b c Jefford 2006, p. 41.
^ Spick 2000, p. 362.
^ Evans, A. "American Harrier – Part One." Model Aircraft Monthly, Vol. 8, Issue 4, pp. 36–39.
^ Mason, Kenneth J. and Charles R. Rosburg. "USAF Evaluation of the Harrier GR Mk 1. – AD0855032". Archived 31 March 2017 at the Wayback Machine Air Force Flight Test Center Edwards AFB, June 1969.
^ Jenkins 1998, p. 16. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ Buttler 2000, pp. 119–120.
^ Moxton 1982, p. 1633.
^ Mason 1986, p. 78.
^ "VTOL Aircraft 1966". Flight International, 26 May 1966. p. 884. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ Jackson, Robert (2007). Britain's Greatest Aircraft. Pen and Sword. p. 213. ISBN 9781473812673.
^ Evans 1998, pp. 21–22.
^ Nordeen 2006, p. 66.
^ Vann 1990, p. 23.
^ a b Nordeen 2006, p. 28.
^ a b c Evans 1998, pp. 31, 33.
^ a b c Jackson 1991, p. 54.
^ a b c d Nordeen 2006, p. 35.
^ Brown 1970, p. 71.
^ a b Brown 1970, p. 81.
^ Spick 2000, pp. 364–371.
^ Mason 1986, pp. 73–76.
^ Evans 1998, pp. 14, 16.
^ Jefford 2005, p. 9.
^ Brown 1970, pp. 82–83.
^ Taylor, P.W. "The Impact of V/STOL on Tactical Air Warfare". Archived 15 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine Air University Review, November–December 1977. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ "camel – harrier – anthony fokker – 1979 – 0033 – Flight Archive".
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^ Alan C. Miller and Sack, Kevin. "Harrier Crash Renews Calls for an Inquiry." Los Angeles Times, 11 December 2003. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
^ a b Nordeen 2006, p. 118.
^ Gunston, W. T. "Bristol Siddeley's Fans". Flight, 12 August 1960, pp. 210–211. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
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Jenkins, Dennis R. Boeing / BAe Harrier. North Branch, Minnesota, US: Specialty Press, 1998. ISBN 1-58007-014-0.
Layman, R D and Stephen McLaughlin. The Hybrid Warship. London: Conway, 1991. ISBN 0-85177-555-1.
Markman, Steve and Bill Holder. Straight Up: A History of Vertical Flight. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7643-1204-9.
Mason, Francis K. Harrier. Wellingborough, UK: Patrick Stephens Limited, Third edition, 1986. ISBN 0-85059-801-X.
Mason, Francis K. Hawker Aircraft since 1920. London, UK: Putnam, 1991. ISBN 0-85177-839-9.
Miller, David M.O. and Chris Miller. "Modern Naval Combat". Crescent Books, 1986. ISBN 0-517-61350-6.
Moxton, Julian. "Supersonic Harrier: One Step Closer". Flight International, 4 December 1982, pp. 1633–1635.
Nordeen, Lon O. Harrier II, Validating V/STOL. Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 2006. ISBN 1-59114-536-8.
Spick, Mike, ed. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota, US: MBI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.
Sturtivant, Ray. Fleet Air Arm Fixed-Wing Aircraft since 1946. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians), 2004. ISBN 0-85130-283-1.
Sturtivant, Ray. RAF Flying Training and Support Units since 1912. Tonbridge, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians), 2007. ISBN 0-85130-365-X.
Taylor, John W.R. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1988–89. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Defence Data, 1988. ISBN 0-7106-0867-5.
Vann, Frank. Harrier jump jet. New York, US: Bdd Promotional Book Co, 1990. ISBN 0-7924-5140-6.
Farley, John OBE. A View From The Hover: My Life in Aviation. Bath, UK: Seager Publishing/Flyer Books, 2010, first edition 2008. ISBN 978-0-9532752-0-5.
Gunston, Bill and Mike Spick. Modern Air Combat: The Aircraft, Tactics and Weapons Employed in Aerial Warfare Today. New York: Crescent Books, 1983. ISBN 0-517-41265-9.
Mason, Francis. Hawker Aircraft since 1920. London: Putnam Publishing, 1971. ISBN 0-370-00066-8.
Polmar, Norman and Dana Bell. One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft. Annapolis, Maryland, US: Naval Institute Press, 2003. ISBN 1-59114-686-0.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hawker Siddeley Harrier.
Harrier history website (see archive)
Harrier page on globalsecurity.org
Harriers lost in the Falklands
Harrier GR.3 in Beijing Aviation Museum, China Archived 12 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine
"Harrier – World's First Fixed-wing V/STOL Weapons System" a 1967 article in Flight
"Harriers for the United States?" 1969 Flight article on the USMC case for the Harrier
"Woodland Warfare" a 1972 Flight article on Harrier dispersed operations
"V for Two" a 1972 Flight article on the two-seat Harrier T.2
"In the Air – Harrier" a 1973 Flight article on flying the Harrier
Hawker and Hawker Siddeley aircraft
By project number
A.P.D.1019
P.V.3
Australian Fighter
Danecock
Dantorp
Duiker
F.20/27 Interceptor
Hawfinch
Hotspur
Hunter (variants)
Hurricane (variants)
Sea Fury
Tomtit
Woodcock
Harrier (variants)
HS.125
Sea Vixen
P.139B
P.1127 Kestrel
British Aerospace and BAE Systems aircraft
Combat aircraft
Harrier II
Hawk 200
Sea Harrier
Tornado ADV
Global Combat Air Programme
Patrol and surveillance
Nimrod R1
Nimrod AEW3
Nimrod MRA4
Airliners/Transports
Jetstream 31/32
One-Eleven
Drones (UAVs)
Corax
HERTI
Skylynx II
Combat drones (UCAVs)
Development/Concept aircraft
ATSF
P.1233-1
Harrier jump jet family and related aircraft
Predecessors
Hawker P.1127
Hawker Siddeley Kestrel
Hawker Siddeley P.1154
Hawker Siddeley Harrier
United States attack aircraft designations, Army/Air Force and Tri-Service systems
Army/Air Force sequence
Tri-service sequence
Non-sequential
Related designations
AT-6
AU-23
AV-8
AV-162
1 Not assigned • 2 Unofficial designation
Not to be confused with the Aerial target or Amphibious aircraft sequences.
United States STOL and VTOL aircraft designations
Original sequence
XV-8
FV-12
1 Not assigned • 2 Assigned to multiple types • 3 Unofficial
1960s British fighter aircraft
Hawker Siddeley aircraft
V/STOL aircraft by thrust vectoring
Single-engined jet aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Harrier Jump Jet
Aircraft first flown in 1967


text:
Q: How do I split out delimited data in one cell and repeat the adjacent cell against each item of delimited data separated out I have an excel file with a list of applications in one cell, and multiple delimited user names against the application in the adjacent cell. I need to separate the users from one cell to multiple cells, in one column, while repeating the name of the application for each user
    Current data looks something like this;

    Column1        | Column 2
    Application 1  | User1,User2,User3
    Application 2  | User1,User2,User3

    I want to get an output to be something like this;
    Column 1       | Column 2
    Application 1  |  User 1
    Application 1  |  User 2
    Application 1  |  User 3
    Application 2  |  User 1
    Application 2  |  User 2
    Application 2  |  User 3

I have been playing about with index match, VBA etc and failing miserably - I don't think any code I've completed to date is relevant

A: Here is a super simple approach:
Sub Reorg()
    Dim i As Long, N As Long, ap As String, arr, a
    Dim k As Long

    N = Cells(Rows.Count, "A").End(xlUp).Row
    k = 1

    For i = 1 To N
    ap = Cells(i, 1).Value
    arr = Split(Cells(i, 2).Value, ",")
        For Each a In arr
            Cells(k, 3).Value = ap
            Cells(k, 4).Value = a
            k = k + 1
        Next a
    Next i
End Sub

For original data in columns A and B:

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Getting ready to sell your residence means decluttering and staging your home to attract buyers. Unless you're a minimalist, we don't know too many homeowners whose property is immediately ready to go on the market without a good cleansing. Start with the big items, nothing makes a room appear larger than when you remove big, clunky furnishings. Thin out the chachkis throughout the house including walls. Keep these three options in mind: keep, donate or dispose. Order a portable storage container so you can start storing away at your own pace. Or, contact a moving and storage company who can pick up your excess items and take to storage.
AMWAT offers both options, we can easily drop off a portable storage container and when it's full, we will gladly retrieve the container and store in our air-conditioned warehouse until your moving day. Alternatively, we can dispatch our professional movers who can do all the heavy lifting and deliver to AMWAT's air-conditioned storage.


"I was lucky enough to judge the Swansea Metropolitan University's recent Casual Games Awards. The students presented their projects, based on projects set as part of their syllabus.
Tom Orchard won the BSc award showing a strong, commercial idea for a Snickers game featuring Mr T from the A-Team.
Richard Morgan won the BA award with a racing game that was not far off commercial standard and a first class side shooter too.
There is some very strong work coming out of the University at the moment and we are working closely with them in their second semester – giving the modules a more commercial flavour. We'll be giving the students a project or two based on real-life commissions with real-life deadlines.
Well done Tom, Richard and all of the shortlisted students.


text:
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Memory Care near Holstein, Iowa
Ramsey Village
1611 27th Street, Des Moines, IA 50310
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Ramsey Village Continuing Care Retirement Community located on 10-acres of beautiful landscapped land provides a full range of choices for today's seniors. Choosing a senior living community represents a lifestyle choice and we understand that our residents are choosing much more than a...
Courtyard Estates at Cedar Pointe
6132 Northeast 12th Avenue, Pleasant Hill, IA 50327
Courtyard Estates will support you in living in an environment that promotes choice, independence and dignity with the added benefit of safety and security. Our Courtyard Estates Community in Pleasant Hill, Iowa is a designated memory care community and puts the focus on serving your loved with...
The Meriwether-La Vista
8140 S 97th Plaza, La Vista, NE 68128
Home is more than just a building or an address, it's a feeling. Of comfort, security, happiness and joy. At The Meriwether, our goal is to make you feel right at home.The Meriwether is home to individuals with varying levels of support needs. We offer three levels of residency: Carefree Living,...
Bickford of West Des Moines
5050 Hawthorne Dr, West Des Moines, IA 50265
We began our quest into senior living because of our love for our beloved mother, Mary Bickford, whose needs became too great for us to manage. As we researched senior living options, we were shocked at our findings. The options offered too much or too little — none met her...
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Arlington Place of Red Oak
800 East Ratliff Ave, Red Oak, IA 51566
Why spend another winter alone? Move to Arlington Place and join in on all the wonderful activities that are offered right in their community. Feel secure with 24 hour a day monitoring system and Registered Nurse available 24 hours a day 7 days a week. Just some of the services included in your...
Crown Pointe Retirement Community
2820 S 80th St, Omaha, NE 68124
Discover the good life at Crown Pointe, where the most sought after Independent Living, Assisted Living and Memory Care services in Omaha, Nebraska, can be found in abundance. Our warm and inviting community is filled with potential friends and comforts to help residents enjoy every moment of...
Edencrest at Riverwoods
2210 East Park Avenue, Des Moines, IA 50320
Edencrest at Riverwoods is an assisted living community located in Des Moines, Polk County, Iowa. Our beautiful community is located near Lake Easter and several parks. Des Moines is a wonderful area for both residents and their loved ones to enjoy. We are committed to our residents by providing...
Providence Place Memory Care
749 E 32nd St, Fremont, NE 68025
Vintage Hills of Indianola
604 E Hillcrest Ave, Indianola, IA 50125
Vintage Hills is located in Indianola, Iowa just 15 minutes south of Des Moines. There are 46 assisted living apartments ranging from 414 to 813 square feet. The memory care consist of 20 apartments with private and shared rooms. We have immediate availabilities for memory care. There is a town...
Via Christe Assisted Living and Memory Care
3636 California St, Omaha, NE 68131
Glen Oaks Alzheimer's Special Care Center
8525 Urbandale Ave, Urbandale, IA 50322
The Glen Oaks Alzheimer's Special Care Center facility was opened in December, 2012, and is located in beautiful Urbandale, a suburb of the capital city of Des Moines, the largest city in Iowa. As part of JEA Senior Living, Glen Oaks Alzheimer's Special Care Center is a family member of a group...
Woodlands Creek Senior Living
12675 Woodlands Pkwy, Clive, IA 50325
At Woodlands Creek Active Retirement Community, we offer 3 different levels of care to meet our residents wants and needs ranging from independent living to memory care. Independent Living Woodlands Creek Independent Living opened in 2005 and expanded in 2008. Our independent living setting...
Brighton Gardens of Omaha
9220 Western Avenue, Omaha, NE 68114
Brighton Gardens provides assisted living in an apartment-style setting that offers the simple pleasures - nutritious food, comfortable surroundings, and the support of a warm, caring and competent staff. Our Skilled Nursing Center emphasizes resident care and dignity in private or shared...
Edencrest at Beaverdale
3410 Beaver Ave, Des Moines, IA 50310
Edencrest at Beaverdale is professionally managed by Senior Housing Companies. Built by Hubbell Realty Company. We are committed to providing Red Carpet treatment for everyone who lives, works, and visits Beaverdale. Enjoy peace of mind and a wide variety of all-inclusive amenities when you...
CountryHouse Residence for Memory Care
1831 East Kanesville Blvd, Council Bluffs, IA 51503
CountryHouse in Council Bluffs was designed and is staffed specifically to benefit individuals living with Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia. From our many years of experience working with those needing memory care and their families, we know that consistency, security, comfort and...
Edencrest at The Legacy
2901 Cedar St, Norwalk, IA 50211
Edencrest at The Legacy is the fifth retirement living community in the Edencrest series, offering 40 apartments of Independent Living, Assisted Living, Closer Care and Memory Care to the Norwalk community. As a resident at The Legacy, you'll enjoy freedom of choice when it comes to our wide...
Trail Ridge Senior Living
3408 W Ralph Rogers Rd Suite 100, Sioux Falls, SD 57108
Courtyard Estates at Hawthorne Crossing
601 Hawthorne Crossing Drive SE, Bondurant, IA 50035
Courtyard Estates at Hawthorne Crossing been a staple in the Bondurant Commuity for nearly a decade. We are a locally owned community that offers Assisted Living and Memory Care Services. Our motto is 'Rolling out the Red Carpet'! Which we do not only to our residents, but our staff and guests as...
Manning Senior Living
203 11th St, Manning, IA 51455
Independence Houses of Northview
2355 Superior St, Lincoln, NE 68521
Welcome Home! Looking for Alzheimer's Memory Care in Lincoln, Nebraska? When you visit one of our Four Independence House locations, we know you will experience the difference. Our homes are secure, welcoming and more home-like in size. Our smaller resident population allows us to create a warm,...
Richmont Senior Living
702 Fort Crook Rd S, Bellevue, NE 68005
Proudly serving the Bellevue community for over 13 years,we have genuine affection for our residents. Come see why Richmont Village is the best and most affordable Independent Living in he area. There is no reason to spend your retirement years alone and inactive. If you are an active senior...
500 S 18th St, Norfolk, NE 68701
Life is full at The Meadows, where friends share ice cream parlor treats, stroll the beautiful enclosedcourtyard, enjoy our beautiful sunroom, play games or cozy into their own peaceful apartment homes. We offer independent and assisted living apartments in Norfolk, Nebraska. Enjoy peace of mind...
Friendly Horizons
645 1st Ave SW, Sioux Center, IA 51250
Independence Village of Waukee
1650 SE Holiday Crest Circle, Waukee, IA 50263
At Independence Village, everything we do is for you. From personalized services to help you make the most of every day to menus crafted with a mix of old favorites and new options, fulfilling your wants and needs is our highest priority. Our community offers independent living, assisted living,...
Eden Acres Campus of Perry Lutheran
1300 28th St, Perry, IA 50220
Rowley Masonic Community is a free standing continuing care retirement community located in Perry Iowa, 25 miles NW of Des Moines. Rowley has been part of the Perry community since 1957. All levels of senior care can be found in one location! 2014 Rowley opened a new 72,000 square feet nurisng...
MorningStar Assisted Living & Memory Care at Jordan Creek
525 South 60th St., West Des Moines, IA 50266
Here at MorningStar Senior Living Community,our reputation of excellence and authenticity sets us above the rest. We pride ourselves on our ability to incorporate faith in our everyday responsibilities. We offer 56 Assisted Living Suites and 29 Memory Care suites. We are located in a prime spot...
Edencrest at Green Meadows
6750 Corporate Drive, Johnston, IA 50131
Edencrest at Green Meadows is professionally managed by Senior Housing Companies.We are committed to providing Red Carpet Treatment for everyone who lives, works, and visits Green Meadows. Enjoy peace of mind and a wide variety of all-inclusive amenities when you reserve your apartment today. Ask...
King's Gardens Campus of Perry Lutheran Homes
2323 Willis Ave, Perry, IA 50220
Innovative, Personalized, and Christ-Centered - Perry Lutheran HomePerry Lutheran Home in Perry, Iowa is Your Christian, Caring Community offering a Continuum of Care for your loved one to meet their changing needs. Perry Lutheran Home offers education and expertise, home care, assisted living,...
Bickford of Urbandale
5915 Sutton Place, Urbandale, IA 50322
Lakeside Village
2067 Highway 4, Panora, IA 50216
The Lakeside Village is an absolutely beautiful 64- apartment, senior living community located in Panora, Iowa right on the east side of Lake Panorama. The community is a wonderful choice for seniors who want to retain their much-needed independence, while not having to worry about the hassles of...
The Bridges at Ankeny
3510 NW Abilene Road, Ankeny, IA 50023
The Bridges at Ankeny offers high-quality services and accommodations for older adults throughout Central Iowa. Situated on 13 acres we offer a range of senior living services that include Assisted Living Memory Care, Skilled Nursing and Rehabilitation, Long Term Care, Respite Care, and Hospice....
Marquis Place
20800 West Maple Road, Elkhorn, NE 68022
Discover the sweet life at Marquis Place of Elkhorn, offering Assisted Living and Memory Care services in Elkhorn, Nebraska. Our property invites residents to come together and enjoy the luxury of spacious apartments. Each of our units combines the very best safety features along with...
Edencrest at Siena Hills
455 SW Ankeny Rd, Ankeny, IA 50023
Edencrest at Siena Hills Assisted Living and Memory Care is your community of choice in Ankeny! We are committed to providing Red Carpet Treatment for everyone who lives, works, and visits Siena Hills. Red Carpet Treatment is more than simple hospitality; it is our way of life! Our 'Resident...
Journey Senior Services
17504 Mahogany, Carroll, IA 51401
Homestead of Creston
1709 W Prairie St, Creston, IA 50801
As we turn the pages of our lives – growing up, working, experiencing loves and losses, raising our own children – we all experience times when we need a little extra help. At Prairie View Assisted Living, we have created an environment which combines and celebrates these memorable aspects of...
CountryHouse at Elkhorn (Opening Fall 2020)
3720 George B Lake Parkway, Elkhorn, NE 68022
Holland Farms
2800 Sunset Dr, Norwalk, IA 50211
Hansen House
2331 Nash Blvd, Council Bluffs, IA 51501
Hansen house is a residential care home located in the serene city of Council Bluffs, Iowa which is the county seat for Pottawattamie County. Strategically located in close proximity to the home are a number of major healthcare providers in the area, as well as churches, parks and drug stores....
The Shores at Pleasant Hill
1500 Edgewater Drive, Pleasant Hill, IA 50327
Welcome to The Shores of Pleasant Hill. We provide independent living, assisted living, and memory care — a flexible range of support, without a buy-in. The building is remarkable; up on a hill, overlooking Copper Creek Lake. Likewise, the interior has many comforts, and...
The Inn on Westport
4000 S Westport Avenue, Sioux Falls, SD 57106
Welcome to The Inn on Westport. We offer everything desired for the active senior lifestyles, including truly private apartments at affordable prices for the Independent Retirees, those desiring Assisted Living services, and for those in need of Respite Care. We are conveniently...
Prairie Hills of Des Moines
5815 SE 27th St, Des Moines, IA 50320
Prairie Hills Des Moines is tucked in to a beautiful wooded setting just south of Easter Lake and Ewing Park in Des Moines. Our quiet country location is near the shopping, dining, and entertainment options of the Southridge Mall area. Hospitals and medical services are also just minutes away....
2609 Nicklaus Blvd, Sioux City, IA 51106
Retirement Community includes Villa Homes, Independent Living Apartments, Assisted Living Apartments, Memory Care Suites and a beautiful Clubhouse. Whispering Creek Active Retirement Community is located next to the Whispering Overlooking miles of breathtaking golf course views, Whispering Creek...
The Woodlands at Hillcrest
9421 Gable Pines Road, Lincoln, NE 68527
The Woodlands at Hillcrest is managed by Life Care Services®, An LCS® Company. Life Care Services ranked highest in customer satisfaction in the J.D. Power 2019 Senior Living Study and achieved the highest score in all seven study factors: resident services and activities; community staff; food...
CountryHouse Omaha
5030 S 155th St, Omaha, NE 68137
CountryHouse in Omaha was designed and is staffed specifically for individuals living with Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia. From our many years of experience working with those needing memory care and their families, we know that consistency, security, comfort and a sense of...
Prairie Meadows Alzheimer's Special Care
13208 Meredith Avenue, Omaha, NE 68164
Prairie Meadows Alzheimer's Special Care is an assisted living community located in Omaha, Nebraska, in Douglas County and home to about 447,000 people. Omaha is a beautiful city on the Missouri River with park-like settings and plenty to do. Residents will enjoy being able to go on group...
Lawton Senior Living
200 E Char-Mac Dr, Lawton, IA 51030
Our Assisted-living programs have been recognized by ICAL and NCAL as top award winning premiere facilities in the region. Each and every tenant is treated as family. The program is extremely proud to serve our friends and neighbors. We offers 6 levels of Assisted-living cares, and also...
Bickford of Sioux City
4020 Indian Hills Dr., Sioux City, IA 51108
Keelson Harbour
2810 Aurora Avenue, Spirit Lake, IA 51360
Keelson Harbour is an Assisted Living Community located in Spirit Lake, Dickinson County, Iowa. Our beautiful property is located on a quiet hill with easy access to nearby lakes. Residents enjoy an on-site pond, complete with growing ducklings and their families. With many nearby attractions,...
Perry Lutheran Home Spring Valley Campus
501 12th St, Perry, IA 50220
Spring Valley Campus Assisted LivingAssisted living at is finest! Enjoy beautiful living quarters, excellent dining options, a variety of activities, outdoor patio, and more. Truly relax and live worry free at Spring Valley assisted living campus - conveniently connected to Dallas County Hospital...
Journey Senior Living of Ankeny
3602 NW 5th Street, Ankeny, IA 50023
Journey Senior Living of Ankeny is an Assisted Living and Memory Care community serving Ankeny, Iowa and surrounding communities. We provide the ideal solution for seniors who value their independence but may require some assistance with activities of daily living.Opened November 2016. Journey...
Memory Care in Cities Near You
Brookfield, MO
Clarinda, IA
Crystal, MN
Griswold, IA
Grundy Center, IA
Weston, MO
York, NE
Holstein, Iowa
Memory care communities administer intensive medical care to persons who have physical and cognitive health troubles in a fully-staffed and monitored setting. Employees are required to obtain dementia-specific training and staff must be available for aid around-the-clock. Typically, residents in memory care require assistance with medications, personal care , and eating. Residents may live in shared apartments or single rooms. Dementia living homes possess supervised areas to limit roaming which is a typical symptom of Dementia. The annual median cost for a private room is around $82,537 and the cost for a semi-private room is around $76,103 . The state of Iowa maintains a number of provisions associated with this type of community. The The Department of Inspections and Appeals and Health communities Division certifies this community type.
Cost of living is a big influence when selecting which care option is best for you or your loved one. The rent burden for Holstein is about 13.0% of the average monthly income. The median home value in Holstein is about $83,564 and the median rent is around $613 a month.
Demographics and Values
Out of the total city population, 51.5% are female and 48.5% are male. The median age of Holstein is 44 years old. The current population of Holstein consists of 1,364 people. Holstein has a population density of 334 people per square mile. Out of the total population of Holstein, 14.4% have some form of disability, 7.4% live in poverty, 3.0% do not have health insurance, and 65.9% participate in the labor force. In terms of education, 6.4% have a graduate degree, 29.8% have a college degree, and 30.0% have a high-school diploma. In Holstein, 11.8% of the people are veterans of the United States military. Demographically, Holstein is 3.9% Hispanic, 0.0% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander or Native Hawaiian, 95.1% white, 1.5% mixed race, 0.0% black, 2.8% Native American, and 0.6% other or not specified.
An overview of Iowa
Out of a national average of 100, Iowa has a cost of living index rating of 92, a grocery index rating of 96, and a housing index rating of 80. The state of Iowa has 120 hospitals and 75 health centers, providing care to a population of 3,168,703. Mercy Hospital, St. Lukes Hospital, and And Mercy Medical Center – Cedar Rapids are among the top three highest ranked hospitals in the state. Based on natural beauty, Iowa ranks 32nd in the nation. Overall, Iowa ranks 14th out of all states in quality of life and 20th in healthcare.
Social demographics of the state
In terms of religion, 36% of Iowa residents attend religious services among the 5,107 different congregations that are available in the state. The top three Christian denominations in the state are Evangelical Protestant-28%, Mainline Protestant-30%, and Historically Black Protestant-2%. The top three non-Christian denominations in the state are Jewish-<1%, Muslim-<1%, and Buddhist-<1%. In Iowa there are 289 masonic lodges. The state of Iowa ranks 43rd in the country for diversity, and the state is considered LGBTQ friendly. In Iowa, 30% of the population is over the age of 55. The median age in the state is 38. In the last presidential election 42% of Iowa residents voted Democrat and 51% voted Republican.
State-wide weather information
The average monthly precipitation for the state of Iowa is around 2.93 inches. The average amount of precipitation peaks during the month of July at around 6.46 inches. Iowa experiences an average humidity rating of about 72%. The highest monthly average humidity rating is 78% in the month of December. On average, Iowa has an air quality index rating of around 41.2 AQI. The average air quality index rating peaks in the month of May with a rating of around 53.8 AQI. During the summer, the average temperature in Iowa is around 72F. Over the summer months the average high temperature peaks at around 88F during the month of July. The average low summer temperature is around 55F in the month of June. The average temperature in the winter falls to around 22F. During the winter, the average high temperature peaks at around 40F during the month of February. The average low temperature during the winter drops to around 4F in the month of January. While residents of Iowa mostly enjoy pleasant conditions, it's important to be aware of inclement weather as well, which in Iowa can include floods and earthquakes (high).
Wildlife to be found in Iowa
The state of Iowa has a diverse array of plant and animal life. Local plant life can consist of tumblegrass, dryflower, pink lady's slipper, and bunchberry. While venturing throughout the state, you might see animals such as the elk, the porcupine, the bison, or the lynx. The state animal of Iowa is the eastern goldfinch.
Frequently asked questions about Memory Care facilities in Iowa
How many memory care facilities are there near Holstein, Iowa?
There are 50 memory care facilities near Holstein, Iowa. See the full list.
What are the top rated memory care facilities near Holstein, Iowa?
The Meriwether-La Vista, Edencrest at The Legacy and Trail Ridge Senior Living are the top rated memory care facilities near Holstein, Iowa. See full list of communities.
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Home › Entertainment › Luke Bryan Missing 'American Idol,' Who is Filling in for Country Star?
Luke Bryan Missing 'American Idol,' Who is Filling in for Country Star?
by Anna Dunn April 12, 2021
written by Anna Dunn April 12, 2021 4:39 pm
(Eric Liebowitz/Walt Disney Television via Getty Images)
Luke Bryan has to miss one of the first American American Idol live shows of the season, so who is filling in? Unfortunately, Bryan, a beloved American Idol judge, recently announced he has covid-19. Thankfully, he is confident he'll make a full recovery.
I'm sad to say I won't be a part of tonight's first live @AmericanIdol show. I tested positive for COVID but I'm doing well and look forward to being back at it soon.
— Luke Bryan (@LukeBryanOnline) April 12, 2021
Bryan will be sorely missed on the show, and he's getting plenty of well wishes as he recovers. The show, however, has to go on, and Paula Abdul has come to the rescue. Paula Abdul is a famous singer/songwriter who has previously been a judge on the hit show. Not only was Abdul a judge, but she was one of the original judges when American Idol aired on Fox in 2002. Abdul left the show in 2008.
American Idol released a statement about Abdul's return on their Instagram page, saying, "We're so excited to announce @paulaabdul will be stepping in as a guest judge to join Lionel Richie and Katy Perry as we get closer to crowning a new winner!"
What's Happening this Season of American Idol?
American Idol is on its 19th season. While originally on Fox, the show is now on ABC. Luke Bryan, Katy Perry, and Lionel Ritchie are the current judges with Ryan Seacrest hosting. The next live episode will premiere tonight, Monday, April 12th, at 8 pm EST.
Last Sunday, the American Idol contestants were whittled down from 24 singers to 16. The episode with Paula Abdul will make that contestant pool even smaller, with 12 contestants remaining at the end of the night. Like many late-season episodes of American Idol, the last episode was a nail-biter, with Ryan Seacrest announcing which contestants would advance one by one. The contestants who made it to the next round got to sing one more time for the judges.
Some of the most discussed moments so far involved Claudia Conway's audition as well as a contestant who passed out on stage. A particularly moving moment from the season involved the return of Andrea Valles, sporting an eye patch after surgery. Valles's retina detached, requiring immediate medical attention. Her return to the stage with one eye out of commission inspired viewers and judges alike.
"It's amazing!" Katy Perry said regarding the singer's resilience, "You can do anything: have eye surgery, be on the 'American Idol' stage."
For many viewers, it'll be interesting to see how the singers perform under the pressure of a sudden judge change. The act of performing in front of anyone famous is intimidating, but the contestants typically get more used to their particular judges as the show progresses. The sudden addition of Abdul and sidelining of Bryan could cause some shake-ups.


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LOOK THE PART
There's a strategic reason why some women scientists look "frumpy"
By Allison Schrager May 21, 2016
In 2006 I finished my PhD in economics and received a lot of career advice. I was told to not dress too nicely during interviews. I was told when I made distinctly feminine gestures (like touching my hair) during seminars it came across as "flaky." Outside of graduate school, people often remarked on how feminine I was—for an economist. I was offended at the time, but it probably wasn't terrible advice; if you want to play the game you have to look the part. And while there are more women than ever in STEM fields these days, people still have certain gendered expectations about how women scientists should appear.
There is no shortage of blog posts and articles on the internet advising young scientists how to dress. For both men and women, it's often: don't look too good or like you are trying to hard. Marc Kuchner says a biophysicist wrote him, "I'm more likely to believe the science of somebody wearing a nice pair of khaki pants and a shirt than somebody wearing the whole 'CEO costume.'"
Writing for Science Magazine, Adam Ruben advises casual dress for men and after googling "scientific clothing" the only feminine reference he could find was for women to have a pencil-bun.
The argument for frumpiness is as follows: anyone who looks fashionable signals a lack of dedication to science, or worse, a preoccupation with money. For women, this translates to not looking feminine because a feminine look is often associated with being stylish and well-groomed.
And while the frumpy standard seems to apply to men and women, there may be more harmful effects for aspiring women scientists. A group of researchers studied if being feminine was a career liability after the San Francisco tech firm OneLogin posted pictures of their engineers, including one of their employees Isis Wenger. People thought she was too attractive to be an engineer and doubted the veracity of the campaign. Hoping to repeat the experiment in a more scientific manner, they took the photographs of 80 scientists at top universities, 40 men and 40 women with varying characteristics thought to be more male or female. Male appearance includes short hair and strong facial features. Feminine features include long hair and fine features or could mean makeup or traditionally feminine dress. They asked 265 American workers—equally divided between men and women in one experiment and skewed toward more women in another—to rate the femininity or masculinity of the people and the photos. Next they were asked if the people were scientists or early education teachers.
The respondents assumed the men and women were equally likely to be scientists. But the more feminine a woman rated, the more respondents presumed she was a teacher. When it came to feminine-looking men, respondents were equally likely to assume he was a teacher or scientist—or even journalist (a supposedly gender neutral profession). The researchers conclude that a woman's gendered appearance effects career perception in a way it does not for men. If femininity is not associated with science, young girls who identify with those values may be dissuaded from STEM fields every time they are told they don't look like a scientist. The bias also devalues femininity can lead women to be cruel to each other because it justifies judging looks and dress.
It is not clear how much of this is sexism or a need to see scientists as asexual. We like to think of science as being clinical and sexless, but your point of view always features into how you conduct and interpret experiments. Some people are more comfortable and confident when they feel put stylish and put together. A more diverse population, some who embrace femininity or masculinity, can only add to our knowledge.