text:
package com.cattong.weibo.impl.twitter;

import com.cattong.weibo.conf.ApiConfigBase;

public class TwitterApiConfig extends ApiConfigBase {

	public TwitterApiConfig() {
		this.setRestBaseUrl("https://api.twitter.com/1/");
		this.setSearchBaseUrl("https://search.twitter.com/");

		initRestUrl();
	}

	public void updateRestApiUrl(){
		initRestUrl();
	}

	private void initRestUrl() {
		this.setPublicTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/public_timeline.json");
		this.setFriendTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/friends_timeline.json"); // statuses/home_timeline.json
		this.setUserTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/user_timeline/%1$s.json");
		this.setMetionsTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/mentions.json");
		this.setHomeTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/home_timeline.json");

		this.setShowOfStatusUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/show/%1$s.json");
		this.setUpdateStatusUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/update.json");
		this.setUploadStatusUrl("https://upload.twitter.com/1/statuses/update_with_media.json");
		this.setDestroyStatusUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/destroy/%1$s.json");
		this.setRetweetStatusUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/retweet/%1$s.json");

//		this.setCountsOfCommentAndRetweetUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "statuses/counts.json");
//      this.setRemindCountUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "statuses/unread.json");
//      this.setResetRemindCountUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "statuses/reset_count.json");

		this.setShowOfUserUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "users/show/%1$s.json");
		this.setFriendsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/friends/%1$s.json");
		this.setFollowsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "statuses/followers/%1$s.json");

		this.setInboxTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "direct_messages.json");
		this.setOutboxTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "direct_messages/sent.json");
		this.setSendDirectMessageUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()   + "direct_messages/new.json");
		this.setDestroyDirectMessageUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "direct_messages/destroy/%1$s.json");

		this.setCreateFriendshipUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "friendships/create/%1$s.json");
		this.setDestroyFriendshipUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "friendships/destroy/%1$s.json");
		this.setShowOfFriendshipUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "friendships/show.json");

		this.setVerifyCredentialsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "account/verify_credentials.json");
		this.setRateLimitStatusUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "account/rate_limit_status.json");
		this.setUpdateProfileUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "account/update_profile.json");
		this.setUpdateProfileImageUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "account/update_profile_image.json");

		this.setFavoritesTimelineUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "favorites.json");
		this.setFavoritesOfUserUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "favorites/%1$s.json");
		this.setCreateFavoriteUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "favorites/create/%1$s.json");
		this.setDestroyFavoriteUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "favorites/destroy/%1$s.json");

		this.setSearchUserUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl()  + "users/search.json");
		this.setSearchStatusUrl(this.getSearchBaseUrl() + "search.json");

		this.setCurrentTrendsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "trends/current.json");
		this.setDailyTrendsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "trends/daily.json");
		this.setWeeklyTrendsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "trends/weekly.json");

		this.setCreateBlockUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "blocks/create.json");
		this.setDestroyBlockUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "blocks/destroy.json");
		this.setBlockingUsersUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "blocks/blocking.json");
		this.setBlockingUsersIdsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "blocks/blocking/ids.json");
		this.setExistsBlockUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "blocks/exists.json");

		this.setCreateGroupUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/create.json");
		this.setUpdateGroupUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/update.json");
		this.setDestroyGroupUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/destroy.json");
		this.setShowOfGroupUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/show.json");
		this.setGroupListUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists.json");
		this.setGroupStatusesUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/statuses.json");
		this.setGroupMembersUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/members.json");
		this.setGroupMembershipsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/memberships.json");
		this.setCreateGroupMemberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/members/create.json");
		this.setCreateGroupMembersUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/members/create_all.json");
		this.setDestroyGroupMemberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/members/destroy.json");
		this.setShowGroupMemberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/members/show.json");
		this.setGroupSubscribersUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/subscribers.json");
		this.setCreateGroupSubscriberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/subscribers/create.json");
		this.setDestroyGroupSubscriberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/subscribers/destroy.json");
		this.setShowGroupSubscriberUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/subscribers/show.json");
		this.setAllGroupsUrl(this.getRestBaseUrl() + "lists/all.json");
	}
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Q: How to reduce time complexity of this program The entry Y [i][j] stores the sum of the subarray X[i..j], but can I get a better time complexity?
def func(X, n):
    Y = [[0 for i in range(n)] for j in range(n)]
    for i in range(n):
        for j in range(i, n):
            for k in range(i, j+1):
                Y[i][j] += X[k]
    return Y

if __name__ == "__main__":
    n = 500
    X = list(range(n))
    for i in range(30, 50):
        print(X[i], end=" ")
    print()

    print(func(X, n)[30][49])

A: You could use a prefix sum array.
The idea is that you have an array where the entry ps[i] denotes the sum of all elements arr[0..i]. You can calculate it in linear time:
ps[0] = arr[0]
for i in range(1, len(arr)):
    ps[i] = ps[i - 1] + arr[i]

Can you guess how to retrieve a sum Y(i, j) in constant time?
Solution: Y(i, j) = ps[j] - ps[i - 1]. You take the entire sum of the array from j to the start and subtract the part that you don't want again (which is from i-1 to the start).
Note: It is possible that I messed up some edge cases. Be wary for things like i=0, j=0, j<i, etc.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1918 diretto da Eddie Lyons e Lee Moran
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1918 prodotto dalla National Film Corporation of America
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1919 diretto da Roscoe 'Fatty' Arbuckle
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1928 diretto da George Marshall
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1931 diretto da Harry Sweet
Camping Out – cortometraggio del 1932 diretto da Dick Huemer
Topolino in vacanza (Camping Out) – cortometraggio di animazione del 1934 diretto da David Hand

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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The Trust's vision is very clear and simple. It is to provide excellent homes and services.
Bigger: Increase the number and quality of homes across Shropshire, Telford & Wrekin, Staffordshire, Herefordshire and Wolverhampton.
Better: Deliver improved services, defined as excellent by customers.
Stronger: Maintain a strong business model, delivering in the present, prepared for the future.
A 'can do' approach: to work. The Trust focuses on finding solutions that will give outstanding results and never pass on a problem.
Putting customers first: The Trust only exists to provide services for their customers. They always try to do the right thing.
Working together as one team: Working as a team is key to the Trust's success. Together everyone achieves more.
Getting it right first time: The Trust always tries to deliver outstanding customer service, creating a culture that genuinely puts the customer first.
Valuing each other: As a team, they respect, support and trust each other. The Trust also respect our customers; they're honest and open, and go the extra mile.


Tenchiboard: Anime and More • View topic - I'm Gonna Be King of The erm...Space Pirates!
I'm Gonna Be King of The erm...Space Pirates!
Post subject: I'm Gonna Be King of The erm...Space Pirates!
Hello My name is Monkey D. Luffy-Just kidding, I'm just a HUGE Ayeka fan hahaha, just kidding again! Okay I'll stop! My name is RyokoFanboy because indeed I'm a fan of the beloved space pirate! Anyways I was searching far and wide for a Tenchi forum and this seems to be the most active one i've found! I hope to discuss lots of Tenchi stuff since all the other forums (*ahem* Arlong Park/Daizex) Seem to not appreciate the Tenchi series as much as we do! So hopefully I'm in the right place for Tenchi discussions! And again I hope to stay for awhile here! Arigato!
Post subject: Re: I'm Gonna Be King of The erm...Space Pirates!
Welcome to the forum RyokoFanboy! It's always great to see another Tenchi fan around these parts, we look forward to seeing you around the board =D!
Last edited by örfúÁrvízrógé on Wed April 1, 1989 9:01 am, edited 3 times in total.
Can you fix your avatar please? This site gives you the option to adjust the size. I feel 130x130 works best. I know its not my job to tell you, but the size of your avatar is distracting. Bkev would eventually tell you the same thing.
Ah yes, it stretches the margins quite a bit currently. I'd prefer at around 120x120, but anything that doesn't stretch the margins works. You can keep the avatar proportional as long as it's smaller.


text:
Local, Federal Actions Sought for Ocean Plastic Crisis
April 25, 2018 / Tim Faulkner
Plastic pollution, especially in the ocean and along the coast, such as these plastic jugs found on the Portsmouth, R.I., shoreline, is a significant global problem. (Frank Carini/ecoRI News)
By TIM FAULKNER/ecoRI News staff
Sen. Sheldon Whitehouse's Save Our Seas Act has big goals for addressing plastic in the oceans. The bipartisan bill that passed out of the Senate last year seeks to tackle marine debris and the ballooning problem of plastic waste by authorizing $10 million annually for cleanups of severe debris events in waters across the country. It also restarts federal research to determine the source of marine trash and the steps needed to prevent it.
What is already known is that much of the 8 million tons of plastic waste dumped in the world's oceans each year happens outside the United States. In fact, five countries — China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam — are responsible for 60 percent of the plastic garbage that makes it into our waters every year, according to the Ocean Conservancy.
That's a problem, because most of those five countries receive plastic from U.S. recycling centers. The recycling industry, however, is lightly regulated, so it's hard to know the fate of the millions of bales of plastic recyclables shipped overseas annually.
The Save Our Seas Act addresses this problem by encouraging the president and the State Department to address the marine debris problem with these high-polluting nations. It also encourages international research into biodegradable plastics and establishes prevention strategies.
However, the likelihood of an environmental bill passing in the current Congress, much less President Trump endorsing it, is low. Trump wants to cut $1 billion from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which overseas the marine debris program.
For now, much of the action on marine garbage is happening at state and local levels. Those steps include greater enforcement of recycling rules, bans on certain plastics, and improvement by product manufactures to make their packaging more environmentally friendly, reusable and include take-back programs for hard-to-recycle and bulky items.
At a recent Earth Day event in Middletown, R.I., aimed at drawing attention to the Save Our Seas Act, Johnathan Berard of the Rhode Island chapter of Clean Water Action said, "We cannot recycle our way out of this problem. We will only be able to solve it through policies that stop plastic pollution at its source."
Recycling is necessary but is vulnerable to economic and market pressures, which cause revenues for waste prevention and education to fluctuate. There is little enforcement of rules, such as requirements in Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Connecticut that all business collect recyclables and offer collection for their customers. There is even less oversight of what happens to recyclables once they leave sorting centers and are shipped around the world. And with the exception of metals and glass, plastics eventually lose their durability and are down-cycled to trash.
Depending on the item, recycling rates hover between 20 percent and 30 percent nationally. Requiring a deposit on glass and plastic bottles, so-called "bottle bills," boost the recycling rate to nearly 90 percent. But the political will for bottle bills is poor. For example, legislation is introduced in the Rhode Island General Assembly each year but rarely makes it out of committee.
The 2018 bill has yet to be scheduled a hearing. Massachusetts has had a successful 5-cent bottle-deposit program since 1983, but voters defeated a referendum in 2014 to expand the collection to include non-carbonate beverage bottles.
Take-back programs for bulky and hard-to-recycle items such as mattresses, paint cans and electronic waste have also made a difference, but expanding programs to other items like light bulbs, syringes and medications have stalled, as manufactures and retailers resist raising prices to fund collection or improvement of packaging.
This resistance puts the cost of waste management and recycling on consumers and local governments who pay for clean up and transportation. Budget limitations have led to the most cost-effective solution: bans. Prohibitions and fees on plastic bags, in particular, have proven effective at reducing land and marine debris. Dozens of communities in Massachusetts have banned plastic bags and a handful have enacted bans on polystyrene cups and to-go containers.
Seven Rhode Island communities have passed bag bans and more are considering them. Block Island even added a ban on balloons, and the "skip the straw" movement is growing among consumers and restaurants.
While bag bans and beach cleanups are helping clean southern New England, there is still the problem of global waste. Global plastic production is expected to double within 10 years and by 2050 there will be more plastic waste by weight in ocean waters than fish.
The Ocean Conservancy says a combination of education, waste collection and recycling infrastructure, and better managed and properly cited landfills are needed to tackle the plastic ocean debris epidemic.
"While we have made enormous progress cleaning up Narragansett Bay, the millions of tons of trash that are dumped into the oceans around the world can wind up on American shores and in the nets of Rhode Island fishermen," Whitehouse said.
April 25, 2018 / Tim Faulkner/ 1 Comment
Tim Faulkner
Quarry Runoff Into Big River Leaves ...
R.I. Sues EPA for Failing to ...

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
School Rapper Season 2 Vietsub
Home / Interesting Categories / School Rapper Season 2 Vietsub
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When you use a browser, like Chrome, it saves some information from websites in its cache and cookies. Clearing them fixes certain problems, like loading or formatting issues on sites.
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Produce 101 Season 2 (Hangul:. The official broadcast of the show, which would replace High School Rapper's time slot, was announced on March 8. Soon after they had moved to their dorms on February 26, the participants started filming.
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Why is it so hard to find English subs of High School Rapper season 2? Either I have to do better with my Korean or go to some sites that are really questionable. The things we do to watch our shows.
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High School Rapper Season 2 (고등래퍼2) Thread. Started by qi. , Feb 10 2017 01:03 PM. oh a female contender, she seems to be an okay rapper from this vid (whee-in is such a show stealer though lol). do you know if she went ep 1? 0 Back to top #16 Chaeberry Chaeberry. Senior Idol.
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High School Rapper: Season 2 (Korea TV Show); 고등래퍼2; 고등래퍼 Season 2; High school students, from all over South Korea, compete against each other.
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Studied film & women at FSU during the golden age of hip-hop. Collects records, laserdiscs, sports memorabilia & toys. Father.
The lobbying commenced following a mass shooting in February in a Florida high school that resulted in 17 deaths. he was too late to buy a ticket to a sold-out concert by the rapper Ice Cube. The e.
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After leaving Mnet's "High School Rapper" due to a controversy, Jang Yong Joon will be trying his luck on the upcoming sixth season of Mnet's "Show Me the Money." Jang Yong Joon, who.


text:
China Accounting Blog
News and opinion on accounting in China.
Kennedy bill goes to President's desk
Trump rages against China
Antitrust and VIE
Rubio introduces new anti China proposal
Luckin gets a new auditor
What is the end game?
President's Working Group
Luckin Coffee Fraud
Passing the PCAOB bill
China blinks on PCAOB
Kennedy Bill and MNCs
Paul Gillis PhD CPA is Professor of Practice at Peking University's Guanghua School of Management
gillis@gsm.pku.edu.cn
twitter @profgillis
Sitemap includes index to all articles.�
2015 The Accountant Power 50
Most Influential People in Accounting
2014 Market Reformer of the Year
International Financial Law Review
Subscribe to China Accounting Blog by Email
The House of Representatives today passed the Holding Foreign Companies Accountable Act (The Kennedy Bill) by voice vote. The Senate has already passed the act, so it now goes to the President's desk to be signed into law. �
The act will kick Chinese companies off of US exchanges after three future audits that cannot be inspected by the PCAOB. That means that the ban will not take place for calendar year companies until April 30, 2023 which is when their Form 20F for the third consecutive year (2022) will be due. �
Certain disclosures are also required, including government ownership, and names of Communists on the board of the company or operating entities, and whether the articles of incorporation contain the charter of the Communist Party. ��
The passage of the Kennedy bill likely ends any plan by the SEC to do the same through regulation, as well as the unworkable recommendations of the President's Working Group. This issue has been in existence since Sarbanes Oxley was passed in 2002. The SEC and PCAOB have always had the ability to do this but lacked the will to do so. �
Continue reading Kennedy bill goes to President's desk
Copyright�� �2020 � � � � Paul L. Gillis all rights reserved


text:
French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Title: French campaign in Egypt and Syria
Subject: Siege of Acre (1799), History of Egypt, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, Ottoman Egypt, Battle of Shubra Khit
Collection: 1798 in Egypt, 1798 in Ottoman Syria, 1798 in the Ottoman Empire, 1799 in Egypt, 1799 in Ottoman Syria, 1799 in the Ottoman Empire, 1800 in Egypt, 1800 in Ottoman Syria, 1800 in the Ottoman Empire, 1801 in Egypt, 1801 in Ottoman Syria, 1801 in the Ottoman Empire, 18Th Century in Egypt, 18Th Century in France, 18Th Century in the British Empire, 18Th Century in the Ottoman Empire, 19Th Century in Egypt, 19Th Century in France, 19Th Century in the British Empire, 19Th Century in the Ottoman Empire, Conflicts in 1798, Conflicts in 1799, Conflicts in 1800, Conflicts in 1801, French Colonisation in Africa, History of Ottoman Syria, Invasions by France, Invasions of Egypt, Invasions of Syria, Military History of Egypt, Napoleonic Wars, Ottoman Egypt, Ottoman Syria, Wars Involving Arab Egypt, World Digital Library Related
Egyptian Campaign
Part of the Mediterranean campaign of 1798
Egypt, Levant
Ottoman-British victory
French conquest of Egypt and end of Mameluke rule
Failure of French expedition to Syria
Capitulation of French administration in Egypt
Beylik of Tunis
Regency of Algiers
French First Republic
Armée d'Orient
Murad Bey
Ibrahim Bey
Mustafa Pasha
Jezzar Pasha
William Sidney Smith
Ralph Abercrombie (DOW)
Jean Baptiste Kléber †
Jacques-Francois Menou
Ottoman Empire: 220,000
Army of Egypt: 80,000
Army of Rhodes: 20,000
Army of Syria: 20,000
Army of the East: 30,000
2nd invasion of Egypt: 60,000
Great Britain: 30,000 40,000+ men (land)
French Revolutionary Wars – Egypt-Syria Campaign
Shubra Khit
1st Aboukir
2nd Aboukir
Fort Julien
Prehistoric Egypt pre–3100 BC
Early Dynastic Period 3100–2686 BC
Old Kingdom 2686–2181 BC
1st Intermediate Period 2181–2055 BC
Middle Kingdom 2055–1650 BC
2nd Intermediate Period 1650–1550 BC
New Kingdom 1550–1069 BC
3rd Intermediate Period 1069–664 BC
Late Period 664–332 BC
Achaemenid Egypt 525–332 BC
Ptolemaic Egypt 332–30 BC
Roman and Byzantine Egypt 30 BC–641 AD
Sasanian Egypt 619–629
Arab Egypt 641–969
Fatimid Egypt 969–1171
Ayyubid Egypt 1171–1250
Mamluk Egypt 1250–1517
Ottoman Egypt 1517–1867
French occupation 1798–1801
Egypt under Muhammad Ali 1805–1882
Khedivate of Egypt 1867–1914
British occupation 1882–1922
Sultanate of Egypt 1914–1922
Kingdom of Egypt 1922–1953
Republic 1953–present
The French Campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) was Napoleon Bonaparte's campaign in the Orient, ostensibly to protect French trade interests, undermine Britain's access to India, and to establish scientific enterprise in the region. It was the primary purpose of the Mediterranean campaign of 1798, a series of naval engagements that included the capture of Malta.
Despite many decisive victories and an initially successful expedition into Syria, Napoleon and his Armée d'Orient were eventually forced to withdraw by the British army, after sowing political disharmony in France, conflict in Europe, and suffering the defeat of the supporting French fleet at the Battle of the Nile.
Preparations and voyage 1
Proposal 1.1
Before departure from Toulon 1.2
Capture of Malta 1.3
Alexandria to Syria 2
Disembarkment at Alexandria 2.1
Victory on land, defeat at sea 2.2
Bonaparte's administration of Egypt 2.3
Revolt of Cairo 2.4
Canal of the Pharaohs 3.1
Ottoman offensives 3.2
French response 3.3
Jaffa 3.4
Mount Tabor 3.5
Acre 3.6
Retreat from Acre 3.7
Back in Egypt 3.8
Abukir to withdrawal 4
Land battle at Abukir 4.1
Bonaparte leaves Egypt 4.2
Bonaparte's voyage to France 4.3
End of the campaign 4.4
Scientific expedition 5
The printing press 6
Mamelukes in French service 8
French order of battle 9
Timeline and battles 10
See also 11
Bibliography and further reading 13
Preparations and voyage
At the time of the expedition, the Directoire had assumed executive power in France. It would resort to the army to maintain order in the face of the Jacobin and royalist threats, and count in particular on general Bonaparte, already a successful commander, having led the Italian campaign.
The notion of annexing Egypt as a French colony, had been under discussion since François Baron de Tott undertook a secret mission to the Levant in 1777, to determine its feasibility.[1] Baron de Tott's report was favorable, but no immediate action was taken. [1] Nevertheless, Egypt became a topic of debate between Talleyrand and Napoleon, which continued in their correspondence during Napoleon's Italian campaign. [1] In early 1798, Bonaparte proposed a military expedition to seize Egypt. In a letter to the Directoire, he suggested this would protect French trade interests, attack British commerce and undermine Britain's access to India and the East Indies, since Egypt was well-placed on the trade routes to these places. Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with France's ally Tipu Sultan, ruler of Mysore in India.[2] As France was not ready for a head-on attack on Great Britain itself, the Directoire decided to intervene indirectly and create a "double port" connecting the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, prefiguring the Suez Canal.[3]
At the time, Egypt had been an Ottoman province since 1517, but was now out of direct Ottoman control, and was in disorder, with dissension among the ruling Mamluk elite. In France, Egyptian fashion was in full swing – intellectuals believed that Egypt was the cradle of western civilization and wished to export the Enlightenment to the Egyptians, French traders already based on the River Nile were complaining of harassment by the Mamluks, and Napoleon wished to walk in the footsteps of Alexander the Great. He assured the Directoire that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions."[4] According to a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand, "Having occupied and fortified Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000 men from Suez to the Sultanate of Mysore, to join the forces of Tipu Sultan and drive away the English."[4] The Directoire agreed to the plan in March 1798, though troubled by its scope and cost. However, they saw that it would remove the popular and over-ambitious Napoleon from the center of power, though this motive long remained secret.
Before departure from Toulon
Rumors became rife as 40,000 soldiers and 10,000 sailors were gathered in French Mediterranean ports. A large fleet was assembled at Toulon: 13 ships of the line, 14 frigates, and 400 transports. To avoid interception by the British fleet under Nelson, the expedition's target was kept secret. It was known only to Bonaparte himself, his generals Berthier and Caffarelli, and the mathematician Gaspard Monge.[3] Bonaparte was the commander, with subordinates including Thomas Alexandre Dumas, Kléber, Desaix, Berthier, Caffarelli, Lannes, Damas, Murat, Andréossy, Belliard, Menou, and Zajączek. His aides de camp included his brother Louis Bonaparte, Duroc, Eugène de Beauharnais, Thomas Prosper Jullien, and the Polish nobleman Joseph Sulkowski.
The fleet at Toulon was joined by squadrons from Genoa, Civitavecchia and Bastia and was put under the command of Admiral Brueys and Contre-amirals Villeneuve, Du Chayla, Decrès and Ganteaume.
The fleet was about to set sail when a crisis developed with Austria, and the Directoire recalled Bonaparte in case war broke out. The crisis was resolved in a few weeks, and Bonaparte received orders to travel to Toulon as soon as possible. It is claimed that, in a stormy meeting with the Directoire, Bonaparte threatened to dissolve them and directeur Reubell gave him a pen saying "Sign there, general!"
Bonaparte arrived at Toulon on 9 May 1798, lodging with Armée d'Italie:
" Soldiers! You are one of the wings of the French army. You have made war on the mountains, on the plains, and in cities; it remains for you to fight on the seas. The Roman legions, that you sometimes imitated but no longer equalled, fought Carthage now on this same sea and now on the plains of Zama... Soldiers, sailors, you have been neglected until this day; today, the greatest concern of the Republic is for you... The genius of liberty, which made you, at her birth, the arbiter of Europe, wants to be genius of the seas and the furthest nations. "
Capture of Malta
Napoleon's arrival in Malta
When Napoleon's fleet arrived off Malta, Napoleon demanded that the Knights of Malta allow his fleet to enter the port and take on water and supplies. Grand Master von Hompesch replied that only two foreign ships would be allowed to enter the port at a time. Under that restriction, revictualling the French fleet would take weeks, and it would be vulnerable to the British fleet of Admiral Nelson. Napoleon therefore ordered the invasion of Malta.[5]
The French Revolution had significantly reduced the Knights' income and their ability to put up serious resistance. Half of the Knights were French, and most of these knights refused to fight.[5]
French troops disembarked in Malta at seven points on the morning of 11 June. Gen. Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers landed soldiers and cannon in the western part of the main island of Malta, under artillery fire from Maltese fortifications. The French troops met some initial resistance but pressed forward. The Knights' ill-prepared force in that region, numbering only about 2,000, regrouped. The French pressed on with their attack. After a fierce gun battle lasting twenty-four hours, most of the Knights' force in the west surrendered.[5] Napoleon, during his stay in Malta, resided at Palazzo Parisio in Valletta.[6][7][8]
Napoleon then opened negotiations. Faced with vastly superior French forces and the loss of western Malta, von Hompesch surrendered the main fortress of Valletta.[5]
Alexandria to Syria
Disembarkment at Alexandria
French Campaign in Egypt, 1798–99
Thirteen days after leaving Malta and continuing to successfully elude detection by the Royal Navy for the time being, the fleet was in sight of Alexandria, where it landed on 1 July, though his plan had been to land elsewhere. On the day of the landing he told his troops "I promise to each soldier who returns from this expedition, enough to purchase six arpents of land." and added:
" The peoples we will be living alongside are Muslims; their first article of faith is "There is no other god but God, and Mahomet is his prophet". Do not contradict them; treat them as you treated the Jews, the Italians; respect their muftis and their imams, as you respected their rabbis and bishops. Have the same tolerance for the ceremonies prescribed by the Quran, for their mosques, as you had for the convents, for the synagogues, for the religion of Moses and that of Jesus Christ. The Roman legions used to protect all religions. You will here find different customs to those of Europe, you must get accustomed to them. The people among whom we are going treat women differently to us; but in every country whoever violates one is a monster. Pillaging only enriches a small number of men; it dishonours us, it destroys our resources; it makes enemies of the people who it is in our interest to have as our friends. The first city we will encounter was built by Alexander [the Great]. We shall find at every step great remains worthy of exciting French emulation. "
Menou had been the first to set out for Egypt, and was the first Frenchman to land. Bonaparte and Kléber landed together and joined Menou at night at the Marabou, on which the first French tricolor to be hoisted in Egypt was raised. Bonaparte was informed that Alexandria intended to resist him and he rushed to get a force ashore. At 2 am he set off marching in three columns, arriving by surprise beneath Alexandria's walls and ordering an assault – the enemy gave up and fled. The city had not had time to surrender and put itself at the French's discretion but, despite Bonaparte's orders, the French soldiers broke into the city.
On 1 July Napoleon, aboard the ship L'Orient en route to Egypt, wrote the following proclamation to the Muslim inhabitants of Alexandria:
" For too long the Knights of Malta? Wasn't it us who destroyed the Pope who used to say that he had a duty to make war on Muslims? Wasn't it us who have at all times been friends to the Great Lord and enemies to his enemies? ... Thrice happy are those who will be with us! They shall prosper in their fortune and in their rank. Happy are those who will be neutral! They will get to know us over time, and join their ranks with ours. But unhappy, thrice unhappy, are those who shall arm themselves [to fight] for the Mamluks and who shall fight against us! There shall be no hope for them, they shall perish.[9][10] "
When the whole expeditionary force had been disembarked, Admiral Brueys received orders to take the fleet to Aboukir Bay before anchoring the battle-fleet in the old port of Alexandria if possible or taking it to Corfu. These precautions were made vital by the imminent arrival of the British fleet, which had already been seen near Alexandria 24 hours before the French fleet's arrival. It was wisest to avoid the risks of a naval battle – a defeat could have disastrous results and it was in the force's better interests to go by land, marching at top speed to Cairo to frighten the enemy commanders and surprise them before they could put any defence measures in place.
Victory on land, defeat at sea
The Battle of the Pyramids, Louis-François, Baron Lejeune, 1808
Louis Desaix marched across the desert with his division and two cannon, arriving at Demenhour, fifteen miles (24 km) from Alexandria, on 18 Messidor (6 July). Meanwhile, Bonaparte left Alexandria, leaving the city under Kléber's command. General Dugua marched on Rosetta, with orders to seize and hold the entrance to the port housing the French fleet, which had to follow the route to Cairo down the river's left bank and rejoin the army at Rahmanié. On 20 Messidor (8 July), Bonaparte arrived at Demenhour, where he found the forces that had met up, and on 22 Messidor they marched to Rahmanié, where they then awaited the fleet with their provisions. The fleet arrived on 24 Messidor (12 July) and the army began to march again at night, followed by the fleet.
The winds' violence suddenly forced the fleet to the army's left and straight into the enemy fleet, which was supported by musket fire from 4,000 Mamluks, reinforced by peasants and Arabs. The French fleet had numerical superiority but still lost its gunboats to the enemy. Attracted by the sound of gunfire, Bonaparte ordered his land force to the charge and attacked the village of Chebreiss, which was captured after two hours' fierce fighting. The enemy fled in disorder towards Cairo, leaving 600 dead on the battlefield.
The Battle of the Nile: Destruction of L'Orient, August 1, 1798
After a day's rest at Chebreiss, the French land force continued the pursuit. On 2 Thermidor (20 July), it arrived half a mile from the village of Embabé. The heat was unbearable and the army was exhausted and needed a rest, but there was not enough time and so Bonaparte drew up his 25,000 troops for battle approximately nine miles (15 km) from the Pyramids of Giza. He is said to have shown his army the pyramids behind the enemy's left flank and at the moment of ordering the attack shouted "Soldiers, see the tops of the Pyramids" – in accounts written long afterwards, this phrase was altered into "Soldiers, remember that from the top of these pyramids, 40 centuries of history contemplate you", though historians later discovered that the pyramids were not visible from the battlefield. This was the start of the so-called Battle of the Pyramids, a French victory over an enemy force of about 21,000 Mamluks.[11] (Around 40,000 Mamluk soldiers stayed away from the battle.) The French defeated the Mamluk cavalry with a giant infantry square, with cannons and supplies safely on the inside. In all 300 French and approximately 6,000 Egyptians were killed. The battle gave rise to dozens of stories and drawings.
Dupuy's brigade pursued the routed enemy and at night entered Cairo, which had been abandoned by the beys Mourad and Ibrahim. On 4 Thermidor (22 July), the notables of Cairo came to Giza to meet Bonaparte and offered to hand over the city to him. Three days later, he moved his main headquarters there. Desaix was ordered to follow Mourad, who had set off for Upper Egypt. An observation corps was put in place at Elkanka to keep an eye on the movements of Ibrahim, who was heading towards Syria. Bonaparte personally led the pursuit of Ibrahim, beat him at Salahie and pushed him completely out of Egypt.
The transports had sailed back to France, but the battle fleet stayed and supported the army along the coast. The British fleet under the command of Horatio Nelson had been searching in vain for the French fleet for weeks. The British fleet had not found it in time to prevent the landings in Egypt, but on 1 August Nelson discovered the French warships anchored in a strong defensive position in the Bay of Abukir. The French believed that they were open to attack only on one side, the other side being protected by the shore. However, during the Battle of the Nile the arriving British fleet under Horatio Nelson managed to slip half of their ships in between the land and the French line, thus attacking from both sides. In a few hours 11 out of the 13 French ships of the line and 2 out of the 4 French frigates were captured or destroyed; the four remaining ships fled. This frustrated Bonaparte's goal of strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean Sea, and instead put it totally under British control. News of the naval defeat reached Bonaparte en route back to Cairo from defeating Ibrahim but, far from being worried, Mullié states:
" This disastrous event did not disconcert [Bonaparte] at all – ever impenetrable, he did not allow any emotion to appear that he had not tested in his mind. Having calmly read the despatch which informed him that he and his army were now prisoners in Egypt, he said "We no longer have a navy. Well! We'll have to stay here, or leave as great men just as the ancients did". The army then showed itself happy at this short energetic response, but the native Egyptians considered the defeat at Aboukir as fortune turning in their favour and so from then on busied themselves to find means to throw off the hateful yoke the foreigners were trying to impose on them by force and to hunt them from their country. This project was soon put into execution.[12] "
Bonaparte's administration of Egypt
Napoleon in Cairo, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 19th century, Princeton University Art Museum
The skeleton of Napoleon's Arabian horse, Marengo on display at the National Army Museum in London
After the naval defeat at Aboukir, Bonaparte's campaign remained land-bound. However, his army still succeeded in consolidating power in Egypt, although it faced repeated nationalist uprisings, and Napoleon began to behave as absolute ruler of all Egypt. He set up a pavilion and from within it presided over a fête du Nil – it was he who gave the signal to throw into the floats the statue of the river's fiancée, his name and Mohammed's were mingled in the same acclamations, on his orders gifts were distributed to the people, and he gave kaftans to his main officers.
In a largely unsuccessful effort to gain the support of the Egyptian population, Bonaparte issued proclamations that cast him as a liberator of the people from Ottoman and Mamluk oppression, praising the precepts of Islam and claiming friendship between France and the Ottoman Empire despite French intervention in the breakaway state. This position as a liberator and Ottoman ally initially gained him solid support in Egypt and later led to admiration for Napoleon from Muhammad Ali of Egypt, who succeeded where Bonaparte had not in reforming Egypt and declaring its independence from the Ottomans. In a letter to a sheikh in August 1798, Napoleon wrote, "I hope... I shall be able to unite all the wise and educated men of all the countries and establish a uniform regime based on the principles of the Quran which alone are true and which alone can lead men to happiness."[13] However, Bonaparte's secretary Bourienne wrote that his employer had no serious interest in Islam or any other religion beyond their political value.
" Bonaparte's principle was... to look upon religions as the work of men, but to respect them everywhere as a powerful engine of government... If Bonaparte spoke as a Mussulman (Muslim), it was merely in his character of a military and political chief in a Mussulman country. To do so was essential to his success, to the safety of his army, and... to his glory... In India he would have been for Ali, at Thibet for the Dalai-lama, and in China for Confucius."[14] "
Shortly after Bonaparte's return from facing Ibrahim came Mohammed's birthday, which was celebrated with great pomp. Bonaparte himself directed the military parades for the occasion, preparing for this festival in the cheik's house wearing oriental dress and a turban. It was on this occasion that the divan granted him the title Ali-Bonaparte after Bonaparte proclaimed himself "a worthy son of the Prophet" and "favourite of Allah". Around the same time he took severe measures to protect pilgrim caravans from Egypt to Mecca, writing a letter himself to the governor of Mecca.
Even so, thanks to the taxes he imposed on them to support his army, the Egyptians remained unconvinced of the sincerity of all Bonaparte's attempts at conciliation and continued to attack him ceaselessly. Any means, even sudden attacks and assassination, were allowed to force the "infidels" out of Egypt. Military executions were unable to deter these attacks and they continued, showing that in the end the French were in Egypt but not really its masters.
22 September 1798 was the anniversary of the founding of the French Revolutionary Wars, whilst the structure was entered through a triumphal arch, on which was shown the battle of the Pyramids. Here there was some awkwardness – the painting flattered the French but aggrieved the defeated Egyptians they were trying to win over as allies.
On the day of the festival, Bonaparte addressed his troops, enumerating their exploits since the 1793 siege of Toulon and telling them:
" From the English, famous for arts and commerce, to the hideous and fierce Bedouin, you have caught the gaze of the world. Soldiers, your destiny is fair... This day, 40 million citizens celebrate the era of representative government, 40 million citizens think of you. "
After making himself master of Egypt, Bonaparte gave Egypt his version of the benefits of western civilisation. Cairo soon took on the appearance of a European city, with its administration confided to a 'divan' chosen from among the best men of the province. At the same time the other cities received municipal institutions. An Institut d'Égypte of French scholars was set up and he joined the title of President of the Institut to the title of académicien. The conqueror became the legislator, setting up a library, a chemistry laboratory, a health service, a botanical garden, an observatory, an antiquities museum and a menagerie.
Under Bonaparte's orders, the scholars drew up a comparative table of Egyptian and French weights and measures, wrote a French-Arabic dictionary and calculated a triple Egyptian, Coptic and European calendar. Two journals were set up in Cairo, one for literature and political economy under the name Décade égyptienne,[15] and the other for politics under the title Courrier égyptien.
Its numbers hugely reduced by deaths in action and from disease, the army could no longer hope for reinforcements from France after the naval disaster at Aboukir, but Bonaparte tried to overcome this problem by levying from among the slaves in Egypt between the ages of 16 and 24 and turning the 3,000 sailors who had survived Aboukir into a légion nautique. All the streets in Cairo were closed at night by gates to stop the inhabitants aiding the Arabs in a night attack on the French. Bonaparte removed these fences, since the Egyptians could use them as barricades if they rose against the French – this removal proved to be justified by the events that soon followed.
Revolt of Cairo
The uprising in Cairo. Napoleon extended amnesty to the leaders of the revolt in 1798.
On 22 October 1798, while Bonaparte was in old Cairo, the city's population was spreading weapons around the streets and fortifying strongpoints, especially at the Great Mosque. The chef de brigade Dupuy, Cairo's commander, was the first to be killed, then Sulkowski, friend and aide de camp to Bonaparte. Excited by the sheikhs and imams, the Egyptians swore by the Prophet to exterminate all Frenchmen and any Frenchman they met – at home or in the streets – was mercilessly killed. Crowds rallied at the city gates to keep out Bonaparte, who was repulsed and forced to take a detour to get in via the Boulaq gate.
The French army's situation was critical – the British were menacing coastal towns, Murad Bey was still in the field in Upper Egypt, and generals Menou and Dugua were only just able to hold down Lower Egypt. The Arabs and the Egyptian peasants had common cause with those rising against the French in Cairo – the whole desert was in arms. A manifesto of the Great Lord was published widely throughout Egypt. This violent and bigoted attack on the religion of the French (or lack of it) stated:
" The French people are a nation of stubborn infidels and unbridled rascals... They look upon the Quran, the Old Testament and the New Testament as fables... Soon, troops as numerous as they are formidable will advance on us by land, at the same time ships of the line as high as the mountains will cover the surface of the seas... If it please God, it is reserved for you to preside over their [ie the French's] entire destruction ; as dust is scattered by the wind, there will not remain a single vestige of these infidels : for the promise of God is formal, the hope of the wicked man will be deceived, and the wicked men will perish. Glory to the Lord of the worlds! "
Bonaparte did not feel threatened by the storm building on all sides. Via his orders the Arabs were beaten back into the desert and the artillery was turned back on the rebel city. Bonaparte personally hunted down the rebels from street to street and forced them to concentrate their retreat in the Great Mosque. Luckily for the French the sky was covered with clouds and thunder was rumbling, a very rare phenomenon in Egypt. Many of the superstitious residents considered the thunder as a sign from heaven and they begged for mercy from their enemies. Bonaparte replied "He [ie God] is too late – you've begun, now I will finish!" He then immediately ordered his cannon to open fire on the Mosque. The French broke down the gates and stormed into the building, massacring the Egyptians inside.
Back in absolute control of Cairo, Bonaparte sought out the authors and instigators of the revolt. Several sheikhs and many Turks or Egyptians were convicted of participation in the plot and executed. To complete his punishment, the city was hit by a high tax and its divan was replaced by a military commission. To negate the effects of the Great Lord's firman, the French posted a proclamation in all the cities of Egypt, ending in the words:
" Stop founding your hopes on Ibrahim and Mourad, and put your trust in He who has empires in his discretion and who creates men. "
The most religious of the prophets said: "The revolt has fallen asleep – cursed be he who wakes it up!" While Bonaparte remained in Egypt, there was no further revolt.
Canal of the Pharaohs
Bonaparte and his chief of staff in Egypt, painting by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1863
With Egypt quiet again and under his control, Bonaparte used this time of rest to visit Suez and see with his own eyes the possibility of a canal (known as the Canal of the Pharaohs) said to have been cut in antiquity between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean by order of the pharaohs. Before setting out on the expedition, he gave Cairo back its self-government as a token of its pardon – a new 'divan' made up of 60 members replaced the military commission.
Then, accompanied by his colleagues from the Institut, Berthollet, Monge, Le Père, Dutertre, Costaz, Caffarelli, and followed by a 300-man escort, Bonaparte set out for the Red Sea and after three days' marching across the desert he and his caravan arrived at Suez. After giving orders to complete the fortifications at Suez, Bonaparte crossed the Red Sea and on 28 December 1798 moved into Sinai to look for the celebrated fountains of Moses 17 kilometres from Suez. On his return, surprised by the rising tide, he ran the risk of drowning. Arriving back at Suez, after much exploration the expedition fulfilled its aim, finding the remains of the ancient canal built by Senusret III and Necho II.
Ottoman offensives
Map of campaigns in Egypt and Syria
In the meantime the Ottomans in Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) received news of the French fleet's destruction at Aboukir and believed this spelled the end for Bonaparte and his expedition, trapped in Egypt. Sultan Selim III decided to wage war against France, and sent two armies to Egypt. The first army, under the command of Jezzar Pasha, had set out with 12,000 soldiers; but was reinforced with troops from Damascus, Aleppo, Iraq (10,000 men), and Jerusalem (8,000 men). The second army, under the command of Mustafa Pasha, began on Rhodes with about eight thousand soldiers. He also knew he would get about 42,000 soldiers from Albania, Constantinople, Asia Minor, and Greece. The Ottomans planned two offensives against Cairo: from Syria, across the desert of Salhayeh-Belbays-El Kankah, and from Rhodes by sea landing in the Aboukir area or the port city of Damietta.
French response
In January 1799, during the canal expedition, the French learned of the hostile Ottoman movements and that Jezzar had seized the desert fort of El-Arich ten miles (16 km) from Syria's frontier with Egypt, which he was in charge of guarding. Certain that war with the Ottoman sultan was imminent and that he would be unable to defend against the Ottoman army, Bonaparte decided that his best defence would be to attack them first in Syria, where a victory would give him more time to prepare against the Ottoman forces on Rhodes.
He prepared around 13,000 soldiers who were organised in divisions under the command of Generals Reynier (with 2,160 men), Kléber (with 2,336), Bon (2,449), Lannes (2,938), division cavalry under General Murat (900), brigade of infantry and cavalry under Brigade chief Bessières (400), camel-company (89), artillery under Dommartin (1,387), and engineers and sappers under Caraffeli (3,404). Every infantry and cavalry division had 6 cannons. Napoleon took 16 siege cannons which were placed on ships in Damietta under the command of Captain Standelet. He also ordered contre-amiral Perrée to Jaffa with siege artillery pieces. The total artillery sent on the campaign was 80 cannon.
Regnier and the vanguard quickly arrived before Arish, captured it, destroyed part of the garrison and forced the rest to take refuge in the castle. At the same time he caused Ibrahim's mamluks to flee and captured their camp. Bonaparte's French forces left Egypt on 5 February 1799 and, seven days after leaving Cairo, Bonaparte too arrived at Arish and bombarded one of the castle towers. The garrison surrendered two days later and some of the garrison joined the French army.
After marching 60 miles (97 km) across the desert the army arrived in Gaza, where it rested for two days, and then moved onto Jaffa. This city was surrounded by high walls flanked by towers. Jezzar had entrusted its defence to elite troops, with the artillery manned by 1200 Ottoman gunners. The city was one of the ways into Syria, its port could be used by his fleet and a large part of the expedition's success depended on its fall. This meant Bonaparte had to capture the city before advancing further, and so he laid siege to it from 3 to 7 March.
All the outer works were in the besiegers' power and a breach could be produced. When Bonaparte sent a Turk to the city's commander to demand his surrender, the commander beheaded him despite the envoy's neutrality and ordered a sortie. He was repulsed and on the evening of the same day the besiegers' cannonballs caused one of the towers to crumble. Despite the defenders' desperate resistance, Jaffa fell. Two days and two nights of carnage were enough to assuage the French soldiers' fury – 4,500 prisoners were shot or beheaded by an executioner taken on in Egypt. This vengeful execution found apologists, who wrote that Napoleon could neither afford to hold such a large number of prisoners nor let them escape to join Jezzar's ranks.
Napoleon visiting the plague victims of Jaffa, by Antoine-Jean Gros
Before leaving Jaffa, Bonaparte set up a divan for the city along with a large hospital on the site of the Carmelite monastery at Mount Carmel to treat those of his soldiers who had caught the plague, whose symptoms had been seen among them since the start of the siege. A report from generals Bon and Rampon on the plague's spread worried Bonaparte. To calm his army, it is said he went into the sufferers' rooms, spoke with and consoled the sick and touched them, saying "See, it's nothing", then left the hospital and told those who thought his actions unwise "It was my duty, I'm commander-in-chief". However, some later historians state that Napoleon avoided touching or even meeting plague-sufferers to avoid catching it and that his visits to the sick were invented by later Napoleonic propaganda. For example, long after the campaign, Antoine-Jean Gros produced the propaganda painting Bonaparte visiting the plague-victims of Jaffa in 1804. This showed Napoleon touching a sick man's body, modelling him on an Ancien Régime king-healer touching sufferers from the "King's Evil" during his coronation rites – this was no coincidence, since 1804 was the year Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself emperor.
The monument to Napoleon's soldiers at Stella Maris Monastery, Haifa
From Jaffa the army set off for the coastal town of Acre. En route it captured Haifa and the munitions and provisions stored there, along with the castle at Jaffet, the castle at Nazareth and the town of Tyre. The siege of Acre began on 18 March but the French were unable to take it and it was here that the Syrian campaign came to an abrupt halt. The city was defended by newly created Ottoman infantry elites (Nizam-ı Cedid) under the command of Jezzar Pasha and was right on the coast, enabling it to be reinforced and resupplied by the British and Ottoman fleets.
After sixty days' repeated attacks and two murderous and inconclusive assaults, the city remained uncaptured. Even so, it was still awaiting reinforcements by sea as well as a large army forming up in Asia on the sultan's orders to march against the French. To find out the latter's movements, Jezzar ordered a general sortie against Bonaparte's camp. This sortie was supported by its own artillery and a naval bombardment from the British. With his usual impetuosity, Bonaparte pushed Jezzar's columns back against their own walls and then went to help Kléber, who was retrenched in the ruins with 4,000 Frenchmen and 20,000 Ottomans under his command. Bonaparte conceived a trick which used all the advantages offered him by the enemy position, sending Murat and his cavalry across the River Jordan to defend the river crossing and Vial and Rampon to march on Nablus, while Bonaparte himself put his troops between the Ottomans and the magazines. These manoeuvres were successful, in what was known as the battle of Mount Tabor. The enemy army, taken by surprise at many points at once, was routed and forced to retreat, leaving their camels, tents, provisions and 5,000 dead on the battlefield.
Returning to besiege Acre, Bonaparte learned that Rear-Admiral Perrée had landed seven siege artillery pieces at Jaffa. Bonaparte then ordered two assaults, both vigorously repulsed. A fleet was sighted flying the Ottoman flag and Bonaparte realised he must capture the city before that fleet arrived there with reinforcements. A fifth general attack was ordered, which took the outer works, planted the French tricolour on the rampart, pushed the Ottomans back into the city and forced the Ottoman fire to relent. Acre was thus taken or about to capitulate.
However, one of those fighting on the Ottoman side was the French émigré and engineer officer Phélippeaux, one of Bonaparte's classmates at the École Militaire. Phélippeaux ordered cannon to be placed in the most advantageous positions and new trenches dug as if by magic behind the ruins which Bonaparte's forces had captured. At the same time Sidney Smith, commander of the British fleet, and his ships' crews landed. These factors renewed the courage of the besieged and they pushed Bonaparte's force back, with stubborn fury on both sides. Three final consecutive assaults were all repulsed, convincing Bonaparte that it would be unwise to continue trying to capture Acre. He raised the siege in May and consoled his soldiers with the proclamation:
" After feeding the war for three months in the heart of Syria with a handful of men, taking forty guns, fifty flags, 10,000 prisoners, razing the fortifications of Gaza, Kaïffa, Jaffa, Acre, we shall return to Egypt. "
Retreat from Acre
The French force's situation was now critical – the enemy could harass its rear as it retreated, it was tired and hungry in the desert, it was carrying a large number of plague-sufferers. To carry these sufferers in the middle of the army would spread the disease, so they had to be carried in the rear, where they were most at risk from the fury of the Ottomans, keen to avenge the massacres at Jaffa. There were two hospital depots, one in the large hospital on Mount Carmel and the other at Jaffa. On Bonaparte's orders, all those at Mount Carmel were evacuated to Jaffa and Tentura. The gun horses were abandoned before Acre and Bonaparte and all his officers handed their horses over to the transport officer Daure, with Bonaparte walking to set an example.
To conceal its withdrawal from the siege, the army set off at night. Arriving at Jaffa, Bonaparte ordered three evacuations of the plague sufferers to three different points – one by sea to Damietta, one by land to Gaza and one by land to Arish. During the retreat the army picked clean all the lands through which they passed, with livestock, crops and houses all destroyed by sword and fire and Gaza the only place to be spared, in return for remaining loyal to Bonaparte. To speed the retreat, Bonaparte also took the controversial step of killing prisoners and plague-stricken men along the way. His supporters argued that this was necessary given continuing harassment of stragglers by Ottoman forces.
Back in Egypt
Finally, after four months away from Egypt, the expedition arrived back at Cairo with 1800 wounded, after losing 600 men to the plague and 1200 to enemy action. In the meantime Ottoman and British emissaries had brought news of Bonaparte's setback at Acre to Egypt, stating that his expeditionary force was largely destroyed and Bonaparte himself was dead. On his return Bonaparte scotched these rumours by re-entering Egypt as if he was at the head of a triumphal army, with his soldiers carrying palm branches, emblems of victory. In his proclamation to the inhabitants of Cairo, Bonaparte told them:
" He is back in Cairo, the Bien-Gardé, the head of the French army, general Bonaparte, who loves Mahomet's religion ; he is back sound and well, thanking God for the favours he has given him. He has entered Cairo by the gate of Victory. This day is a great day; no one has ever seen its like; all the inhabitants of Cairo have come out to meet him. They have seen and recognised that it is the same commander in chief, Bonaparte, in his own person; but those of Jaffa, having refused to surrender, he handed them all over to pillage and death in his anger. He has destroyed all its ramparts and killed all those found there. There were around 5,000 of Jezzar's troops in Jaffa – he destroyed them all. "
Abukir to withdrawal
Land battle at Abukir
Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, (ca. 1868) by Jean-Léon Gérôme, Hearst Castle
At Cairo the army found the rest and supplies it needed to recover, but its stay there could not be a long one. Bonaparte had been informed that Murad Bay had evaded the pursuit by generals Desaix, Belliard, Donzelot and Davoust and was descending on Upper Egypt. Bonaparte thus marched to attack him at Giza, also learning that 100 Ottoman ships were off Aboukir, threatening Alexandria.
Without losing time or returning to Cairo, Bonaparte ordered his generals to make all speed to meet the army commanded by the pasha of Rumelia, Saïd-Mustapha, which had joined up with the forces under Murad Bey and Ibrahim. Before leaving Giza, where he found them, Bonaparte wrote to Cairo's divan, stating:
" 80 ships have dared to attack Alexandria but, beaten back by the artillery in that place, they have gone to anchor in Aboukir Bay, where they began disembarking [troops]. I leave them to do this, since my intention is to attack them, to kill all those who do not wish to surrender, and to leave others alive to led in triumph to Cairo. This will be a handsome spectacle for the city. "
First Bonaparte advanced to Alexandria, from which he marched to Aboukir, whose fort was now strongly garrisoned by the Ottomans. Bonaparte deployed his army so that Mustapha would have to win or die with all his family. Mustapha's army was 18,000 strong and supported by several cannon, with trenches defending it on the landward side and free communication with the Ottoman fleet on the seaward side. Bonaparte ordered an attack on 25 July and the Battle of Abukir ensued. In a few hours the trenches were taken, 10,000 Ottomans drowned in the ocean and the rest captured or killed. Most of the credit for the French victory that day goes to Murat, who captured Mustapha himself. Mustapha's son was in command of the fort and he and all his officers survived but were captured and sent back to Cairo as part of the French triumphal procession. Seeing Bonaparte return with these high-ranking prisoners, the population of Cairo superstitiously welcomed him as a prophet-warrior who had predicted his own triumph with such remarkable precision.
Bonaparte leaves Egypt
The land battle at Abukir was Bonaparte's last action in Egypt, partly restoring his reputation after the French naval defeat at the same place a year earlier. However, with the Egyptian campaign stagnating and political instability developing back home, a new phase in Bonaparte's career was beginning – he felt that he had nothing left to do in Egypt which was worthy of his ambition and that (as had been shown by the defeat at Acre) the forces he had left to him there were not sufficient for an expedition of any importance outside of Egypt. He also foresaw that the army was getting yet weaker from losses in battle and to disease and would soon have to surrender and be taken prisoner by its enemies, which would destroy all the prestige he had won by his many victories. Bonaparte thus spontaneously decided to return to France. During the prisoner exchange at Aboukir and notably via the Gazette de Francfort Sidney Smith had sent him, he was in communication with the British fleet, from which he had learned of events in France. As Bonaparte saw (and later mythologised) it France was thrown back into retreat, its enemies had recaptured France's conquests, France was unhappy at its dictatorial government and was nostalgic for the glorious peace it had signed in the Treaty of Campo Formio – as Bonaparte saw it, this meant France needed him and would welcome him back.
He only shared the secret of his return with a small number of friends whose discretion and loyalty were well-known. He left Cairo in August 1799 on the pretext of a voyage in the Nile Delta without arousing suspicion, accompanied by the scholars Monge and Berthollet, the painter Denon, and generals Berthier, Murat, Lannes and Marmont. On 23 August 1799 a proclamation informed the army that Bonaparte had transferred his powers as commander in chief to General Kléber. This news was taken badly, with the soldiers angry with Bonaparte and the French government for leaving them behind, but this indignation soon ended, since the troops were confident in Kléber, who convinced them that Bonaparte had not left permanently but would soon be back with reinforcements from France. As night fell, the frigate Muiron silently moored by the shore, with three other ships escorting her. Some became worried when a British corvette was sighted at the moment of departure, but Bonaparte cried "Bah! We'll get there, luck has never abandoned us, we shall get there, despite the English."
Bonaparte's voyage to France
On their 41-day voyage back they did not meet a single enemy ship to stop them, with some sources suggesting that Bonaparte had purchased the British fleet's neutrality via a tacit agreement, though others hold this unlikely, since many would argue that he also had a pact with Nelson to leave him to board on the Egyptian coast unopposed with the fleet bearing his large army. It has been suggested that Sidney Smith and other British commanders in the Mediterranean helped Napoleon evade the British blockade, thinking that he might act as a Royalist element back in France, but there is no solid historical evidence in support of this conjecture.
On 1 October Napoleon's small flotilla entered port at Ajaccio, where contrary winds kept them until 8 October, when they set out for France. When the coast came in sight, ten British ships were sighted. Contre-amiral Ganteaume suggested changing course towards Corsica, but Bonaparte said "No, this manoeuvre would lead us to England, and I want to get to France.". This courageous act saved them and on 8 October 1799 (16 vendémiaire year VIII) the frigates anchored in the roads off Fréjus. As there were no sick men on board and the plague in Egypt had ended six months before their departure, Bonaparte and his entourage were allowed to land immediately without waiting in quarantine. At 6 pm he set off for Paris, accompanied by his chief of staff Berthier. He stopped off at Saint-Raphaël, where he built a pyramid commemorating the expedition.
End of the campaign
Assassination of Kléber, painting in the Musée historique de Strasbourg
British victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria in 1801
The troops Bonaparte left behind were supposed to be honourably evacuated under the terms of a treaty Kléber had negotiated with Smith in early 1800, but British Admiral Keith reneged on this treaty, sending an amphibious assault force of 30,000 Mamlukes against Kléber.
Kléber defeated the Mamlukes at the battle of Heliopolis in March 1800, and then suppressed an insurrection in Cairo. However, on 14 June (26 prairial) 1800 a Syrian student called Suleiman al-Halabi assassinated Kléber with a dagger in the heart, chest, left forearm and right thigh. Command of the French army passed to General Menou, who held command from 3 July 1800 until August 1801. Menou's letter was published in Le Moniteur on 6 September, with the conclusions of the committee charged with judging those responsible for the assassination:
" The committee, after carrying through the trial with all due solemnity and process, thought it necessary to follow Egyptian customs in its application of punishment ; it condemned the assassin to be impaled after having his right hand burned ; and three of the guilty sheikhs to be beheaded and their bodies burned. "
Under continual harassment from the new Anglo-Ottoman land offensive, defeated by the British in the Battle of Alexandria on March 21, and at Fort Julien in April and then besieged in Alexandria from 17 August – 2 September 1801, Menou eventually capitulated to the British. Under the terms of his capitulation, the British general Ralph Abercromby allowed the French army to be repatriated in British ships. Menou also signed over to Britain the priceless hoard of Egyptian antiquities such as the Rosetta Stone which it had collected. After initial talks in Al Arish on 30 January 1800, the Treaty of Paris on 25 June 1802 ended all hostilities between France and the Ottoman Empire, resecuring Egypt for the Ottomans.
Scientific expedition
The Egyptian Expedition under the orders of Bonaparte, painting by Léon Cogniet, early 19th century
An unusual aspect of the Egyptian expedition was the inclusion of an enormous contingent of scientists and scholars ("savants") assigned to the invading French force, 167 in total. This deployment of intellectual resources is considered as an indication of Napoleon's devotion to the principles of the Enlightenment, and by others as a masterstroke of propaganda obfuscating the true motives of the invasion; the increase of Bonaparte's power.
These scholars included engineers and artists, members of the Commission des Sciences et des Arts, the geologist Dolomieu, Henri-Joseph Redouté, the mathematician Gaspard Monge (a founding member of the École polytechnique), the chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, Vivant Denon, the mathematician Jean-Joseph Fourier (who did some of the empirical work upon which his "analytical theory of heat" was founded in Egypt), the physicist Étienne Malus, the naturalist Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the botanist Alire Raffeneau-Delile, and the engineer Nicolas-Jacques Conté of the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers. Their original aim was to help the army, notably by opening a Suez Canal, mapping out roads and building mills to supply food.[3] They founded the Institut d'Égypte with the aim of propagating Enlightenment values in Egypt through interdisciplinary work, improving its agricultural and architectural techniques for example. A scientific review was created under the title Décade égyptienne and in the course of the expedition the scholars also observed and drew the flora and fauna in Egypt and became interested in the country's resources.
The Egyptian Institute that Napoleon established saw the construction of laboratories, libraries, and a printing press. The group worked prodigiously, and some of their discoveries were not finally cataloged until the 1820s.[16]
A young engineering officer, Pierre-François-Xavier Bouchard, discovered the Rosetta Stone in July 1799. However, many of the antiquities collected by the French in Egypt were seized by the British Navy and ended up in the British Museum – only about 50 of the 5,000 Egyptian objects in the Louvre were collected during the 1799–1801 Egyptian expedition. Even so, the scholars' research in Egypt gave rise to the Description de l'Égypte, published on Napoleon's orders between 1809 and 1821.
Napoleon's discoveries in Egypt gave rise to fascination with Ancient Egyptian culture and the birth of Egyptology in Europe.
The printing press
The printing press was first introduced to Egypt by Napoleon.[17] He brought with his expedition a French, Arabic, and Greek printing press, which were far superior in speed, efficiency and quality than the nearest presses used in Istanbul. In the Middle East, Africa, India and even much of Eastern Europe and Russia, printing was a minor, specialized activity until the 1700s at least. From about 1720, the Mutaferrika Press in Istanbul produced substantial amounts of printing, of which some Egyptian clerics were aware of at the time. Juan Cole reports that, "Boneaparte was a master of what we would now call spin, and his genius for it is demonstrated by reports in Arabic sources that several of his more outlandish allegations were actually taken seriously in the Egyptian countryside."[17]
Bonaparte's initial use of Arabic in his printed proclamations was rife with error. In addition to much of the awkwardly translated Arabic wording being unsound grammatically, often the proclamations were so poorly constructed that they were simply undecipherable.[18] The French Orientalist Jean Michel de Venture de Paradis, perhaps with the help of Maltese aides, were responsible for translating the first of Napoleon's French proclamations into Arabic. The Maltese language is distantly related to the Egyptian dialect, however, classical Arabic differs greatly in grammar, vocabulary, and idiom. Venture de Paradis, alternatively, who had lived in Tunis, understood Arabic grammar and vocabulary, but did not know how to use them idiomatically.
The Sunni Muslim clerics of the Al-Azhar University in Cairo reacted incredulously to Napoleon's proclamations.[17] Abd al-Rahman al-Jabarti, a Cairene cleric and historian, received the proclamations with a combination of amusement, bewilderment, and outrage.[19][20][21] He berated the French's poor Arabic grammar and the infelicitous style of their proclamations. Over the course of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, al-Jabarti wrote a wealth of material regarding the French and their occupation tactics. Among his observations, he rejected Napoleon's claim that the French were "muslims" (the wrong noun case was used in the Arabic proclamation, making it a lower case "m") and poorly understood the French concept of a republic and democracy – words which did not exist at the time in Arabic.[17]
Cemetery of French Soldiers of Napoleon Egypte Expedition, Fomm el-Khaleeg – Cairo – Egypt
In addition to its significance in the wider printing press, and ideas, such as liberalism and incipient nationalism, to the Middle East, eventually leading to the establishment of Egyptian independence and modernisation under Muhammad Ali Pasha in the first half of the 19th century and eventually the Nahda, or Arab Renaissance. To modernist historians, the French arrival marks the start of the modern Middle East.[22]
The campaign ended in what some back home in France believed was a failure, with 15,000 French troops killed in action and 15,000 by disease. However, Napoleon's reputation as a brilliant military commander remained intact and even rose higher, despite some of his failures during the campaign. This was due to his expert propaganda, such as his Courrier d'Égypte, set up to propagandise the expeditionary force itself and support its morale. That propaganda even spread back to France, where news of defeats such as at sea in Aboukir Bay and on land in Syria were suppressed. Defeats could be blamed on the now-assassinated Kléber, leaving Napoleon free from blame and with a burnished reputation. This opened his way to power and he profited from his reputation by engineering his becoming First Consul in the coup d'état of 18 brumaire (November 1799).
Mamelukes in French service
Colonel Barthelemy Serra took the first steps towards creating a Mameluke Corps in France. On September 27, 1800 he wrote a letter from Cairo to the first consul, couched in an Oriental style. He regretted being very far away from Napoleon and offered his total devotion to the French nation and expressed the Mameluke's wish to become the bodyguard to the first consul. They wished to serve him as living shields against those who would seek to harm him. The first consul became receptive of admitting a unit of carefully selected cavalrymen as his personal guard. He had an officer pay appropriate respects to the foreign troops and provided Napoleon himself with a full report to the number of refugees.[23]
French order of battle
Timeline and battles
Battle at Nazareth by Gros
19 May (30 Floréal year VI) – Departure from Toulon
11 June (23 Prairial year VI) – Capture of Malta
1 July (13 Messidor year VI) – Landing at Alexandria
21 July (3 Thermidor year VI) – Battle of the Pyramids, French land victory
1 and 2 August (14-15 Thermidor year VI) – Battle of the Nile, British naval victory over French squadron anchored in Aboukir Bay
10 August – Battle at Salheyeh, French victory
7 October – Battle of Sédiman, French victory
21 October (30 Vendémiaire) – Cairo Revolt
7 March – Siege of Jaffa, French victory
8 April – Battle at Nazareth, French victory, Junot with 500 defeats 3000 Turks
11 April – Battle of Cana, French victory, Napoleon wins a great battle against Turks
16 April (27 Germinal year VII) – Bonaparte relieves the troops under Kléber just as the latter are about to be overwhelmed at the foot of Mount Tabor
General Murat at the battle of Abukir, where 11,000 Ottoman soldiers drowned in the Nile
20 May (1 Prairial an VII) – Siege of Acre, French troops retire after eight assaults** 1 August (14 Thermidor year VII) – Battle of Abukir, French victory
23 August (6 Fructidor year VII) – Bonaparte embarks on the frigate Muiron and abandons command to Kléber
24 January (4 Pluviôse year VIII) – Kléber concludes the convention of El-Arich with the British admiral Sidney Smith
February (Pluviôse-Ventôse year VIII) – French troops begin their withdrawal, but the British admiral Keith refuses to recognize the convention's terms.
20 March (29 Ventôse year VIII) – Battle of Heliopolis, Kléber wins one last victory, against a force of 30,000 Ottomans
14 June (25 Prairial year VIII) – A Kurd named Suleiman al-Halabi assassinates Kléber in his garden in Cairo. General Menou, a convert to Islam, takes over command
3 September (16 Fructidor year VIII) – The British recapture Malta from the French
8 March (17 Ventôse year IX) – British landing near Aboukir
21 March (30 Ventôse year IX) – Battle of Alexandria, French defeat, army under Menou digs in at Alexandria ready for the siege of Alexandria
31 March (10 Germinal year IX) – Ottoman army arrives at El-Arich
19 April (29 Germinal year IX)– British and Ottoman forces capture Fort Julien at Rosetta after a four-day bombardment, opening the Nile.
27 June (8 Messidor year IX) – General Belliard surrenders in Cairo
31 August (13 Fructidor year IX) – Siege of Alexandria ends in Menou's surrender
Crusader invasions of Egypt – 1154–1169
Italian invasion of Egypt – 1940
^ a b c James, T. G. H. (2003). "Napoleon and Egyptology: Britain's Debt to French Enterprise". Enlightening the British: Knowledge, Discovery and the Museum in the Eighteenth Century. British Museum Press. p. 151.
^ Watson, William E. (2003). Tricolor and Crescent: France and the Islamic World. Greenwood. pp. 13–14.
^ a b c (French) La Campagne d'Egypte de Bonaparte Emission Deux mille ans d'Histoire by France Inter, 22 July 2010.
^ a b Amini, Iradj (1999). Napoleon and Persia: Franco-Persian Relations Under the First Empire. Mage. p. 12.
^ a b c d Cole, Juan (2007). Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 8–10.
^ https://foreignaffairs.gov.mt/en/Pages/Palazzo-Parisio.aspx
^ http://blog.maltaweathersite.com/2014/01/napoleons-bedroom-at-palazzo-parisio-in-valletta/
^ http://archive.maltatoday.com.mt/2010/01/24/interview.html
^ "Wikisource – Full text of the ''Déclaration du général Bonaparte au peuple égyptien'', 1798" (in Français). Fr.wikisource.org. Retrieved 2010-10-09.
^ Cairo, Nezar AlSayyad, p174
^ Chandler, David. The Campaigns of Napoleon New York, Macmillan, 1966
^ Bonaparte, chapter 6, in Charles Mullié, Biographie des célébrités militaires des armées de terre et de mer de 1789 à 1850, 1852
^ Cherfils 1914, pp.105 and 125
^ "Bonaparte and Islam". George Mason University Center for History and New Media. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
^ Issues of La Décade égyptienne in Gallica, the digital library of the bnF
^ Frank McLynn, "Napoleon: a biography", Pimlico, 1998. (pp. 180–183).
^ a b c d Cole, Juan (2007). Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 148.
^ Cole, Juan (2007). Napoleon's Egypt: Invading the Middle East. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 31.
^ 'Abd al-Rahman Al-Jabarti (2000). Ta'rikh, Muddat al-faransis bi misr. Cairo: Dar al-Kitab al-Jami'i. pp. 33–41.
^ Shmuel Moreh (1995). Napoleon in Egypt: Al-Jabarti's Chronicle of the French Occupation, 1798. Markus Wiener Publishing. pp. 27–33.
^ Cleveland, William L. (2004). A history of the modern Middle East. Michigan University Press. p. 65.
^ Pawly, Ronald (2006). Napoleon's Mamelukes. New York: Osprey Publishing. p. 9.
Bibliography and further reading
Burleigh, Nina. Mirage. Harper, New York, 2007. ISBN 978-0-06-059767-2
Cherfils, Christian (1914). Bonaparte et l'Islam d'après les documents français & arabes. Pedone.
Herold, J. Christopher. Bonaparte in Egypt. Hamish Hamilton, London, 1962.
Jourquin, Jacques, Journal du capitaine François dit 'le dromadaire d'Égypte', 2 vol., introduction critique et annexes par Jacques Jourquin, éditions Tallandier (couronné par l'Académie française), 1984, new edition, 2003.
Rickard, J French Invasion of Egypt, 1798-1801, (2006)
Mackesy, Piers. British Victory in Egypt, 1801: The End of Napoleon's Conquest. Routledge, 2013. ISBN 9781134953578
Strathern, Paul. Napoleon in Egypt: The Greatest Glory. Jonathan Cape, Random House, London, 2007. ISBN 978-0-224-07681-4
Melanie Ulz: Auf dem Schlachtfeld des Empire. Männlichkeitskonzepte in der Bildproduktion zu Napoleons Ägyptenfeldzug (Marburg: Jonas Verlag 2008), ISBN 978-3-89445-396-1.
Significant civil and political events by year
Day of the Tiles (7 Jun 1788)
Assembly of Vizille (21 Jul 1788)
What Is the Third Estate? (Jan 1789)
Réveillon riots (28 Apr 1789)
Convocation of the Estates-General (5 May 1789)
National Assembly (17 Jun – 9 Jul 1790)
National Constituent Assembly (9 Jul – 30 Sep 1791)
Tennis Court Oath (20 Jun 1789)
Storming of the Bastille (14 Jul 1789)
Great Fear (20 Jul – 5 Aug 1789)
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (27 Aug 1789)
Women's March on Versailles (5 Oct 1789)
Abolition of the Parlements (Feb–Jul 1790)
Abolition of the Nobility (19 Jun 1790)
Civil Constitution of the Clergy (12 Jul 1790)
Flight to Varennes (20–21 Jun 1791)
Champ de Mars Massacre (17 Jul 1791)
Declaration of Pillnitz (27 Aug 1791)
The Constitution of 1791 (3 Sep 1791)
Legislative Assembly (1 Oct 1791 – Sep 1792)
Brunswick Manifesto (25 Jul 1792)
Paris Commune becomes insurrectionary (Jun 1792)
10th of August (10 Aug 1792)
September Massacres (Sep 1792)
National Convention (20 Sep 1792 – 26 Oct 1795)
First republic declared (22 Sep 1792)
Execution of Louis XVI (21 Jan 1793)
Revolutionary Tribunal (9 Mar 1793 – 31 May 1795)
Reign of Terror (27 Jun 1793 – 27 Jul 1794)
Committee of Public Safety
Committee of General Security
Fall of the Girondists (2 Jun 1793)
Assassination of Marat (13 Jul 1793)
Levée en masse (23 Aug 1793)
Law of Suspects (17 Sep 1793)
Marie Antoinette is guillotined (16 Oct 1793)
Anti-clerical laws (throughout the year)
Danton & Desmoulins guillotined (5 Apr 1794)
Law of 22 Prairial (10 Jun 1794)
Thermidorian Reaction (27 Jul 1794)
White Terror (Fall 1794)
Closing of the Jacobin Club (11 Nov 1794)
1795 Constitution (22 Aug 1795)
Conspiracy of the Equals (Nov 1795)
Directoire (1795–99)
Council of Five Hundred
Council of Ancients
Coup of 18 Fructidor (4 Sep 1797)
Second Congress of Rastatt (Dec 1797)
Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 Jun 1799)
Coup of 18 Brumaire (9 Nov 1799)
Constitution of the Year VIII (24 Dec 1799)
Revolutionary campaigns
Royalist Revolts
Chouannerie
Siege of Mainz
Jemappes
First Coalition
Siege of Toulon (18 Sep – 18 Dec 1793)
War in the Vendée
Battle of Neerwinden)
Battle of Famars (23 May 1793)
Capture of San Pietro and Sant'Antioco (25 May 1793)
Battle of Kaiserslautern
Battle of Wattignies
Battle of Hondschoote
Siege of Bellegarde
Battle of Peyrestortes (Pyrenees)
First Battle of Wissembourg (13 Oct 1793)
Battle of Truillas (Pyrenees)
Second Battle of Wissembourg (26–27 Dec 1793)
Battle of Villers-en-Cauchies (24 Apr 1794)
Battle of Boulou (Pyrenees) (30 Apr – 1 May 1794)
Battle of Tournay (22 May 1794)
Battle of Fleurus (26 Jun 1794)
Battle of Tourcoing (18 May 1794)
Battle of Aldenhoven (2 Oct 1794)
Peace of Basel
Battle of Lonato (3–4 Aug 1796)
Battle of Castiglione (5 Aug 1796)
Battle of Theiningen
Battle of Neresheim (11 Aug 1796)
Battle of Amberg (24 Aug 1796)
Battle of Würzburg (3 Sep 1796)
Battle of Rovereto (4 Sep 1796)
First Battle of Bassano (8 Sep 1796)
Battle of Emmendingen (19 Oct 1796)
Battle of Schliengen (26 Oct 1796)
Second Battle of Bassano (6 Nov 1796)
Battle of Calliano (6–7 Nov 1796)
Battle of the Bridge of Arcole (15–17 Nov 1796)
The Ireland Expedition (Dec 1796)
Naval Engagement off Brittany (13 Jan 1797)
Battle of Rivoli (14–15 Jan 1797)
Battle of the Bay of Cádiz (25 Jan 1797)
Treaty of Leoben (17 Apr 1797)
Battle of Neuwied (18 Apr 1797)
Treaty of Campo Formio (17 Oct 1797)
French Invasion of Egypt (1798–1801)
Irish Rebellion of 1798 (23 May – 23 Sep 1798)
Quasi-War (1798–1800)
Peasants' War (12 Oct – 5 Dec 1798)
Second Coalition (1798–1802)
Siege of Acre (20 Mar – 21 May 1799)
Battle of Ostrach (20–21 Mar 1799)
Battle of Stockach (25 Mar 1799)
Battle of Magnano (5 Apr 1799)
Battle of Cassano (27 Apr 1799)
First Battle of Zurich (4–7 Jun 1799)
Battle of Trebbia (19 Jun 1799)
Battle of Novi (15 Aug 1799)
Second Battle of Zurich (25–26 Sep 1799)
Battle of Marengo (14 Jun 1800)
Battle of Hohenlinden (3 Dec 1800)
League of Armed Neutrality (1800–02)
Treaty of Lunéville (9 Feb 1801)
Treaty of Florence (18 Mar 1801)
Algeciras Campaign (8 Jul 1801)
Treaty of Amiens (25 Mar 1802)
Eustache Charles d'Aoust
Pierre Augereau
Alexandre de Beauharnais
Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte
Louis-Alexandre Berthier
Jean-Baptiste Bessières
Guillaume-Marie-Anne Brune
Jean François Carteaux
Jean Étienne Championnet
Chapuis de Tourville
Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine
Louis-Nicolas Davout
Louis Desaix
Jacques François Dugommier
Thomas-Alexandre Dumas
Charles François Dumouriez
Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino
Louis-Charles de Flers
Paul Grenier
Emmanuel de Grouchy
Jacques Maurice Hatry
Lazare Hoche
Jean-Baptiste Jourdan
François Christophe de Kellermann
Jean Baptiste Kléber
Jean Lannes
Claude Lecourbe
François Joseph Lefebvre
Jacques MacDonald
Jean-Antoine Marbot
Jean Baptiste de Marbot
François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers
Auguste de Marmont
André Masséna
Bon-Adrien Jeannot de Moncey
Jean Victor Marie Moreau
Édouard Mortier, duc de Trévise
Michel Ney
Pierre-Jacques Osten
Nicolas Oudinot
Catherine-Dominique de Pérignon
Jean-Charles Pichegru
Józef Poniatowski
Laurent de Gouvion Saint-Cyr
Barthélemy Louis Joseph Schérer
Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier
Joseph Souham
Jean-de-Dieu Soult
Louis-Gabriel Suchet
Belgrand de Vaubois
Claude Victor-Perrin, Duc de Belluno
Charles-Alexandre Linois
József Alvinczi
Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen
Count of Clerfayt (Walloon)
Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg
Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze (Swiss)
Friedrich Adolf, Count von Kalckreuth
Pál Kray (Hungarian)
Charles Eugene, Prince of Lambesc (French)
Maximilian Baillet de Latour (Walloon)
Karl Mack von Leiberich
Rudolf Ritter von Otto (Saxon)
Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld
Peter Vitus von Quosdanovich
Prince Heinrich XV of Reuss-Plauen
Johann Mészáros von Szoboszló (Hungarian)
Karl Philipp Sebottendorf
Dagobert von Wurmser
Sir Ralph Abercromby
Admiral Sir James Saumarez
Admiral Sir Edward Pellew
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
William V, Prince of Orange
Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
Frederick Louis, Prince of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen
Alexander Korsakov
Luis Firmin de Carvajal
Antonio Ricardos
Other significant figures and factions
Feuillants
and monarchiens
Madame de Lamballe
Madame du Barry
Louis de Breteuil
Charles Alexandre de Calonne
de Chateaubriand
Jean Chouan
Grace Elliott
Arnaud de La Porte
Jean-Sifrein Maury
Jacques Necker
François-Marie, marquis de Barthélemy
Guillaume-Mathieu Dumas
Antoine Barnave
Alexandre-Théodore-Victor, comte de Lameth
Charles Malo François Lameth
André Chénier
Jean-François Rewbell
Camille Jordan
Boissy d'Anglas
Pierre Paul Royer-Collard
Girondists
Jacques Pierre Brissot
Roland de La Platière
Madame Roland
Father Henri Grégoire
Étienne Clavière
Charlotte Corday
Marie Jean Hérault
Jean Baptiste Treilhard
Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud
Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac
Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve
Jean Debry
Jean-Jacques Duval d'Eprémesnil
Jean-Baptiste Robert Lindet
Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux
Abbé Sieyès
de Cambacérès
Charles François Lebrun
Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot
Philippe Egalite
Louis Philippe I
Antoine Christophe Merlin de Thionville
Jean Joseph Mounier
Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours
François de Neufchâteau
Montagnards
Maximilien Robespierre
Georges Danton
Jean-Paul Marat
Camille Desmoulins
Louis Antoine de Saint-Just
Paul Nicolas, vicomte de Barras
Louis Michel le Peletier de Saint-Fargeau
Georges Couthon
Roger Ducos
Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois
Jean-Henri Voulland
Philippe-Antoine Merlin de Douai
Antoine Quentin Fouquier-Tinville
Philippe-François-Joseph Le Bas
Marc-Guillaume Alexis Vadier
Jean-Pierre-André Amar
Prieur de la Côte-d'Or
Prieur de la Marne
Gilbert Romme
Jean Bon Saint-André
Jean-Lambert Tallien
Pierre Louis Prieur
Antoine Christophe Saliceti
Hébertists
and Enragés
Jacques Nicolas Billaud-Varenne
Pierre Gaspard Chaumette
Charles-Philippe Ronsin
Antoine-François Momoro
François-Nicolas Vincent
François Chabot
Jean Baptiste Noël Bouchotte
Jean-Baptiste-Joseph Gobel
François Hanriot
Stanislas-Marie Maillard
Jean-François Varlet
Theophile Leclerc
Claire Lacombe
Pauline Léon
François-Noël Babeuf
Sylvain Maréchal
Louis XVII
Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien
Louis Henri, Prince of Condé
Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé
Lucien Bonaparte
Joseph Fesch
Joséphine de Beauharnais
Jean Sylvain Bailly
Jacques-Donatien Le Ray
Guillaume-Chrétien de Malesherbes
Thérésa Tallien
Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target
Catherine Théot
List of people associated with the French Revolution
Influential thinkers
Anacharsis Cloots
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
Pierre Claude François Daunou
French Tricolour
French Republican Calendar
Cult of the Supreme Being
Cult of Reason
Sans-culottes
Women in the French Revolution
Symbolism in the French Revolution
Historiography of the French Revolution
Influence of the French Revolution
French colonial conflicts
16th–17th centuries
Florida (1562–65)
Beaver Wars (1641–1701)
French colonization of Texas (1685–89)
Siam (1688)
King William's War (1689–97)
Queen Anne's War (1702–13)
Chickasaw Wars (1721–52)
Dummer's War (1721–25)
Burma–France relations (1729–56)
First Carnatic War (1746–48)
Carnatic Wars#Second Carnatic War (1749–54)
Nova Scotia (1749–55)
French and Indian War (1754–60)
East Indies (1757–63)
Larache expedition 1765
Vietnam (1777–1820)
West Indies and East Indies (1778–83)
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
French acquisition of Santo Domingo (1795–1809)
French campaign in Egypt and Syria (1798–1801)
West Indies (1804–10)
Indian Ocean (1809–11)
Java (1811)
Algeria (1830–47)
Algeria (1835–1903)
Mexico (1838–39)
Argentina–Uruguay (1845–50)
Philippines (1844–45)
Bombardment of Tourane Vietnam (1847)
Franco-Tahitian War (1844–47)
French conquest of Senegal (1854)
Cochinchina Campaign (1858–62)
Second Opium War (1860)
Intervention in Mexico (1861–67)
Korea (1866)
North Vietnam (1873–74)
Tunisia (1881)
Madagascar (1883)
Ivory Coast (1883–98)
Tonkin Campaign (1883–86)
Sino-French War (1884–85)
First Franco-Dahomean War (1890)
Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–94)
Franco-Siamese War (1893)
Second Madagascar expedition (1895)
Voulet–Chanoine Mission (1898)
Boxer Rebellion (1901)
Holy Man's Rebellion (1901-36)
Ouaddai War (1909–11)
Syria (1919–21)
Cilicia (1920–21)
Rif War (1920–26)
Kongo-Wara rebellion (1928–31)
Franco-Thai War (1940–41)
Indochina (1945)
South Vietnam (1945–46)
First Indochina War (1946–54)
Malagasy Uprising (1947–48)
Tunisian independence (1952–56)
Algerian War (1954–62)
Suez Crisis (1956)
Ifni War (1957–58)
Bizerte crisis (1961)
Ouvéa cave hostage taking (1988)
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Conflicts in 1798
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Military history of Egypt
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18th century in France
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1798 in Ottoman Syria
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History of Egypt
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Battle of Shubra Khit
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