text:
\section{Introduction}
It can be said that the Newton's laws of motion, the three pillars of Newtonian mechanics, are all about force. This is the reason why in a class on (elementary) Newtonian mechanics, much of the quantitative and conceptual problems that students are expected to solve involve friction, gravity, tension, weight, etc., in connection with elevators, pendula, bridges, projectiles, and other physical systems. In all of these problems, when it comes to dynamics, everyone essentially starts with the basics of Free Body Diagram (FBD). And when it comes to FBDs, everybody begins with identifying forces: ``What are the forces acting on a given body?'' This is so basic. Yet the basic skill of identifying forces reverberates up to the pinnacle of complexity involved in building bridges and towers, constructing satellites, and creating machineries in factories, among others. In the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) \cite{Hallouin, FCI, Hestenes}, regarded as the \textit{de facto} standard for concept inventories in Newtonian mechanics, six (that is, 20\%) of the 30 questions basically ask only one thing: identify the forces acting on a given body. It only shows that the importance of learning this basic skill cannot be overemphasised.

In our previous work \cite{alalinea}, we focused on the six FCI questions\footnote{These are the sets of questions \{5, 11, 13, 18, 29, 30\} in the FCI.} and studied how our students on global courses at Osaka University (Japan) \cite{CBCMP} answered them. We found out a ``phenomenon'' called \textit{polarisation}. To wit, given five choices corresponding to five sets of forces acting on a body specified in an FCI question, the great majority of students elected only two letters --- the \textit{polarising choices}. These choices consist of two sets of forces with one being a subset of the other. The subset in the pair is the correct answer while the other one includes extra ``fictitious'' force not legitimately acting on the body. Students who are otherwise knowledgeable about the acting forces are confused with the addition of the wrong force; thus, resulting to polarisation. We explained in our work that such a ``phenomenon'' may be attributed to misleading \textit{ontological categorisation}\cite{Johnston}. In the concluding remarks, as part of our future prospect, we opened the door to further investigation of this matter --- causes, cure, and other aspects of polarisation.

The current paper is a continuation of the previous work we mentioned above. Here, focusing on the possible \textit{other aspect} of polarisation, we investigate \textit{gender gap} \cite{MadsenRev, Bates, Docktor, Coletta, Glaser}. Gender gap is the resulting gender difference in favour of males in the student performance on standardised assessments such as the FCI. Such a delicate concept has so far found no simple explanation and complete ``cure'' that are supported by repeatable experiments. We are not here going to pretend to fill in the absence of a complete explanation and ``cure''. Our aim is more modest and being such, should be answerable at least within the range of validity of the available data that we have. We want to know if there is a gender aspect associated with polarisation. To this end, we wish (a) to determine whether polarisation is unique to one gender, and if it is not, (b) to establish if there is a gender difference associated with the extent by which polarisation is exhibited by students.

Graphically, these objectives can be represented in a unified way through the placement of the circle for polarisation in the Venn diagram shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_venn_expect}}. Considering that the gender gap/bias extends beyond the FCI (eg., in other concept inventories, gender bias on Wikipedia \cite{wikiGenderBias}, etc), we have drawn a bigger circle for it and made it partially intersect with the circle for the FCI. Such a \textit{partial} intersection is justified, noting that it may only be \textit{partially} gender bias, if ever it is. With the six polarisation-inducing questions within the FCI, we want to know, where the corresponding circle for polarisation should be placed. Depending on our result, it may be completely moved out of the light gray-shaded region, meaning no gender gap, or it may be pushed a little further from its current location, partially intersecting with the big circle for gender bias/gap.

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[scale=0.95]{venn_diag_expect.pdf}
	\caption{Venn diagram for polarisation, gender bias/gap, and the FCI.}
	\label{fig_venn_expect}
\end{figure}

\section{Methodology}
\label{Meth}
The subjects of our testing are the students of the Chemistry-Biology Combined Major Program (CBCMP). This is a four-year program offered by Osaka university (Japan), open to all qualified students from all over the globe. Approximately 90\% of our students came from outside Japan. With English as the medium of instruction, all applicants are required to have sufficient English ability to be accepted. Considering all entrants, the average equivalent TOEFL score\footnote{We performed the necessary conversion for some students who took IELTS. Furthermore, we assigned full score for native speakers.} is 104 with a standard deviation of 14. Such a high average with relatively low standard deviation suggests that English ability is not a factor that could significantly affect performance on the FCI; this, we found out in our previous work \cite{alalinea}.

In this work, we have updated our data to include the batch for the Academic Year (AY) 2014-15. In total, starting from AY 2011-12, we have 66 students (56\% females and 44\% males) corresponding to four batches of entrants. These students attended calculus-based introductory Newtonian mechanics class under our supervision. Each class meeting lasts for 1.5 hours (90 minutes) and is conducted once a week for a period of four months\footnote{This relatively tight schedule is a common setting for university lecture classes in Japan.}. A typical class starts with a discussion of pre-lecture conceptual questions as refresher. These questions are usually given as assignment one meeting before the class to prepare the students. A short lecture then follows highlighting the main points of the subject for the day. After this, for the remaining 50 minutes, students are paired\footnote{See Refs. \cite{smith, Fagen} and the references therein for the benefits of peer discussion/instruction.} to answer questions on MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ \cite{masteringPhys}. While solving conceptual and quantitative problems, the teaching assistant and the instructor go around the room to attend to student concerns about the problem they are solving. The students are given one week to finish the assigned task.

We administered the FCI at the beginning and end of every second semester from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15. All student answers for each question were recorded and an item analysis was performed with emphasis on the six polarisation-inducing questions. Standard statistical parameters for the four-year data were calculated including \textit{p}-value for \textit{t}-test, mean, standard deviation, percent difference, etc. Using these parameters, (a) student performance from pretest to posttest, (b) possible gender difference in overall FCI, (c) existence of polarisation, (d) possible gender difference in the polarization-inducing questions, among others, were analysed.

\section{Polarisation}
\subsection{Polarisation as a Whole}
Before we delve into the issue of the possible gender aspect of polarisation, we look at the extent of this phenomenon for all students irrespective of gender. \textbf{Figure \ref{fig_a_to_e}} shows the pair of dominant answers for questions I to VI. This pair as what we pointed out in our previous work \cite{alalinea}, is composed of a correct choice (CC) and a wrong choice (X), where CC happens to be a subset of X; e.g., in question I, these are choices (CC, X) = (B,D). Here, with our updated data, we once again confirm the observation that majority of students only select two choices. For the pretest at least 61\% with a maximum of 86\% elected the polarising choices. It rose to at least 76\% in the posttest with an astonishing maximum of 95\%.

\textbf{Figure \ref{fig_pol_percent}} shows a vivid graphical display of such polarisation from pretest to posttest. As can be seen in the figure, overall, there is a general increase in the proportion of students who elected the polarising choices from pretest to posttest. In tandem with \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_a_to_e}}, we see that such a trend is strictly followed for all questions for the choice CC, and moderately obeyed for the choice X (see graphs for questions III and VI). A detailed examination of student responses indicates that the increase in the share for CC has a major contribution due to the migration of students who elected X in the pretest to CC in the posttest; that is, from being ``confused'' to ``enlightened''. More specifically, of all the transitions from the four wrong choices to CC, 54\% came from X $\rightarrow$ CC. Students who were once confused by the ``fictitious'' force in X, learned along the way, and elected CC in the posttest. This however, did not in general, decreased the share for X. Some students who elected the \textit{other} (three) choices in the pretest, somehow learned along the way, and chose X in the posttest.

This behavior gives us a bird's eye view of the way student learns to identify forces acting on a given body. The dominant transition goes from the \textit{other} choices to the \textit{polarising} choices. Then within polarising choices, the transition goes from X to CC. This double-transition behavior resulted in the general increase in the proportion of students who elected the polarising choices from pretest to posttest. We view such a rise in the share for polarising choices whether it be due to choosing CC or X, as an indication of learning. Electing (the slightly correct choice) X although it is wrong, signifies that a student is able to identify the forces acting on a given body. It is just a matter of time and more practice before they learn to discard the extra ``fictitious'' force in X.

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
	\makebox[\textwidth][c]{
		\includegraphics[width=1.2\textwidth]{pol_choices_atoe.pdf}
	}
	\caption{Distribution of student answers for questions I to VI. The set of five choices spans from letters A to E, with NA corresponding to no answer. The correct answer for each question is labeled with a check mark. For each question, two letters (including the correct answer) take the majority share of student answers (see the encircled data points). The two numbers at the right part of each graph indicate the percent of students who chose these so-called \textit{polarising choices} from pretest to posttest.}
	\label{fig_a_to_e}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{pol_studs.pdf}
    \caption{Distribution of students who elected the \textit{polarising} choices (solid lines) over the \textit{other} choices (dashed lines) in the six FCI questions I to VI.}
    \label{fig_pol_percent}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Polarisation : Identifying Forces Among Gender}
One may recall from \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}} that our student composition is female-dominated. As such, polarisation may be due to one gender alone; that is, possibly, due to female only. Let us look back at our main graph demonstrating polarisation namely, \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}}, and see if simple accounting supports this suspicion. At a glance, the wide separation between the solid lines and dashed lines both for pretest and posttest makes it highly unlikely unless otherwise, females far outnumber males which is not the case here; it is only 56\% to 44\%. The difference in the proportion of males and females (56\% - 44\% = 12\%) is incommensurate with the wide gaps\footnote{We formalise this notion of ``gap'' as the degree of polarisation below.} in the pair of graphs for pretest and posttest shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}}; for instance, for question II, we have a gap of 71\% - 29\% = 42\% for the pretest and 83\% - 17\% = 67\% for the posttest.

The possible gender aspect of polarisation can be seen more clearly by decomposing the graphs in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}} into contributions due to males and due to females. \textbf{Figure \ref{genderDifPolarisation}} shows a gender-segregated distribution of student answers. We once again see the same characteristic exhibited in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}} indicating polarisation; that is, for each question, there is a \textit{non-vanishing gap} in the pair of graphs for pretest and posttest. Needless to say, this observation holds for both males and females. Coupled with the argument elaborated in the first paragraph above, we then reach one of the main findings of this work--- \textit{polarisation is NOT unique to one gender.}

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \hspace{-4.5em}
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{pol_studs_male_female.pdf}
    \caption{Gender-segregated distribution for polarisation of student answers. The solid lines correspond to the polarising choices while the dashed lines refer to everything else. Moreover, the percent of students on the vertical axis correspond to their respective gender; that is, percent males among males in (a) and percent females among females in (b).}
    \label{genderDifPolarisation}
\end{figure}

Having established this, we now move on to the question about the extent by which it is exhibited by one gender over the other. A visual inspection of the graphs \textbf{(a)} and \textbf{(b)} in \textbf{Fig. \ref{genderDifPolarisation}} seems to indicate that males exhibit a more pronounced polarisation. To shed light on this issue, we introduce a quantitative measure called \textit{degree of polarisation} \textit{P}, defined as the difference between the percent of students who answered the polarising choices and those who elected the remaining choices. It has a minimum value of 0\% indicating no polarisation, and a maximum value of 100\% meaning all students elected the polarising choices. Geometrically, it is a measure of the gap between a pair of line graphs corresponding to polarising choices and other choices, symmetric about the horizontal line at 50\%-mark. (There are two of these pairs in \textbf{Figs. \ref{genderDifPolarisation}(a)} and \textbf{\ref{genderDifPolarisation}(b)} corresponding to pretest and posttest.) The narrower the gaps are, the smaller is the average value of $P$ for all the six questions.

\textbf{Figure \ref{figDegreePolarisation}} shows the degree of polarisation for all students irrespective of gender. We see a general pattern that \textit{P} is higher for posttest than for pretest for all the six questions. We split this graph into contributions due to males and due to females (see \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}}) and then observe the same behaviour with females strictly following the pattern. However, on average, males exhibit a higher degree of polarisation for \textit{both} pretest (56\% versus 35\% for females) and posttest (79\% versus  66\% for females) suggesting a possible gender gap. Such a gap may be interpreted in two ways. (In what follows, keep in mind that on average, males exhibit a higher degree of polarisation.) If a greater proportion of males happen to choose the wrong choice in the pair of polarising choices than that of females, then this may imply that males tend to be more confused. The possible gender gap may then be seen as in favour of females. On the other hand, if a greater proportion of males happen to choose the right choice in the pair of polarising choices than that of females, then this may imply that males tend to be more discerning about the correct set of forces acting on a given body. The possible gender gap may then be seen as in favour of males.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{rel_pol.pdf}
    \caption{Degree of polarisation for all students on the FCI.}
    \label{figDegreePolarisation}
\end{figure}

To resolve this issue, we need to establish if there really is a gender gap associated with the degree of polarisation in the first place. The two (possibly) interesting simulated scenarios we have just presented above can then only take into effect should there be a non-negligible gender difference. This situation seems to demand a quantitative comparison test. A \textit{t}-test involving \textit{P} would be a viable candidate but as we have only six questions corresponding to six pairs of data points for males and females, this would yield a questionable result. On the other hand, one may see that from a slightly different perspective, we are dealing here with the question of independence of two categories namely, (a) gender and (b) choice of answer (polarising choices and other choices). Treating all the polarisation-inducing questions on equal footing, we then find that if we count the frequency of students electing (a) polarising choices and (b) other choices, depending on gender, the appropriate test would be the chi-squared test, and this is what we use here.

For the pretest, our chi-squared test returns a \textit{p}-value of 0.020. This means that at the 95\% confidence level, we have statistically significant evidence that there is a gender aspect associated with polarisation. Looking back at \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(a)}, we see that it is not surprising at all. In five out of six questions, the \textit{P}-bars for males are taller than that of females corresponding to an average of 56\% versus 35\%. Further examination of our data indicates that 39\% (40\%) of males (females) got the correct answer in the six questions. It follows that the greater degree of polarisation for males is due to the selection of the choice X in the pair of polarising choices. For the pretest, males seem to be more confused in identifying the correct set of forces acting on a given body.

For the posttest, our chi-squared test returns a \textit{p}-value of 0.055. This means that at the 95\% confidence level, we do not have statistically significant evidence suggesting a gender aspect of polarisation. With reference to \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(b)} we see that although it exhibits the same pattern as that of \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(a)}, (that is, in five out of six questions, the \textit{P}-bars for males are taller than that of females,) the relative difference in the degree of polarisation is smaller corresponding to an average \textit{P}-value of 79\% versus 66\%. We may then say that along the way, students (males and females) learned more about forces and the polarisation gender gap observed in the pretest closes at the posttest.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \hspace{-4.5em}
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{rel_pol_male_female.pdf}
    \caption{Gender-segregated distribution for the degree of polarisation.}
    \label{figDegreePolarisationGender}
\end{figure}

We are now in position to go back to the Venn diagram representing the place of polarisation in relation to gender gap and FCI. We have the following main findings:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Polarisation is NOT unique to one gender.
\item
The gender aspect that may be associated with the extent by which polarisation is exhibited by one gender over the other, is not a permanent attribute (if ever it is,) of polarisation.
\end{itemize}
With these two points in hand, we move the circle for polarisation away from that of the gender gap/bias. As far as our results are concerned, it may not be placed completely outside of the zone for gender gap/bias as shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{figVennExpect}}, indicating that polarisation may have a gender dimension; albeit, something that fades with learning. Whether it will stay in this position (slightly) intersecting the circle for gender bias/gap, remains to be seen in future studies employing larger number of participants.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
	\centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.85]{venn_diag_actual_02.pdf}
	\caption{Venn diagram for polarisation, gender bias/gap, and the FCI. Our data suggest that polarisation does not have a serious gender dimension.}
    \label{figVennExpect}
\end{figure}

\section{The FCI as a whole}
\label{ResWhole}
Although this work mainly focuses on the gender aspect of polarisation, it would not be a complete study without mentioning the result of the FCI as a whole. The point in elaborating this is not to repeat what has been found out in the literature; that is, there is gender gap associated with the FCI considered as a whole. In fact, as we shall see, we are part of the minority that deviates from this finding. The additional point then, aside from completeness, is to some extent, a sense of \textit{complementarity}. Our analysis and elaboration below serve to support the idea that polarisation is not a gender-specific phenomenon and the extent by which it is exhibited by students does not have a serious gender aspect.

\subsection{Results and Analyses}

\textbf{Table \ref{table_1}} shows the results of the FCI for four batches of entrants (from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15)\footnote{This is an updated set of data we previously presented in Ref. \cite{alalinea}.} corresponding to a total of 66 students, for pretest and posttest. The mean scores for the pretest and posttest are 52\% and 62\% respectively, corresponding to a rise of about 20\%. Our \textit{t}-test returns a \textit{p}-value of $ 2.9\times 10^{-8} $. This indicates that at the 95\% confidence level, the null hypothesis was not satisfied and suggests the results do lead to a positive increase in the post scores.

\begin{table}[tbh!]
\centering
    \begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|}
    \hline
    \multirow{2}{*}{Group} &\small{2011-2012}  &\small{2012-2013}
    &\small{2013-2014}  &\small{2014-2015} &\small{Total} \\
       &\small{$n=11$}  &\small{$n=18$}
    &\small{$n=18$}  &\small{$n=19$} &\small{$N=66$} \\
    \hline
    \hline
       & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD) & Mean (SD)    \\
    Pretest(\%) & 57 (22) & 55 (25) & 49 (22) & 50 (22) & 52 (23) \\
    Posttest(\%) & 67 (23) & 66 (21) & 55 (23) & 62 (19) & 62 (21) \\
    Gain   & 0.24         & 0.23        & 0.12     & 0.25 &   0.20 \\
    \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \caption{\it FCI results (in percent) for four academic years starting from 2011 and ending 2015. The number $ n $ under each academic year indicates the number of students while the quantity SD stands for standard deviation.}
    \label{table_1}
\end{table}

The \textit{t}-test can only indicate whether there is a statistically significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores. A good measure commonly employed in studies like this to quantify the improvement with respect to the score in the pretest, is provided by the \textit{normalised gain}, \textit{G} \cite{Hake}. It is defined as the difference between the posttest and pretest scores divided by the maximum possible rise in score relative to the pretest result. Symbolically,
\begin{equation*}
	\hspace{5.0em} G = {\langle \% S_f\rangle  - \langle \% S_i \rangle \over 100 - \langle \% S_i \rangle },
\end{equation*}
\noindent
where $\% S_f$ and $\% S_i$ are the final and initial scores in percent respectively.

Also included in \textbf{Table \ref{table_1}} are the \textit{G}-values for each AY for the four batches of students. On average, we find a relatively low value of $G = 0.20$ (see Ref. \cite{coletta} for the interpretation of FCI scores). This is in spite of the use of interactive engagement \cite{Hake, freeman, cahyadi} in class in the form of (a) peer discussion and (b) use of MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ with the guidance of the instructor/teaching assistant. As argued in our previous work \cite{alalinea}, the corrective measure built into MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ might have contributed in the low normalised gain. In addition to this, the formal contact hours between students and teacher (one meeting per week each lasting for only 1.5 hours, as stated in \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}}) might have been not enough to instill mastery of the core concepts in Newtonian mechanics.

\subsection{Gender Differences?}

\begin{table}[tbh!]
\centering
    \begin{tabular}{|l|ccc|}
    \hline
    \multirow{2}{*}{Group} & Female  & Male  & Percent \\
       & $n=37$ & $n=29$ & Difference  \\
    \hline
    \hline
       & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)  &  \\
    Pretest(\%) & 49 (22) & 57 (22) & 16  \\
    Posttest(\%) & 58 (21) & 67 (21) & 15\\
    Gain   & 0.18         & 0.23 & 24    \\
    \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \caption{\it FCI results (in percent) for female and male participants from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15.}
    \label{table_2}
\end{table}

\textbf{Table \ref{table_2}} is a summary table comparing the performance of males and females in the pretest and posttest. Our data suggest that considering the mean scores, males tend to perform better on \textit{both} the pretest and posttest. This observation is further supported by a higher \textit{G}-value indicating a greater improvement on the part of the males. Looking at the table, a difference of $\Delta G = 0.23 - 0.18 = 0.05$ might not seem much but compared to the average $(\bar G = 0.21)$, this leads to a relatively large percent difference of $24\%$. Having laid down the means and \textit{G}-value, let us see if our \textit{preliminary insight} can survive rigorous statistical test.

\textit{Pretest}. At the $95\,\%$ confidence level, or $\alpha=0.05$, we find that $p = 0.13>\alpha$, so there is no significant difference between the means of the pretest scores of males ($\bar x_{m,pre} = 57\,\%$) and females ($\bar x_{f,pre} = 49\,\%$). Though the percent difference between the means may not be ignored at $16\,\%$ in favour of males, the relatively wide variation of student scores (as measured by the standard deviation) results to acceptance of the null hypothesis in the $t$-test.

\textit{Posttest}. At the $95\,\%$ confidence level, or $\alpha=0.05$, we find that $p = 0.087>\alpha$, so there is no significant difference between the means of the posttest scores of males ($\bar x_{m,post} = 67\,\%$) and females ($\bar x_{f,post} = 58\,\%$). Though the percent difference between the means may not be ignored at $15\,\%$ (only 1\% away from that of the pretest), the relatively wide variation of student scores (as measured by the standard deviation) results to acceptance of the null hypothesis in the $t$-test.

It is worth noting that our \textit{preliminary insight} above is in agreement with the review article by Madsen, McKagan, and Sayre \cite{MadsenRev} on gender gap involving the FCI to the extent that male average score and \textit{G}-value are higher than that of female. However, in our case, the difference in means in favour of males is not supported by the \textit{t}-test results; the fluctuation in student scores is wide enough preventing us to conclude that there is indeed a gender gap.

Recalling the gender distribution of the participants mentioned in \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}}, we find that it is female-dominated (56\% vs. 44\%). In view of Ref. \cite{Shapiro}, the absence of ``stereotype threat'' might have been one of the possible factors leading to a statistically null gender difference.\footnote{This sort of justification seems unnecessary as far as the null result is concerned. However, in view of the overwhelming data on gender gap presented by Madsen, McKagan, and Sayre \cite{MadsenRev}, we find it good to find some words to somehow support our result.}  Furthermore, the fact that majority of our students are international students, their global mindset might correspond to the absence of the gender dimension. Although these are interesting angles to look at, owing to the limited space for this work, we leave the investigation for future studies.

Our result above brings us back to the gender aspect of polarisation. Had there been a statistically significant gender difference in the FCI performance as a whole, polarisation would have been expected to follow suit. In theory (with polarisation-inducing questions constituting 20\% of all the questions), it is possible that the gender aspect of the two to be opposite each other (one with gender gap while the other has none). What we have found out is that both genders exhibit it. Moreover, the gender aspect associated with the degree of polarisation seems to fade naturally as students learn more about forces. Except for the possible preliminary gender difference, the  null result for the FCI as a whole complements our main findings about polarisation.

\section{Concluding remarks}
\label{Conc}

Polarisation is a phenomenon wherein the addition of a ``fictitious'' force to an otherwise correct set of forces causes a serious divide in the way students identify the valid set of forces acting on a given body. In this article, we have revisited this notion, this time, in relation to gender gap. Our data suggest that polarisation is \textit{not} unique to one gender. Furthermore, the extent by which it is exhibited by males may differ at the beginning from that of females but the gap closes upon learning more about forces.

These findings involving the six polarisation-inducing questions in the FCI are complemented by our result for the FCI as a whole. We have discussed in this work evidence suggesting that there is no gender gap for global courses in conceptual physics. Although preliminary insight based on student means appeared to show a gender gap, using the \textit{t}-test, we found that the null hypothesis was satisfied at the 95\% confidence level; meaning, there is no statistically significant gender gap.

Our null result for the gender aspect of polarisation and FCI as a whole may require no justification at all. However, in view of the existing evidences to the contrary for the FCI as a whole (see our references), it  might be worth mentioning that our student participants were female-dominated and multi-racial in nature (international students). How these factors might have possibly influenced our result remains to be investigated.

As for future work, it is apparent that we would need a larger data set. Moreover, it would be beneficial to look at other international/global courses that have other interesting cohorts (not just the CBCMP program at Osaka University). Certainly, the study of whether or not `stereotype threats' \cite{Shapiro}  affect performance in the international context warrants further investigation.

\section*{Acknowledgements}

We would like to thank current and past students and staff on the
Chemistry-Biology Combined Major Program (CBCMP) at Osaka
University.

\section*{References}

\section{Introduction}
It can be said that the Newton's laws of motion, the three pillars of Newtonian mechanics, are all about force. This is the reason why in a class on (elementary) Newtonian mechanics, much of the quantitative and conceptual problems that students are expected to solve involve friction, gravity, tension, weight, etc., in connection with elevators, pendula, bridges, projectiles, and other physical systems. In all of these problems, when it comes to dynamics, everyone essentially starts with the basics of Free Body Diagram (FBD). And when it comes to FBDs, everybody begins with identifying forces: ``What are the forces acting on a given body?'' This is so basic. Yet the basic skill of identifying forces reverberates up to the pinnacle of complexity involved in building bridges and towers, constructing satellites, and creating machineries in factories, among others. In the Force Concept Inventory (FCI) \cite{Hallouin, FCI, Hestenes}, regarded as the \textit{de facto} standard for concept inventories in Newtonian mechanics, six (that is, 20\%) of the 30 questions basically ask only one thing: identify the forces acting on a given body. It only shows that the importance of learning this basic skill cannot be overemphasised.

In our previous work \cite{alalinea}, we focused on the six FCI questions\footnote{These are the sets of questions \{5, 11, 13, 18, 29, 30\} in the FCI.} and studied how our students on global courses at Osaka University (Japan) \cite{CBCMP} answered them. We found out a ``phenomenon'' called \textit{polarisation}. To wit, given five choices corresponding to five sets of forces acting on a body specified in an FCI question, the great majority of students elected only two letters --- the \textit{polarising choices}. These choices consist of two sets of forces with one being a subset of the other. The subset in the pair is the correct answer while the other one includes extra ``fictitious'' force not legitimately acting on the body. Students who are otherwise knowledgeable about the acting forces are confused with the addition of the wrong force; thus, resulting to polarisation. We explained in our work that such a ``phenomenon'' may be attributed to misleading \textit{ontological categorisation}\cite{Johnston}. In the concluding remarks, as part of our future prospect, we opened the door to further investigation of this matter --- causes, cure, and other aspects of polarisation.

The current paper is a continuation of the previous work we mentioned above. Here, focusing on the possible \textit{other aspect} of polarisation, we investigate \textit{gender gap} \cite{MadsenRev, Bates, Docktor, Coletta, Glaser}. Gender gap is the resulting gender difference in favour of males in the student performance on standardised assessments such as the FCI. Such a delicate concept has so far found no simple explanation and complete ``cure'' that are supported by repeatable experiments. We are not here going to pretend to fill in the absence of a complete explanation and ``cure''. Our aim is more modest and being such, should be answerable at least within the range of validity of the available data that we have. We want to know if there is a gender aspect associated with polarisation. To this end, we wish (a) to determine whether polarisation is unique to one gender, and if it is not, (b) to establish if there is a gender difference associated with the extent by which polarisation is exhibited by students.

Graphically, these objectives can be represented in a unified way through the placement of the circle for polarisation in the Venn diagram shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_venn_expect}}. Considering that the gender gap/bias extends beyond the FCI (eg., in other concept inventories, gender bias on Wikipedia \cite{wikiGenderBias}, etc), we have drawn a bigger circle for it and made it partially intersect with the circle for the FCI. Such a \textit{partial} intersection is justified, noting that it may only be \textit{partially} gender bias, if ever it is. With the six polarisation-inducing questions within the FCI, we want to know, where the corresponding circle for polarisation should be placed. Depending on our result, it may be completely moved out of the light gray-shaded region, meaning no gender gap, or it may be pushed a little further from its current location, partially intersecting with the big circle for gender bias/gap.

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[scale=0.95]{venn_diag_expect.pdf}
	\caption{Venn diagram for polarisation, gender bias/gap, and the FCI.}
	\label{fig_venn_expect}
\end{figure}

\section{Methodology}
\label{Meth}
The subjects of our testing are the students of the Chemistry-Biology Combined Major Program (CBCMP). This is a four-year program offered by Osaka university (Japan), open to all qualified students from all over the globe. Approximately 90\% of our students came from outside Japan. With English as the medium of instruction, all applicants are required to have sufficient English ability to be accepted. Considering all entrants, the average equivalent TOEFL score\footnote{We performed the necessary conversion for some students who took IELTS. Furthermore, we assigned full score for native speakers.} is 104 with a standard deviation of 14. Such a high average with relatively low standard deviation suggests that English ability is not a factor that could significantly affect performance on the FCI; this, we found out in our previous work \cite{alalinea}.

In this work, we have updated our data to include the batch for the Academic Year (AY) 2014-15. In total, starting from AY 2011-12, we have 66 students (56\% females and 44\% males) corresponding to four batches of entrants. These students attended calculus-based introductory Newtonian mechanics class under our supervision. Each class meeting lasts for 1.5 hours (90 minutes) and is conducted once a week for a period of four months\footnote{This relatively tight schedule is a common setting for university lecture classes in Japan.}. A typical class starts with a discussion of pre-lecture conceptual questions as refresher. These questions are usually given as assignment one meeting before the class to prepare the students. A short lecture then follows highlighting the main points of the subject for the day. After this, for the remaining 50 minutes, students are paired\footnote{See Refs. \cite{smith, Fagen} and the references therein for the benefits of peer discussion/instruction.} to answer questions on MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ \cite{masteringPhys}. While solving conceptual and quantitative problems, the teaching assistant and the instructor go around the room to attend to student concerns about the problem they are solving. The students are given one week to finish the assigned task.

We administered the FCI at the beginning and end of every second semester from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15. All student answers for each question were recorded and an item analysis was performed with emphasis on the six polarisation-inducing questions. Standard statistical parameters for the four-year data were calculated including \textit{p}-value for \textit{t}-test, mean, standard deviation, percent difference, etc. Using these parameters, (a) student performance from pretest to posttest, (b) possible gender difference in overall FCI, (c) existence of polarisation, (d) possible gender difference in the polarization-inducing questions, among others, were analysed.

\section{Polarisation}
\subsection{Polarisation as a Whole}
Before we delve into the issue of the possible gender aspect of polarisation, we look at the extent of this phenomenon for all students irrespective of gender. \textbf{Figure \ref{fig_a_to_e}} shows the pair of dominant answers for questions I to VI. This pair as what we pointed out in our previous work \cite{alalinea}, is composed of a correct choice (CC) and a wrong choice (X), where CC happens to be a subset of X; e.g., in question I, these are choices (CC, X) = (B,D). Here, with our updated data, we once again confirm the observation that majority of students only select two choices. For the pretest at least 61\% with a maximum of 86\% elected the polarising choices. It rose to at least 76\% in the posttest with an astonishing maximum of 95\%.

\textbf{Figure \ref{fig_pol_percent}} shows a vivid graphical display of such polarisation from pretest to posttest. As can be seen in the figure, overall, there is a general increase in the proportion of students who elected the polarising choices from pretest to posttest. In tandem with \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_a_to_e}}, we see that such a trend is strictly followed for all questions for the choice CC, and moderately obeyed for the choice X (see graphs for questions III and VI). A detailed examination of student responses indicates that the increase in the share for CC has a major contribution due to the migration of students who elected X in the pretest to CC in the posttest; that is, from being ``confused'' to ``enlightened''. More specifically, of all the transitions from the four wrong choices to CC, 54\% came from X $\rightarrow$ CC. Students who were once confused by the ``fictitious'' force in X, learned along the way, and elected CC in the posttest. This however, did not in general, decreased the share for X. Some students who elected the \textit{other} (three) choices in the pretest, somehow learned along the way, and chose X in the posttest.

This behavior gives us a bird's eye view of the way student learns to identify forces acting on a given body. The dominant transition goes from the \textit{other} choices to the \textit{polarising} choices. Then within polarising choices, the transition goes from X to CC. This double-transition behavior resulted in the general increase in the proportion of students who elected the polarising choices from pretest to posttest. We view such a rise in the share for polarising choices whether it be due to choosing CC or X, as an indication of learning. Electing (the slightly correct choice) X although it is wrong, signifies that a student is able to identify the forces acting on a given body. It is just a matter of time and more practice before they learn to discard the extra ``fictitious'' force in X.

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
	\makebox[\textwidth][c]{
		\includegraphics[width=1.2\textwidth]{pol_choices_atoe.pdf}
	}
	\caption{Distribution of student answers for questions I to VI. The set of five choices spans from letters A to E, with NA corresponding to no answer. The correct answer for each question is labeled with a check mark. For each question, two letters (including the correct answer) take the majority share of student answers (see the encircled data points). The two numbers at the right part of each graph indicate the percent of students who chose these so-called \textit{polarising choices} from pretest to posttest.}
	\label{fig_a_to_e}
\end{figure}

\begin{figure}[tbh!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{pol_studs.pdf}
    \caption{Distribution of students who elected the \textit{polarising} choices (solid lines) over the \textit{other} choices (dashed lines) in the six FCI questions I to VI.}
    \label{fig_pol_percent}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Polarisation : Identifying Forces Among Gender}
One may recall from \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}} that our student composition is female-dominated. As such, polarisation may be due to one gender alone; that is, possibly, due to female only. Let us look back at our main graph demonstrating polarisation namely, \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}}, and see if simple accounting supports this suspicion. At a glance, the wide separation between the solid lines and dashed lines both for pretest and posttest makes it highly unlikely unless otherwise, females far outnumber males which is not the case here; it is only 56\% to 44\%. The difference in the proportion of males and females (56\% - 44\% = 12\%) is incommensurate with the wide gaps\footnote{We formalise this notion of ``gap'' as the degree of polarisation below.} in the pair of graphs for pretest and posttest shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}}; for instance, for question II, we have a gap of 71\% - 29\% = 42\% for the pretest and 83\% - 17\% = 67\% for the posttest.

The possible gender aspect of polarisation can be seen more clearly by decomposing the graphs in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}} into contributions due to males and due to females. \textbf{Figure \ref{genderDifPolarisation}} shows a gender-segregated distribution of student answers. We once again see the same characteristic exhibited in \textbf{Fig. \ref{fig_pol_percent}} indicating polarisation; that is, for each question, there is a \textit{non-vanishing gap} in the pair of graphs for pretest and posttest. Needless to say, this observation holds for both males and females. Coupled with the argument elaborated in the first paragraph above, we then reach one of the main findings of this work--- \textit{polarisation is NOT unique to one gender.}

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \hspace{-4.5em}
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{pol_studs_male_female.pdf}
    \caption{Gender-segregated distribution for polarisation of student answers. The solid lines correspond to the polarising choices while the dashed lines refer to everything else. Moreover, the percent of students on the vertical axis correspond to their respective gender; that is, percent males among males in (a) and percent females among females in (b).}
    \label{genderDifPolarisation}
\end{figure}

Having established this, we now move on to the question about the extent by which it is exhibited by one gender over the other. A visual inspection of the graphs \textbf{(a)} and \textbf{(b)} in \textbf{Fig. \ref{genderDifPolarisation}} seems to indicate that males exhibit a more pronounced polarisation. To shed light on this issue, we introduce a quantitative measure called \textit{degree of polarisation} \textit{P}, defined as the difference between the percent of students who answered the polarising choices and those who elected the remaining choices. It has a minimum value of 0\% indicating no polarisation, and a maximum value of 100\% meaning all students elected the polarising choices. Geometrically, it is a measure of the gap between a pair of line graphs corresponding to polarising choices and other choices, symmetric about the horizontal line at 50\%-mark. (There are two of these pairs in \textbf{Figs. \ref{genderDifPolarisation}(a)} and \textbf{\ref{genderDifPolarisation}(b)} corresponding to pretest and posttest.) The narrower the gaps are, the smaller is the average value of $P$ for all the six questions.

\textbf{Figure \ref{figDegreePolarisation}} shows the degree of polarisation for all students irrespective of gender. We see a general pattern that \textit{P} is higher for posttest than for pretest for all the six questions. We split this graph into contributions due to males and due to females (see \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}}) and then observe the same behaviour with females strictly following the pattern. However, on average, males exhibit a higher degree of polarisation for \textit{both} pretest (56\% versus 35\% for females) and posttest (79\% versus  66\% for females) suggesting a possible gender gap. Such a gap may be interpreted in two ways. (In what follows, keep in mind that on average, males exhibit a higher degree of polarisation.) If a greater proportion of males happen to choose the wrong choice in the pair of polarising choices than that of females, then this may imply that males tend to be more confused. The possible gender gap may then be seen as in favour of females. On the other hand, if a greater proportion of males happen to choose the right choice in the pair of polarising choices than that of females, then this may imply that males tend to be more discerning about the correct set of forces acting on a given body. The possible gender gap may then be seen as in favour of males.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{rel_pol.pdf}
    \caption{Degree of polarisation for all students on the FCI.}
    \label{figDegreePolarisation}
\end{figure}

To resolve this issue, we need to establish if there really is a gender gap associated with the degree of polarisation in the first place. The two (possibly) interesting simulated scenarios we have just presented above can then only take into effect should there be a non-negligible gender difference. This situation seems to demand a quantitative comparison test. A \textit{t}-test involving \textit{P} would be a viable candidate but as we have only six questions corresponding to six pairs of data points for males and females, this would yield a questionable result. On the other hand, one may see that from a slightly different perspective, we are dealing here with the question of independence of two categories namely, (a) gender and (b) choice of answer (polarising choices and other choices). Treating all the polarisation-inducing questions on equal footing, we then find that if we count the frequency of students electing (a) polarising choices and (b) other choices, depending on gender, the appropriate test would be the chi-squared test, and this is what we use here.

For the pretest, our chi-squared test returns a \textit{p}-value of 0.020. This means that at the 95\% confidence level, we have statistically significant evidence that there is a gender aspect associated with polarisation. Looking back at \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(a)}, we see that it is not surprising at all. In five out of six questions, the \textit{P}-bars for males are taller than that of females corresponding to an average of 56\% versus 35\%. Further examination of our data indicates that 39\% (40\%) of males (females) got the correct answer in the six questions. It follows that the greater degree of polarisation for males is due to the selection of the choice X in the pair of polarising choices. For the pretest, males seem to be more confused in identifying the correct set of forces acting on a given body.

For the posttest, our chi-squared test returns a \textit{p}-value of 0.055. This means that at the 95\% confidence level, we do not have statistically significant evidence suggesting a gender aspect of polarisation. With reference to \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(b)} we see that although it exhibits the same pattern as that of \textbf{Fig. \ref{figDegreePolarisationGender}(a)}, (that is, in five out of six questions, the \textit{P}-bars for males are taller than that of females,) the relative difference in the degree of polarisation is smaller corresponding to an average \textit{P}-value of 79\% versus 66\%. We may then say that along the way, students (males and females) learned more about forces and the polarisation gender gap observed in the pretest closes at the posttest.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
    \hspace{-4.5em}
    \includegraphics[scale=0.95]{rel_pol_male_female.pdf}
    \caption{Gender-segregated distribution for the degree of polarisation.}
    \label{figDegreePolarisationGender}
\end{figure}

We are now in position to go back to the Venn diagram representing the place of polarisation in relation to gender gap and FCI. We have the following main findings:
\begin{itemize}
\item
Polarisation is NOT unique to one gender.
\item
The gender aspect that may be associated with the extent by which polarisation is exhibited by one gender over the other, is not a permanent attribute (if ever it is,) of polarisation.
\end{itemize}
With these two points in hand, we move the circle for polarisation away from that of the gender gap/bias. As far as our results are concerned, it may not be placed completely outside of the zone for gender gap/bias as shown in \textbf{Fig. \ref{figVennExpect}}, indicating that polarisation may have a gender dimension; albeit, something that fades with learning. Whether it will stay in this position (slightly) intersecting the circle for gender bias/gap, remains to be seen in future studies employing larger number of participants.

\begin{figure}[htb!]
	\centering
    \includegraphics[scale=0.85]{venn_diag_actual_02.pdf}
	\caption{Venn diagram for polarisation, gender bias/gap, and the FCI. Our data suggest that polarisation does not have a serious gender dimension.}
    \label{figVennExpect}
\end{figure}

\section{The FCI as a whole}
\label{ResWhole}
Although this work mainly focuses on the gender aspect of polarisation, it would not be a complete study without mentioning the result of the FCI as a whole. The point in elaborating this is not to repeat what has been found out in the literature; that is, there is gender gap associated with the FCI considered as a whole. In fact, as we shall see, we are part of the minority that deviates from this finding. The additional point then, aside from completeness, is to some extent, a sense of \textit{complementarity}. Our analysis and elaboration below serve to support the idea that polarisation is not a gender-specific phenomenon and the extent by which it is exhibited by students does not have a serious gender aspect.

\subsection{Results and Analyses}

\textbf{Table \ref{table_1}} shows the results of the FCI for four batches of entrants (from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15)\footnote{This is an updated set of data we previously presented in Ref. \cite{alalinea}.} corresponding to a total of 66 students, for pretest and posttest. The mean scores for the pretest and posttest are 52\% and 62\% respectively, corresponding to a rise of about 20\%. Our \textit{t}-test returns a \textit{p}-value of $ 2.9\times 10^{-8} $. This indicates that at the 95\% confidence level, the null hypothesis was not satisfied and suggests the results do lead to a positive increase in the post scores.

\begin{table}[tbh!]
\centering
    \begin{tabular}{|l|ccccc|}
    \hline
    \multirow{2}{*}{Group} &\small{2011-2012}  &\small{2012-2013}
    &\small{2013-2014}  &\small{2014-2015} &\small{Total} \\
       &\small{$n=11$}  &\small{$n=18$}
    &\small{$n=18$}  &\small{$n=19$} &\small{$N=66$} \\
    \hline
    \hline
       & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD) & Mean (SD)    \\
    Pretest(\%) & 57 (22) & 55 (25) & 49 (22) & 50 (22) & 52 (23) \\
    Posttest(\%) & 67 (23) & 66 (21) & 55 (23) & 62 (19) & 62 (21) \\
    Gain   & 0.24         & 0.23        & 0.12     & 0.25 &   0.20 \\
    \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \caption{\it FCI results (in percent) for four academic years starting from 2011 and ending 2015. The number $ n $ under each academic year indicates the number of students while the quantity SD stands for standard deviation.}
    \label{table_1}
\end{table}

The \textit{t}-test can only indicate whether there is a statistically significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores. A good measure commonly employed in studies like this to quantify the improvement with respect to the score in the pretest, is provided by the \textit{normalised gain}, \textit{G} \cite{Hake}. It is defined as the difference between the posttest and pretest scores divided by the maximum possible rise in score relative to the pretest result. Symbolically,
\begin{equation*}
	\hspace{5.0em} G = {\langle \% S_f\rangle  - \langle \% S_i \rangle \over 100 - \langle \% S_i \rangle },
\end{equation*}
\noindent
where $\% S_f$ and $\% S_i$ are the final and initial scores in percent respectively.

Also included in \textbf{Table \ref{table_1}} are the \textit{G}-values for each AY for the four batches of students. On average, we find a relatively low value of $G = 0.20$ (see Ref. \cite{coletta} for the interpretation of FCI scores). This is in spite of the use of interactive engagement \cite{Hake, freeman, cahyadi} in class in the form of (a) peer discussion and (b) use of MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ with the guidance of the instructor/teaching assistant. As argued in our previous work \cite{alalinea}, the corrective measure built into MasteringPhysics${}^\textnormal{\footnotesize TM}$ might have contributed in the low normalised gain. In addition to this, the formal contact hours between students and teacher (one meeting per week each lasting for only 1.5 hours, as stated in \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}}) might have been not enough to instill mastery of the core concepts in Newtonian mechanics.

\subsection{Gender Differences?}

\begin{table}[tbh!]
\centering
    \begin{tabular}{|l|ccc|}
    \hline
    \multirow{2}{*}{Group} & Female  & Male  & Percent \\
       & $n=37$ & $n=29$ & Difference  \\
    \hline
    \hline
       & Mean (SD)    & Mean (SD)  &  \\
    Pretest(\%) & 49 (22) & 57 (22) & 16  \\
    Posttest(\%) & 58 (21) & 67 (21) & 15\\
    Gain   & 0.18         & 0.23 & 24    \\
    \hline
    \end{tabular}
    \caption{\it FCI results (in percent) for female and male participants from AY 2011-12 to AY 2014-15.}
    \label{table_2}
\end{table}

\textbf{Table \ref{table_2}} is a summary table comparing the performance of males and females in the pretest and posttest. Our data suggest that considering the mean scores, males tend to perform better on \textit{both} the pretest and posttest. This observation is further supported by a higher \textit{G}-value indicating a greater improvement on the part of the males. Looking at the table, a difference of $\Delta G = 0.23 - 0.18 = 0.05$ might not seem much but compared to the average $(\bar G = 0.21)$, this leads to a relatively large percent difference of $24\%$. Having laid down the means and \textit{G}-value, let us see if our \textit{preliminary insight} can survive rigorous statistical test.

\textit{Pretest}. At the $95\,\%$ confidence level, or $\alpha=0.05$, we find that $p = 0.13>\alpha$, so there is no significant difference between the means of the pretest scores of males ($\bar x_{m,pre} = 57\,\%$) and females ($\bar x_{f,pre} = 49\,\%$). Though the percent difference between the means may not be ignored at $16\,\%$ in favour of males, the relatively wide variation of student scores (as measured by the standard deviation) results to acceptance of the null hypothesis in the $t$-test.

\textit{Posttest}. At the $95\,\%$ confidence level, or $\alpha=0.05$, we find that $p = 0.087>\alpha$, so there is no significant difference between the means of the posttest scores of males ($\bar x_{m,post} = 67\,\%$) and females ($\bar x_{f,post} = 58\,\%$). Though the percent difference between the means may not be ignored at $15\,\%$ (only 1\% away from that of the pretest), the relatively wide variation of student scores (as measured by the standard deviation) results to acceptance of the null hypothesis in the $t$-test.

It is worth noting that our \textit{preliminary insight} above is in agreement with the review article by Madsen, McKagan, and Sayre \cite{MadsenRev} on gender gap involving the FCI to the extent that male average score and \textit{G}-value are higher than that of female. However, in our case, the difference in means in favour of males is not supported by the \textit{t}-test results; the fluctuation in student scores is wide enough preventing us to conclude that there is indeed a gender gap.

Recalling the gender distribution of the participants mentioned in \textbf{Sec. \ref{Meth}}, we find that it is female-dominated (56\% vs. 44\%). In view of Ref. \cite{Shapiro}, the absence of ``stereotype threat'' might have been one of the possible factors leading to a statistically null gender difference.\footnote{This sort of justification seems unnecessary as far as the null result is concerned. However, in view of the overwhelming data on gender gap presented by Madsen, McKagan, and Sayre \cite{MadsenRev}, we find it good to find some words to somehow support our result.}  Furthermore, the fact that majority of our students are international students, their global mindset might correspond to the absence of the gender dimension. Although these are interesting angles to look at, owing to the limited space for this work, we leave the investigation for future studies.

Our result above brings us back to the gender aspect of polarisation. Had there been a statistically significant gender difference in the FCI performance as a whole, polarisation would have been expected to follow suit. In theory (with polarisation-inducing questions constituting 20\% of all the questions), it is possible that the gender aspect of the two to be opposite each other (one with gender gap while the other has none). What we have found out is that both genders exhibit it. Moreover, the gender aspect associated with the degree of polarisation seems to fade naturally as students learn more about forces. Except for the possible preliminary gender difference, the  null result for the FCI as a whole complements our main findings about polarisation.

\section{Concluding remarks}
\label{Conc}

Polarisation is a phenomenon wherein the addition of a ``fictitious'' force to an otherwise correct set of forces causes a serious divide in the way students identify the valid set of forces acting on a given body. In this article, we have revisited this notion, this time, in relation to gender gap. Our data suggest that polarisation is \textit{not} unique to one gender. Furthermore, the extent by which it is exhibited by males may differ at the beginning from that of females but the gap closes upon learning more about forces.

These findings involving the six polarisation-inducing questions in the FCI are complemented by our result for the FCI as a whole. We have discussed in this work evidence suggesting that there is no gender gap for global courses in conceptual physics. Although preliminary insight based on student means appeared to show a gender gap, using the \textit{t}-test, we found that the null hypothesis was satisfied at the 95\% confidence level; meaning, there is no statistically significant gender gap.

Our null result for the gender aspect of polarisation and FCI as a whole may require no justification at all. However, in view of the existing evidences to the contrary for the FCI as a whole (see our references), it  might be worth mentioning that our student participants were female-dominated and multi-racial in nature (international students). How these factors might have possibly influenced our result remains to be investigated.

As for future work, it is apparent that we would need a larger data set. Moreover, it would be beneficial to look at other international/global courses that have other interesting cohorts (not just the CBCMP program at Osaka University). Certainly, the study of whether or not `stereotype threats' \cite{Shapiro}  affect performance in the international context warrants further investigation.

\section*{Acknowledgements}

We would like to thank current and past students and staff on the
Chemistry-Biology Combined Major Program (CBCMP) at Osaka
University.

\section*{References}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


3/15 – finished body, this time added face before finishing.
Trying the knit cast-on! Going with a size bigger than the pattern in the hope of getting a more "open" feel.
1/8 – doing a single row of purl instead of the 3 rows garter between the YO/K2tog in the pattern. I think it's turning out that I'm knitting it inside-out, essentially.
1/9 – I'm pretty sure that I twisted the join. :\ Since it's a cowl, I think it'll be ok.


One of the most common pickup repairs that I get in the workshop is where the pickup wire has been snapped or damaged right at the start of the coil. With little free coil wire left over, often the pickup requires a compete rewind to restore it to working order but in some cases I'm able to tease enough wire free to work with. In these instances it means a vintage pickup can be repaired as close to the original as possible.


text:
Joseph Farah Warns Gay Athletes Like Michael Sam Will Harm 'Innocent Children'
By Brian Tashman | May 19, 2014 10:35 am
WorldNetDaily editor Joseph Farah is upset about "the recent flood of self-outings" by gay athletes. In a column today, Farah suggests that gay athletes stay closeted, while at the same time wondering "why the announcement of a preference and practice of a certain type of sexual activity is considered a heroic act."
He concludes that since "it is especially cool to be a 'gay' athlete," Americans must be valuing "abhorrent sex" over "innocent children."
In his first major televised interview on the situation on his friend Arsenio Hall's show, [Magic] Johnson vehemently and even pridefully denied being homosexual – and was cheered by the studio audience.
Why is this significant 23 years later?
Because today sports stars who say they are "gay" are treated like heroes by sports franchises, the media and the public as well. Back in 1991, that clearly wasn't the case.
It was always cool to be an athlete. But now it is especially cool to be a "gay" athlete. Consider the recent flood of self-outings:
• Robbie Rogers became the first openly "gay" male athlete to play in a professional American sporting match last year when he took the field for Major League Soccer's Los Angeles Galaxy during a match against the Seattle Sounders.
• Sheryl Swoopes, a retired WNBA star and coach of the Loyola University Chicago's women's basketball team, came out in 2005.
• Brittney Griner, selected No. 1 in the 2013 WNBA draft by the Phoenix Mercury, is openly "gay."
• In an exclusive interview with CNN, former San Francisco 49ers player Kwame Harris came out as "gay" after rumors circulated in the media.
• Gareth Thomas of Wales spoke about being gay to a British news channel in 2009.
• Germany's openly "gay" Judith Arndt won the silver medal in cycling at the 2012 Olympics.
What's the takeaway? What am I suggesting?
• I believe there it is unhealthy for a society to obsess over sex – especially abhorrent sex. Let me say it loud and clear for all those professional athletes who have been forcibly muzzled by their franchises under cartel control.
• It wasn't long ago that most Americans would have agreed that homosexual activity is sinful. I don't know what the polls show today – or even if anyone would dare conduct such a poll. Today, our culture celebrates sin. I'll let you decide for yourself if that's a good thing.
• Innocent children are among the most enthusiastic consumers of sports. Has anyone besides Derrick Ward considered the impact this shift in cultural sensitivities has on them?
• And, lastly, can someone please explain to me why the announcement of a preference and practice of a certain type of sexual activity is considered a heroic act? I don't get it. I'm eager to hear from those who agree or disagree.
Tags: Joseph Farah Anti-Gay WorldNetDaily
Michael Peroutka: Gay 'Deathstyle' Wants To 'Recruit Your Children'
Mike Huckabee Mocks 'Bizarre' Michael Sam Call, Fears Gay 'Economic Terrorism'
Joseph Farah: Gay Marriage Inviting Divine Wrath Upon America
Huckabee: Obama Calling Michael Sam Is A Sign Of America's 'Utter Collapse'

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Great Heath Configurable Living Room Set By Latitude Run is a must have in almost any residence. You desire to get the best sections, so you want to successfully by no means overpay for these people. Noises a little complicated, correct? Well, this information is right here to help. Keep reading and discover some very nice skilled techniques for finding the offers on furniture parts you can expect to really like. Before buying any kitchen cabinets, open each of the drawers and check inside of. You're not simply being sure that all of the drawers are made to very last and available with no hitches, you also want to make sure that the inside in the compartments have some form of completing at the same time. When buying Heath Configurable Living Room Set By Latitude Run, determine your bed room before you go shopping. There exists nothing worse than selecting the best group of Heath Configurable Living Room Set By Latitude Run only to find out that it will not easily fit in your bedroom once you buy it residence. Alternatively, effectively measure your bedrooms measurements before going noting where door and house windows are located.
Bar tables are not just particular tables intended to be utilized in pubs as suggested by its name. If youre looking to provide your kitchen area, diner of home a business-like appearance, you will want to choose the right bar furniture. The dinning furniture are earning an ever-increasing existence in peoples homes as they search for that distinctive company-like presence at home. However, with thousands of club furniture to choose, from, getting the best offer can be a challenging job for most owners. For those looking to transform the diner into a lively contemporary bar, we have your back with some of the best bar furniture available on the market presently. This bar desk is a breakfast every day set well suited for homes with small dining spaces. It is a fairly small table that won't consider an excessive amount of space in the dining room. It features caster tires that allow for easy motion within the house particularly when cleansing. You also get some stools and decrease leaf giving you good bang for your buck. Made of the natural Beachwood, this desk is a great purchase and arrives in the round and square shape.
The good thing that compensates for that time lost the glory of the buyers is its style effortlessly. Only for the look of the upholstery, you receive a nice stylish environment. It's available in wealthy strong shading, emulating as incredible formal attire. While keeping an honorable prominence, the material furniture could be washed effortlessly. You shouldn't regret following turning over a cup of consume in your good sofa. You just need to wash the spot without end exactly when it strikes the upholstery. Even though great repute comes with delicacy, it is not the problem right here. This amazing sofa is fed with a shape development of solid wood. You're more reluctant to listen to squeaks and walking sounds.
Typically now utilized in homes with a great room or open floor plan, they are usually big designs that chair lots of visitors. In smaller sized rooms, they can be useful for seating within an region which has a strange corner or other room limitation. The ability to mix part models, end units and reclining areas based on space and individual preference makes this sofa style super versatile. Sofa couches are also available in a wide variety of styles, from ultra contemporary or super luxe, to much more loved ones-friendly modern styles.
English folded equip couches are additional comfy thanks to the big, soft cushions at the back as well as for the seats. Reduced hands are comfy for laying and the uncovered thighs bare this couch style from sensation too heavy or imposing. It actually came from in the change of the century and can be related to some thing typical of the British country side. Distinguishing qualities usually consist of reduced uncovered legs, soft, generous soft cushions, a tight back again and recessed hands. Even though it is regarded as a classic style, it's also a perfect accessory for a contemporary room thanks to its comfortable and versatile look.
When the Chesterfield may be the elegant man among sofas, the Cabriole is the grande dame. Known for its exposed wooden and elegant legs, reminiscent of the Louis XV time period, the cabriole also offers a unique outline. It had been also a popular form within the function of furniture producer Thomas Chippendale. Typically, the rear is one constant piece without soft cushions and has an elegant curving collection. This particular cabriole edition includes gems in the tufts for added glamour. It's a sofa style that may be as basic or luxurious as you desire. Padded having a luxury materials like purple velvet yields a much various style sensation than if it were padded in a much more muted, textural neutral. The main aura of elegance derives from its general form and lithe thighs which means it will always lend a refined air to some space.
English folded equip sofas are additional comfortable because of the large, pillows behind and for the seats. Low arms are comfortable for lying down and the exposed thighs keep this couch style from feeling overweight or impacting. It really came from in the turn from the hundred years and could be related to some thing typical of the British country side. Distinguishing characteristics usually include reduced exposed thighs, gentle, large soft cushions, a tight back and recessed hands. Even though it is considered a vintage design, it is also a perfect addition to a modern day room thanks to its comfy and flexible appear.
This suits you if you just need a beautiful coach. It's designed with a flared body and cushion leading amrests in a awesome cobblestone grey. Now, it's tough foam cushions which are wrapped up in inside a polyester upholstery to create the desired comfort and ease. It has a sturdy part blocked frame that increases the sturdiness. Also, feet are in a fake wooden complete. It has an remarkable grey colour that suits with any decor. It measures 89 W x 39 Deb x 40 H therefore big enough to accommodate you along with your family/friends. More to the point, it arrives fully put together. This protects you the agony of getting to put together the set.
Fluffy, overstuffed loveseat cushions are not your thing? This reclining loveseat from GDF has crisper, solution lines than your conventional reclining loveseat, which makes it an elegant addition to a mid-hundred years contemporary, contemporary, modern or contemporary type of home. And, at just 46.46 inches wide, it's very easy to match an inferior space, like flats, dens or offices. Obtainable in several color and material choices, including charcoal material, navy material and slate microfiber, its easy to find the perfect complement for your home decorations, and also the sturdiness your loved ones requirements for everyday use. The days are gone of good-searching, but unpleasant Recycled Teak Coffee Table you will no longer have to sacrifice comfort for style. This reclining loveseat functions a big, soft, plush-stuffed chair cushion with enough space for two or enough space for one to disseminate and unwind.
This RTA loveseat offers various kinds of furniture with respect to the material. That significantly incorporates linen and purple velvet. Advanced tones, Marzipan, Stoneware-Light tan and Rye-Brown enhance design for the couch. Select the shading and the materials that will depend around the stylistic style of your living space. Not only the shading, the material may also reflect the difference in fashion. Ensure that the material you select fits the theme of your space. This loveseat ballots in favor of combining the current style by having an excellent style. It's been moved up by the hands that start to feed the couch. With this mix, you only witness improved comfort and ease and stylish design when lighting the patches.
If you are looking for some serious relaxation, this loveseats solid pillow back again and folded arms will deliverbut at a higher cost. Every seat cushioning consists of 30 person pocketed coils for spring and assistance, and resilience chair foam for an extra layer of plushness and sturdiness. In addition, the froth cushions are capped with super soft, combined down feathers. For the extra comfort, there are 3 standard jobs: seated, a small lie down by having an raised foot rest, and a complete lie down with an raised footrest. It does not harm that this reclining loveseat appears lux, either. Its all-leather upholstery and ornamental nail head cut give it a vintage appear that can function with a lot of home dcor designs, from traditional to nation to arts and crafts. In addition, leather holds up nicely against everyday use, children and pet locks and fingernails. Just be sure you situation the leather-based each and every 6 to twelve months.
The word here is the comfort and ease and sophisticated look. This established includes a tufted back rest and nail head highlight that gives it the sophisticated appear. Its gray color contributes to its remarkable look. It can fit up to 8 inches mattress. That on your own lets you know how comfy the set could be. Particularly, it does not include a bed mattress. So you may want to purchase one. The trundle includes a castor to enable easy access. You may also draw the trundle for people to sit on. Just to point out, it should take assembling, but again its very easy to put together.
Copyright © Heath Configurable Living Room Set By Latitude Run in Round Coffee Tables All right reserved.


text:
Thomas More's execution
This video covers: Thomas More's execution together with that of John Fisher.
So it has come to this my last night on earth for upon the morrow I am to be executed, my head is to struck from my body for treason against the King. I was going to be hung drawn and quartered but the King has commuted my sentence to beheading. Oh my head will make a poor sight on London Bridge. But what of those poor souls before me three monks all found guilty of treason all, hung drawn and quartered, that was on the nineteenth of June and then on the twenty second my good friend John Fisher was beheaded at Tower Hill, he was Bishop of Rochester you know, and never a more devout Catholic would you find. What could he have done wrong you may ask? Well he sided with Queen Catherine, in fact he was her champion, but once the King had broken with Rome and placed himself as head of the Church of England John Fisher spoke out against him and refused to swear to the succession act.
Henry VIII, King Henry VIII, Supreme head, supreme head of the church of England, church of England, 1535, oath of supremacy, church, pope, lord chancellor, Thomas more, sir Thomas more, John Fisher, Act of Succession, Act of Succession, treason, high treason, guilty, Anne Boleyn, execution, beheading, death sentence, 1535, Tower Hill, Bishop of Rochester, Catholic, Queen Catherine, Rome, succession act, tudor, tudors, Y7, Y8, Y9, Year 7, year 8, year 9, 20th C, 20C, 20th Century, 20th C, KS3, Key Stage 3, reformation,


This Chameleon is one of Khaleesi's favorite toys! It is really cute. You can stuff it in its "egg shell" and make your pup work to get it out. I just shove it in, squeeze the squeaker, and Khaleesi goes crazy on it for 20-30 minutes until she finally pulls it out of its shell. This is a toy that will create hours of fun. And so far no rips or tears! Yay!
Tessa has mastered the "medium" level hatch difficulty! Way to go, Tessa!


The vision from the school side was to look at the space as an outdoor student lounge where kids can hang out during the recess. But instead of beginning our designs based on our first instinct, we asked "What do the students want?" We asked Patti to have the students draw up their visions of this outdoor space and we would be back in a week to look at their plans. With that exercise in mind, we went back office and sketched our own version of the outdoor lounge space.
A week later, Patti brought the students' sketches and gathered the teachers that would be involved in this project to look at the designs. The discussion was fruitful, as we walked the school staff through our design thinking, they ideas for a "conflict resolution mosaic path", a place to display art work, and an area for outdoor learning. We also learned about Bel Aire's sister school in Liberia and how the school had raised money and built a well for drinking so that students there don't have to walk 3-5 hours each day to get water, and can use the time learning instead.
With this new awareness, we went back to our office to study the drawings from students. We were amazed by what is in these kids' minds. The drawings reflect the world and vision they need. We created lists of the icons they drew and the words they used and created a word cloud to help us analyze their designs.
We analyzed the similar and different programs and came up with a revised drawing that included the key components.
The design is pretty much driven by the kids' programs, and we found a home for the mosaic path, art display, and outdoor learning as well.
The final design incorporates the conflict resolution mosaic path, which resolves the grade changes at the lower hillside and provides a terrace for watching sports activities. The canopy structure uses donations to create recycled sails that can be pulled out to provide shade, making it easier for remote learning with mobile devices, and a comfortable escape from the black or white boards inside. We also created a series of new vine structures by reusing the existing fence and a solar-powered drinking fountain as a reminder of their contribution to their sister school in Liberia.
With the exposure of the project in the news, the school was able to obtain the preliminary funding to get the project going. It is estimated that phase 1 will be complete by August 2012 when students return school from summer break.
My first exposure to the community of social impact design was the Public Architecture sponsored Design Access Summit. The summit gathered a group of articulate people with depth in the diverse range of assets required for success in this work. A range of the topics was explored both in short presentations and in very active small group discussions.
My first take away was that social impact design calls for a much more entrepreneurial skill set than the usual architectural firm 'waiting for client to come up with a project' model. Working actively in this realm often requires, or provides, an opportunity, for a designer to identify an problem or issue and then go out and identify stakeholders, partners and funding sources. Or a potential client has identified a need but needs the project to be defined and articulated in order to pursue funding, whether grants or donations. As in regular practice having a good team of collaborators is an asset, but for social impact design projects a more diverse group of resources is required. A successful project is predicated on a rich social asset resource base.
Perhaps due to the lack of specificity there was a lot of talk about the need for specificity. Roman Mars, creator of the 99% Invisible radio show, addressed the subject of the story suggesting the motto 'Specificity is the soul of the narrative' and demonstrating the same brilliantly in a piece about the Plimsoll line in the style of NPR's 'This American Life' or 'Radiolab'. In a breakout session Roman also said that in order to motivate one's social assets you need to have a good story, specific 'asks', and a common (specific) language or clear goal. Stated another way Lakshmi Ramarajan from the Organizational Behavior Unit at the Harvard Business school outlined, in a session called Rethinking Service Delivery, the steps for changing external structures as 1)Framing the issue, 2)Mobilizing others, and 3)Engaging the rule makers.
The idea of pro bono itself was batted about. Brian Healy, a design principal at Perkins + Will's Boston office, wondered, in another breakout session, if we didn't devalue our skills by giving them away, a problem acknowledged even by John Peterson of Public Architecture regarding the internal debate at Public over the name of their new book 'The Power of Pro Bono'. (Then the graphics designer pointed out all the '0's in the title.) Ideally people want to do work that matters, is good and pays. Ideally we want to put our talents and skills to work for clients who share our values.
The question of metrics kept popping up: Would we be more successful in securing work in line with our ideals if we could better articulate/measure the difference design can make? Or maybe more clearly stated: Are metrics a valuable tool for better articulating the design's value? Can the therapeutic value of design be better demonstrated? Measurement was seen by some as a tool for justifying an approach and facilitating collaboration. I continue to be surprised by the way the discussion of metrics with regard to design generates a response that is, by all appearances, is defensive. I still don't understand the dichotomy between inspiration and metrics, especially in a field as practical and concrete at architecture.
Julie Eizenberg, of Koning Eizenberg Architects, in her talk in the session entitled "Overcoming Barriers: Successes and Failures", made an elegant and inspiring case for having every project add joy and knowledge about the world to our community fund of good. She said that "philanthropists like projects that inspire". I would extend that: philanthropists are not the only ones. The public in general doesn't know what the design process can offer. While designers are taught to cast a wide net around a problem, as Julie pointed out, the public isn't even expecting inspiration, thinking that smaller is better.
If we subscribe to the ethical and political activism of adding 'joy and knowledge of the world' to our public dialogue through design we can no longer limit our practice to benefitting only those with adequate means. The best summation, at present, of my ongoing trip through the public good or purposeful design community, is that we as designers have a valuable skill that could serve the greater good in broad, far-reaching ways, ways that most of us, practicing traditional design in the traditional delivery method, are only just beginning to grasp.
More than half of the world's population currently lives in urban areas. Of this, 70% of the population is located in developing nations and this percentage is rapidly rising, increasing to about 95% by 2060. Urban populations in developing nations face severe challenges—socially, economically and environmentally. For example, 30% of urban populations worldwide live in slums. As designers, we have skills that can affect change in these environments—we have the ability to coordinate programmatic needs with spatial solutions that improve the quality of life.
As the world's population is shifting to urban cities in the developing world, how can we develop a business model that is flexible enough to interact in this exploding market, a market that is 2.5 billion people strong and growing? Developing markets are rife with challenges—direct funding capacity, political stability, location and complex social structures to name a few. Yet, these areas are also ripe with opportunities—multifaceted funding interests, abilities to leapfrog technology, innovative organizational models and creative forms of sustainability that are often non-technical. It is easy to understand how the skills we've acquired from working on some of the most innovative projects in the developed world could benefit projects in the developing world. Could this also work in the other direction, can we learn skills from working in the developing world that would give us an advantage in the developed world?
A business approach that may prove useful in strategizing how to increase our design work in the developing world is the concept of social entrepreneurship. Though this concept is nothing new, it has attracted increased attention in the last five to ten years, both as a way for businesses to have a greater and more direct impact on issues they find important and as an alternative to international aid models that have increasingly come under criticism for their long-term sustainability. Social entrepreneurship attempts to organize business around a social issue rather than a client. They are mission driven. This model may have multiple clients that each support the engagement of a single issue, possibly with different agendas that are organized and aligned by the entrepreneur. This model is therefore far more challenging in developing and managing clients or funding sources, yet provides distinct opportunities in its ability to focus an organization's mission. Social entrepreneurship is ground up rather than top down.
Two primary business models exist for social entrepreneurship. As defined by Samer Abu-Saifan in Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries, social entrepreneurship can either be a non-profit organization with an earned income strategy or a for-profit company with a mission driven strategy. On the non-profit end of the spectrum, these organizations would aim for mission growth while operating as a self-sufficient entity from their earned income and not reliant on grants or donations in the way that most non-profits currently are. Alternatively, for-profit companies would be aim for profit growth in order to sustain a mission goal.
How can social entrepreneurship be incorporated into the way we do business? How can we explore new funding sources to do project work? What business models are we not considering as the basis for project creation?
Samer Abu-Saifan (2012). Social Entrepreneurship: Definition and Boundaries.
UN-Habitat. State of the World's Cities.


"Filled with scrumptious photographs and unique and imaginative recipes, My Sweet Vegan is perfect for anyone with a passion for baking (and eating!) desserts. This book is guaranteed to satisfy even the most discerning of sweet tooth, vegan or not!"
My Sweet Vegan is available from retail bookstores and natural food grocers throughout the U.S. If you are unable to locate a copy in your local store, simply print out a copy of the My Sweet Vegan Request Form and give it to the store manager on your next visit.


There are a lot of things that one has to consider when setting up a business. One of the most important things is acquiring equipment and assets required to carry out business activities smoothly. In the initial days of running a business, it is hard to decide whether to lease or purchase this equipment.
If you are on your way to purchase expensive electronics, heavy machinery, tote boxes or other accessories for your business, the first thing you should ask yourself is whether you should lease or purchase what you need.
If you have the money, going ahead with the purchase will be the best option, but there are chances that you may run into a cash flow problem in the distant future.
Your other option will be to lease the equipment you need or get a purchase loan for the same – divide the money over a period of duration and pay more than the total amount you were supposed to pay. Each system has its definite advantages. It all depends upon the situations and the finance you have.
To begin with, there are two types of leases.
True lease – This lease is also known as an operating lease. This lease enables you to rent the accessory for a certain period of time.
Capital lease – With this lease, you can acquire the accessory by giving additional money at the end of the lease term.
Both of these leases are treated differently for tax purposes. With a true lease, you are not the owner of the accessory which enables you to deduct the leasing fee every month as regular business expenses. You don't have to conduct depreciation and deduction on the same. But with a capital lease, you will have to pay additional tax as you are going to own the asset in the future.
You must have understood by now that, leasing any accessory is expensive compared to buying it. But even though there are a lot of cost differences, there are many reasons one should give it a thought.
If you are buying accessories that run the risk of being non-functional before the end of its shelf life, the true lease can prove handy in such situations provided the lease term is not longer than its shelf life. So, if you are getting a lot of computer systems for your business, give a thought to the lease as electronics like computers run the risk of becoming outdated fast.
If you are signing a lease agreement, it means that at the end of the agreement period you return the accessories and then get a lease or purchase newer accessories.
You don't have to care about additional costs of ageing assets that are either non-functional or need repairs. But if you need those assets, you may have to replace them and handover other items like documents, store data, software etc.
A true lease also gives you a lot of financial benefits. Compared to a purchase loan, the true lease requires no down payment or a small amount depending upon the terms and conditions. Also, the true lease payments can be shown as business expenses on your tax return which provides you with additional finance benefits.
With the above two mentioned benefits, leasing does seem like an attractive option. But, you should be careful about the lease term. If your company or business is advancing fast, you may need the latest and best assets for which you will have to pay a hefty amount to break the lease.
So, if you are going to use the equipment for five years or less and there are chances that these are going to become obsolete, you should go ahead with the lease.
If you are purchasing assets with a loan, you have to give a down payment which might seem costlier than leasing at the time. But it will help you financially in the long run as the cost of the asset might be lower when leased.
Though buying equipment is cheaper and offers the advantages of captured equity and flexibility, there are some risks associated with the purchase. If the accessory becomes obsolete, or the assets or the land you purchased depreciates in value, you may end paying more loan amount than the asset's actual worth.
Leasing or purchasing business accessories has both its advantages and disadvantages. By keeping the cash flow in mind, discuss these details with your accountant and go ahead with the option that suits you the best.


NISO is pleased to announce the 2017 Educational Programs. NISO provide a robust series of monthly webinars as a benefit of membership to the Library Standards Alliance (LSA). For more information on becoming a NISO LSA member, please visit the Member pages.
In addition, we will also host the NISO Open Teleconferences, which provide an excellent opportunity to learn about the work NISO is undertaking. These teleconferences are free and open to the public.


While General Liability insurance provides coverage against "slip and fall" for physical damage or bodily injury, it does not cover non-bodily injury or physical damage lawsuits. Directors & Officers insurance (D&O) is designed to defend the directors and officers in the rare case of a lawsuit resulting from their actions. Your directors and officers will have peace of mind knowing that their personal assets are not at risk from the decisions they make while serving your company.
It is common for potential board members to request Directors and Officers Liability insurance as a prerequisite to joining your board. In order to recruit and keep the best and brightest, D&O is quickly becoming a mandatory coverage. Although most lawsuits brought against the board may be thrown out of court, D&O can be looked at as a legal defense fund for your directors, officers, and owners. Board members, officers and business owners will not need to fund the defense on their own.
The number of employment related lawsuits has steadily increased over the past 10 years. In the event of employment litigation, Employment Practice Liability (EPL) provides essential coverage, protecting your company from the potential costs of defense. For example, an employee is dismissed and sues the company for age discrimination, sexual harassment or wrongful termination. These lawsuits have become more and more common and EPL provides necessary coverage for this type of suit. Even if your human resources department has the best procedures and policies you can still be on the hook for large defense costs.
Businesses providing professional services (Architects, Surveyors, Accountants, etc.) have potential exposure from unhappy clients that feel that they've been harmed by the action or inaction of your business. General Liability covers businesses for bodily injury, physical damage and advertising injury but professionals are exposed to potential suits through inaccurate advice, negligence, misrepresentation or violation of good faith and fair dealing. Professional Liability – Errors & Omissions (E&O) provide coverage for this potential exposure.
The primary reason for obtaining this coverage is to cover the actions of your professional business. If your actions were seen by an unhappy client to cause financial losses, which could potentially be attributed to your company, you could have a large exposure for defending the lawsuit. The cost to defend a lawsuit, even if it gets thrown out of court, is enough to justify purchasing Professional Liability – E&O to your insurance portfolio.


We are a locally owned and operated veterinary group with 4 existing hospitals. In late April/early May 2019, we will be opening another location in greater Charlotte area of NC; therefore, we are seeking Associate Veterinarians to join our team.
Candidates should have an interest in surgery and dentistry and be confident operating independently. Our management philosophy provides you the opportunity to help create the culture of the clinic and to practice the style of medicine that you want.
We offer generous salaries, production shares, and a full suite of benefits (including health insurance, CE/dues allowance and retirement benefits). Relocation expenses are negotiable if needed. In addition, the Charlotte metro region of NC is a great place for individuals or families to live and work. The city and surrounding area boast incredible restaurants, national and local sports teams, museums, music venues, outdoor adventure parks, and much more to enjoy.
If you find providing excellent care to patients, building relationships with clients, and having the support of a fantastic team are important to you, we hope you will consider joining our team. If the challenge and excitement of this opportunity speaks to you, please reach out to the Chief Hospital Administrator Kim Heisel, RVT, CVPM at kim@vmivet.com or by calling/texting 704-787-0200.
Please see information about this practice and our others at www.vmivet.com.
VMI is a locally owned and privately held veterinary group that develops new high-quality animal hospitals in the Charlotte, NC metro area. We put our people above profits and emphasize a positive culture in everything we do.We build community-based and culture-driven veterinary practices. Most veterinary clinics fall into one of two categories: those owned by an individual DVM, or those owned by a remote corporate interest. This leaves veterinarians with the frustrating choice of working for another doctor who may or may not have great business, administration, or leadership skills, or working for a large corporation that is out of touch with the community and culture of the practice.As a family-owned general practice management company, VMI offers a better model. Our leadership team is able to leverage both veterinary and business expertise in a local context to build successful community-based hospitals with high rates of career satisfaction and loyalty.If you've been looking for a better way to practice veterinary medicine without sacrificing your sanity or soul, we'd love to hear from you.


text:
Q: Armijo-Goldstein - Backtracking I am trying to implement a backtracking line search using the Armijo-Goldstein condition to adapt my stepsize $t$ adaptively.
I start with two paramteters $\alpha \in (0, 1/2)$ and $\beta \in (0.1)$, and my starting condition $t = 1$. My input is $x \in \mathbb{R}^2$
I repeat $t:=\beta*t$ until the Armijo - Goldstein condition is met:
$$f(x+t\Delta x) < f(x) + \alpha t\nabla f(x)^T\Delta x $$
I understand parts of it, but am also confused on how to implement this in code-form.
I dont really understand what $\Delta x$ means in this context and I dont understand either why I would need to use the transpose of my gradient $\nabla f(x)$ (does the transpose switch the gradient vector from ascent to descent?). I know it has to do with directional derivatives, but maybe im just confused with the notation.
Here a bit of pseudocode:
while f(x + t*delta_x)<(f(x)+alpha+ np.transpose(gradient(x))*delta_x):
    t*=beta

Thank you for your help

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange